1. The Electrical Double Layer (Ref.:Delahay: Double Layer and Electrode Kinetics; Mohilner in Bard, Ed.: Electroanalytical Chemistry, A Series of Advances, Vol. 1; Sparney: The Electrical Double Layer; Bockris and Reddy: Modern Electrochemistry, Vol. 2) 1.1 The electrified interface Interface between metal electrode and electrolyte solution: − + − − − − + + + + Electrical double layer : the arrangement of charges and oriented dipoles constituting the interphase region at the boundary of an electrolyte Electrochemical Potential Outer (Volta) potential) of a given phase, Ψ : the work done to transport a unit test charge from infinity to a point just outside a charged but dipole-free phase (just outside the reach of the image forces from the phase) Surface potential of a given phase, χ : the work done to carry the unit test charge across the dipole layer at the surface of an uncharged phase Inner (Galvani) potential, φ : work done to transport the unit test charge from infinity across the charged surface covered with a dipole layer to a point inside the phase φ=Ψ + χ (1) Chemical potential, μi : work done to bring a mole of i particles from infinity into the bulk of an uncharged, dipole-layer- free material phase. 1 − Electrochemical potential, μ : total work done to take a mole of charges from infinity in vacuum into the bulk of the material phase (it is the sum of potentials, one for material phase without either charges or dipole layer on the surface, and another involving only ψ → + + → → χ φ → + → → the charges and the dipole layer). Thus, − μ = μ + zFφ = μ + zF (ψ + χ ) (2) Note: electrical work to bring a unit charge = φ electrical work to transport one particle bearing a charge zieo = zieoφ electrical work to bring an Avogadro number (NA) of particles inside a material phase = NAzieoφ = ziFφ Total driving force for the flow of a particular species is: For an interface to be at equilibrium, − d μ i / dx − ( d μ i / dx ) = 0 , 2 i.e. the electrochemical potential of a species i must be the same on both sides of the interface, or, − − μ i (metal ) = μ i ( solution ) − The electrochemical potential μ i of a species i in a particular phase is the change in the (electrochemical) Gibbs energy of the system resulting from an introduction of a mole of i particles into the phase (while keeping other conditions constant), i.e. ⎛ −⎞ ∂G ⎟ μ i = ⎜⎜ ⎜ ∂ni ⎟⎟ ⎝ ⎠ T , P ,n j − (3) Thus, equality of electrochemical potentials on either side of phase boundary implies that the change in Gibbs energy of the system resulting from the transfer of particles from one phase to the other should be the same as that due to transfer in the other direction; i.e. − d G = 0 . This implies a free flow of species across the interface. An interface which maintains an “open border” is a non-polarizable interface. Thus, thermodynamic equilibrium exists at a non-polarizable interface. For a non-polarizable interface: or, − S ΔM μ i = S ΔM μ i = − S ΔM ( μ i + z i Fφ ) = 0 (4) S ΔM μ i + z i F S ΔM φ = 0 (4’) where i is the species exchanged across the non-polarizable interface. Rearranging, S or, ΔM φ = − 1 S M Δ μi zi F d ( S ΔM φ ) = − 1 RT dμi = − d ln ai zi F zi F (5) (5’) 1.2 Thermodynamics of the electrified interface The combined statement of the first and second law of thermodynamics (where only PdV type of wok is considered) for an open system is: dG = VdP – SdT + Σμidni (6) If other types of work are included, e.g. work of expansion of the interface, of