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We
are
grateful
reprint
Fosbery
an
in
Although
before
for
extract
Cambridge
we
have
publication
publisher
permission
from
will
‘The
Cambridge
International
made
this
rectify
to
history
every
has
any
effort
not
been
errors
or
of
AS
to
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vaccination
&
A
Level
trace
possible
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and
in
at
against
Biology
contact
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Press
for
smallpox’
(CUP,
all
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earliest
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by
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copyright
If
to
Richard
notied,
holders
the
opportunity.
13/01/2015
15:36
Contents
Introduction
1
B.4
The
B.4.1
UNIT
skeletal
Bones
Cells,
tissues,
whole
A .1.1
organ
systems,
organisms
2
Characteristics
of
B.5
A .1.2
Animal
and
A .1.3
Microbes
Specialised
Movement
into
plant
cells
Matter
Movement
and
out
of
cells
energy
across
19
webs
flow
32
and
A .4.1
Energy
A .4.2
Carbon
B.1
chains
food
32
Interdependence
Energy
of
organisms
cycles
t hrough
and
an
39
ecosystem
nitrogen
cycles
Nutrition
Balanced
B.1.2
Teet h
diet
B.1.3
Enzymes
Digestive
B.1.5
Absor ption
digested
45
B.7
49
Homeostasis
B.5.2
The
175
B.5.3
Kidneys
B.5.4
Homeostasis
187
B.5.5
Skin
194
functions
of
t he
kidney
179
and
healt h
183
Coordination
and
control
207
B.6.1
The
B.6.2
Ner ves,
ner vous
B.6.3
How
B.6.4
The
B.6.5
Types
B.6.6
The
B.6.7
Eye
system
neurones
207
neurones
endocrine
of
and
send
reflexes
impulses
system
210
216
219
receptor
225
eye
229
236
defects
Reproduction
243
B.7.1
The
B.7.2
Egg
reproductive
B.7.3
The
B.7.4
Fer tilisation
B.7.5
Pregnancy
and
sperm
menstr ual
systems
production
cycle
and
243
247
252
implantation
respiratory
and
t he
and
(gas
The
str ucture
and
gas
B.2.2
The
breat hing
B.2.3
Smoking
B.2.4
Cell
fate
of
255
Bir t h
B.7.7
Family
UNIT
overeating
of
The
B.3.4
Hear t
of
269
t he
mechanism
variation
278
and
genes
278
Chromosomes
C.2
Mitosis
280
C.3
Meiosis
284
C.4
Variation
289
97
C.5
Monohybrid
103
C.6
Genetic
breat hing
system
and
C.1
inheritance
engineering
295
302
108
system
and
Disease
and
its
impact
D.1
Healt h
and
312
D.2
Non-communicable
312
123
function
131
system
diseases
316
138
D.3
disease
humans
disease
(non-infectious)
circulator y
on
123
blood
str ucture
D
1
12
D.1
role
planning
C
Heredity
exchange)
exchange
circulatory
B.3.3
257
263
85
UNIT
Hear t
of
80
respiration
B.3.2
role
placenta
B.7.6
97
The
t he
76
products
Undereating
B.3.1
and
70
system
system
The
175
Excretion
58
C.1
B.3
165
67
B.1.4
B.2.1
158
B.5.1
t he
The
joints
muscle
58
B.1.1
B.2
and
skeletal
45
B
B.1.6
of
surface
Photosynt hesis
A .3.2
car tilage
21
Photosynthesis,
food
Function
19
cell
membranes
and
Bones,
B.4.3
12
B.6
A .3.1
B.4.2
154
4
cells
and
A .2.2
UNIT
and
8
A .2.1
A.4
skeleton
2
A .1.4
A.3
t he
uses
living
organisms
A.2
of
154
A
t heir
A.1
system
Communicable
(infectious)
145
diseases
322
iii
835292
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HSB
TOC.indd
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15:54
Contents
D.4
Effect
of
vectors
on
UNIT
human
healt h
325
E.1
D.5
E
Met hods
of
Impact
the
microbial
D.6
The
against
D.7
Use
growt h
body ’s
health
practices
on
environment
353
331
E.1
Pollutants
E.2
Water – its cycling and treatment
and
t heir
effects
363
353
E.3
Sewage
368
E.4
Refuse
defence
disease
and
of
controlling
misuse
337
of
dr ugs
344
Index
disposal
372
380
iv
835292
CSEC
HSB
TOC.indd
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08/01/2015
15:54
Introduction
Human
and
Social
Biology
for
CSEC® is
a
comprehensive
course
Practical
designed
to
help
you
has
written
achieve
your
best
in
t he
examination.
Practical
been
by
experienced
teachers
who
have
work
to
make
it
easier
for
you
to
master
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facts
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1
835292
CSEC
HSB
Introduction.indd
1
08/01/2015
15:51
Unit
A
Cells,
A.1
Learning
By
the
should
●
list
of
●
end
be
the
of
●
write
A.1.1
topic
you
There
to:
characteristics
how
are
humans
show
characteristics
definitions
of
Scientists
seven
seven
study
Those
characteristics,
e.g.
at hletes
help
t hem
have
a
who
of
life
to
t he
living
–
systems,
who
excretion
best
of
people
t hem
respiration,
reproduction.
t hese
biology
advises
t heir
nutrition,
and
study
human
advise
organisms
growt h,
organisms
study
nutritionist
trainers
perform
of
movement,
different
characteristics.
and
the
characteristics
(sensitivity),
who
organ
organisms
Characteristics
irritability
organisms
describe
these
this
seven
living
whole
outcomes
able
tissues,
are
different
also
about
about
interested
what
t heir
t hey
exercise
in
t hese
should
eat
routines
to
ability.
characteristics.
●
Growth
is
–
is
such
as
usually
lost.
as
removing
About
cells
Nutr ition
sur vive.
The
by
also
make
eating
Figure
A.1.1.1
World
and
Usain
using
a
size
absorbed
to
of
an
of
use
nd
and
an
t heir
increase,
body
mass
is
mass.
again.
which
growt h
Dr y
Size
measurements,
decrease
water
organism.
organism.
linear
t hen
some
per manent
mass
an
animal
two
is
weighing
single
cell.
cells.
water,
t hem.
This
cell
Anot her
food .
energy
gives
new
t hey
t hey
is
Some
This
have
usually
is
t hen
dened
measured
af ter
so
it
is
easy
Organisms
absorbs
aspect
food,
of
to
calculate
composed
of
increases
growt h
is
an
t he
dr y
many
in
size
increase
and
in
an
All
organisms
organism
dies.
need
energy
Animals
in
obt ain
order
to
energy
eat.
t hem
cells
a
so
supply
t hat
organisms:
eating
is
it
and
other
which
their
●
ot her
of
t hey
t he
can
herbivores
biological
grow.
eat
molecules
Animals
plants;
t hat
obtain
carnivores
t hey
t heir
gain
food
t heir
animals.
different.
Plants
gain
their
energy
by
absorbing
light
into
the
dioxide
all
the
plants
release
water
biological
The
into
–
many
waste
the
This
absorb
biological
t he
and
is
is
people
breat hing.
but
chemical
and
reactions
into
molecules
product
air
to
be
of
photosynthesis
sugars.
of
The
that
sugars
plants
are
need
photosynthesis
used
by
other
that
then
for
is
growth
oxygen,
organisms
in
respiration.
of ten
compared
does
not
broken
not
Respiration
enjoying
drive
functions.
Respiration
cells
Students
to
carbon
conver ted
A.1.1.2
of
t hat
nutrition
conver t
Figure
people
in
size
Bolt
and
p
a
t he
Olympic
Plant
champion,
by
not
obt aining
ot her
nutrition
have
in
usually
cells.
is
food
food
to
–
We
weigh
increase
af ter
into
of
increase
ways.
water.
Wit hout
t he
need
p
from
number
is
dr y
cent
animals
divides
from
in
t he
per
also
to
t hey
t hat
all
grow
t hen
t he
70
of
We
because
increase
mass
different
appear
Because
an
per manent
in
height.
organisms
●
a
measured
release
in
t he
t hat
you
in
so
a
your
fuel
much
cells
of
respiration
have
chemical
burning
quite
in
t hink
Af ter
molecules
down
wit h
occurs
so.
eaten
food.
like
oil
living
or
all
is
to
do
of
It
wit h
you
t his
release
gas.
at
to
meal,
Some
reactions
energy
all
a
is
a
digest
and
travels
energy.
similar
to
your
This
is
process
once.
organisms
–
wit hout
energy
lunch
organisms
even
would
when
you
be
are
dead.
Energy
is
needed
by
t he
body
all
t he
time,
asleep.
