KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY, KUMASI-GHANA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ANDCHEMICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY: CENG 291 MAN-POWER IRRIGATION SYSTEM TO ENHANCE CROP PRODUCTION IN AKIM ACHIASE DISTRICT AIDOO EMMANUEL 8321519 SEPTEMBER, 2020. 1 DECLARATION I hereby declare that apart from references of other people’s work which have been duly acknowledged, this project work is the result of my own original research and that no part of it has been presented in this University or elsewhere. 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I want to say a very big thank you to my brothers;Ahenful Stephen Okyere and Moses Adu-kwarteng, and the people of Achiase District. 3 ABSTRACT Low crop production as an agricultural problem has neither spared the developed nor developing nations. Statistics have proven that almost all the farming areas in Ghana are seriously grappling with this bane of which Akim Achiase District is not an exception. The study therefore sought to examine the correlation between rainfall variability and crop production as well as how man-power irrigation system can be used to address the rain-fed nature of agriculture associated with the inhabitants of Achiase. It employed a descriptive survey design.21crop farmers and the agricultural department of the district were targeted using purposive sampling technique. Questionnaire/interview schedule, focus group discussion and observation checklist were used for the data collection, which was subjected to the descriptive statistics of frequency and simple percentages. The study found that the crop production in the District was mainly rain-fed in nature. It was also revealed that considerable number of the residents produces cocoa and oil palm as their main cash crops. The study revealed that rice, maize, cassava, plantain, tomatoes, pepper, garden eggs among others are grown year round with respect to rain-fed seasons. Recommendations such as creating the awareness and educating the farmers on the use of man-power irrigation system, fertilizer application, and the use of modern technology in crop farming were mentioned. Further, attending meetings organized by the district assembly and making enquiries concerning crop farming were suggested. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION……………………………………………………………….. ……. 2 ACKNOLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………….. 3 ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………….... 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………. 5 LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………… 7 LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………… 7 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………. 8 • Background of the report……………………………………………………... 8 • Objectives of the report……………………………………………………….. 9 • Report structure……………………………………………………………….. 9 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………………. • Physical features……………………………………………………………... • Agricultural productivity……………………………………………………….. • Population ……………………………………………………………………..13 • Irrigation potential……………………………………………………………… 10 10 12 14 3. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………… 15 • Problem identification……………………………………………………....... • Data collection……………………………………………………………….. 5 15 16 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………. 17 • Description of the community……………………………………………………... 17 • Description of the nature and characteristics of the problem...………………….. 21 • Data analysis……………………………………………………………………... 21 • Mechanical engineering as field of study………………………………………… 27 • Conceptual designs………………………………………………………………. 34 • Basic decision matrix……………………………………………………………... 40 • Chosen concept……………………………………………………………………. 41 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………… 45 6. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………… 46 7. APPENDIXES……………………………………………………………………………. 47 6 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.Ppopulation size by locality of residence, region and sex ratio……………………..… 13 Table 2. Distribution of households engaged in tree or crop farming by type of crops and population……………………………………………………………………………..…….. 14 Table 3. Total area under irrigation in Ghana (2009-2012)…………………………………….. 15 Table 4. Age distribution in the District………………………………………………………. 22 Table 5. Occupation of the People above 15 years……………………………………………. 22 Table 6. Types of crops grown in the District and proportion of farmers engage in………….. 23 Table 7. Factors affecting crop farming in the District………………………………………… 23 Table 8. Source of water for crop farming……………………………………………………... 24 Table 9. Basic decision matrix…………………………………………………………………. 41 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Annual climate summary in Akim Oda Municipal area …………………………….. 9 Figure 2. National agricultural growth versus growth in all other sectors……………………… 12 Figure 3.Map (picture) of Akim Achiase District (from Google map) ……………………….. 18 Figure 4. Plantain from Agya Adu’s farm ………………………………………………………. 19 Figure 4.1. Tomatoes from Maame Darkwaa’s farm……………………………………………. 19 Figure 5. Farms destroyed by flood …………………………………………………………….. 23 Figure 6. Solar irrigation system………………………………………………………………… 34 Figure 7. Drip irrigation system ………………………………………………………………… 36 Figure 8. Man-power irrigation system ………………………………………………………… 39 Figure 9. Mechanical transmission mechanism……………………………………………….. 43 Figure 10. Water absorption mechanism ………………………………………………………. 44 7 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Chapter content This chapter gives introduction to the Engineering in Society Course. It also gives the background of the report content as well as the objectives of the report. Background of the report The report is to enlighten more about the Achiase District. It states low crop production as their main challenge and how this challenge is affecting their living and the country as a whole. The report would also talk about mechanical engineering – a branch of engineering and how its application was tapped to battle the afore-mentioned problem. The report talks about three conceptual designs with the Man-power irrigation system being the chosen one to battle the problem. The report also gives literature review of crop production in the Akim Achiase community and the country as a whole. It talks about rainfall as the major climate condition and how its variability is affecting crop production. Engineering in Society Course Engineering in Society is a course that enables students’ to find problems in their society and address them with the knowledge attained in their various field of engineering.Former provost of the college of engineering, Professor S I K Ampadu, initiated the CENG 291 course during his tenure of office. The course is in two sections; the field work and theoretical aspect. Field Work The course which is offered by all first year engineering students takes place during the long vacation of the academic year. It seeks to inculcate into the young engineers, problem solving values – key requirement of every engineer. Before the students go into their respective communities to conduct surveys in order to determine their challenges – which they would address, a workshop is 8 organized in a form of orientation to enlighten them. This is followed by individual presentation by the students to defend the accuracy of their report before a panel. Theoretical Aspect The theoretical aspect of the course which involves