interfacial tension γ , by an area dA, which is given by γdA, or work involved in altering the charge 3 on the metal by an amount dqM upon the application of a potential φ, which is given by φ dqM , then the complete expression for the change in Gibbs energy becomes: dG = VdP – SdT + Σμidni + φ dqM + γdA (7) dG = Σμidni + φ dqM + γdA (8) G = Σμi ni + φ qM + γ A (9) At constant T and P, Integrating: Taking the total differential, dG = Σμidni + φ dqM + γdA + Σni dμi + qM dφ + A dγ (10) Comparing with Eq. (8), Σni dμi + qM dφ + A dγ = 0 (11) Rearranging, (and taking unit area ,A = 1) dγ = - Σni dμi - qM dφ (12) Surface excess, Γi , is defined as the amount of material over and above that which would have existed had there been no double layer. If ni is the actual number of moles of species i in the interfacial region and nio is the number of moles that would have been there if there had been no double layer, then (per unit area) Γi = ni - nio and therefore (13) ni = Γi + nio ni dμi = Γi dμi + nio dμI (14) Σ ni dμi = Σ Γi dμi + Σ nio dμi (15) Summing over all i : From the Gibbs-Duhem equation (for bulk material phase, without surface effects): Σ nio dμi = 0 (16) 4 Thus, Σ ni dμi = Σ Γi dμi (17) Substituting Eq.(17) in Eq. (12): dγ = - Σ Γi dμi - qM dφ Note that dφ represents the change in the inner or Galvani potential difference across the interface under study. It may be written as d ( M 1 ΔS φ ) , where M1 is the metal electrode under study and S is the solution. Thus, dγ = - Σ Γi dμi - qM d ( M 1 ΔS φ ) (17’) Although the inner potential is not measurable, the change in inner potential can be measured provided that the M1/S interface is polarizable and that it is connected to a nonpolarizable interface M2/S to form an electrochemical cell. If such a cell is connected to an external source of electricity, V = M1 ΔSφ + S ΔM 2 φ + M2 ' ΔM1 φ (18) where M1’ is the connecting metal wire that completes the circuit. Since the last term in Eq. (18) does not depend upon the potential V supplied from the external source, or the solution composition, dV = d( or d( M1 M1 ΔSφ ) + d( S ΔM 2 φ ) ΔSφ ) = dV - d( S ΔM 2 φ ) (19) (20) Substituting in Eq. (17’): dγ = - Σ Γi dμi - qM [dV - d( S ΔM 2 φ )] (21) Since there is thermodynamic equilibrium at the non-polarizable interface, (see Eq. (5)), d ( S ΔM 2 φ ) = − 1 dμj zjF where the non-polarizable interface (reference electrode) is reversible with respect to ion j. Eq. (21) then becomes: dγ = −q M dV − qM zjF dμ j − ∑ Γi dμ i (22) i 5 [Note: The reference electrode is reversible with respect to ion j. However, M2/S refers to an electrode M2 dipped into the same solution S as M1; i.e. the cell is represented as: M1/S/M2. Thus, when potential V is read, this value refers to a potential with respect to a reference electrode consisting of metal M2 immersed in solution of the same composition as that of the surrounding test electrode. Potentials referred to those reversible to ions of a given varying concentration are denoted by V+ or V-] For a solution of fixed composition (and where i = j ), dμi = 0 so that dγ = −qM dV ⎛ ∂γ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = −q M ⎝ ∂V ⎠ μ or, (22) Eq.