2
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
2
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
tissues,
Aerobic
organ
respiration
Anaerobic
happens
Aerobic
muscle
what
it
stimulus.
to
a
way
means
These
in
we
it
●
is
t he
Movement
organisms
move
par t
seeds
y
have
is
sudden
more
no
a
bursts
efcient
supply
oxygen
at
of
of
oxygen.
available,
strenuous
releasing
0
which
✔
activity.
energy
–
to
a
context.
or
go
is
into
may
enter
Any
to
a
bad-tempered,
change
are
in
our
detected
or
on
in
move
by
do
insects,
a
jacket
a
is
for
We
but
Think
t han
t hat
body
and
is
a
lead
to
t he
t hey
to
not
irritability
is
is
par t
toxic
of
carbon
if
it
t he
chemical
seven
and
two
photographs
This
and
to
nd
identify
see
how
happening
many
in
will
help
their
you
in
this
the
learn
section.
the
terms
denitions.
beach
but
bean
in
and
The
change
putting
on
in
t he
sensitivity.
some
extent.
t heir
or
to
When
position,
avoid
t hink
pod
plant,
is
changes
body.
food
move,
to
cracks
folds
being
about
its
t he
open
leaves
to
if
eaten.
way
a
release
you
its
touch
dioxide
(CO
)
is
a
waste
product
of
Figure
builds
up
body’s
the
reactions
inside
t he
body,
metabolism.
t hat
take
This
place
in
so
is
an
must
t he
be
term
removed.
t hat
organism.
A.1.1.3
move
A
and
if
Venus
fly
the
touches
fly
trap
–
one
one
of
respiration.
2
It
these
can
false
–
tip
you
p
Excretion
organisms
conditioning
warm.
change
whole
sensitive
keep
air
stimulus
of ten
t heir
t he
t hem.
●
about
living
is
surroundings
t he
respond
where
movement
animals,
Mimosa,
a
term
show
plants
response.
building
building
stimulus,
body
catches
a
a
put
t he
Anot her
t hat
way
being
stimuli,
stimulus
you
essential
t hink
t he
suggests
organisms
t heir
is
–
t his
you
you
all
Exam
characteristics
response.
trap
and
cells
t here
of
behaviour.
cold,
as
of
might
Venus
our
respond
Movement
You
in
When
ver y
temperature
jacket
much
changes,
react
temperature.
makes
during
(sensitivity)
change
The
if
Characteristics
respiration.
Irritability
not
is
organisms
when
occurs
cells
respiration
whole
occurs
respiration
in
anaerobic
●
systems,
hairs
the
trap
will
snap
shut
Respiration
covers
Excretion
sensitive
all
is
t he
0
t he
Key
terms
!
removal
of
t he
waste
products
of
metabolism.
Respiration
During
t he
day,
plants
use
photosynt hesis
to
produce
t heir
own
breakdown
Any
carbon
dioxide
t hat
t hey
produce
is
used
in
t heir
photosynt hesis
do
not
excrete
it.
Instead,
t hey
have
more
oxygen
t han
t hey
release
it
is
lost
from
t he
also
requirements.
substances
includes
In
and
our
we
Reproduction
–
removing
case,
excrete
one
respiration
water
t hem
substances
and
in
salts
are
t hat
are
good
sur plus
examples
in
to
of
t hese
occurs
Respiration
urine.
of
t he
inevitabilities
of
life
is
deat h.
For
life
reproduction
is
when
Anaerobic
is
Respiration
oxygen
is
present
respiration
that
not
occurs
present
in
when
cells.
to
Stimulus
continue,
cells
cells.
oxygen
●
inside
energy.
body.
that
Excretion
chemical
nutrients
need
Aerobic
and
of
so
to
t hey
The
food.
A
change
in
the
essential.
environment.
In
asexual
growt h.
t hey
reproduction,
They
grow
to
eit her
organisms
divide
produce
par t
into
of
two
t he
reproduce
(as
body
happens
t hat
by
using
wit h
breaks
a
form
bacteria)
away
to
of
or
form
a
Metabolism
reactions
individual.
new
toget her
at
involves
fer tilisation.
t he
production
of
sex
cells
t hat
the
chemical
in
an
reproduction
individuals
without
reproduction
All
occur
organism.
new
Asexual
Sexual
that
fusion
from
of
one
Forming
parent
gametes.
fuse
Sexual
new
reproduction
individuals
gametes
by
(sperm
Forming
fusion
and
of
eggs).
3
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
3
08/01/2015
15:56
Animal
and
plant
Cells,
cells
q
0
Study
✔
You
will
read
molecules
A.1.1.1
Definitions
Unit
about
B.5.
biological
Do
not
Characteristic
Denition
the
Growth
A
information
about
permanent
plants
rely
Obtaining
on
plants
for
our
food
oxygen.
W ithout
them
not
examples
them
be
of
later
here.
how
in
life
this
Look
we
out
and
in
size,
dry
mass
and
the
number
of
cells
food
for
to
provide
energy
and
biological
molecules;
plants
need
light
photosynthesis
The
chemical
and
reactions
make
it
in
cells
available
that
for
breakdown
cell
food
substances
to
release
activities
for
depend
unit
increase
we
energy
would
of
organisms
and
Respiration
our
characteristics
whole
–
energy
we
the
systems,
skip
Nutrition
over
of
organ
tip
more
in
T
able
tissues,
on
Unit
Irritability
The
B.1.
ability
respond
Movement
Excretion
by
to
The
change
The
removal
substances
Reproduction
The
living
organisms
to
detect
changes
in
their
environment
and
to
them
in
position
of
in
formation
waste
new
the
body
products
excess
of
of
of
of
or
part
of
the
metabolism,
body
toxic
substances
and
any
requirements
individuals
to
become
the
next
generation
Questions
1
Explain
at
p
Figure
A.1.1.4
a
seahorse
male
been
incubating
young
now
inside
time
for
seahorses
a
to
the
should
end
be
eggs
line
he
and
pouch,
next
make
the
birth;
gives
the
brood
the
Learning
By
Continuing
this
able
describe
How
3
Explain
4
What
and
it
you
structure
and
structures
the
animal
●
state
and
the
plant
plant
and
carbon
dioxide
does
the
how
do
nutrition
sexual
animals
of
plants
differ
reproduction
gain
from
their
from
differs
the
from
nutrition
asexual
of
animals?
reproduction.
food?
is
A.1.2
All
Animal
organisms
can
animal
day
appearance
topic
list
the
of
easily
be
are
seen
photographs
and
made
using
taken
of
a
plant
smaller
light
wit h
a
cells
units
called
microscope.
light
cells.
Figures
microscope
of
Animal
A.1.2.1a
typical
and
and
plant
plant
cells
A.1.2.2a
and
animal
of
cells,
●
during
has
to:
the
oxygen
night.
2
are
●
excrete
–
outcomes
of
plants
the
generation
an
why
toget her
wit h
diagrams
illustrating
t he
visible
str uctures.
cells
within
cells
function
of
each
nucleus
of
●
these
make
a
structures
table
to
show
vesicle
the
(small
similarities
between
plant
and
vacuole)
differences
animal
mitochondrion
and
cells.
cell
surface
membrane
cytoplasm
0
Key
term
!
p
A.1.2.1a
through
Cell
The
structural
organisms.
by
Figure
cell
All
cells
surface
contain
unit
are
of
a
light
Cheek
cells
microscope
viewed
p
Figure
typical
A.1.2.1b
animal
The
structure
of
a
cell
most
surrounded
membranes
and
cytoplasm.
4
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
4
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
tissues,
organ
systems,
whole
organisms
Animal
and
plant
cells
mitochondrion
cellulose
wall:
cell
maintains
shape
of
cell
nucleus
vacuole
contains
watery
sap
chloroplast:
of
site
photosynthesis
cytoplasm
cell
surface
membrane
p
Figure
A.1.2.2a
through
a
Animal
Plant
have
Leaf
cells
viewed
p
Figure
microscope
and
and
a
light
plant
animal
jelly-like
cells
a
cells
share
cytoplasm
leaf
A.1.2.2b
The
structure
of
cell
structure
many
common
surrounded
by
a
str uctural
cell
features.
surface
Bot h
membrane
0
t hat
Key
terms
!
separates
cell
t he
cell
from
its
surroundings.
Inside
t he
cytoplasm
are
some
str uctures.
Cytoplasm
where
The
most
obvious
of
t hese
str uctures
are
t he
green
chloroplasts
which
most
only
in
plant
cells.
Chloroplasts
contain
t he
pigment
are
t he
str uctures
t hat
carr y
out
photosynt hesis.
Chlorophyll
energy
making
it
available
to
special
molecules
wit hin
occur.
t he
conver t
water
and
carbon
dioxide
into
sugars
and
Just
visible,
in
bot h
easy
to
wit h
a
see
like
good
cells
to
Also,
carr y
just
vacuoles
A
are
long
Each
out
called
feature
of
controls
of
one
This
Plant
sap
cells
is
cells
have
cell
pressure
of
for
a
a
is
if
is
t he
cell
in
shape
t he
The
inside
t he
cells,
wit h
and
t hey
Each
much
so
is
t he
and
are
are
are
special
release
small,
around
This
light,
a
growing
are
instr uctions
is
microscope
Mitochondria
contain
sections.
more
the
of
cells;
cytoplasm
by
envelope.
visible
energy
structures
Gene
that
Short
controls
a
Thread-like
are
made
length
feature
of
of
of
DNA
an
DNA.
that
organism.
for
dividing.
spherical
cell.
separated
from
r unning
section
nuclear
Chromosome
not
dye.
chromosomes,
for
from
is
a
t he
cells.
gene
information
t he
which
t hat
about
C.1.
in
to
cells
t hey
and
is
are
made
vacuole
solution.
outward
suppor t
light
stained
moving,
Nuclei
because
sugar s
are
nucleus.
per manent
and
as
a
chromosomes
activities
oxygen.
absorbing
smaller.
plant
There
Unit
for
substances
t he
are
wit h
respiration
such
into
cell.
also
cells
and
membrane
large,
cell.
are
envelope.
