Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1995, pp. 325-338
BODY IMAGE AND TELEVISED IMAGES
OF THINNESS AND ATTRACTIVENESS:
A CONTROLLED LABORATORY
INVESTIGATION
LESLIE J. HEINBERG
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
J. KEVIN THOMPSON
University of South Florida
One hundred and
thirty-nine women viewed television commercials that con
Appearance-related commercials (demonstrating societal ly-endorsed
images of thinness and attractiveness) or Non-Appearance-related advertisements.
Pre-post measures of depression, anger, anxiety, and body dissatisfaction were
examined. Participants were blocked by a median split on dispositional levels of
body image disturbance and sociocultural attitudes regarding appearance. Indi
viduals high on these measures became significantly more depressed following
exposure to the Appearance videotape and significantly less depressed following
a viewing of the Non-Appearance advertisements. In addition, individuals high on
tained either
the level of sociocultural awareness/internalization became
more
angry and
body image disturbance became more dissatisfied with their
appearance following exposure to commercials illustrating thinness/attractiveness.
Participants who scored below the median on dispositional levels of disturbance
either improved or showed no change on dependent measures in both Appearance
and Non-Appearance video conditions. The findings are discussed in light of
factors that might moderate media-influenced perturbations in body image.
participants high
on
Researchers agree that one of the strongest influences on the develop
of body image disturbance is a sociocultural factor (Heinberg, in
ment
press; Thompson, 1992). A sociocultural model emphasizes that societal
standards for attractiveness are often unachievable (Fallon, 1990), but
against "unattractive" individuals, a phe
"beautyism" by Cash (1990). In contemporary west
still lead to discrimination
nomenon
ern
labelled
societies, for women, thinness has become almost synonymous with
correspondence to J. Kevin Thompson, Ph.D., Department
versity of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620-8200.
Address
of
Psychology,
Uni
325
326
HEINBERG AND THOMPSON
& Rodin, 1986; Thompson, 1990). In
addition, researchers have found that as thinness is valued, its opposite,
obesity, is seriously denigrated (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore,
1985; Spillman & Everington, 1989).
beauty (Striegel-Moore, Silberstein,
Throughout history, ideals of feminine beauty have varied and
changed in accordance with the aesthetic standards of the particular
period of time (Ehrenreich & English, 1978; Fallon, 1990; Garner, Gar
finkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Mazur, 1986). For the last 20-30
years, research suggests that the societal standard of the "ideal" female
has been in flux. For example, Garner et al. (1980) examined
body
reported height
America
winners from 1960 until 1978 and the
pageant
waist, and hip
and
measurements of Miss
archival data of
measurements of 240
weight
Playboy
Centerfolds
reported bust,
over a
span of
20 years. After using covariance procedures to control for changes in
heights and sizes, they concluded that the weights had decreased signifi
cantly.
The
Playboy
data also indicated that bust, waist, and
urements have evolved from
Interestingly,
prevailing female
one.
a curvaceous
Garner et al.
standard to
hip
a more
meas
tubular
(1980) also discovered that while the
role models have been
getting thinner, average
of similar age in the United States have become heavier.
similar study, Silverstein, Peterson, and Perdue (1986b) examined
women
In
a
changes by measuring body sites of women in photographs
Journal and Vogue magazine. A curvaceousness
depicted
index of the women was computed by taking a bust to waist ratio, in
order to control for factors such as height of models and size of picture.
Replicating Garner et al. (1980), Silverstein et al. (1986b) also found a
trend toward increasing slenderness in women. In another study exam
ining sociocultural ideals via magazines, Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson,
and Kelly (1986a) examined the occurrence of articles and advertise
ments that addressed dietary issues. After examining both men's and
women's magazines, they found a female-male ratio of the frequency of
occurrence of dietary issues of 159 to 13.
In a unique experimental test of the print media influence, Cash, Cash,
and Butters (1983) exposed 51 women to pictures of women obtained
from magazine ads and articles. Photos were pre-rated for attractiveness
level and participants were assigned to three exposure conditions: physi
cally attractive, physically attractive/labelled as professional models,
and not physically attractive. After viewing the photos, they rated their
own level of overall physical attractiveness and body satisfaction.