(22) is referred to as the Lippmann equation. The potential at which the derivative in Eq. (22) becomes zero (i.e. qM = 0 ) is known as the potential of zero charge (p.z.c.). The plot of interfacial tension γ versus potential is known as the electrocapillary curve. γ p.z.c V The electrocapillary curve The differential capacitance of the interface is defined as: ⎛ ∂ 2γ ⎛ ∂q ⎞ C = ⎜ M ⎟ = −⎜⎜ 2 ⎝ ∂V ⎠ μ ⎝ ∂V ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠μ (23) Consider the cell Hg⎜HCl⎜AgCl⎜Ag with varying composition using a reversible silversilver chloride electrode. This reference electrode is reversible with respect to the anion Cl-. At constant potential, Eq. (22) becomes: 6 dγ = − qM zjF dμ j − ∑ Γi dμ i (24) i For i = j = -1, expanding the summation over all i : dγ = qM dμ − − Γ+ dμ + − Γ− dμ − F (25) Since μ = μ+ + μ- , then dμ = dμ+ + dμ-, or dμ+ = dμ - dμ- , so that dγ = qM dμ − − Γ+ dμ + Γ+ dμ − − Γ− dμ − F (26) or ⎛ q + FΓ+ − FΓ− ⎞ dγ = −Γ+ dμ + ⎜ M ⎟dμ − F ⎝ ⎠ (27) Due to electrical neutrality across the interface, Fn+ - Fn- = - qM (28) whereas in the absence of the double layer Fn+o - Fn-o = - qM (28’) Combining these two equations: o o q M + F (n+ − n+ ) − F (n− − n− ) = 0 (29) Introducing the definition of surface excess, (Eq.(13), qM + FΓ+ - FΓ- = 0 (30) The numerator in the quantity in brackets in Eq. (27) is thus zero, and therefore or, dγ = - Γ+ dμ (31) ⎛ ∂γ ⎞ − Γ+ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎝ ∂μ ⎠V− (32) Since 7 μ = μ + + μ − = ( μ + o + RT ln a + ) + ( μ − o + RT ln a − ) = ( μ + o + μ − o ) + RT ln a + a − and 2 a± = a+ a− then μ = ( μ + o + μ − o ) + 2RT ln a± (33) ⎛ ∂γ − Γ+ = ⎜⎜ ⎝ 2 RT∂ ln a ± (34) so that ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠V− Excess charge densities in solution side of interface (due to surface excesses of positive and negative ions) are given by q+ = z+FΓ+ and q- = z-FΓ- qS = q+ + q- = -qM (36) -qM = z+FΓ+ + z-FΓ- (37) positively ch arg ed electrode q− = − FΓ− 0 − q+ = FΓ+ qS = − qM + q (35) p.z.c. potential difference 1.3 The Structure of Electrified Interfaces 1.3.1 The Helmholtz Model: electrified interface consists of two sheets of charge, one on the solution side, and another on the electrode side – similar to a parallel plate condenser. 8 d q+ − + − − + ε V = 4π d ε q (38) V = potential difference across the condenser, q = charge on the parallel plates, d = distance between plates, ε = dielectric constant of material between the plates. Assuming ε is a constant, and that the charge on the metal is qM dV = 4π d ε From the Lippmann equation, dγ = -qM dV Substituting for dV, dγ = - qM γ Integrating, ∫ dγ = − γ max γ − γ max 4π d ε (39) dq M 4π d ε dq M (40) q ∫q M dq M 0 4π d q M =− ε 2 2 (41) or, in terms of the potential, γ − γ max = − ε 1 2 V 4π d 2 (42) This is an eqation of a parabola symmetrical about γmax. Experimental electrocapillary curve, however, is not symmetrical. Also, according to the parallel plate model, the capacitance of the condenser is given by: C= dq ε = = cons tan t dV 4π d (43) (for constant ε and d). The differential capacitance of the interface, however, is not a constant but depends on potential in a complex manner. 9 1.3.2 Gouy-Chapmann Theory Consider a lamina in the electrolyte parallel to electrode and at a distance x from the electrode. The charge density in the lamina can be expressed as follows (Poisson’s equation): + ρx + ψ + + + + ρx = − ε d 2ψ x 4π dx 2 (44) where ψ x is the outer potential difference between the lamina and the bulk of the solution for which ψ x →∞ = 0 . Note that since Δχ for two points in the same phase is zero, ψ x = φx . From the Boltzmann distribution law: ρ x = ∑ ni ( z i eo ) = ∑ ni o ( z i eo ) exp[−( z i eo )ψ x / kT ] i (45) i where ni and nio are the