They
cells,
pigment
t he
carr y
cells
genes
a
aerobic
divided
of
gives
water
t hat
DNA.
salts
t he
wall
They
animal
of
xed
t he
cont aining
t he
of
of
plant
have
functions
nuclear
and
have
subst ances
on
inside
DNA
outside
site
bot h
feature
chromosomes
Plant
t heir
in
t he
strands
strand
t he
vesicles
t he
by
and
not
microscope
are
visible
cytoplasm
do
chloroplasts.
light
Mitochondria
animal
These
the
chloroplast
the
mitochondria.
Contains
controls
separated
t hat
material
chemical
absorbs
and
light
cell’
s
chlorophyll
Nucleus
and
jelly-like
a
are
reactions
found
A
of
t he
and
of
layer s
whic h
The
pressure
cell.
sur rounded
The
of
lled
vacuole
t he
cell
maint ains
is
of
t heir
a
cell
wit h
stores
water
wall
by
cellulose
in
a
bres.
water y
t hese
t he
vacuole
wit hst ands
shapes.
wall.
t he
Looking
5
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
5
08/01/2015
15:56
Animal
and
plant
Cells,
cells
at
Figure
boxes,
A.1.2.2b
but
t his
c hloroplasts.
lower
layer
is
you
not
The
of
upper
cells
t hat
Practical
Observing
It
is
easy
them
1
2
dropping
Use
a
cotton
this
Transfer
the
coverslip
any
4
mounted
needle
5
solution
Use
of
pipette
so
or
the
shown
around
Immediately
a
them
of
plant
are
long,
spher ical
cells
with
to
flat,
in
the
place
of
all
t here
consists
near
put
are
from
the
the
light
a
in
cells
two
are
whole
like
layer s
of
cylindr ical
organisms
long
cells
cells
t hin
wit h
and
t he
shape.
lining
of
your
cheek,
stain
of
object
water
to
on
scrape
a
the
microscope
inside
of
slide.
the
cheek.
removed.
your
of
object
inside
microscope.
drop
cheek
diagram.
edge
the
from
a
blunt
cells
scrapings
as
water
are
some
at
bud
firmly
layer
t hat
leaves
systems,
Activity
off
look
a
t hink
Inside
organ
cells
scrape
then
Use
Do
3
human
to
and
might
so.
tissues,
the
into
Use
a
the
water
piece
of
and
paper
add
a
towel
to
absorb
coverslip.
that
you
used
to
scrape
your
cheek
into
disinfectant.
a
dropping
pipette
the
coverslip
and
to
use
add
a
a
piece
little
of
methylene
paper
towel
blue
to
stain
absorb
to
one
some
edge
water
coverslip
from
under
coverslip
6
Put
some
paper
the
and
coverslip
the
more
towel
to
cells
water
on
will
at
remove
the
opposite
absorb
the
any
side
stain
some
of
the
not
side.
of
The
stain
will
go
under
the
it.
coverslip
absorbed
and
by
absorb
the
it
with
the
cells.
slide
7
Look
at
the
slide
with
low
and
high
power
of
a
microscope.
water
The
p
Figure
cells
should
look
like
those
in
Figure
A.1.2.1a.
A.1.2.3
Written
Use
all
animal
the
and
Activity
information
plant
cells.
in
topic
Set
Feature
Cell
Animal
next
to
make
table
like
yourself
a
table
of
the
table,
table
you
is
will
cell
completed
nd
that
Plant
for
you
compare
cell
ü
you.
can
to
this:
û
row
your
If
add
you
more
leave
rows
space
after
at
the
reading
end
the
page.
Making
you
A.1.2
your
wall
One
of
out
tables
need
these
to
to
like
learn.
help
this
This
learning
is
a
very
book
and
good
way
contains
to
more
organise
many
opportunities
to
of
the
make
topics
tables
that
like
revision.
6
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
6
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
tissues,
Looking
Light
are
To
see
things
more
between
Figure
If
the
you
extra
much
extra
tiny
to
us
a
light.
that
use
animal
we
beams
than
is
inter pretative
Animal
see
into
the
with
electrons
possible
diagram
a
type
that
help
with
in
world
this
microscopes
of
and
plant
cells
cells
glimpse
cannot
electron
The
objects
the
at
organisms
tantalising
cells
scientists
than
smaller
use
to
light
Figure
of
of
cells.
There
microscope.
beams
of
distinguish
microscope.
A.1.2.4b
show
some
detail.
Figures
detail
be
give
and
compare
cytoplasm
are
detail
whole
closely
inside
rather
A.1.2.4a
cell
systems,
more
microscopes
many
electrons,
of
organ
is
no
seen
described
t hat
longer
wit h
in
A.1.2.4a
an
an
t he
Table
and
electron
empty
light
b
wit h
Figure
microscope
area,
but
microscope.
is
is
full
The
A.1.2.1b
able
of
to
you
show.
str uctures
functions
of
will
Notice
t hat
t hese
see
t he
t hat
are
t he
too
str uctures
A.1.2.1.
nucleus
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
nuclear
mitochondrion
envelope
nucleus
Golgi
apparatus
cell
surface
membrane
cytoplasm
mitochondrion
rough
u
Figure
A.1.2.4a
Part
a
cell
of
–
was
q
Cell
image
made
T
able
Cell
human
this
electron
with
ribosomes
an
microscope
A.1.2.1
The
functions
p
of
structure
surface
cell
structures
reticulum
Controls
Many
(Golgi
body)
Lysosome
Nuclear
(plural:
mitochondria)
envelope
to
it
is
All
the
chemical
Nucleus
Contains
Ribosome
Very
the
the
The
structure
of
the
cell
shown
in
Figure
A.1.2.4a
of
from
and
and
by
aerobic
the
that
the
cell
transport
endoplasmic
cells
which
respiration
cytoplasm;
substances
around
the
cell;
if
there
are
ribosomes
reticulum
endoplasmic
destroy
the
leave
canals
rough
can
reactions
nucleus
and
as
produced
that
nucleus
enter
reticulum
are
eaten
occur
small
for
by
within
pores
export
the
this
(holes)
in
cell
out
of
and
the
any
cell
worn
out
cell
structures
such
structure
the
nucleus
allow
substances
to
pass
cytoplasm
ribosomes
DNA
small
Small
tubes
known
substances
mitochondria
Produces
vacuoles)
it,
chemicals
Separates
Nucleolus
(small
A.1.2.4b
cells
substances
as
between
Vesicles
which
Packages
Contains
Mitochondrion
animal
interconnected
attached
apparatus
in
Figure
Function
membrane
Endoplasmic
Golgi
endoplasmic
reticulum
that
spherical
membrane
makes
structures
to
that
structures
be
up
the
make
that
chromosomes
proteins
carry
from
which
amino
substances
control
the
cell’
s
activities
acids
packaged
by
the
Golgi
apparatus
to
the
cell
surface
exported
7
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
7
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
Microbes
0 ------,
Study
✔
Most
cells
organ
systems,
whole
organisms
Questions
tip
are
less
than
1 mm
1
Refer
to
Micrometres
(µm)
are
Figures
A.1.2.1b
and
A.1.2.2b
and
list
three
ways
in
which
an
in
and
animal
size.
tissues,
the
a
plant
cell
are
a
similar
to
each
other
,
and
b
different
from
one
units
another
.
used
to
measure
1000 µm
in
them.
1 mm.
some
maths
soon,
so
There
There
questions
remember
will
are
2
be
coming
a
up
What
the
name
cell
and
3
List
4
the
What
a
5
cell
Look
6
the
end
be
of
this
able
topic
you
State
Bacteria,
to:
not
state
that
bacteria,
viruses
the
structure
b
that
Which
of
forms
the
the
cell
boundary
structures
between
shown
in
are
cell
at
it
is
in
cell
wall
of
are
involved
in
making,
processing
and
cells.
c
Figure
cytoplasm
membranes?
that
following
b
of
structures
A.1.2.4a.
the
for?
mitochondria
d
Name
vesicle
the
cell
structure
that
fills
most
cell.
necessary
to
add
a
stain
to
the
epithelial
cells
from
the
cheek.
Microbes
vir uses
and
organisms
and
fungi
fungi
like
break
are
the
all
microbes
others
down
we
dead
or
have
and
microorganisms.
considered.
decaying
Many
material,
Vir uses
species
and
these
are
of
are
fungi
called
and
the
why
living
bacteria
●
proteins
carefully
the
A.1.3
outcomes
are
consist
structures
chloroplast
of
should
to
surroundings?
its
A.1.2.4b
transporting
By
given
this.
Figure
Learning
is
decomposers.
Some
species
of
bacteria
and
fungi
are
used
in
making
microbes
food
such
as
yoghur t,
bread,
cheese
and
wine.
We
have
made
use
of
vir uses
(microorganisms)
in
●
describe
the
structure
genetic
and
●
0
bacteria,
fungi
compare
the
the
groups
three
and
huge
and
Bacteria
have
bacteria
are
fungi
numbers
not
cells.
of
reproduce
individuals.
survive
suitable
to
give
as
they
do
not
food
source.
reproduction
is
a
light
and
cells
t hose
of
life
and
the
continuation
C.6).
Organisms
pathogens.