Groups did not differ on body satisfaction (an index of several body
sites), however, the participants exposed to the attractive pictorial stim
uli rated their own level of physical attractiveness as lower than those
who were exposed to the other two conditions (which did not differ from
each other). The authors interpreted their findings as supportive of a
historical
in Ladies Home
BODY IMAGE
327
predicted from social comparison theory.
only for those individuals exposed to attrac
tive peers, rather than photos identified as professional models, Cash et
al. (1983) concluded that "peer beauty qualified as a more appropriate
standard for social comparison than professional beauty."
In a similarly designed study, Irving (1990) had women evaluate slides
of models in four conditions: thin, average weight, oversize, and no-ex
posure. Using a posttest only design, participants completed measures
of self-esteem and body-esteem (weight concern, sexual attractiveness,
physical condition) following the manipulation. The results were mixed.
negative
contrast
effect,
as
Because the effect ocurred
The no-exposure group did not differ from other conditions on measures
of self-esteem or weight concern, and was lower on sexual attractiveness
ratings than the other three groups. However, trend analyses indicated
that weight concern increased linearly across exposure group with the
highest concern present in the thin condition and lowest in the oversize
condition. Across conditions, level of bulimic symptoms was associated
with poorer body image on all three measures of the body-esteem scale.
Heinberg and Thompson (1992) further tested the relevance of specific
comparison targets to body image by asking 297 women and men to rate
the importance of six different groups, ranging from particularistic to
universalistic (family, friends, classmates, students, celebrities, USA
citizens). On
similarly,
appearance dimension, both
producing the following hierarchy of
friends
classmates
>
an
Thus celebrities
are
=
students
given
a
=
celebrities
men
and
women
rated
comparison importance:
>
USA citizens
weighting equivalent
laristic groups of classmates and students, but
important than friends. In addition, for women,
to
are
the
family.
=
more
particu
still rated
of
as
less
ratings
importance
significantly correlated with concurrent levels of
body image and eating disturbance. Importantly, the correlations were
of the same magnitude as those obtained between classmates/students
and indices of body image and eating disturbance. In sum, unlike Cash
et al. (1983), Heinberg and Thompson (1992) found evidence for a
possible role of media figures (celebrities) as targets that individuals
might chose to identify as a relevant comparison group.
The role of the broadcast media has also been accorded as having a
powerful influence on an individual's body image (Lakoff & Scherr,
1984); however, this sphere of influence has received little empirical
analysis. In a recent study, Strauss, Doyle, and Kriepe (1994) examined
the effects of television commercials on dietary restraint level. Based on
a median split, high restraint and low restraint participants
initially
received a preload of a "high calorie, nutritionally balanced banana
drink" (Strauss et al., 1994). Subsequently, they were given free access
to M & Ms and peanuts during the viewing of an excerpt from the movie
Terms of Endearment. The movie clip was interrupted by either neutral
for celebrities
were
HEINBERG AND THOMPSON
328
commercials
diet-related commercials in two conditions. A third
or
the movie without any interruption. The results indicated
group
that participants high in restraint level who viewed the diet commercials
saw
ate
more
than those in other conditions.
Strauss et al.
(1994) established the disinhibiting effect of viewing
Interestingly, although a number
(Lakoff
posit that television may
also have a powerful influence on body image, and empirical findings
suggest that a negative comparison process may occur in the print
medium (Cash et al., 1983; Irving, 1990; Silverstein et al., 1986a,b),
researchers have yet to manipulate televised media messages as com
parison targets in an effort to determine the effects on body image.
Therefore, the present investigation was designed to expose women to
societal images of thinness and attractiveness that are communicated
through the televised media. This exposure involved viewing a ten
minute tape of advertisements that clearly communicated the current
dietary
commercials
of writers
on
restraint level.
& Scherr, 1984; Mazur, 1986)
societal ideals of attractiveness.
It
expected that an intensive exposure to commercials containing
reflective of these cultural ideals of attractiveness might elicit
was
images
body image satisfaction and mood than exposure to
videotape containing a compilation of non-appearance related ads.