ethics in the workplace, challenges of the world, Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), and Millennium Development Goals (MDG) is scheduled to take place during the first semester of their second year. Objectives of the Report The objectives of the report are; 1. Examine low crop production in Akim Achiase District 2. Find out the impact of rainfall and its variability especially with respect to farming 3. Make literature review of the correlation between rainfall variability, among other factors and crop production 4. Address low crop production using conceptual designs with the aid of mechanical engineering. Report Structure The report is divided into five main chapters with each having its own sub divisions. Chapter one is the introductory chapter, it contains an introduction to the course (CENG 291), background of the report, and the objectives of the report. Chapter two gives a literature review of Akim Achiase District and its rain-fed nature of crop farming. Chapter three is the methodology chapter. It contains the processes involved in the problem identification, map preparation, and how the data and information in the report were obtained. Chapter four is the results and discussion chapter. It contains descriptions of Akim Achiase District, the problem and its impact on the people of Akim Achiase, and mechanical engineering. It contains conceptual designs mounted to curtail the stated 9 problem. Chapter five is the last and concluding chapter. It contains conclusions, recommendations, references and appendix of the report. CHAPTER TWO Literature Review Physical features The physical features of the land are generally undulating and hilly. Flowing through the District are many streams and rivers which serve many purposes – serves as source of drinking water for most deprived communities, source of pipe borne water, source of water for agricultural purposes especially during drought periods. These water bodies provide an avenue for future irrigation farming in the District. Climate The District experiences substantial amount of rainfall ; major feature of a District which falls within the west equatorial climatic zone .This promote serious farming activities especially during the two peaks period of May-June and September-October. Annual rainfall is between 150cm and 200cm. Relative humidity is about 56% (dry season) and 70% (rainy season). The temperature ranges between 25.2ºc and 27.5ºc which tends to create a relatively good atmosphere for socio-economic activities which are mainly trading and farming. Figure 1. Annual climate summary in Akim Oda Municipal Area Climatic change Ghana has already experienced an increase in mean annual temperature of 1ºc per decade since 1960. Monthly rainfall decreased about 2.4% per decade during the same period. Achiase District is of no exception of this change. 10 Vegetation The vegetation is mainly characterized by tall trees with evergreen underground endowed with economic trees. The District falls within the semi-deciduous rainforest region leading to high degree of rainfall for crop cultivation and human use. Human activities such as lumbering, poor farming practices and construction works have had heinous impact on the vegetation over the years resulting in scattered parcels of secondary forest. Agricultural sector Major activities in the agricultural sector are crop farming also known as crop production and livestock rearing employing about 70% of the active working population. Four types of agricultural activities were defined namely crop farming, tree growing, livestock rearing and fish farming. The highest proportion of farming households are engaged in crop farming (98.1%) while the least are into fish farming (0.1%). Crop farming Majority of the farmers in the District are involved in crop farming and the main crops cultivated are: 1. Starchy staples like cassava, cocoyam, and plantain 2. Vegetables like tomato, okra, garden eggs, and pepper 3. Legumes like beans 4. Tree crops like oil palm, cocoa, and citrus 5. Cereals like maize and rice. Maize is planted twice the year i.e. during the major and minor season. The predominant farm practice is mixed cropping. The crops are grown in mixed stands normally inter-cropped with vegetables and cultivated for both home consumption and or sale. Livestock rearing Animal rearing is the second most important agricultural activity after crop farming. Most of the farmers engaged in crop farming also keep livestock. The droppings of the livestock serves as manure for the crops while the leaves and other parts of the crops are used to feed the livestock. The types of animals reared are sheep, goats, pigs, cattle and poultry. There are only few known fishponds in the District; the cost of constructing the fish pond is a major attribute. 11 Agricultural productivity Agricultural productivity is a measurement of the amount a crop grown or product like wool per unit land. Productivity growth, especially in agriculture, is a key requirement area of focus for any developing economy because it is one of the fundamental pre-requisite for economic growth. Aggregate productivity is the amount of output gained given the levels of inputs in an economy or sector (Pulginiti and Perrin, 1998). Figure 2. National agricultural growth versus growth in all other sectors (2008-2015) Effects of climate change on agriculture Climate is likely to intensify the seasonal and inter-annual rainfall variation (for example, drought in one year and floods next year) as long-term changes and trends take place for example, rising annual mean temperature. Climate change may create water and heat stress, the outbreak of pets and diseases, the loss of productive lands through the deterioration of ecosystems, and additional burdens to supply chains such as increased-harvest losses during storage and distribution. The likely consequences of such stresses include yield reductions, post-harvest losses and reduced food accessibility and consumption (Vermeulen et al, 2015). A study by the International Food Policy Research Institute on the impact of the climate change on the yields of rain-fed maize, rice and groundnut by 2050. Their results show an overall decrease in yields of all the crops. Land tenure system Land is acquired in several ways in the District; these include the following. 1. Individual ownership or inheritance from family; 2. Rent or hiring from landowners and 3. Mortgage. The land tenure system arrangements include: 12 1. Owner occupancy, where the farmer is the owner of the land on which he or she works and provides all the necessary inputs for production. 2. Share tenancy – this is the “abunu” or the “abusa” share cropping system where the owners lease the land to the farmer, and the farm produce shared equally (abunu) or a third goes to the landlord, while two-thirds goes to the tenant (abusa). This land tenure system happens to be the dominant in the District especially in the urban communities. Agricultural productivity and land use The data over the last decade indicate that while the total output of some crops has somewhat seen an increment. Yield growth rate has lagged behind output growth, suggesting that expansion in an area cultivated has been the driver of output growth. Population The population in the district is 84,757 (projected from 2010 population 77,537) representing 4.5% of the population in the Eastern region. Below is the population size by locality of residence, region and sex ratio (table 1) Table 1. Population size by locality of residence, region and sex ratio Agricultural forestry employs more than half of the active working population (between the ages of 15 and 60) which represents 57.6%. Table 2 shows the major crops and trees grown by various households in the District. From the table, most households engage in plantain followed by oil palm and maize. 