Many
that
infect
pathogens
other
are
organisms
microbes.
simple
are
cell
and
only
str ucture
some
a
few
are
t hat
you
can
rod-shaped.
micrometres
in
see
in
Many
lengt h
Figure
exist
and
in
can
A.1.3.1.
shor t
only
Some
chains
be
seen
one
of
electron
are
microscopes.
surrounded
plants,
but
by
which
cell
ser ve
walls,
t he
which
same
are
not
function
of
made
of
cellulose
keeping
t he
nd
shape
and
preventing
it
bursting.
The
cells
of
some
bacterial
species
Remember
surrounded
by
a
slime
capsule
t hat
provides
protection
against
ot her
characteristic
organisms
of
a
spherical
Bacteria
Bacterial
are
that
Unit
Many
cell’s
a
(see
called
tip
like
do
are
Bacteria
wit h
Bacteria
disease
of
microbes.
of
Exam
✔
cause
viruses
structures
of
engineering
of
that
ensures
and
reduces
t he
chances
of
dr ying
up.
the
organisms.
chromosome
(DNA)
slimy
capsule
(protein)
0
ribosome
Key
terms
!
cell
Decomposer
feeds
on
bodies
and
and
An
organism
breaks
down
that
wall
flagellum
dead
cell
surface
membrane
wastes.
cytoplasm
containing
Pathogen
causes
An
organism
that
granules
disease.
p
Figure
A.1.3.1
A
cell
of
a
bacterium
8
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
8
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
tissues,
Bacteria
have
str ucture
of
take
a
or
agella
Bacteria
good
no
are
nucleus,
for
colony.
Look
1
out
colony
the
a
–
may
large
star ts
size
at
ruler
figure:
loop
of
DNA
animal
in
plant
bacteria
t he
divide
or
air,
in
of
just
one
cytoplasm.
as
t hey
whip-like
do
The
not
have
extensions
uids.
water
twenty
bacteria
t he
cells,
have
ot her
ever y
number
from
wit hin
and
water
Microbes
and
in
t he
minutes,
t hat
you
soil.
so
can
it
Under
does
see
on
not
agar
as
cell.
skills
the
carefully
Use
ver y
organisms
Some
ever ywhere
a
Maths
Finding
a
from
t hrough
bacteria
have
Each
just
differs
moving
found
to
whole
mitochondria.
conditions,
long
systems,
bacteria
chloroplasts
called
organ
of
Figure
to
bacteria
A.1.3.2.
measure
measure
measurement
in
the
Notice
length
millimetres,
that
of
it
one
not
has
of
in
a
the
line
indicating
bacteria
centimetres.
1.0
shown
Let’s
call
µm.
in
this
A
p
2
Now
measure
the
length
of
the
scale
bar
in
millimetres.
This
is
Figure
which
3
Divide
the
length
of
the
bacterium
by
the
length
of
the
scale
A.1.3.2
bar
line
in
cause
4
Multiply
=
A /B
Open
the
Bacteria
into
to
feed
simple
be
1.0
CD
as
have
a
answer
by
check
into
cold
protective
suitable
by
the
your
making
molecules,
heat,
length
that
the
scale
bar
t he
and
enz ymes
as
cells.
so
can
spores
t heir
food
molecules
which
produce
t hey
t he
digest
These
Bacteria,
drought,
return,
t hat
sugars.
can
spores
sur vive
sur vive
wit hin
for
germinate
and
are
a
harsh
t heir
long
and
break
small
visible
eye.
Each
not
Fungi
spore
from
t he
in
cell
carr y
as
fungi
has
in
out
reproduce
lands
it.
on
This
fungus.
Figure
t he
under
Most
cellulose
cannot
shows
t he
a
light
are
by
and
They
making
grows
can
to
a
do
cell
not
see
an
a
spores
source
into
t hat
grow
a
Many
are
alt hough
wall
have
hypha
is
t hat
t hin
also
yeasts
which
is
bar
down
These
When
again.
visible
are
made
chlorophyll,
t he
are
of
spores
surface.
network,
enzymes
t hen
which
is
car r ied
t hread,
network
release
food
a
many
over
extensive
hyphae
of
microscope.
multicellular,
nucleus
plants.
digested
tip
a
suitable
for m
The
The
µm
Figure
or
to
t he
of
out
mouldy;
single-celled
out
A.1.3.3
left
fungus
in
This
the
different
have
piece
air
and
types
grown
all
of
has
of
bread
gone
mould
over
it
chitin,
chloroplasts,
so
photosynt hesis.
soon
You
to
mycelium.
fungus.
a
A.1.3.4
bread
scale
the
conditions
cells.
time.
divide
it
got
fungi.
a
1
enough
p
naked
called
of
r
answer.
such
covering
conditions
are
is
length
represents:
Fungi
Fungi
the
µm.
to
absorbed
such
bacteria
poisoning;
(A /B).
your
×
food
indicating
(micrometre)
millimetres
Salmonella
B
t hreads
have
The
where
it
to
as
is
t he
on
t he
t he
also
t he
If
t he
hypha,
of
bread
into
body
food
hyphae.
grows
body
grow
fungal
digest
t he
wind.
a
for m
landed
which
by
t he
hyphae
which
absorbed
by
known
or
outside
Figure
t he
A.1.3.5
grows.
p
Figure
mould
A.1.3.4
fungi
through
black
to
be
this
a
This
from
light
fungus
to
what
bread
microscope;
structures
released
is
the
are
into
full
the
another
of
air
one
of
looks
the
little
spores
to
food
the
like
about
spread
source
9
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
9
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
Microbes
tissues,
organ
systems,
whole
organisms
'
0
Key
terms
!
Enzyme
made
of
Spore
A
biological
catalyst
protein.
A
very
small
reproductive
structure.
Hyphae
form
The
the
The
thin
threads
mycelium
hyphae
structural
have
of
the
features
as
a
that
fungus.
same
endoplasmic
cells.
vacuole
nucleus
reticulum
Mycelium
that
grows
Parasite
The
from
Any
body
one
of
a
fungus
spore.
organism
•
that
0
0
0
t
gains
on
its
nutrition
another
known
as
by
living
organism,
the
in
which
Figure
or
of
is
a
body
o ~o
host.
is
A.1.3.5
mould
is
the
enlarged
structures
same
cell
mitochondrion
ribosomes
wall
cell
fungi
water
for
feed
temperature.
on,
or
on
growt h,
in,
dead
or
oxygen
Some
anot her
fungi
living
decaying
for
are
structure
the
mycelium;
so
you
inside;
the
cell
fungal
a
can
hypha
see
these
are
structures
the
the
in
membrane
cells
Most
as
The
fungus;
aerobic
matter
and
respiration
parasites,
gaining
to
of
do
and
a
t heir
animals
t his
and
t hey
suitable
plants
need
warm
nutrition
from
living
organism.
Viruses
Vir uses
vir us
are
1
are
t hat
million
electron
Vir uses
or
t he
are
is
RNA.
Vir uses
If
A.1.3.6
impression
of
virus
of
looks
This
what
like
is
an
one
(×260
you
far
is
in
They
composed
maybe
enter
Vir uses
To
do
enter
producing
Figure
cells.
compound
t hat
multiply.
p
not
and
parasites
or
nanometres
similar
coat
small;
inuenza
smaller
t han
approximately
a
millimetre).
bacteria
120
and
fungi,
nanometres
Vir uses
are
only
in
e.g.
size
visible
t he
(t here
under
an
microscope.
material
t he
extremely
causes
host
new
breat he
a
ot her
t he
do
t his
of
cells
few
par ticles
genes
of
and
t hat
t hat
anot her
respire
must
made
surrounded
proteins
cells
not
t hey
are
RNA)
and
make
take
code
help
t hem
a
of
for
it
of
over
t he
cell
and
material
coat.
(t he
All
host)
t heir
own
str uctures
turn
The
proteins,
reproduce.
make
t he
genetic
protein
organism
cannot
use
up
by
t hem
(DNA
genetic
which
vir uses
in
order
t heir
into
are
to
protein,
of
form
DNA
hosts.
factories
vir uses.
in
t he
vir uses
t hat
cause
measles
or
inuenza,
t hey
enter
artist’s
particular
000)
type
t he
cells
vir uses
Vir uses
do
not
of
can
nose
invade
be
to
and
more
ver y
respond
constantly
ver y
your
t hat
t hroat.
of
your
harmful
because
antibiotics.
change
into
new
Here
cells
Some
strains,
t hey
to
t hey
of
reproduce
make
can
t hem,
making
even
to
reproduce
such
our
make
more
as
t he
effor ts
lots
of
new
vir uses.
ver y
quickly
inuenza
to
control
and
vir us,
t hem
difcult.
10
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
10
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
tissues,
organ
systems,
whole
organisms
Microbes
surface
proteins
genetic
material
protein
coat
HIV
adenovirus
–
respiratory
infections
p
rabies
Figure
A.1.3.8
human
virus
Structure
of
a
virus
o ___
Study
✔
You
can
read
microbes
E.
ebola
influenza
virus
in
Section
microbes
and
cause
microbes
Figure
are
A.1.3.7
some
diseases
Viruses
examples
they
of
come
in
viruses
different
that
infect
shapes
us
and
and
the
sizes;
names
ahead
here
of
D
deals
about
are
that
in
now
are
with
see
of
the
and
those
The
useful
Section
to
D
harmful
diseases.
photographs
the
more
Sections
that
described
p
tip
E.
to
us
roles
to
us
of
are
Look
some
them.
cause
Questions
✔
1
Make
a
table
to
show
the
similarities
and
differences
between
Study
the
Answer
structure
of
bacteria,
fungi
and
facts
help
Cell
Bacteria
wall
Explain
3
Calculate
(Use
4
why
the
the
things
that
in
Human
the
page
do
not
to
help
organise
virus
9
to
learn
and
them.