Specifically it was hypothesized that dispositional level of negative
appearance-related cognitions (an aspect of body image disturbance)
would moderate participants' responses to media images of attractive
ness, such that only those scoring above the median would experience
distress following exposure to appearance-related advertisements. Fur
thermore, it was hypothesized that only individuals scoring above the
greater changes
in
a
median
on a measure
would
of sociocultural attitudes towards attractiveness
experience
following exposure to the commercials con
of
and
attractiveness. Finally, subjects exposed
thinness
taining images
a
to
non-appearance related video stimulus, regardless of dispositional
level of disturbance, were not expected to experience significant pertur
bations in mood or body image satisfaction.
distress
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
participants were 138 Caucasian female undergraduates attending
the University of South Florida (ages 18-48). All participants received
extra credit points in exchange for their participation. Seventy-one par
ticipants composed the Appearance video group and 67 constituted the
Non-Appearance video group. (The decision to narrow the pool to
Caucasians was due to two factors: initial randomized assignment left a
The
329
BODY IMAGE
TABLE 1.
Subject
Variables: Means and
Non
(n
group
Levels
=
(-value
group
appearance
Variable
Significance
Appearance
67)
(n
=
71)
(1, 137)
Pvalue
21.93
23.77
1.87
.07
129.18
135.73
1.71
.10
Height (in.)
64.75
65.66
0.61
44
Quetlet (wt/ht )
21.74
22.05
0.16
.69
2.57
2.42
0.54
.59
97.01
97.03
0.01
.99
Age
Weight (lbs.)
TV
viewing (hrs./di*y)
Manipulation
check
(% correct)
number of other ethnicities in the neutral group and
the video stimulus materials consisted of commercials with primarily
disproportionate
Caucasian
There
characters.)
were no
significant
differences found between the two video
age, weight, height, level of obesity (Quetelet's Index
Wt/Ht ), and average number of hours of daily television viewing. The
means, standard deviations, and significance levels of these measures
groups
are
on
contained in Table 1.
MEASURES
Sociocultural Attitudes Towards
Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ;
He
inberg, Thompson, & Stormer, 1995). The SATAQ is a 14-item, 5-point,
Likert-scaled self-report measure that requires individuals to rate state
ments (completely agree-completely disagree) that reflect awareness of
societal attitudes of thinness and attractiveness (e.g., "Being physically
fit is a top priority in today's society") or acceptance of these societal
beliefs (e.g., "Photographs of thin women make me wish that I were
thin"). Internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) is .71 for the 6 item
Awareness scale and .88 for the 8 item Internalization. The correlation
between the two subscales is .34.
Cognitive Distortions Scale-Physical Appearance Subscale (BCDSPrange & Gleghorn, 1986). This is a
25-item Likert-scaled self-report measure with an internal consistency
(coefficient alpha) of .97. The BCDS-PA measures cognitive distortions
related to physical appearance (e.g., My value as a person is related to
my weight). Schulman et al. (1986) found similar psychometrics on
samples of non-eating disordered controls and individuals with bulimia
Bulimia
PA; Schulman, Kinder, Powers,
nervosa.
Visual Analogue Scales
created
mood
(VAS).
A number of visual
to measure immediate state
subsequent
to the
viewing
changes
in
analogue scales were
body satisfaction and
of commercials. Because these
meas-
HEINBERG AND THOMPSON
330
require participants
ures
to make
a
slash
horizontal line to indicate
on a
disturbance level, as opposed to responding to a
making a numerical rating, it was hoped that the
specific question by
technique would be
(i.e., participants might simply
less prone to experimental demand
remember previous responses) and thus be
more
sensitive to
a
brief
constructed: VAS-
experimental manipulation. Five measures were
Anxiety, VAS-Depression, VAS-Anger, VAS-Body Dissatisfaction, and
a VAS-Overall
Appearance Dissatisfaction. Participants were instructed
to rate how they felt on each of these dimensions by placing a short
vertical stroke
on a
10
cm
millimeter, producing
labelled "none" to
a
"very
line. Their responses were scored to the nearest
100-point scale. The range of responses were
much."