13 Table 2.Distribution of households engaged in tree growing or crop farming by type of crop and population Population growth and crop farming The district has an annual population growth rate of approximately 2.2% (from 2010 population). Crops growth rate continues to lag behind. This is a threat to food security of to the District and the country as a whole. Irrigation potential Currently there is no formal documentation of irrigation systems in the District. However, there are opportunities available for such system because of the availability of streams and rivers in the District. Financial constraint is a major setback to the development of irrigation system. An 14 assessment of the total agricultural land under irrigation carried out by the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in 2011 indicates that there is 206,866 hectares of land under irrigation (GIDA, IWMI 2015). This figure represents 2.6% of the total land area under cultivation and 41% irrigable land. Table 3. Total area under irrigation in Ghana (2009-2012) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Chapter content This chapter presents the methodological approach for the study. It considers the various methods and approaches employed to solicit the needed information to explain and analyze the correlation between rainfall variability and crop production as well as how man-power irrigation system can be used to address the rain-fed nature of agriculture associated with the inhabitants of Achiase. It states the problem and its identification model. It talks about the map preparation and how the data and information in the report were collected. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Poverty and food insecurity have been one of the paramount challenges facing the Akim Achiase community. A community with over 60% of its population being farmers, hardly would there be a year without complaints of low crop yields. The problem was, therefore, identified based on; 15 Personal experiences Both my parents are farmers growing what we mainly fed on, with less than 10% of their produce being sold for money. One could tell the strike of hunger and poverty whenever there’s climate (rainfall) variability. Interviewing the people of Akim Achiase The people of the district proved the fact that agriculture (crop growing) is the major occupation they engage in. They attest to the fact that agriculture is not rewarding anymore due to climate variability hence could not fetch them the fortune they wish to attain – response by most of the youth who have migrated in search of greener pastures elsewhere. Questionnaire issued to selected individuals, authorities and Agencies. Further research on the internet A thorough research on the internet was made to fish out the correlation between crop production and rainfall variability. The above aided the problem identification criteria. MAP PREPARATION The drawn map of the District could not be attained because the District has just been carved out of the Birim South District. The map of the Birim South District which clearly shows the drawn map of the Achiase District has been provided in the appendix. However, with Google map, an app installed from Google Playstore, the map (picture) of the Achiase District was obtained. DATA COLLECTION The data used in processing the information of the report were obtained mainly from: Interviewing the people of the Akim Achiase Random interview were conducted to know what trouble the district. Most of the interviews were conducted in the various homes of the people during evenings and weekends. Some also took place 16 on the streets of the district as most of the youth were found here. The questions were unstructured and depend on the response of the individual. Questionnaire issued to selected individuals and bodies Structured and well planned sets of questions were prepared for the District’s Department of Agriculture – samples found in the appendix of the report. Research on the internet The internet as we say embodies tons of information related to almost every aspect of life. After the people raised concerns about climate variability being the key setback to crop production, a further research on the internet was made to affirm the claim. CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Chapter content This chapter looks at the interventions and data analysis procedures used to conduct the research. A clear picture of the Akim Achiase District would be drawn in this chapter. Included in this chapter too is the description and nature of the afore-mentioned problem and its repercussions on the Akim Achiase District and the country at large. Mechanical engineering as a branch of engineering would also be explained and how its application was tapped to battle the problem identified in chapters above – Low crop production. Three conceptual designs are discussed and the man power irrigation system chosen using the basic decision matrix in accordance with the Product Design Specifications (PDS) stated. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMUNITY Coordinates: 5 50ºN 1 00ºW Elevation: 551ft (168m) 17 Achiase District was carved out of the Birim South District in February 2019. Other towns in the district include Aperade, Akenkansu, Osorase, Akim Anyinam and Anomase among others. Achiase is a new district requiring infrastructural developments across all sectors. Figure 3. Map (picture) of Akim Achiase District (from google map) Boundaries The Akim Achiase district covers a land area of 443 sq km. Shares borders with; 1. Birim South in the West 2. Birim Central in the North – East 3. Asikuma Odobeng – Brakwa in the South Population The population of the district is 84,757 (projected from 2010 population, 73,537) representing 4.5 percent of the population of the Eastern Region (3,050,124). Sex disaggregation of the population in the district follows both the regional and national trends where females out number males. Females, 18 51.6 percent of the population against 48.4 percent males. The sex ratio is 93.8 implying that every 100 females there are 94 males. Culture The people of the district pay much reverence to culture and tradition. They dress nicely in their kente and festive wears to their most celebrated occasions like funeral, outdooring, engagement, and festivals – the Ohum festival is the festival of the land. Twi is dominant language of the people which include Akyem, Asante, Fante and Akuapim. Agriculture Major activities in Agricultural sector are crop farming and livestock production employing about 70 percent of the active working population. Four types of agricultural activities are defined namely crop farming, tree growing, livestock rearing and fish farming. The highest proportion of farming households are engaged in crop production (98.1%) while the least are into fish farming (0.1%). More than 9 in 10 rural households are engaged in crop farming (98.4%) compared to a slightly lower proportion of urban households (97.7%). Figure 4. Plantain from Agya Adu’s farm Figure 4.1 Tomatoes from Maame Darkwaa’s farm Education The urban areas in the District have most of the educational facilities with Achiase