û
without
shown
help
decay.
to
microbes
being
in
inside
Figure
a
host
cell.
A.1.3.6.
you.)
Suggest
why
microbes
did
not
bodies
are
a
1000
years
old
and
were
found
in
frozen
Siberia.
bogs
Ancient
on
of
1
these
following:
ground
into
width
reproduce
you
about
Viruses
ü
cannot
activity
dead
Mammoths
peat
c
actual
maths
Sometimes
b
viruses
the
decompose
a
Fungi
ü
2
question
viruses.
the
Feature
tip
in
that
Egyptian
burial
are
over
2000
years
old
and
were
found
in
acid
Denmark.
mummies
that
were
dried
out
before
being
placed
chambers.
11
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
11
08/01/2015
15:56
Specialised
Learning
By
the
Cells,
cells
end
A.1.4
outcomes
of
this
topic
be
able
identify
some
including
of
egg
functions.
describe
the
importance
specialised
that
of
cytoplasm,
which
cells
work
are
specialised
together
to
to
make
carr y
the
out
whole
efciently.
Muscle
cells,
ner ve
cells
and
epithelial
cells
specialised
similar
organised
into
cells
one
–
A.1.4.5).
function
are
cells.
organised
and
They
cells
organs
into
some
and
each
have
different
a
cell
from
membrane,
each
other
nucleus
(Figures
This
and
gives
rely
them
on
great
others
to
advantages
meet
their
as
cells
can
concentrate
requirements.
need
to
be
supplied
with
glucose
and
oxygen,
For
cells
in
example,
the
gut
digesting
from
the
food
lungs
to
provide
and
glucose,
transpor t
it
to
and
red
muscles.
blood
Red
cells
blood
take
cells
are
are
organ
human
organ
in
oxygen
around
the
body
by
the
muscles
in
the
hear t,
which
contract
to
push
systems
the
identify
are
into
moved
organised
shapes
tissues,
up
organs
their
are
specialise
tissues
but
of
muscle
organs
cells,
cells
on
●
function
examples
A.1.4.1
having
state
have
specialised
cells
and
●
organisms
These
and
are
●
cells
muscle,
epithelial,
sperm
organisms
cell
many-celled
organism
nerve,
whole
specialised
cer tain
cells
systems,
to:
Most
●
organ
you
Types
should
Specialised
tissues,
blood
through
our
blood
vessels.
tissues,
systems.
nucleus
muscle,
e.g.
cytoplasm
biceps
contractile
fibrous
with
proteins
tissue
p
Figure
A.1.4.1
tapered
at
form
a
food
through
move
strong
eggs
oviducts
the
end
tissue
the
from
and
sperm
Smooth
either
muscle
so
they
that
canal
ovaries
sperm
from
to
to
move
and
through
the
are
together
contracts
alimentary
the
cells
fit
testes
the
along
ducts
cytoplasm
tendon
(attaches
full
muscle
to
of
contractile
bone)
proteins
nucleus
bundle
of
muscle
fibres
cross
link:
helps
with
the
coordination
the
single
light
muscle
of
beat
fibre
band
p
dark
heart
Figure
A.1.4.2
Cardiac
muscle
cells,
found
band
only
in
the
heart,
joined
together
linked
together
are
into
short
fibres;
cylindrical
these
cells
fibres
are
nuclei
t
Figure
many
partially
permeable
but
A.1.4.3
muscle
has
many
Skeletal
fibres;
muscle
each
nuclei.
fibre
Fibres
cells
is
are
are
composed
equivalent
bundled
to
a
of
cell,
together
to
membrane
form
muscles
like
the
biceps
12
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
12
08/01/2015
15:56
Cells,
tissues,
Much
of
in
arm,
t he
our
organ
body
are
systems,
is
made
organs
as
whole
up
of
t hey
organisms
skeletal
are
Specialised
muscle.
composed
of
Muscles,
different
like
t he
tissues,
biceps
such
0
as
Key
cells
terms
!
skeletal
muscle
tissue,
blood
and
brous
tissue.
Epithelium
Epithelial
cells
form
tissues
that
line
body
cavities.
Imagine
a
journey
body
through
your
nose
and
into
the
depths
of
your
lungs.
The
air ways
are
lined
by
special,
protective
cells
which
are
shown
in
into
Figure
of
the
cells
that
make
you
have
a
sticky
substance
breathed
in,
such
that
as
traps
fungal
any
small
spores,
form
and
saw
dust.
them
These
cells
thought
are
they
called
looked
goblet
like
cells
goblets,
because
which
the
are
of
the
cells
in
this
epithelium
are
cells
with
many
scientists
drinking
cilia.
One
of
the
cells
epithelium.
A
group
perform
These
the
of
similar
same
cells
function.
who
A
group
of
tissues
that
cups.
work
Most
cell
an
vir uses,
Organ
rst
a
foreign
bacteria,
that
pollen
lines
A.1.4.4.
Tissue
par ticles
that
your
that
Some
tissue
cavity.
Epithelial
lungs
A
down
together
to
perform
specic
tiny
functions.
projections
move
from
side
to
side
in
a
coordinated
fashion
to
move
mucus
Organ
up
the
air ways
and
into
the
back
of
the
mouth.
These
two
specialised
that
work
together
to
protect
the
lungs
against
damage
and
work
Ner ve
cells
of
are
t he
specialised
body
to
rat her
for
anot her
t hin
cells
cells
t hat
transmits
like
This
tells
muscles
t he
t he
in
wires
in
information
to
contract
fast
t he
to
transmission
form
a
of
house.
from
Figure
t he
move
of
electrical
brain
food
information
pulses.
A.1.4.5
to
along.
t he
They
shows
one
alimentar y
There
is
from
are
about
ner ves
in
Unit
much
of
t hese
canal.
(see
and
eggs
Figures
cells
and
This
is
A.1.4.6
t he
diag rams
–
are
sex
and
is
t hat
t heir
in
nuclei
An
and
number
will
into
wit h
ever y
anyt hing
made
especially
impor tant
ner ve
contain
reproduction,
c hromosome
g row
muscle
organs
out
function
for
the
one
body.
✔
more
is
Study
a
tip
shame,
but
-i
we
cannot
show
B.6.
(gametes)
A.1.4.7).
epit helial,
impor tant
not
cells
of
carry
o ___
you
Sper m
group
to
one
long,
It
information
A
together
infection.
major
par t
system
cells
so
cells
half
t hat
t he
we
unless
t hey
fuse
reproduction
difference
between
–
cannot
t hat
you
number
do
generation.
for
not
As
a
of
toget her
at
t hese
see
in
t he
c hromosomes.
double
result,
to
in
a
and
the
book
fro
to
airways
YouTube
show
move
to
for
how
how
the
cilia
mucus
mouth.
some
cilia
these
video
move
along
Look
clips
on
that
move.
our
sper m
and
eggs
cilia
fer tilisation.
any
move
mucus
trapped
and
particles
mucus-secreting
nucleus
goblet
Maths
Finding
Look
1
out
the
carefully
Use
not
a
in
size
at
ruler
of
Figure
to
human
A.1.4.6.
measure
centimetres.
the
This
is
cells
Notice
width
of
that
the
it
says
egg
the
cell:
magnication
measure
in
is
× 300.
millimetres,
A
measurement
p
2
The
of
egg
the
cell
egg
is
300
divide
times
your
smaller
than
measurement
the
by
drawing.
300.
Y
our
T
o
find
answer
the
is
actual
size
Figure
that
B
A.1.4.4
lines
goblet
Y
ou
will
see
that
your
answer
is
much
less
than
1.
It
is
always
better
in
sizes
in
whole
numbers
so
multiply
B
by
1000
to
give
an
Part
make
cells
of
airways
an
in
mucus
move
the
epitheli um
the
lungs;
and
mucus
to
towards
give
the
cells
ciliated
3
cell
skills
the
mouth
answer
micrometres.
Open
the
CD
to
check
your
answer.
nucleus
Red
blood
body.
cells
They
are
have
a
specialised
peculiar
for
shape
t he
transpor t
of ten
of
described
oxygen
as
a
around
biconcave
t he
disc.
There
\4
axon
is
no
nucleus,
which
haemoglobin
t hat
oxygen
blood
when
leaves
plenty
combine
ows
of
loosely
t hrough
space
wit h
for
millions
oxygen
tissues
t hat
in
t he
need
it.
of
molecules
lungs
and
Having
no
of
release
nucleus
p
also
means
t hat
it
is
easy
for
red
blood
cells
to
change
shape,
which
t hey
Figure
the
as
t hey
t han
a
pass
red
along
blood
capillaries
cell.