concentrations of the ith species in he lamina (at a distance x from the electrode) and in the bulk of the solution, respectively; zi is the valence of species i ; eo is the electronic charge. Combining the Poisson and Boltzmann equations: d 2ψ 4π =− 2 ε dx ∑n o i ( z i eo ) exp[−( z i eo )ψ x / kT ] (46) i Note that: 10 2 d ⎛ dψ ⎞ d ⎛ dψ ⎞⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞⎛ dx ⎟ = 2⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =2 ⎜ ⎜ dψ ⎝ dx ⎠ dψ ⎝ dx ⎠⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠⎝ dψ ⎛ dx = 2⎜⎜ ⎝ dψ ⎞⎛ d 2ψ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2 ⎠⎝ dx ⎞⎛ dψ ⎞⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎜ ⎠⎝ dx ⎠⎝ dx ⎠ ⎛ d 2ψ ⎞ ⎞⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ = 2⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ dx ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎠ 2 1 d ⎛ dψ ⎞ d 2ψ or, ⎜ ⎟ = 2 dψ ⎝ dx ⎠ dx 2 Using this in the Poisson-Boltzmann equation: 2 d ⎛ dψ ⎞ 8π ⎜ ⎟ =− dψ ⎝ dx ⎠ ε 2 Rearranging, 8π ⎛ dψ ⎞ d⎜ ⎟ =− ε ⎝ dx ⎠ 8π ⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎟ =− ⎜ ε ⎝ dx ⎠ o i z i e o exp[ − z i eoψ x / kT ] (48) i ∑n o i z i e o e[ − zi eoψ x / kT ] dψ (49) i Integrating, 2 ∑n (47) ∑ ∑n o i z i e o exp[ − z i eoψ x / kT ] i ( − z i eo / kT ) i + const (50) Since, for x → ∞ , ψ = 0 and ( dψ / dx ) = 0 , then const = − 2 Therefore, 8π kT ε ∑n 8π kT ⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = ε ⎝ dx ⎠ o (51) i i ∑n o i {exp[ − z i e oψ x / kT ] − 1} (52) For a z-z valent electrolyte, where ⎜z+⎜ = ⎜z-⎜ = z and n+o = n-o = no 2 8π kTn o ze oψ x / kT ⎛ dψ ⎞ e − 1 + e − ze oψ x / kT − 1 ⎜ ⎟ =− ε dx ⎝ ⎠ 2 or, ( 8π kTn o ze oψ x / kT ⎛ dψ ⎞ e + e − ze oψ x / kT − 2 ⎜ ⎟ = ε dx ⎝ ⎠ ( ) ) (53) This may be rewritten as: 11 2 ( 2 ( 8π kTn o ze oψ x / kT ⎛ dψ ⎞ e + e − ze oψ x / kT − 2 ( e ze oψ x / kT )( e − ze oψ x / kT ) ⎜ ⎟ = ε ⎝ dx ⎠ 8π kTn o ze oψ x / 2 kT ⎛ dψ ⎞ e − e − ze oψ x / 2 kT ⎟ = ⎜ ε ⎝ dx ⎠ ) 2 (54) Since ex – e-x = 2 sinh x 2 ze ψ 32π kTn o ⎛ dψ ⎞ = sinh 2 o x ⎜ ⎟ ε 2 kT ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎛ 32π kTn o ⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = ± ⎜⎜ ε ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 1/ 2 ⎛ 32π kTn o ⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎜⎜ = ± ⎜ ⎟ ε ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 1/ 2 sinh ze oψ x 2 kT (55) Assume that sinh x ≈ x; then or, ⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = ± bψ x ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎛ 8 π n o ( ze o ) 2 ⎛ ze oψ x ⎞ ⎜⎜ = ± ⎜ ⎟ ε kT ⎝ 2 kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 1/ 2 ψx (56) 1/ 2 where ⎛ 8 π n o ( zeo ) 2 ⎞ ⎟⎟ b = ⎜⎜ kT ε ⎝ ⎠ (57) At a positively charged electrode, ψ > 0, but (dψ / dx ) < 0, and at a negatively charged electrode, ψ < 0, while (dψ / dx ) > 0. [Note also Gauss’s theorem where 4π q M = −ε (dψ / dx ) .] Thus, only the negative root of Eq. (56) corresponds to the physical situation: ⎛ dψ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ = − bψ x ⎝ dx ⎠ The integrated form is : as shown below. ψ x = ψ o exp(−bx) (58) and the potential - distance profile is 12 ) ψ x From Gauss’s law, ⎛ 32π kTno ⎞ ⎛ dψ ⎞ −ε ⎜ ⎟ ⎟=ε ⎜ ε ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ and sinh ε ⎛ 32π kTno ⎞ qM = ⎜ ⎟ ε 4π ⎝ ⎠ qM where 1/ 2 1/ 2 ⎛ 2kTno ε ⎞ = −q s = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ π ⎠ ⎛ kTno ε ⎞ A=⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2π ⎠ zeoψ x = 4π q M 2kT sinh (59) zeoψ x = −q s 2kT 1/ 2 sinh zeoψ x ze ψ = 2 A sinh o x 2kT 2kT (60) 1/ 2 (61) For x = 0, ψ x = ψ o = potential at x = 0 relative to the bulk of the solution where the potential is zero, or ψ ∞ = 0 . The diffuse charge density (qd = qs) is therefore ⎛ 2kTno ε ⎞ q d = −⎜ ⎟ ⎝ π ⎠ 1/ 2 sinh zeoψ x 2kT (62) The differential capacity may be evaluated from ⎛ ∂q C = ⎜⎜ M ⎝ ∂ψ M ⎛ ∂q ⎞ ⎟⎟ = −⎜⎜ d ⎠ ⎝ ∂ψ o ⎞ ⎛ z 2 eo 2 n o ε ⎞ ⎟ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎜ 2πkT ⎟ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 1/ 2 cosh zeoψ o 2kT (63) The cosh function gives an inverted parabola, and the Gouy-Chapmann theory therefore predicts an inverted parabola dependence of C on potential across the interface. This is approximated experimentally only at very dilute solutions. 13 C G − C Theory C Exp' t (dil. solution ) Exp' t (conc. solution) Potential Potential 1.3.3 Stern’s modification of the Gouy-Chapmann theory Stern: ions cannot reach electrode beyond “plane of closest approach” – which is same for cations and anions. Double layer divided into two regions: compact double layer (between electrode and plane of closest approach, and a diffuse double layer, from plane of closest approach to bulk of solution. Due to charge separation, a potential drop results: Differentiating the above: or, ψ M = ψ M − ψ S = (ψ M − ψ 2 ) + (ψ 2 − ψ s ) (64) ∂ψ M ∂ (ψ M − ψ 2 ) ∂ψ 2 = + ∂q M ∂q M ∂q d (65) 1 1 1 = + C C M − 2 C 2− s (66) Model of double layer: two capacitors in series ⎯⎜⎜⎯⎯⎜⎜⎯ CM-2 C2-S 14 plane of closest approach ( 2) − − − − − Electrode compact double − scattered ions − − − − − diffuse double layer layer Note: for large concentrations, no is large and from the Gouy-Chapman expression, for capacitance, C2-S becomes large and hence 1/C2-S becomes small compared to 1/CM-2 . Therefore C ≈ CM-2. Hence the disagreement of the G-C theory with experiment for large electrolyte concentrations. But for low concentrations, C ≈ C2-S in agreement with experiment. CM-2 is not experimentally accessible. However, C can be measured, and q can be calculated from the C versus Potential curve by integration. From magnitude of q, ψ can be calculated and hence also C2-S . Grahame assumed that CM-2 depends only on charge on electrode and not on electrolyte concentration. Thus, CM-2 can be calculated from C and C2-S. For concentrated electrolyte solutions, C2-S >> CM-2 . (Electrolyte to be chosen: one that is not specifically adsorbed.) CM − 2 C Calc ' d C 1 M NaF Expt ' l 0.01 M NaF Expt ' l Potential Potential 15 1.3.4 Grahame Model of double layer – Classical picture OHP IHP adsorbed anion electrode solvated cation < > - + > < < + < < - > - + > < + < > + - solvent dipole diffuse layer 1.4 Ionic concentration in plane of closest approach and ionic contribution of diffuse double layer to total charge Ionic concentration ni(2) in plane of closest approach (x = x2) may be obtained from the Boltzmann distribution law with ψ = ψ2 = φ2: n1( 2 ) = ni e − zi eoφ 2 / kT o (67) [Note that since Δχ for two points in the same phase is zero, ψ x = φ x .] ni(2) > nio for ziφ2 < 0 and ni(2) < nio for ziφ2 > 0 . Thus, since φ2 > 0 when E >Epzc and φ2 < 0 when E < Epzc , cations are attracted [ attraction: ni(2) > nio ] for E < Epzc and are repelled [repulsion: ni(2) < nio ] for E >Epzc (in absence of specific adsorption). The excess charge due to ionic species i in a lamina of thickness dx at