having most of them. The rural areas have up to a maximum of junior high school while most communities have no 19 school. There are more than fifteen basic schools with two senior high schools – Achiase Senior High School, Akim Achiase and Aperade Senior High School, Akim Aperade. Road Network Transport facilities in the district include road and footpaths. Road transport is by far the most important mode of transport in the district. The total length of road network in the district is 127.1km. This is as a result of a network of highways and feeder roads of the district. Roads in the urban areas constitutes about 31.8 percent of the road are bituminous surface while earth covers 95.3km of the total network. Road accessibility are generally poor. Most of the feeder roads have deteriorated. Accessing these roads is very difficult especially in rainy season. Market Akim Achiase is the main commercial centers with two major market days in a week on Tuesdays and Fridays. On such days, the district capital gets busy with heavy trading primarily from traders across towns and villages in the district and also from nearby districts like Birim South, Birim Central and Asikuma Odobeng – Brakwa. Commerce in the district is centered mainly on trading of foodstuffs, meat, clothes, and vegetables among others. The commercial activities are undertaken at the market centered mainly at Akim Achiase, Aperade and Osorase and serve as income generating avenues of the district Assembly. Farmers have the opportunity to market their produce on such days. Others There’s a railway coverage in the district which extends through Aperade to the South but currently require investment as the line have idly been abandoned for over a decade. The Ghana Armed Forces has a jungle warfare training school in Akim Achiase called Seth Anthony Barracks as it was named after Major Seth Kobla Anthony (15 June 1915 – 20 November 2008), the first black African soldier to become an officer in the British Army. 20 DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM Data analysis 40 people above 15 years were selected for the interview and the results analyzed. Age distribution From the 40 people interviewed in the District, 57.5% were between the age ranges of 15-45, 27.5% were between the age range of 45-60 and the rest above 60 years. Table 4. Age distribution in the District Age range Number of respondents 15-45 45-60 23 11 Above 60 6 Occupation of the people From the 40 respondents, farming employs the larger proportion of the people (52.5%), 20% are into the civil service, 15% are into the public. Table 5. Occupation of the people above 15 years Occupation All ages Number 15-45 Number 45-60 Number Above 60 Number farming 21 8 9 4 Public service 5 2 3 0 Civil service 8 3 5 0 other 6 3 2 1 Crops produced in the district The 21 farmers were further interviewed to find out the type of crops they grow. Table 6 reveals the different types of crops grown in the District and the proportion of farmers engaged in each. However, some farmers are engage in two or m crops at a time, so their major crops were assigned. 21 Table 6. Types of crops grown in the District and the proportion of farmers engage in Crops Number of farmers engaged in Percentage (%) Cereals 6 28.57 Tree crops e.g. cocoa 6 28.57 Vegetables 3 14.29 Starchy staples e.g. plantain 4 19.05 Other 1 9.52 Factors affecting agriculture Most of the farmers attest to the fact that their annual crop yields keep varying and it’s really bad. They further responded by giving the factors affecting crop yields. Table 7 reveals the factors affecting crop yields. Climatic conditions e.g. excess rainfall, drought and untimely got the major response with a percentage of 66.7%. Table 7. Factors affecting crop farming in the District factor Number of respondent Climatic conditions e.g. low rainfall, drought 14 Poor soil 1 Lack of tools and technology 3 Other 3 Source of water for crop farming activities The farmers proved to be dependable on the rainfall for most of their farming activities. Further questions reveal that almost all the farmers practice rain-fed agriculture (95.24%). A few engage in traditional irrigation (they fetch the water from near-by streams for the irrigation using watering cans). Table 8 reveals the response 22 Table 8. Source of water for crop farming Source of water Number of respondents Rainfall Irrigation 20 1 Rainfall in perspective Rainfall can be excess, scanty or untimely. The total amount of rainfall in a particular season is not the ultimate criteria, but its distribution over a large area is a critical factor. Rainfall is measured with an instrument called the rain gauge. It measures the amount of rainfall in millimeters (mm). 1mm rainfall means every one square meter area is filled with the water of height 1mm. Rainfall can be scanty, excess or drought. Rainfall or precipitation between 2.5mm and 7.6mm or 10mm per hour is considered a moderate. When the precipitation rate is greater than 7.6mm per hour or between 10mm and 50mm per hour, it is considered heavy or excess. Impact of excess rainfall on crop production 1. Excessive of water in the soil alter various chemical and biophysical process 2. Free movement of oxygen is blocked thereby releasing toxic compounds into the roots of crops. The roots take up these toxic compounds for crop usage. This results in the crops wilting and dies out. 3. Heavy rains interfere with pollination and flowering of crops. Storms (heavy rains with winds) blow off pollen grains of crops away to unsuitable areas – where it cannot settle on stigma for fertilization to occur. Flowers too are blown away which is a major challenge to crop yields. 23 4. Floods results in areas drained by larger river system – floods submerge crops as a result. Figure 5. Farms destroyed by flood Impact of scanty rainfall of on crop production Scanty rainfall is also referred to as inadequate rainfall or drought. 1. Plants show wilting symptoms. This is due to the fact that the plants lack water which is an essential condition for photosynthesis. 2. Falling off of leaves, fruits and seeds due to water deficit (Abscission). 3. Respiration and photosynthesis are greatly reduced – plants die out as a result. 4. Drought reduces the size of inflorescence, reducing the final crop yield as a result Impact untimely rainfall on crop production Rainfall received too early or too late in the crop season in accordance with the normal crop production is referred to as untimely rainfall. 5. Too early rains do not permit proper preparation of seedbeds. Most crops – mostly vegetables are prepared in beds before some of them are transplanted. This bed preparation normally takes place just before the beginning of the crop season so its germination would be enhanced by the rain. Too early rains, therefore, interrupts the bed preparation. 6. Too late rains delay sowings and germination. As stated above, most farmers grow their seeds to meet the rainfall so it will germinate and flourish. Too late rains, however, leads to delay in sowing of seeds thereby exposing seeds to pests attack. Germination is also greatly reduced by late rains. 