–
tiny
blood
vessels
t hat
are
not
much
A.1.4.5
A
nerve
cell
(neurone);
do
wider
arrow
impulses
this
shows
than
the
are
direction
transmitted
of
the
long
cell
13
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
1.indd
13
08/01/2015
15:56
Specialised
Cells,
cells
Table
its
A.1.4.1
shows
you
how
t he
tissues,
str ucture
organ
of
systems,
each
of
t hese
whole
cells
organisms
is
suited
for
function.
jelly-like
We
have
many
more
types
of
specialised
cells
in
our
bodies.
It
is
estimated
coating
of
egg
t hat
t here
Sections
cell
q
surface
T
able
are
B
about
and
200
of
t hem.
You
will
read
about
more
of
t hem
in
C.
A.1.4.1
Specialised
cells
and
their
functions
membrane
T
ype
of
cell
Structure
Muscle
Cytoplasm
Function
is
full
of
contractile
Contracts
to
Transmits
an
bring
about
movement
proteins
cytoplasm
Neurone
Long
(nerve
two
cell)
as
follicle
Figure
A.1.4.6
A
human
the
cell;
when
ovary
cells
it
from
is
the
it
is
ovum
released
surrounded
ovary
that
brain
The
free
epithelial
cilia
–
between
body,
and
the
distance
such
electrical
from
one
impulse
part
of
the
over
body
a
to
long
another
gut
that
move
is
thin
back
Cytoplasm
from
by
surface
short,
covered
Cilia
in
move
direction,
processes
mucus
e.g.
made
along
by
goblet
airways
to
cells
the
in
one
mouth
forth
and
or
nucleus
has
has
stored
energy;
Female
chromosomes
keep
follicle
helped
in
gamete;
the
nucleus
contains
resulting
contains
stored
zygote
genes
alive
from
energy
after
the
to
fertilisation;
mother
its
Sperm
development
the
the
of
Ciliated
Egg
egg
process
cell
nucleus
p
thin
parts
Long
thin
cell
with
Male
very
gamete;
release
mitochondria
energy
for
(×300)
little
cytoplasm;
many
has
cell
mitochondria;
chromosomes;
agellum
swimming
has
and
nucleus
forth
to
to
propel
reproductive
long
from
(‘tail’)
the
reach
the
the
system;
male
to
egg;
the
cell
tail
through
nucleus
egg
lashes
at
back
the
delivers
female
genes
fertilisation
nucleus
head
mitochondrion
Red
blood
cell
No
nucleus;
cytoplasm
lled
Haemoglobin
transports
oxygen;
without
neck
(spiral
with
shape)
haemoglobin
a
nucleus
the
cell
haemoglobin;
not
can
have
having
a
lots
of
nucleus
middle
means
the
cell
can
easily
change
shape
piece
to
Figures
cell
A.1.4.1
–
A.1.4.5
show
t hat
help
move
specialised
through
cells
are
capillaries
attached
to
each
surface
ot her
to
form
tissues.
Figure
A.1.4.9
shows
t hat
organs,
such
as
t he
membrane
stomach,
flagellum
Organs
p
Figure
cell
A.1.4.7
A
are
composed
of
different
tissues.
(‘tail’)
human
of ten
different
sperm
work
levels
of
toget her
in
organ
systems.
Cells
●
Tissue
same
●
Figure
cells
0
A.1.4.8
Human
red
blood
(× 2500)
Organ
one
●
Exam
–
Organ
–
you
write
you
should
something
that
function.
about
t hese
A
e.g.
collection
e.g.
system
–
A
of
similar
muscle
of
t he
cells
tissue,
different
hear t
tissue
is
and
collection
an
working
ner vous
tissues
organ
epit helial
of
Organ system 1
toget her
tissue
working
made
tissue
different
of
or
carr y
toget her
muscle
(see
organs
to
epit helial
Table
and
to
out
t he
tissue.
carr y
tissue,
out
ner vous
A.1.4.2).
their
structure
up
carr y
of
out
t he
one
hear t
major
(an
function,
organ),
blood
e.g.
t he
tissues
working
vessels
circulator y
(organs)
and
system
(see
Table
blood
(a
A.1.4.2).
say
structure
helps
table
to
specialised
always
about
This
collection
connective
made
tissue)
how
shows
tip
is
When
A
function,
toget her
cells
char t
J-.[
Organs
Tissues
function,
tissue,
✔
ow
(×2000)
,_______,,- ., _ _ _ _ _ _- . [
p
The
organisation:
with
should
and
their
help.
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Cells,
tissues,
organ
systems,
whole
organisms
Specialised
AN
FOUR
ORGAN:
the
cells
stomach
TISSUES
smooth
muscle
tissue
-·
AN
the
ORGAN
SYSTEM:
digestive
system
oesophagus
epithelial
tissue
epithelial
tissue
surrounded
by
layers
of
tissue
making
wall
of
two
smooth
the
muscle
up
liver
the
intestine
stomach
gall
bladder
pancreas
duct
duodenum
secretory
tissue
in
the
pancreas
colon
(large
intestine)
ileum
appendix
rectum
blood
p
Figure
A.1.4.9
digestive
q
T
able
The
organisation
of
specialised
cells,
tissues
A.1.4.2
The
main
organs
and
organ
systems
of
the
T
estis
and
cord
sperm
bronchi,
Kidneys,
ureter
Heart
and
and
the
ducts
(male);
ovary,
oviducts
and
uterus
(female)
bronchioles
Excretory
vessels
making
stomach,
thyroid
Reproductive
Respiratory
bladder
bones
glands,
systems
Nervous
and
blood
the
Oesophagus,
Adrenal
in
body
Organ
spinal
Trachea,
Skull
organs
human
Organs
Brain,
and
system
Circulatory
up
small
gland,
limbs
and
and
large
pancreas
pelvic
and
intestines,
pectoral
pancreas,
girdles
liver
Skeletal
Digestive
Endocrine
15
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Specialised
Cells,
cells
Some
bot h
t he
organs
t he
hormone
circulator y
0
may
be
digestive
in
more
system
insulin.
t han
and
The
t he
liver
tissues,
one
organ
system,
endocrine
functions
in
systems,
e.g.
t he
system
t he
whole
pancreas
because
digestive,
it
organisms
is
in
secretes
excretor y
and
systems.
Questions
Did
you
know?
?
Blood
not
is
joined
muscle
are
a
tissue,
together
tissue.
the
as
Instead
suspended
called
but
in
a
cells
they
the
watery
are
1
Define
the
2
What
are
3
State
two
4
List
5
How
terms:
tissue,
organ
and
organ
system
are
the
advantages
of
having
specialised
cells?
in
cells
specialised
cells
that
are
not
organised
into
tissues.
uid
the
tissues
that
make
up
the
stomach.
plasma.
do
muscle
cells
rely
on
red
blood
cells
and
nerve
cells?
Summary
Cells,
●
tissues,
There
are
seven
respiration,
●
●
Cells
The
are
organs,
of
Cell
units
by
Cell
walls,
found
●
●
●
in
The
oxygen
Cells
are
T
o
the
T
o
of
function
aerobic
into
the
the
image
length
●
the
by
the
printed
calculate
the
length
the
answer
on
the
of
a
in
for
as
of
less
large,
have
bodies
nucleus
and
and
animal
permanent
animal
fungi
the
and
nutrition,
reproduction.
made
up
cytoplasm,
of
cells.
which
are
cells
are
mitochondria,
e.g.
and
that
red
vacuole
are
features
cells.
viruses.
help
cells
body.
them
is
to
that
function.
each
cells
in
blood
cells
specialise
of
all
the
cells
are
the
type
The
tissues
object
the
of
an
than
growth,
excretion
in
the
organised
is
body
structured
rely
in
on
each
carrying
body.
into
organs;
organs
systems.
in
when
length
the
scale
image
a
specialised
an
length
size
the
of
and
the
plant
tissues;
organ
size
have
respiration
into
image
organisms
structures
having
organised
calculate
and
not
organisms:
ribosomes.
requirements,
organised
length
and
living
movement,
membrane.
both
bacteria,
have
of
one
their
for
are
in
but
are
cells
out
for
surface
are
cells
Most
animals
chloroplasts
advantage
carry
life.
reticulum
plant
Specialised
other
●
cell
of
(sensitivity),
and
that
Microorganisms
to
●
a
structures
endoplasmic
●
of
plants
surrounded
●
systems
characteristics
irritability
the
cells
organ
of
scale
bar.
a
scale
scale
bar.
Multiply
bar,
measure
Divide
your
the
answer
the
length
by
of
the
bar.
object
when
millimetres
1.0
given
the
–
given
by
multiply
the
by
its
magnification,
magnification.
1000
to
give
an
Do
divide
not
answer
leave
in
micrometres.
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Cells,
tissues,
organ
systems,
whole
organisms
Practice
9
Practice
Section
1
animal
of
t he
following
str uctures
is
not
present
in
an
2
chloroplast
vesicle
Which
of
t he
following
are
found
in
animal
nucleus
and
B
chlorophyll
C
cell
cell
Which
and
membrane
4
secretor y
epit helium
D
ner vous
Which
is
t he
main
A
To
allow
function
substances
B
To
control
to
of
pass
t he
in
cell
and
membrane?
out
wall
is
and
t he
To
digest
large
main
function
bacteria
and
transpor t
oxygen.
To
transpor t
carbon
transpor t
is
A
store
of
red
blood
main
t he
of
cells.
cell.
substances.
in
chemical
reactions.
Which
cell
str ucture
A
nucleus
is
responsible
for
making
protein?