pilot study, the relationship between the VAS measures and more
lengthy measures of mood and body image disturbance was determined
(N 48). The VAS-depression measure correlated significantly with the
Profile of Mood States (POMS)-Depression/ Dejection subscale, r
.68,
p < .01 (McNair, Lorr & Droppelman, 1971). The VAS-anxiety measure
correlated significantly with the POMS-Tension/Anxiety subscale, r
.60, p < .01. Additionally, VAS-anger correlated significantly with the
POMS- Anger/Hostility subscale, r .53, p < .01. Finally, the VAS-weight
In
a
=
=
=
=
dissatisfaction and VAS-overall appearance dissatisfaction both corre
lated significantly with the Eating Disorders Inventory-Body Dissatis
faction Subscale
<
.01 and
r
=
(EDI-BD) (Garner, Olmstead,
.76, p
shared 65% of
<
.01
respectively.
common
Because
variance, these
&
Polivy, 1983), r .66, p
the two body image VASs
=
two measures were combined
single index of body satisfaction. Although there was a good deal of
overlap among the three mood measures, none shared more than 41%
into
of
a
common
variance, therefore, these
measures
were
treated inde
in
pendently analyses.
Manipulation Checks. In order to ensure that all participants attended
to and comprehended the videotape, a five item manipulation check was
administered at the end of the experiment. These items consisted of
specific questions about the visual stimuli that should have been easily
answered. In order to be included in analyses, participants had to answer
at least four of the five items correctly (they were not informed that they
would be tested in this
manner).
VIDEOTAPE STIMULI
Participants viewed a
10 minute segment containing 20 commercials that
approximately 30 seconds in length. In one condition, the
Appearance video, commercials contained women who epitomized so-
were
each
331
BODY IMAGE
cietal ideals of thinness and attractiveness. These ads
were
typically
for
weight
supplements (Slimfast, Weight Watchers), beer, automo
biles, fast-food, make-up, and clothing. In contrast, the Non-Appearance
loss
video
was
devoid of such messages, and contained advertisements for
as
pain relievers, household cleaning products, and insur
such
products
ance
policies. Both conditions contained advertisements that promi
nently featured women, however, the actors were of average or
above-average weight and the focus of the advertisement was not on the
physical appearance of the individuals in the Non-Appearance condi
tion.
The commercials
videotaped from standard and cable television
during
day-time and prime-time viewing hours. In the
of
the
development
Appearance video compilation, a preliminary 40
commercials were chosen by the experimenters to best reflect media
images that emphasized physical appearance (in particular, attractive
ness and thinness). The final 10 minute
videotape was selected during a
in
which
42
pilot study
undergraduates viewed the advertisements and
were carefully interviewed
by the experimenter. They were asked what
of
the
stimuli
found
to be the most powerful in communi
aspects
they
channels
were
the
cating sociocultural standards of thinness and attractiveness. The NonAppearance collection was originally prepared by the experimenters
and viewed by nine undergraduates. They were queried about the
messages portrayed by the advertisements. None of the nine pilot par
ticipants identified issues related to thinness or attractiveness.
The actors in the Appearance video were slightly younger than char
portrayed in the Non-Appearance video (perhaps selected to
represent the societally-endorsed ideal of attractiveness). In addition,
there were few Non-Appearance commercials that actually contained
actors. These advertisements typically used voice-overs to sell the prod
acters
ucts.
Participants
in both conditions viewed the
standard color televison set.
the
study, but were
They
videotapes on a 13 inch
given a specific rationale for
if you were watching television in
were
told to watch "as
not
your home."
PROCEDURE
Participants
were
randomly assigned
in groups of 2-8 in
the tape
sealed envelope, coded
to
a
video condition and viewed
small conference
They were given a
by
assigned group. They were first
instructed to read and sign two copies of the informed consent, keeping
a
copy in their possession. The primary experimenter read the instruc
tions for completing the packet of measures and encouraged participants
a
number and
room.
332
HEINBERG AND THOMPSON
questions regarding the proper completion of the various meas
Following the completion of the two dispositional measures, par
ticipants completed the visual analogue scales.
After the completion of these preliminary measures, the experimenter
instructed all participants to return their data packets to the envelope.
They were then instructed to view the videotape "as if you were watch
ing television in your home." Because there was no break between
commercials presented via the videotape, participants were not given
the opportunity to interact and contaminate each others reactions to the
manipulation.