24 The abnormal pattern of rainfall over the past years has caused great fluctuations in crop production. The performance of crops is directly related to rainfall received during the crop season. The effects of rainfall are obvious. Water plays a vital role in the growth of plants and production of crops (Ayoade, 2004). It provides the medium by which food and nutrients are absorbed by roots of plants. “Ezedimma, (1986) reported that water is the main constituent of the physiological plant tissue and a reagent in photosynthesis.” A report study by Cudjoe et al. (2011) brings out some of the major climatic variation experienced in Ghana and their corresponding periods: 1. January – July,1976; very hot weather conditions making farming very difficult 2. 1983 – 1984; Drought – A year of prolong bush fires putting the nation into starvation 3. October – December 1989; very hot weather conditions 4. 1991; lots of rain throughout the year – uncommon weather condition 5. 1995; About 40 days of intensive rain 6. 2004; very cold winds experienced during March – April and November – January was very cold 7. August 2006; One week of intensive rains 8. 2007; Lots of rain in August and September 25 Also in 2012- 2013, there was several floods in some parts of Accra claiming lives and rendering many homeless. There is a projected climate change and variations in different zones in Ghana.Also a review report by Asante et al. (2015) shows there is a projected high temperatures and low rainfall in the years 2020, 2050, and 2080 and an increased desertification at a rate of 20,000 hectares per annum. This is a major threat to a country with an increasing population rate of almost 2.2% per annum. Effects of low crop production on the Achiase District Among the continents which are responsible for climate change, Africa is the least contributor, however, the continent is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to its overdependence on rain-fed agriculture (Asante et al, 2015). The main long-time impacts of climate change – changing rainfall patterns causing reduction in agriculture production and reducing food security, worsening water security, and decreasing fish resources. Listed below are but few impacts of low crop production in Akim Achiase. Rural urban drift Migration of the youth to find greener pastures elsewhere (mostly urban areas) has become the norm. The youth are desperate to make fortune for themselves hence, take advantage of the slightest opportunity available; however, the youth in Akim Achiase find no opportunity in farming. It is either they are getting blue-collar job or they are migrating elsewhere. They don’t find farming as an avenue for fortune creation because of its peasant and rain-fed nature in the district. Our annual crop production hardly provides food security to talk of creating wealth. Most farmers and the youth do not invest into agriculture due to climate variability. Poverty and Hunger Though agriculture is the major occupation in the district, food security is really at stake especially during periods of drought and scanty rainfall. There are smaller and fewer yields of crops. Hot and 26 dry weather becomes obstacles to the harvesting of some crops – especially the root tubers. With an increasing population in the district, there is a threat to food security if this rain-fed crop production continues. Deforestation and or Lumbering The coveted aim at increasing crop production with the same method and techniques by farmers puts our forest resources into jeopardy. More lands are cleared and cultivated in order to have a general increase in crop yields (which is not an effective increase in crop yield growth). Wild life and vegetation cover suffer this mess. Low level of development A major natural occurrence which is also indispensable in food production especially in the developing world is rainfall (Adu-Acheampong et al.2019). More than 60% of stable crops are produced from rain-fed agriculture which is practiced by all farmers in the district. Cocoa production which is the main cash crop grown in the district contributes a sterling amount to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is also rain-fed. Agriculture is undoubtedly the most contributor to the district revenue. This revenue is the basis of development in the district. Decrease in cocoa production, therefore, slows down development, reducing the GDP per capita – major threat to development of every nation. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AS A FIELD OF STUDY History of mechanical engineering Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers design, develop, build and test products. They deal with anything that moves; from components to machines to human body. Mechanical engineering has been in existence almost the primitive man was born on earth; tools in very crude form must have been used by the primitive man. The application of mechanical engineering can be seen in the archives of various ancient and medieval societies. The 27 six classic simple machines were known in the ancient near East. The wedge and the inclined plane were known since prehistoric times. The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during 5th millennium BC, 5000 years ago. The distinction between science and engineering was blurred. Different disciplines of engineering did not separate identity. However, in the 19th century developments in physics led to the development of mechanical engineering. Mechanical engineering emerged as separate strong discipline of engineering. The Institution of Engineers was formed in 1847 in UK. The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancement. Mechanical engineering explained Mechanical engineering is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematical principles with materials science to design, analyze, manufacture and maintain mechanical systems. Mechanical engineering is undoubtedly one of the oldest and broadest branches of engineering. It also concerned with reducing or eliminating physical effort of humans or domestic animals with the help of tools and or machines. Mechanical engineering deals with everything that moves. The field touches virtually every aspect of modern life, including the human body, a highly complex machine. Roles of mechanical engineers The ultimate role of a mechanical engineer is to take a product from an idea to the marketplace. To accomplish this, the engineer must be able to determine the forces and thermal environment that a product, its parts, or its subsystems will encounter: design them for functionality, aesthetics, and durability; and determine the best manufacturing approach that ensures operation without failure. Mechanical engineers play a wide range of work in the development of every nation under industries such as automotive, aerospace, biotechnology, computers, electronics, micro electrochemical system, 28 energy conversion, robotics and automation, and manufacturing. Listed below are but few key tasks mechanical engineers performed 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Conceptual designing and evaluation Analysis Report writing and presentation Project management Prototyping and testing Measurement, data collection and their interpretations Sales Consultation Customer service Skills required of mechanical engineers The essence of engineering is problem solving, with this at its core, mechanical engineering also require special skills like; 1. Creativity – hands on understanding of the work involved 2. Interpersonal skills – teamwork 3. Design skills 4. Commercial skills effective technical skills 5. Verbal and written communication skills Fields of mechanical engineering STATICS Statics focuses on how forces are transmitted to and throughout a structure. Analyses loads (force, torque and or moments) acting on physical systems that do not experience an acceleration. DYNAMICS Dynamics involve system in motion; their velocities, accelerations and resulting forces that come to play with such systems. 