B
cell
C
ribosome
D
cell
membrane
waste
wall
cells?
Which
cell
str uctures
carr y
out
aerobic
respiration?
substances.
A
cell
membranes
B
ribosomes
C
mitochondria
D
chloroplasts
dioxide.
proteins.
function
of
t he
vacuole
in
a
plant
cell?
13
To
store
assist
of
vacuole
To
What
To
To
activity
chloroplasts
C
To
C
D
t he
mitochondria
and
B
D
B
C
cytoplasm
12
A
impulses?
cells?
11
3
transmits
nucleus
D
D
blood
mitochondria
C
A
A
cell?
10
B
tissue
Questions
A
Which
A
Which
Questions
Which
is
a
group
of
cells
t hat
carries
out
a
specialised
substances.
function?
B
To
release
C
To
produce
D
5
To
energy.
control
Which
of
t he
A
sugars
B
carbon
A
an
B
a
system
t he
activity
following
of
t he
absorbs
C
a
tissue
D
an
cell.
light
energy
in
plants?
Section
6
organism
B
dioxide
C
chlorophyll
D
proteins
Which
organ
proteins.
1
substance
is
released
from
plants
The
diagram
shows
a
typical
human
cell.
during
A
photosynt hesis?
A
water
B
carbon
C
sunlight
D
oxygen
B
dioxide
mitochondrion
C
7
Muscle
from
cells
place
in
to
animals
place.
require
Which
energy
process
in
for
movement
cells
makes
a
energy
State
t he
A
respiration
B
locomotion
C
names
diagram.
of
t he
par ts
labelled
A,
B
and
C
in
b
State
t he
c
Cells
in
[3]
functions
organs
of
such
str uctures
as
t he
A
and
kidneys
and
B
[2]
liver
have
sensitivity
D
many
mitochondria.
many
mitochondria.
Which
of
t he
processes
is
responsible
for
t he
removal
why
some
cells
have
Explain
metabolic
waste
substances
in
t he
t he
difference
[3]
between
tissues
and
of
organs.
[3]
body?
e
A
Explain
growt h
d
8
t he
available?
Name
two
organ
systems
in
t he
body
and
state
t he
egesting
main
B
defecation
C
respiration
D
excretion
function
of
each.
[4]
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Practice
2
The
Cells,
Questions
diagram
human
shows
specialised
cells
from
t he
3
body.
a
Describe
b
State
cell
A
B
C
c
is
e
4
Describe
b
i)
t he
role
Identify
of
t he
cell
cell
A
a
Make
b
Use
Describe
t he
type
roles
of
shown
t he
in
cells
in
i).
The
cells
shown
in
C
State
one
ii)
Use
t he
provide
protection
system
d
Name
a
cell
cells
diagram
function
to
type
in
shown
to
t he
is
in
explain
provide
t hat
for
t he
e
Explain
the
typical
vir uses
labelled
your
which
animal
in
a
mould
typical
cell.
cells
a
bacterial
fungus.
plant
[3]
cell
[3]
t hat
are
responsible
[2]
differ
diagram
diagram
animal
Humans
to
cells.
have
from
of
a
explain
t he
cells
of
typical
how
plant
plant
cell.
cells
[6]
differ
[3]
about
body
cell.
human
C
200
how
different
for
and
advantages
ii)
of
5
cells
a
Irritability
i)
[4]
each
coordination.
having
how
t he
types
of
specialised
body
are
organised
so
t hat
t hey
cells
of
function
t hat
t he
protection.
responsible
Explain
[6]
[1]
of
b
[2]
specialised
cells.
Use
by
t he
ii)
movement,
in
a
body.
following:
i)
ways
of
[4]
of
[2]
organ
t he
str ucture
cell.
str ucture
[3]
efficiently.
contains
bacterial
t he
organisms
you
t he
i)
t he
synt hesis.
specialised
c
a
which
whole
B.
t hat
c
identified
of
systems,
[2]
from
ii)
a
in
str uctures
how
bacteria.
a
a
t he
protein
Explain
to
t hree
from
Identify
organ
features
ways
similar
Describe
for
four
t hree
differs
d
tissues,
[3]
t he
following
ii)
iii)
one
t his
State
Explain
i)
is
of
human
t he
feature.
one
example
of
nutrition
and
respiration
and
of
living
irritability
of
each
living
growt h
excretion
and
of
explain
between
features
reproduction
to
organisms.
what
is
meant
[4]
differences
pairs
features
examples
in
of
plants.
[1]
t he
organisms:
[4]
[4]
movement.
[2]
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Unit
A
Movement
A.2
A.2.1
Matter
and
of
into
and
out
cells
energy
Learning
By
the
end
outcomes
of
this
topic
you
Matter
should
Matter
is
made
from
chemical
elements
and
compounds.
A
is
a
substance
t hat
cannot
be
broken
down
into
any
Examples
of
elements
t hat
are
in
biological
materials
are
describe
oxygen,
sulfur
and
phosphor us.
In
later
units
you
the
particle
the
three
nature
will
matter
carbon,
●
nitrogen,
to:
simpler
of
substance.
able
chemical
●
element
be
also
describe
states
read
of matter
about
t he
impor tance
of
iron
and
calcium.
Compounds
are
formed
when
●
elements
on
t he
join
Ear t h
Matter
is
toget her
are
made
water,
of
by
forming
carbon
par ticles,
chemical
dioxide
which
can
and
be
bonds.
Common
are
made
made
made
Ions
of
are
of
from
one
two
or
t he
atoms
element,
more
charged
e.g.
of
or
or
nitrogen
elements,
atoms,
one
such
groups
of
as
atoms,
more
and
that
several
forms.
energy
exists
in
cellulose.
molecules
or
ions.
Atoms
are the smallest particles of a chemical element that can exist. Molecules
par ticles
explain
compounds
elements.
oxygen
carbon
atoms,
molecules.
dioxide,
which
Some
can
Many
proteins
be
are
molecules
eit her
and
are
fat.
positively
+
charged,
The
t hat
e.g.
sodium
universe
matter
movement
energy
of
is
is
made
made
requires
(Na
of
of
)
or
negatively
matter
and
par ticles
energy
energy.
t hat
called
charged,
are
The
such
kinetic
constantly
kinetic
as
energ y
chloride
t heor y
moving
).
states
about.
(meaning
(C l
This
literally
‘t he
movement’).
p
Figure
brain
ions
A.2.1.1
is
Electrical
dependent
across
on
the
membranes
activity
in
the
movement
of
nerve
of
cells
solid
liquid
=
particle
gas
p
Figure
matter.
have
more
A.2.1.2
A
solid
more
This
kinetic
kinetic
diagram
where
they
energy
energy
and
shows
are
and
the
packed
move
move
very
behaviour
tightly
over
and
each
of
particles
vibrate
other,
and
a
a
in
little,
gas
the
a
three
liquid
where
states
where
they
of
they
have
much
freely
Matter can exist in three states: as a solid, as a liquid and as a gas. Look at
Figure A.2.1.2 and think of a chemical substance such as water (H
O). Water
2
is made of particles called water molecules which, in turn, are made of atoms
of hydrogen and oxygen joined together by chemical bonds. When you drink
a glass of water, you are drinking water in its liquid state. You might cool the
water by placing cubes of ice in it. The ice is water in its solid state. If you leave
p
Figure
A.2.1.3
generator
season;
in
cells
generators
energy
Installing
readiness
have
to
an
for
electricity
the
hurricane
mitochondria
produce
ATP
for
as
all
their
their
needs
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Matter
and
Movement
energy
into
and
out
of
cells
the glass of water in the Sun for several hours you will nd that its volume has
0
Key
decreased because the water has evaporated. Water evaporates to form water
terms
!
vapour, which is a gas.
Kinetic
energy
The
energy
of
SOLID
LIQUID
GAS
movement.
ice
ATP
cells
A
molecule
when
they
formed
respire.
by
It
melts
liquid
water
evaporates
to
all
processes
in
Par ticles
cells.
move
All
the
that
occur
in
more
small
All
in
the
solid
move
slowly
the
adding
t han
more
slowly
t hose
in
a
t han
gas.
To
t hose
move
in
a
liquid
from
one
which,
state
to
in
turn,
reactions
molecules
energy
(making
par ticles
move
faster)
or
anot her
removing
energy
body.
(making
Anabolism
a
chemical
involves
which
condenses
energy-consuming
Metabolism
changes
vapour
provides
freezes
energy
water
all
are
par ticles
move
slower).
in
made
Energy
into
large
molecules.
Catabolism
which
down
large
into
All
the
reactions
molecules
smaller
are
in
broken
ones.
Study
Respiration
energy
Heat
of
provides
on
your
is
as
t he
t he
exists
energy
(see
ability
ability
in
transferred
Light
photosynt hesis
cells
with
Remember
this
their
(see
page
of
many
from
32).
do
forms
one
enables
page
to
par ticles
work.
to
–
place
green
do
heat,
to
kinetic
as
light
anot her
plants
Chemical
The
work
to
energy
by
energy
result
and
make
is
a
t he
t heir
movement
food
stored
of
chemical.
in
during
t he
through
the
book
58)
(see
below).
learning
notes.
Do
respiration
with
and
in
cellular
stores
such
as
starch,
glucose
and
food
we
eat
fat
as
transfers
are
ver y
impor tant
in
biology.