a distance x from the electrode is (assuming ψo = ψs = 0): zeo (ni − ni )dx = zeo ni [e − zeoψ x / kT − 1]dx x o o (68) The total excess of cations in the diffuse layer is then: qi 2− s ∞ ∞ = ∫ zeo (ni − ni )dx = ∫ zeo ni [e − zeoφ x / kT − 1]dx x2 x o o (69) x2 16 Let zeoφx / kT = Φ. In view of : (e − Φ − 1) = [(e − Φ − 1) 2 ]1 / 2 , then qi 2− s = zeo ni ∞ ∫ (e o −2Φ − 2e −Φ + 1) dx = zeo ni 1/ 2 ∞ ∫ [(e o x2 = zeo ni ∞ o −Φ − 2 + e Φ )e −Φ ]1 / 2 dx x2 ∫ [ (e −Φ / 2 −e Φ/2 2 ) e −Φ 1 / 2 ] dx = zeo ni o x2 (70) ∞ ∫ [(e −Φ / 2 −e Φ/2 )e −Φ / 2 dx x2 From the previously derived result (eq. (54): 2 8π kTn o ze oψ x / 2 kT ⎛ dψ ⎞ e − e − ze oψ x / 2 kT ⎜ ⎟ = dx ε ⎝ ⎠ ( o ⎛ d ψ ⎞ ⎛ 8π kTn ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ε ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎛ 8π kTn ⎞ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ε ⎠ ⎝ o Therefore, (e Φ/2 −e −Φ / 2 ) ⎛ ε = ⎜⎜ o ⎝ 8π kTn ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 (e (e ze oψ x / 2 kT Φ/2 ) 2 − e − zeoψ x / 2 kT − e −Φ / 2 ) (71) ) ⎛ dφ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ dx ⎠ (72) Substituting this, and changing variables from dx to dφ , qi 2− s ⎛ ε = zeo ni ⎜⎜ o ⎝ 8π kTn o ⎛ kTn ε ⎞ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎝ 2π ⎠ o ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 1/ 2 0 ∫e φ −Φ / 2 dφ (73) 2 1/ 2 [e − zeoφ 2 / 2 kT − 1] i.e. q+ q− 2− s 2− s ⎛ kTn o ε = ⎜⎜ ⎝ 2π ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 1/ 2 ⎛ kTn ε ⎞ ⎟⎟ = − ⎜⎜ ⎝ 2π ⎠ o [ e − ze oφ 2 / 2 kT − 1] (74) 1/ 2 [ e − ze oφ 2 / 2 kT − 1] For φ2 = 0, (i.e. at the potential of zero charge), q + 2− s = q− 2− s =0 . In the absence of specific adsorption, q+ 2− s = z + FΓ+ q− 2− s = z − FΓ− (75) 17 Generally, q± 2− s ( ) = ± A e − zeoφ 2 / 2 kT − 1 ⎛ kTn o ε A = ⎜⎜ ⎝ 2π where ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ (75’) 1/ 2 (76) The total charge is then: ( q M = −q s = − q + 2− s + q− 2− s ) = 2 A sinh ze2kTφ o 2 (77) 1.5 Criteria for specific adsorption Since dγ is a perfect differential, it follows that: dγ = -qM dE± - Γm dμ (78) ⎛ ∂E ± ⎜⎜ ⎝ ∂μ (79) ⎞ ⎛ ∂Γ ⎞ ⎟⎟ = −⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ Esin – Markov equation ⎠q ⎝ ∂q ⎠ μ Expressing the charge in terms of q m , the charge in solution due to anions or cations, respectively, (i.e. qi 2-s = ziFΓi ), ⎛ ∂E ± ⎜⎜ ⎝ ∂μ ⎛ ∂E ± ⎞ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎠ q ⎝ RT∂ ln a s ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂q m ⎟⎟ = − ⎜ z m F ⎜⎝ ∂q ⎠q ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠μ (80) 2 where as = activity of the electrolyte = a± . Note that E ± refers to potential measured against a reference electrode which is reversible to cation (E+) or anion (E-) in a cell with no liquid junction. If reference electrode of constant electrolyte activity is used, then, upon variation of the activity of electrolyte in contact with ideal polarized electrode, E ref = E ± ± RT ln a ± + const zF (81) provided the liquid junction potential is constant. [For z-z valent electrolyte, |z| = z+ = -z-] Substituting in the above, ⎛ ∂E ref ⎞ RT ⎡⎛ ∂q m ⎟ ⎜ ⎢⎜⎜ = ± ⎜ ∂ ln a 2 ⎟ | z | F ⎢⎣⎝ ∂q M ± ⎠q ⎝ ⎞ 1⎤ ⎟⎟ ± ⎥ ⎠ as 2 ⎥⎦ (82) 18 i.e. a shift in Eref with ln a (or ln 2 a± ) at constant q depends on ⎛⎜⎜ ∂qm ⎞⎟⎟ . In absence of ⎝ ∂qM ⎠ as specific adsorption, q m can be computed from the Gouy-Chapman theory and one can compare experimental and predicted shifts of potential. In absence of specific