29 KINEMATICS Kinematics examines how a mechanism behaves and changes as it moves through its range of motion. A subfield that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies without making consideration to the forces that cause them to move. MATERIALS SCIENCE Materials science determines the best material for different applications. A part of it that is material strength - testing support loads, stiffness, brittleness and other properties – which is essential for many construction, automobile, and medical materials. THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics deals with how energy gets converted into useful power as well determining what energy is lost in the process. It deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties of matter. FLUID MECHANICS Fluid mechanics has a variety of applications, looks at many properties including pressure drops from fluid flow and aerodynamic drag forces. MANUFACTURING Manufacturing is an important field in mechanical engineering. Researchers investigate the best processes to make manufacturing more efficient. It requires the ability to plan, research and develop tools, processes, machines, and equipment; and to integrate the facilities and systems for producing quality products with the optimum expenditure of capital. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Electrical engineering is concerned with the study, design and application of equipment, devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. 30 ROBOTICS Robots can range from simple machinery to complex creations that perform repetitive tasks in manufacturing, setting, hazardous tasks too dangerous for human or more nuanced motions. Deals with designing and fabricating design machines and devices that interact with their environment can be operated remotely. ENGINEERING ECONOMICS Engineering economics makes mechanical engineers design relevant products and usable in the real world by making manufacturing estimations and deductions. It deals with life cycle costs of materials, designs, and engineered products. Future of mechanical engineering Mechanical engineering has been the backbone of several developmental projects and seeks to do better. With the rapid population growth and faster pace of development, mechanical engineering needs more enhancements to meet the present needs. Breakthrough in materials and analytical tools has operated new frontiers for mechanical engineers. Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Composites, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), and Acoustical engineering have all expanded the toolbox of mechanical engineering. Nanotechnology allows for the engineering materials on the smallest of scales. With the ability to design and manufacture down to the elemental level, the possibilities for objects grow immensely. Composites are another area where the manipulation of materials allows for new manufacturing opportunities. By combining materials with different characteristics is innovative ways, the best of each material can be employed and new solutions found. CFD gives mechanical engineers the opportunity to study complex fluid flows analyzed with algorithms. This allows for the modeling of situations that would previously have been impossible. 31 Acoustical engineering examines vibrations and sound, providing the opportunity to reduce noise in devices and increase efficiency in everything from biotechnology to architecture. Mechanical engineering has indeed been greatly advanced. With more relevant and simple ways of building products, the world would be a better place. The next chapter brings out how this branch of engineering could be used to enhance crop production in the Achiase District. Conceptual designs This section brings about how mechanical engineering was used to find innovation ideas to battle the problem of low crop production due to rainfall variability. Three conceptual designs are discussed in this section: the solar powered irrigation system, drip irrigation system and the man-power irrigation system. Product Design Specifications were initially made and analyzed using the Basic Decision Matrix after which the Man-power irrigation system was chosen. Product Design Specifications Aesthetics The product should be dynamic and reassuring. Safety handles and soft but tough PVC cables are required Cost The product should not be much expensive for most of the targeted customers. The cost of the product should not exceed the manufacturing and material cost by 20%. Customer The main customers for the product are crop farmers. They depend on rainfall for their farming activities which does not help them enough due to the rainfall variability and scarcity. A product like a dependable irrigation system would help them. 32 Ergonomics The user group for the product is farmers who are above eighteen years of age. The product should not produce much noise. Materials The materials for the product should be water friendly. The materials should not contain any toxic substances as it can damage crops. Tough and soft PVC cables are needed for the water transmission. Installation The product is to be installed by the manufacturer or any mechanical engineer or any technician. Farmers who have undergone training on the product usage and specifications can also install. Legal/statutory The product needs to be approved the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and the Food and Drugs Board Authority after its successful testing. Maintenance The product will need maintenance. The metallic parts should be cleaned and greased regularly. Cables should also be checked regularly for leakages. The maintenance can be done by any technician or the farmer. Safety Keep all moving parts of the product out of reach when in operation. Care should be taken when handling components to avoid cuts in the cables Environment The product will be working mostly in crop farms and gardens in an optimum temperature, humidity and pressure. Avoid into contact with dirt as it can block the holes of the PVC cable. The product should not be hazardous to the environment by emitting radiations and making excessive noise. 33 Performance The specific function of the product is to transmit water from a reliable source to the farms. It should spread the water across the land in question to reach all crops. Conceptual designs CONCEPT ONE Solar irrigation system This is an irrigation system which utilizes the sunlight from the sun to power water pumping machine. Figure 6. Solar irrigation system The system has been divided into three mechanisms: 1. The power production 2. The water pumping 3. The water distribution Power production mechanism 34 This mechanism comprises the solar panel, inverter, battery and switch. Solar panel The panel is used colloquially for a photo-voltaic (PV) module. A PV module is an assembly of PV cells mounted in a framework for installation. The PV cells use sunlight as a source of energy and generate direct current (DC) electricity. The solar cells convert sunlight into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect. This occurs when photons are absorbed by a solar cell which generates a voltage across its terminal. A collection of PV module is called PV panel. Inverter The inverter is power electronic device that converts direct current to alternating current (AC). It converts the DC produced by the solar panel to AC to be used by the Pumping machine. Battery Stores the power produced by the solar system for use at a later time. Switch It is the device used for opening and closing the circuit system under normal conditions Pumping mechanism The pumping mechanism is made up of the water pump. Water pump The water pump moves water from the source (traditional well, river or lake) to the fields and crops. Distribution mechanism The distribution mechanism is made up of the PVC water hose, storage tank and sprinkler. PVC water hose The water hose serves as the distribution lines for the water from its source through the pumping machine, to the storage tank, to the fields and crops. 