Following the manipulation, participants were asked to take out the
last data packet from their envelope, again coded by subject number.
This packet contained the visual analogue scales. Following the comple
tion of the post measures, the manipulation check was administered.
Subsequent to the completion of the manipulation check, experimental
points were awarded and a brief verbal description of the purpose of the
study was given. Participants were also given information on how to
contact the experimenter if they should have any further questions
regarding the study.
to ask
ures.
MANIPULATION CHECK
All
participants successfully conpleted
regarding the
at least 4 of the 5 items
this check, correctly answering
content of the experimental or
neutral video.
DESIGN AND ANALYSES
Measures of
body image (BCDS-PA) and sociocultural attitudes (SA
as
independent variables. Although these two scales
both measure contructs that are related to body image, they were treated
independently in this study. The BCDS-PA assesses appearance-related
cognitive distortions, whereas, the SATAQ indexes whether one is (a)
aware of societal pressures and/or (b) "buys into" the
messages (i.e.,
accepts and internalizes these pressures, believing it is reasonable to
strive to fit the societal stereotype). In addition, although the two scales
TAQ)
used
were
positively correlated, the shared common variance is only 23%.
Therefore, independent analyses were conducted on the two scales.
are
A median
split
was
these variables. This is
and
used to create groups
a common
procedure
high
and low in levels of
used in research
on
body
disturbance (i.e., restraint, see introduction). For the
image
BCDS-PA, the median split occurred at a score of 18; for the SATAQ, a
eating
333
BODY IMAGE
of 55.5
score
was
used to dichotimize groups into High and Low levels
produced the following ns per cell: BCDS-PA Ap
of disturbance. This
pearance video (High 31; Low 39); Non-Appearance video (High
29; Low 38): SATAQ Appearance video (High 40; Low 31);
Non-Appearance video (High 31; Low 36).
Time of
testing (pre, post)
and
also served
type of video stimulus (Appearance,
Non-Appearance)
independent variables. VAS measures
as
variables.
A
2 (time of testing) x 2 (video stimulus)
dependent
x 2
level:
(dispositional
high, low) MANOVA was conducted across all
measures.
One
MANOVA included BCDS-PA as the third
dependent
factor and one blocked on overall SATAQ level. (A preliminary analysis
as
served
the individual SATAQ scales revealed a very similar pattern of
results, therefore, to reduce the overall number of analyses, the total
on
SATAQ
further
score was
analyzed
used in the final
with Fisher's LSD
analysis.) Significant
post
effects
were
hoc test.
RESULTS
There
significant 3-way interaction for the MANOVA on time,
body image disturbance (BCDS-PA), F(4, 127)
<
An
.03.
evaluation
of the univariates revealed a significant 3-way
2.78, p
interaction for the VAS depression, F(l, 130)
9.04, p < .003 and body
was a
stimulus material, and
=
=
dissatisfaction, F(l, 130)
high
BCDS-PA
women
=
4.04, p
in the
<
.05. Post hoc tests revealed that the
Appearance
condition
significantly
in
creased in depression level from Time 1 to Time 2 (30.8-37.8)) and in body
dissatisfaction from Time 1 to Time 2 (55.0-58.5). High BCDS-PA partici
pants who viewed the Non-Appearance video significantly decreased in
depression from Time 1 (29.1) to Time 2 (24.7) and also significantly
decreased in body dissatisfaction level (45.6-40.1). Similarly, low BCDSPA women who viewed either tape significantly decreased in body
dissatisfaction from Time 1 to Time 2
pearance: 31.4-28.7). Table 2 contains
all analyses.