adsorption, and so that q± = q± 2− s q± = q± 2− s ⎛ kTn o ε ⎞ ⎟⎟ = ±⎜⎜ π 2 ⎝ ⎠ 1/ 2 ⎛ RTc s ε ⎞ = ±⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2π ⎠ 1/ 2 (e − z ± eoφ 2 / 2 kT −1 ) (e − z ± Fφ 2 / 2 RT − 1 = ± A e − z± Fφ2 / 2 RT − 1 ) (83) ( ) ⎛ ze φ ⎞ q M = −(q +2− s + q −2− s ) = −q 2− s = 2 A sinh ⎜ o 2 ⎟ ⎝ 2kT ⎠ ⎛ ∂q 2− s − ⎜⎜ − ⎝ ∂q M ⎛ ∂q 2− s ⎞ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ −2− s ⎠ a ⎝ ∂q ⎞ zF ⎟⎟ = − RT ⎠ ⎛ ∂E + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎝ ∂ ln a ± ⎡ ⎛ q 2− s ⎛1⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ exp ⎢sinh −1 ⎜⎜ − ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2A ⎣ (85) ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠q ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ q 2− s ⎟⎟⎥ ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎠⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 A (84) ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ 2 ⎤ ⎥ ⎥⎦ −1 / 2 (86) ⎛ ∂q ⎞ Note: for q2-s → ∞ or q → -∞, ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ → 0 ⎝ ∂q ⎠ a ⎛ ∂q ⎞ For q2-s → -∞ , or q → ∞, ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ → −1 ⎝ ∂q ⎠ a ⎛ ∂q Also, ⎜⎜ − ⎝ ∂q ⎞ 1 ⎟⎟ = − for q2-s = 0 ( q = 0). Therefore, potential of zero charge is 2 ⎠a independent of electrolyte activity when it is measured vs a reference electrode of constant electrolyte activity in a cell with liquid junction. ⎛ ∂E ref ⎞ RT ⎡⎛ ∂q m ⎟ ⎜ ⎢⎜ = ± ⎜ ∂ ln a 2 ⎟ | z | F ⎢⎜⎝ ∂q M ± ⎠q ⎝ ⎣ ⎞ 1⎤ ⎟⎟ ± ⎥ = 0 ⎠ as 2 ⎥⎦ (87) for q2-s = 0, or qM = 0. (See Note below.) Note that, for the system: Hg/HCl/AgCl/Ag, 19 E- = EAg/AgCl/Cl - EHg = [EoAg/AgCl/Cl – (RT/F)ln aCl-] - EHg constant whereas for the system: Hg/HCl/KClsat’d/AgCl/Ag Eref = EAg/AgCl/Cl - EHg = [EoAg/AgCl/Cl – (RT/F)ln aCl-(sat’d)] - EHg Constant The difference between the two is: Eref – E- = (RT/zF) ln aCl- + constant = (RT/zF) ln a± + constant If it is assumed that single ion activities may be replaced by mean ionic activities. qM = −12 E+ q M = −8 E+ qM qM qM qM qM qM qM = −4 qM = 0 qM = 4 qM = 8 =0 =2 =4 =6 =8 = 10 qM = 12 RT ln a±2 RT ln a±2 Hg / NaF Hg / KCl Eref qM = −12 q M = −8 qM = −4 qM = 0 qM = 4 qM = 8 qM = 12 RT ln as 20 Note: zeoφ 2 2kT 2− s 2− s ⎛ ∂q ⎞ ⎛ ∂q ⎞ zF ⎛ ∂E + ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ −2− s ⎟⎟ = − RT ⎜⎝ ∂ ln a ±2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂q M ⎠ a ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ze φ zFφ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ q −2− s = − A⎜ exp − 1⎟ = − A⎜ exp o 2 − 1⎟ 2 RT 2kT ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ zFφ 2 ⎛q ⎞ but = sinh ⎜ M ⎟ 2 RT ⎝ 2A ⎠ q M = −q 2− s = −q d = 2 A sinh ⎡ ⎛ ⎛ q ⎞⎞ ⎤ and ∴ q −2− s = − A⎢exp⎜⎜ sinh ⎜ M ⎟ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎝ 2A ⎠⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ and ⎛ ∂q −2− s ⎜⎜ ⎝ ∂q M −1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ q ⎞ ⎞⎛ ∂ sinh (q M / 2 A) ⎞ ⎟⎟ = − A exp⎜⎜ sinh ⎜ M ⎟ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ∂q M ⎝ 2 A ⎠ ⎠⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠ Since 1 d sinh −1 u du = 2 1/ 2 dx (u + 1) dx then ⎛ ∂q −2− s ⎜⎜ ⎝ ∂q M Since sinh −1 x = ln x + ( x 2 + 1)1 / 2 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎛ q ⎞ ⎞⎛ ⎛ q ⎞ ⎞ ⎟⎟ = − exp⎜⎜ sinh⎜ M ⎟ ⎟⎟⎜1 + ⎜ M ⎟ ⎟ 2 ⎝ 2 A ⎠ ⎠⎜⎝ ⎝ 2 A ⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ [ ⎛ ∂q −2− s ⎜⎜ ⎝ ∂q M ] ⎞ (q M / 2 A) 1 1⎛ ⎟⎟ = − − ⎜ 2 2 ⎜⎝ 1 + (q M / 2 A) 2 ⎠ [ ] 1/ 2 or, since ∂E ± RT ⎛ ∂q m2− s ⎜ = − z m F ⎜⎝ ∂q M ∂ ln a ±2 then (q M / 2 A) ∂E ± RT ⎛⎜ 1+ = − 2 2 zF ⎜⎝ ∂ ln a ± 1 + (q M / 2 A) 2 For qM >>1, ∂E± = - (RT/zF); ∂ ln a±2 For qM = 0, ∂E± = - 1/2(RT/zF); ∂ ln a±2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎠ [ For qM/2A << - 1, or – (qM/2A) >> 1, −1 / 2 ] 1/ 2 ∂E ref ∂ ln a ±2 ∂E ref ∂ ln a ±2 ∂E± = 0; ∂ ln a±2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ = − 1/2(RT/zF) =0 ∂E ref ∂ ln a ±2 = 1/2(RT/zF) 21 1.6 Amount of specifically adsorbed ions Cations are assumed to be not specifically adsorbed. Thus, q+ = q+ 2− s ( = z + FΓ+ = A e − z+ Fφ 2 / 2 RT − 1) ) (88) Γ+ can be determined experimentally. Therefore, φ2 can be computed and hence also q-2-s which is given by: q− 2− s = − A[e − z −eoφ 2 / 2 kT − 1] Setting q − = z − FΓ− = q − ' + q − latter may easily be computed . 2− s , where q-’ is the specifically adsorbed charge, the 2− s (89) Degree of specific adsorption varies with electrolyte concentration (see figure below). Also the potential of zero charge varies with electrolyte concentration. γ Anion specific adsorption incr. concentration p.z.c. Potential q=6 I− CH 3COO − − Br Cl − − q− ' CO3 NO3 4 = − q− ' 2 0 − −2 0 Potential vs NCE log a 22 1.7 Distribution of potential 0.001 M NaF 0.01 M 0.1 M − φ2 KCl − KBr KAc φ2 0 E + + KF 0 + E − Ez − NaF : not specifically adsorbed With specific adsorption 1.8 Adsorption Isotherms Abulk = Aads − (90) − μ A bulk = μ A ads (91) μ A o ,bulk + RT ln a A bulk = μ A o ,ads + RT ln a A ads (92) At equilibrium: (μ A o ,bulk − μA o , ads ) = RT ln − ΔG o = RT ln − aA aA ads bulk f (Γ ) bulk aA ΔG o f (Γ ) = ln bulk RT aA (93) f (Γ ) = a A bulk e −ΔG o / RT =β a Γ = Γ( β a ) 23 The relationship between the bulk (a )and adsorbed (Γ ) amounts (concentrations) is the adsorption isotherm. π = ξo -ξ (94) Surface pressure defined as: where the auxiliary variable ξ is given by: ξ Name Henry’s law Virial Langmuir Frumkin Volmer Equation of State π = RTΓ π = RTΓ + gΓ2 π = RTΓs ln (1 - θ ) π = RTΓs ln (1 - θ ) + gΓ2 π = RT Γ /(1-bΓ) = γ + qE (95) Isotherm βa = RTΓ βa = RTΓ exp(2gΓ /RT) βa = Γ / (Γs - Γ ) = θ / (1-θ ) βa = [θ / (1-θ )]exp (2gΓ /RT ) βa = RT Γ /(1-bΓ) exp (bΓ/(1-bΓ ) g = interaction parameter, positive for attraction and negative for repulsion θ = Γ /Γs (subscript s indicates saturation coverage) Exercise / Group Work Read and give brief presentations of the following articles: 1. D.C. Grahame, Chem. Rev. 41, 441(1947). 2. R. Parsons in Bockris et al, Eds., Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, Vol. 1, Butterworth's Publications Ltd. London, 103 (1954). 3. D.M. Mohilner in Bard et al, Eds., Electroanalytical Chemistry : A Series of Advances, Vol. 1, 241 (1966). Exercise 1. The interfacial tension of Hg in 1 mol dm-3 CsCl solution is given below. (a) Using a graphical method determine the potential of zero charge. (b) Calculate the capacitance of the double layer as a function of potential from the data below. -V / SCE 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 γ / N m-1 0.345 0.376 0.397 0.411 0.419 0.423 -V / SCE 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 γ / N m-1 0.420 0.414 0.406 0.395 0.383 2. Explain how one determines the presence/absence, and the amount of specifically adsorbed ions. 3. Give one example where an equation of state is used to derive an adsorption isotherm or viceversa. (See the end of the Lecture Notes for further exercises.) 24