35 Storage tank The storage tank stores the pumped water for future use. The tank is placed on a height above ground level such that water can flow to the water hose when there is not enough power to operate the system. Sprinkler The sprinkler is connected along vantage points of the water hose on the field where it distributes the water onto the crops. Advantages of the solar irrigation system 1. 2. 3. Saves costs of fuel Saves manual resources (doesn’t require much physical energy ) Less labor and maintenance Disadvantages of solar irrigation system 7. 8. 9. The system is costly Dependent on sunlight hence cannot operate when there is no sunshine (humid conditions) Requires expertise in its operation. CONCEPT TWO Drip irrigation system This system makes use of fuel (diesel or petrol) powered water pumping machine to distribute water across the entire field or crops. The system makes it possible to fertilize the crops through the irrigation water. 36 Figure 7. Drip irrigation system Suction filter Water is drawn into the PVC pipe by the pumping machine through the suction filter. It also prevents any filth from entering the pipe. PVC pipe Transport water to the pumping machine, filter tank, fertilization tank and the control box. Pumping machine Draws water from its source – the source of water can be lake, river, or pond. The water is transported into the pipe to be distributed to the field. The machine works due to the pressure difference built up between its inlet and outlet tanks. Filter tank Filters the water received from the pumping machine. 37 Fertilization tank The amount of fertilizers and nutrients needed by the crops may be mixed with the irrigation water in the fertilization tank. Pressure regulator Controls the pressure of the water so as the right volume reaches the control box. Control box Water is distributed into sections from the control box. Each is made of related water hose with a valve to manipulate their flow. PVC hose The hose transports the water to its destinations. Holes are made along vantage points of the Hose where water leaks out into the field. The Hose is held firmly in position to the ground using wire stables. Advantages of the drip irrigation system 1. The system is not labor intensive 2. Ensures efficient supply of water throughout the field 3. Fertilization and pests control are enhanced 4. Suitable for vegetables and parks and gardens Disadvantages of the drip irrigation system 1. Hazardous to the environment due to burning of fossil fuel 2. Unreliable water source 3. The system is costly (the pumping machine and fuel costs) 4. Requires expertise in its operation. CONCEPT THREE Man-power irrigation system 38 This system uses shear physical strength to drive gears connected with pumping rods and valves to move underground water to the fields and crops. Figure 8. Man-power irrigation system Handle The handle rotates to drive the shaft thereby providing rotary motion to the shaft. Shaft Transmit the rotary motion of the handle to the gearbox Gearbox The gearbox contains the mechanical parts of the system. Transmit rotary motion of the shaft to pump rod inside the metallic cylindrical pipe. 39 Cylindrical pipe The cylindrical pipe contains the pipe rod which serves as the distribution line for water from the ground. The pipe extends deep into the ground where it absorbs and pulls water with the aid of plunger and check valve. PVC water hose Transport water to the sprinklers Sprinkler Have outlets that water passes through to the field and crops. Advantages of the man-power irrigation system 1. Reliable source of water 2. No special expertise is required in its operation 3. System is available and ever ready to operate. 4. Environmental friendly Disadvantages of man-power irrigation system 1. It is costly – the manufacturing, installation and maintenance 2. System is not movable 3. Labor intensive Basic Decision Matrix The Basic decision matrix also known as the DATUM was used to analyze the concepts before the final concept was selected. Below is a table showing the DATUM of the three conceptual designs 40 Table 9. Basic Decision Matrix Criterion Importance Concept one Concept two Concept three (solar powered (drip (man-power irrigation irrigation irrigation system) system) system) 13 s s + water 25 s + s 17 s s + the 15 + - s Safety of use 10 + + + Cost of materials 20 s + s Total number of s 3 2 2 Total number of - 1 2 1 Total number of + 2 2 3 Overall total 1 0 2 Frequency of use Reliability of source Product life span Effect on environment CHOSEN CONCEPT Man-power irrigation system Due to the complex nature of the system, it has been sub divided into four mechanisms. 1. The manual transmission mechanism 2. The mechanical transmission mechanism 3. Water absorption mechanism 4. Water distribution mechanism 41 The manual transmission system The manual transmission is made of the handle and the shaft Handle The handle is for providing rotary motion of the shaft by turning the handle. Shaft Transmit the rotary motion of the handle to the gears. Mechanical transmission mechanism The mechanical transmission system is made of connected gears, pitman arm, pitman guide and guide wheel. Figure 9. Mechanical transmission mechanism Gears The gears represent number 2 and 3 on figure 9. The two smaller gears on the shaft rotate due to the rotation of the shaft. This motion is transmitted to the bigger gears making them turn in the reverse direction of the smaller gears. 42 Pitman arms Pitman arms represent number 4 on figure 9. They connect the bigger gears to the guide wheel. Guide wheel Guide wheel is number 6 on figure 9. The guide wheel provides support to the pump rod and the pitman arm. Pitman guide Pitman guide is number 5 on figure 9. It allows the upward and downward movement of the guide wheel when the connected bigger gears are in motion. Water absorption mechanism The water absorption mechanism includes the pump rod, plunger, check valve and cylindrical pipe. Figure 10. Water absorption mechanism Pump rod The pump rod is extended into the ground where it connects with the plunger. Water is absorbed into the pump rod to the external environment. 