(Non-Appearance: 30.4-28.0; Ap
means
and standard deviations for
The MANOVA with sociocultural awareness/internalization level
factor also revealed
as
significant 3-way interaction, F(4, 127) 3.37, p
< .01. Significant univariates emerged for depression level, F(l, 130)
5.23, p < .02, and anger level, F(l, 130) 9.63. p < .002. Post hoc analyses
revealed that participants high in sociocultural awareness/internaliza
tion level in the Appearance condition increased significantly in depres
sion (30.6
36.7) and anger (25.3 29.9). Participants scoring high on this
variable who viewed the Non-Appearance tape decreased
significantly
in level of depression (30.1
27.0) and anger (20.9 16.9).
a
a
=
=
=
334
HEINBERG AND THOMPSON
TABLE 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Significance Levels
for Three-Way Interactions
Time 1
Variable
Neutral
Time 2
Experimental
Experimental
Neutral
Depression
(26.3)a
(28.7)
30.8
(24.3)
24.7
(28.6)a
37.8
Low BCDS-PA
17.7(16.0)
19.6
(17.7)
18.2
(17.0)
18.7(19.2)
High SATAQ
30.1
(28.0)
30.6
(24.8)
27.0
(28.4)a
36.7
(26.5)a
Low
SATAQ
16.1
(15.0)
18.7
(16.4)
15.9
(15.3)
17.1
(17.8)
High SATAQ
20.9
(24.6)
25.3(21.1)
16.9
(21.5)a
29.9
(26.0)a
Low
11.8(16.0)
13.8
(17.7)
12.8
(15.6)
10.5
(13.0)a
BCDS-PA
45.6
55.0
(21.0)
40.1
(24.2)a
30.4
31.4(23.4)
28.0
(26.7)a
(24.4)a
58.5
Low BCDS-PA
28.7
(22.9)a
High
BCDS-PA
29.1
Anger
SATAQ
Body
Dissatisfaction
High
Significant changes
(25.2)
(22.7)
from Time 1 to Time 2. Standard deviations
are
in
parentheses.
DISCUSSION
These
findings suggest
that
media-presented images
of thinness and
attractiveness may negatively affect mood and body satisfaction. The
findings also support a moderating effect of dispositional level of distur
bance
only participants in the Appearance video condition with high
image disturbance and sociocultural awareness/internalization increased in distress following exposure. Women who scored
above the median in dispositional level of disturbance exposed to the
Non-Appearance video improved in mood and body satisfaction. Partici
pants below the median in level of dispositional disturbance in both
Appearance and Non-Appearance video conditions either improved or
showed no change on the dependent variables.
The influence of the Appearance video on women with
high levels of
dispositional disturbance is of special importance. Although this limits
the generalizability of the results, it indicates that, for certain individuals,
levels of body
the media-communicated messages of thinness and attractiveness are
especially salient. It is critical to further examine these individuals in
future research.
Perhaps they are more sensitive to media-communi
they use this high profile group as a social
comparison target (Heinberg & Thompson, 1992).
The correspondence between laboratory induced changes in
body
image and mood found in this study replicates earlier findings when
participants consumed foodstuffs (Thompson, Coovert, Pasman, &
Robb, 1993). The parallel changes in measures of mood (depression level)
cated messages because
335
BODY IMAGE
and
body satisfaction indicate that the effect is not specific to body image,
question of whether the findings reflect a more global shift
in negative self-evaluation. Within the current design it is impossible to
determine whether the two measures body image and mood change
independently or synergistically. Cash (1994) has theorized that contex
tual events (similar to the video exposure provided in this study) prime
and raises the
processing of self-evalu
appearance" (p. 1169). For individuals at
the
activation
lead
to negative self-evaluation of appear
high-risk,
may
in
in
reflected
ance,
changes body image ratings.
Such cognitive processing approaches to body image have received a
great deal of recent attention in the body image literature (e.g., Altabe &
Thompson, in press; LaBarge, Cash, & Brown, in press) and provide a
plausible explanation for the findings in the current investigation. Per
pre-existing "schematic,
investment-driven
ative information about one's
haps the videotape primed appearance evaluative schema, which led
participants to compare themselves to the models portrayed in the
advertisements, which led to negative feelings about their own body,
which led to an overall dysphoric reaction. We are currently evaluating
one
aspect of this model, by manipulating level of appearance compari
son via a direct comparison vs. distraction experimental condition.