43 Check valve A check valve has two openings, an inlet and outlet that allows water to flow through it only in one direction. The check valve has strainer beneath it that absorbs and filters the water. The strainer also pumps water few centimeters into the check valve. Water passes through the check valve during upstroke when the plunger moves up to open it. Plunger The plunger acts as piston with valves. Water passes through it only during down stroke when the check valve closes. Cylindrical pipe The cylindrical pipe contains and offers protection to the pump rod, plunger and check valve. Water distribution mechanism The water distribution mechanism is comprises the PVC water hose and sprinkler. PVC water hose The water hose distributes water from the pump rod to the sprinkler. Sprinkler The sprinkler has outlets that water passes through to the field and crops in a splash form. Mechanism involve in the system. During a down stroke, the plunger descends to the bottom and held into contact with the check valve thereby closing the check valve. Water then passes through the plunger into the pump rod through the open valve. During upstroke of the pump, the plunger moves up, the plunger forces the plunger full of water up the cylindrical pump into the connected water hose. 44 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Chapter content This chapter summarizes the findings and the conceptual design and makes remarks concerning the report and recommendations for future studies. References and prefixes are outlined in the sections of the chapter. Conclusions Through the compilation of this report work and further research, I can conclude that climate is one of the major factors pulling global concerns today. Rainfall is the major climatic factor which affects every pace of life. Crop farming in Achiase District and the country at large is entirely rain dependent. With the changing nature of our climate, the agricultural industry suffers great reductions every year. With the introduction of the man-power irrigation system, the rain-fed nature of crop farming could be greatly reduced. Average crop yield would be increased without purposefully increasing land size. Recommendations I recommend strongly that a body should be established to share intermediate climatic and other relevant information to farmers. Also technology and mechanized methods need to be employed to reduce the negative impact of rainfall variability on crop farming. Farmers should also adopt tillage practices especially in lowlands. 45 References 1. Felix A. Asante and Franklin Amuakwa-Mensah (2015). Climate change an variability in Ghana: stocktaking 2. World Bank Economics of Adaptation to climate change. Ghana country study, World Bank: Washington DC, USA, 2010 3. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), climate change implications for food and natural resources management in Africa. In proceedings of the twenty-sixth Regional Conference to Africa, FAO, Rome, Italy 3-7 May 2010 4. Samuel Adu-Acheampong and Rosina Kyeremanteng (2019). Impact of rainfall variability on crop production within Worobong Ecological Area of Fanteakwa District, Ghana, Research Article 5. Cudjoe S.N.A and Owusu G. (2011). Climate change or variability and food systems. Evidence from Afram Plains, Ghana. Regional Environment Change 6. Carol Mcsweeny, Mark George New, G. Lizcanoand X Lu (2010) The UNDP climate change country profiles. American Meteorological Society, 91, 157-1662020 https://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/research/climate/project/undp-cp/UNDP- (Retrieved from reports/Ghana/Ghana.lores-report.pdf; Accessed on September 2) 7. Pulginiti L.E and Perrin, R.K (1998) Agricultural productivity in depriving countries, Agricultural Economics 8. https://www.me.colombia.edu/what-mechanical-engineering ( Accessed on 6th October, 2020) 9. https://www.mtu.edu/mechanical/engineering/ (Assessed on 13th October, 2020) 10. Birim South District analytical report (2014) 2010 Population and Housing Census 11. Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2010) .Agriculture In Ghana, Facts and Figures 12. Composite budget for 2020-2023 (2020). Akim Achiase District Assembly. 13. Ezedimma F. O. C., Youndeowei A. and Onazi O. C (1986). Introduction to Tropical Agriculture. 14. Ayoade J. O (2004). Climate Change: Synopsis, Impacts and Adaptation. 15. Sonja J. Vermeulen, Bruce M. Campbell and John S. I. Ingram (2017). Climate Change and Food System. 46 Appendix A KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY: CENG 291 MAN-POWER IRRIGATION SYSTEM: ENHANCING CROP PRODUCTION IN AKIM ACHIASE. Questionnaire schedule for The Department of Agriculture. You are kindly requested to provide answers to the following questions. Please tick in appropriate box. Your responses remain confidential and in no case will it be used against you. Position of Respondent: ............................................................................. Date of Response: ....................................................................................... SECTION A Crop Production Please record answers in the spaces provided Q1.What are the major crop produced in the district? (List them) ............................................... ………………….. .............................. ............................................... .. …………………. ............................. Q2. What are the average farm sizes for the crops listed in Q1 above? ................................................................. ................................... ........................... .................................. ………………….. Q3. i. How would you explain effective crop production increment? ……………………………………………………………………………………..…………… ……………………………………………………………………………………..….………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47 Q4. How do you see crop production in the district? (Support your response with data) Increasing Varies Decreasing None Q5.What are the factors accounting for your answer in Q4 above? List them 1.......................................................................................................................................... 2......................................................................................................................................... 3......................................................................................................................................... 4......................................................................................................................................... SECTION B Correlation between rainfall variability and crop production Q6. What is the major climatic factor that influences crop production in the district? Rainfall Temperature Humidity Wind Q7. If rainfall, what is the average rainfall distribution in the district? (Support with data for at least three consecutive years) .................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................. Q8. Is there any correlation between rainfall and crop production? Yes No Q9. Give your reason: …………………………………………………….................…………………………………….. ………………………………………………….………………………………………………….. 48 ………………………………………………..…………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… Q 10. What is the effect of rain-fed system with respect to crop production? ……………………………………………………....................………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… SECTION C Enhancing Crop Production Using Irrigation System Q 11. What are the measures put in place to address the inconsistent rain-fed nature of our crop production? ……………………………………………………....................………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Q 12. Do you think irrigation system could be of help? Yes No Q13. Is there any record on irrigation farming within the district? Yes No Q14. If no, what is the reason? ……………………………………………………....................………………….……………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… Q15. How is the crop farmers supported in their farming activities? ............................................ ……………………………………………………....................………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. THANK YOU 49 APPENDIX B 50 51