It is important to note that the findings in the current investigation are
limited to the specific advertisements selected for the two conditions and
the Caucasian female sample evaluated. As noted earlier, the actors were
predominately Caucasian, emphasizing prototypes of thinness and at
tractiveness found in these specific types of commercials. It is possible
that these standards may differ in advertisements which contain indi
viduals of another ethnic background. In addition, body image concerns
may not manifest
primarily as a desire for thinness in non-Caucasian
women (Altabe,
press). Therefore, future extensions of this paradigm
need to carefully evaluate prevailing societal media messages and spe
cific body image concerns as a function of ethnicity. In addition, this
same concern is relevant for any investigation of men or individuals of
different ages (i.e., adolescents, elderly).
In this study, no effort was made to select advertisements that featured
only celebrities. Only 2-3 commercials featured well-known personali
ties. As noted earlier, Heinberg and Thompson (1992) found similar
importance ratings for the targets of celebrities, classmates, and other
students. However, Cash et al. (1983) found that self ratings of attractive
ness were lower for participants who compared to attractive peers, than
those who were exposed to "not attractive" peers and attractive celebri
ties. Irving (1990) did not test the peer vs. celebrity issue, using only
slides of models taken from fashion magazines and catalogs. Future
research might further examine the effects of exposure to a variety of
in
336
HEINBERG AND THOMPSON
different
comparison targets by creating specific
each type of reference group.
Participants most at-risk for
negative
high pre-existing
a
video conditions for
reaction to media messages
body image distur
"buy
societally-presented images (as
measured by the SATAQ). Interestingly, Irving (1990) blocked individu
appear to be those with
bance
als
on
or
individuals who
bulimic
levels of
into"
symptoms, but found
no
interaction between level of
disturbance and exposure condition (thin, average, oversize, no-expo
sure). The lack of an interaction in this study, as opposed to the current
investigation, might be attributed to the difference in blocking measures
(bulimic symptoms vs. body image/sociocultural endorsement). Our
blocking measures may have been more sensitive to individuals vulner
able to media messages than Irving's (1990) more global measure of
eating disturbance. Thus, the appearance-related video stimuli in our
study may have been more directly relevant to the concerns of partici
pants dichotomized specifically by their level of physical appearance-re
lated cognitions and awareness/internalization of societal standards
regarding appearance. In addition, even though level of bulimic symp
tomatology is associated with body dissatisfaction (Thompson, 1990),
we have found a shared variance of
only 13% (Scalf-Mclver &
the
same
measure
of bulimic symptoms as
Thompson, 1989), using
Irving (1990).
Another potential explanation for the differences between Irving
(1990) and the current study may lie in the selection of dependent
measures and the research
design. The visual analogue scales used in
our
were chosen
study
specifically to be state indices of disturbance,
sensitive to immediate changes in status. Irving's (1990) body image
measure
the body-esteem scale taps into a more traitlike aspect of
body image (Thompson, 1992, in press). In addition, as noted earlier,
Irving (1990) used a posttest only design any presence of a priori group
differences may have contributed to the lack of an interaction between
bulimic level and exposure condition. Clearly, however, our findings
illustrative of a dispositional influence on women's reaction to video-
presented images
need
replication.
Studies in the future should work to refine the current
experiment. For
important to discern which aspect of media messages is
the most powerful or distressing to those at risk. Is it possible to disen
tangle varying effects due to diet advertisements, commercials focusing
on beauty, or images focusing on thinness? A comparison
among these
various messages may generate important confirmatory evidence for
sociocultural theories of disturbance. Projected research should also vary
the instructional protocol given to participants prior to the videotape.
For example, they could be instructed to "compare yourself," "focus on
example,
it is
BODY IMAGE
337
your body," or alternatively, to "try to disregard images." By altering
the instructions, evidence may be found for cognitive strategies facilitative for
rejecting societal messages.
Future research should also examine how
individuals
effectively
beauty. Perhaps these
individuals differ in their body image-related cognitive schemas (Strauman &
Glenberg, 1994). How do these individuals cognitively challenge
the messages communicated by the media? And, more importantly, can
these challenging skills be effectively taught to individuals with initially
higher levels of body image disturbance? If clinical samples and/or
persons with high levels of body image disturbance differ from relatively
asymptomatic persons on schemas, comparison targets and/or cogni
tive distortions, perhaps these individuals can be taught skills and
strategies to lessen their distress when confronted with the omnipresent
societal messages that women must be attractive to be accepted.
disregard
some
societal standards for thinness and
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