During
respiration,
cells
and
energy-rich
molecules
of
carbohydrate,
protein
and
fat,
and
not
use
confuse
is
Energy
energy
breakdown
write
dened
above
tip
needs.
read
best
par ticles.
Energy
you
is
described
movement.
o ___
✔
Energy
some of the energy released to make a substance known as
ATP. This
breathing.
molecule is
the
way
electricity
to
we
use
provide
‘energy
energy
for
currency’
in
the
of
home.
anabolic
all
cells.
ATP
Cells
moves
chemical
use
easily
reactions
to
ATP
much
like
throughout
occur
to
the
the
move
cell
some
Questions
substances
from
1
Explain
the
between
a
atom
each
element
c
atom
of
and
and
these
pairs:
d
2
does
anabolism
not
body.
function
compound,
ion,
ATP
t he
molecule,
to
and
to
move
cell
str uctures,
such
as
vesicles,
anot her.
of
have
sur vive
Each
electricity
and
and
place
membranes
difference
and
b
one
across
long
needs
in
to
mitochondria
in
to
cell
t he
use
home,
a
t he
(see
t his
generator
blood,
generate
is
to
page
like
so
its
5).
To
homes
make
we
own
do
not
ATP
return
t hat
for
to
are
transpor t
itself.
our
not
it
That
around
is
t he
comparison
on
t he
wit h
electricity
grid
electricity.
catabolism.
Which
particles
have
the
Metabolism
most
kinetic
energy:
those
The metabolism of the body is all the hundreds of different types of chemical
in
a
solid,
those
in
a
liquid
or
reactions that occur in our cells and in the gut. Metabolism is divided into:
those
in
a
gas?
●
3
a
Where
is
ATP
made
anabolism,
form
cells?
b
What
is
ATP
What
form
of
energy
in
by
a
green
b
in
which
small
molecules
combine
to
larger
ones,
t hem
e.g.
glucose
starch.
These
of ten
require
energy
to
happen.
catabolism
in
which
large
molecules
are
broken
down
into
smaller
ones,
plants,
e.g.
and
reaction
is
●
taken
chemical
for?
make
4
a
inside
glucose
carbon
dioxide
and
water.
These
of ten
release
energy.
animals?
The
speed
metabolic
wit h
which
t he
reactions
of
metabolism
occur
is
called
t he
rate.
20
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
2.indd
20
08/01/2015
15:57
Movement
A.2.2
into
and
out
of
cells
Movement
Movement
across
cell
surface
membranes
surface
the
end
cells
are
surrounded
by
cell
surface
membranes
(see
page
5).
This
is
to
t he
movement
of
substances.
Membranes
are
for
keeping
be
t he
cell,
such
However,
state
as
t he
proteins,
sugars
and
fats
t hat
it
has
made
t hey
need
that
a
cell
cells
to
needs
need
to
take
in
substances
from
t heir
cell
surface
remove
substances
t hat
are
harmful.
Any
molecule
or
define
to
use,
or
needs
to
get
rid
of,
must
be
membrane.
These
membranes
are
membranes
because
t hey
allow
able
to
described
some
but
not
Movement
across
active
get
membranes
as
anot her.
liquid
is
t he
You
into
a
t hroughout
membranes
state
the
a
liquid,
substances
to
and
can
occurs
of
by
one
molecules,
demonstrate
of
t he
t he
wit h
explain
the
are
so
of
t hree
met hods:
diffusion
transport
in
water.
water
par ticles
each
diffusion
Af ter
in
t he
have
ot her.
concentrated
molecules
a
while
or
by
ions,
from
putting
t he
a
one
drop
coloured
place
0
of
coloured
par ticles
Key
a
and
par ticles
drop
wit h
have
Fully
spread
of
glass.
more
kinetic
energy
and
move
permeable
articial
where
The
They
in
t hese
spread
lots
of
par ticles
t hey
are
concentrated
t he
collide
drop.
collide
out
into
coloured
continue
concentrated
(in
plants
size
that
to
wit h
each
ot her
a
lot
But
t he
drop
is
wit h
t he
t he
water.
par ticles
Af ter
a
by
a
t he
to
(in
spread
t he
as
t hey
drop)
to
a
move
place
t here
from
a
or
ions,
depends
in
two
on
to
a
t he
difference
Molecules,
place
so
said
to
diffuse
will
through,
are
The
from
T
o
do
buy
this
in
works
you
a
is
wit h
called
down
or
in
t he
ions,
concentrations
diffuse
from
a
of
place
molecules,
wit h
a
high
a
a
low
concentration.
concentration
The
gradient.
difference
Ions
and
1
Fill
2
T
ake
if
use
one
of
the
small
t heir
much
to
all
you
concentration
have
top
in
need
and
a
school
the
drop
net
a
movement
place
with
a
of
high
to
a
of
molecules.
place
with
a
low
water
from
The
a
net
place
concentration
of
diffusion
with
solutes
through
a
a
of
low
(dilute
partially
between
a
high
membrane
to
concentration
a
place
of
solutes
gradient.
solution).
transport
molecules
and
The
ions
movement
across
the
the
release
using
a
a
concentration
energy
from
small
with
bottle
middle
the
is
two
some
tall
eye
liquid
glasses
dropper
food
or
colouring,
clear
similar
plastic
to
the
which
vessels.
dropping
you
can
This
pipettes
orcollege.
vessels
off
against
respiration.
store,
you
at
to
molecules
liquid
activity
best
ions
them.
yourself
grocery
may
of
concentration
gradient
a
all
concentration
membrane
in
not
less
of
Diffusion
but
place
t hey
Active
this
that
and
still
(concentrated
Tr y
membrane
coloured
with
are
A
molecules
t he
permeable
concentrations
of
permeable
some
solution)
t he
molecules
through.
water).
places.
concentration
an
walls
by
too,
lighter
where
to
cell
because
par ticles
while,
sur rounded
to
around
sur rounded
coloured
and
allow
pass
Osmosis
Diffusion
organisms.
Applied
membrane
molecules
liquid.
living
terms
Diffusion
be
of
active
!
to
pass
coloured
and
d iffusion,
allows
water
importance
osmosis,
membrane
t hey
between
osmosis
pass
Partially
colliding
transport
difference
parti ally
any
In
diffusion,
active
transport
movement
glass
all
terms
and
t hrough
Diffusion
Diffusion
cell
ot hers.
osmosis
or
enter
through
ion
●
t hrough,
cells
the
diffusion
permeable
you
surroundings
●
its
topic
to:
substances
leave
osmosis
t hat
this
for
●
and
of
able
surface
itself.
outcomes
t hings
and
inside
membranes
a
●
barrier
surface
membranes
should
All
cell
Learning
By
Cell
across
water.
of
of
food
the
colouring
vessel.
Do
and
not
use
the
squeeze
pipette
the
to
dropper
put
a
too
drop.
21
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
2.indd
21
08/01/2015
15:57
Movement
across
cell
surface
Movement
membranes
3
Watch
to
the
take
record
4
Try
e.g.
Many
p
Figure
the
top
of
the
A
across
●
The
ability
t hrough
it
tip
will
that
is
ATP
ions,
moves
from
have
them
another
a
the
few
water.
hours
Use
later.
your
Keep
cells
phone
these
as
a
T
ake
put
some
to
do
as
not
cold
photos
see
if
in
a
water
after
there
release
have
shown
ice
Figure
one
certain
is
single
pipette
in
any
intervals
and
of
hot
time,
difference.
drops
just
vessel
if
add
you
a
invert
drop
of
them
the
or
colouring
to
A.2.2.1
cells.
kinetic
from
across
and
place
a
does
place
which
to
surface
from
gradient
–
depends
t he
steeper
on:
t he
gradient
t he
faster
will
be
t he
many
molecules
smaller
t he
membrane.
t hrough
of
The
t he
and
ions
molecule,
more
or
lipid
membrane.
to
pass
ion,
t hrough
t he
faster
soluble
This
is
t he
it
cell
will
par ticle
because
lipid
membranes.
move
is
is,
t he
t he
faster
main
membranes.
place
is
ve r y
a
i mp o r t a n t
p a s s i ve
in
t he
m ove m e n t
b o d y.
as
we
As
do
far
n ot
as
cells
need
a re
concer ned,
energy
f ro m
AT P
to
not
Molecules,
energy,
one
cell
membranes
inside
which
is
membranes
a
diffusion
or
t he
component
diffusion
process,
of
t he
move
Diffusion
Remember
need
through
and
of
rate.
Generally
Study
cell
concentration
diffusion
passive
time
colouring
you
water
start
out
observe.
minutes,
food
If
disperse
the
and
A.2.2.1
●
✔
15
at
this
other.
of
them.
you
but
and
bottles
Diffusion
0
what
10
colouring
photos
again,
in
5,
squeeze
the
of
this
water
food
some
into
m ove
of
t he
t he
h ave
molecules
molecules
to
m a ke
m e m b ra n e ,
to
human
s u re
as
a c ro s s
and
we
ions
t hat
can
cell
is
t h e re
see
sur face
m e m b ra n e s .
re s p o n s i b l e
is
wit h
a
fo r
t heir
c o n c e n t ra t i o n
t hese
e xa mp l e s
The
k i n et i c
m ove m e n t .
g ra d i e n t
of
a c ro s s
diffusion
energy
We
in
o n ly
t he
t he
body:
cell.
●
Exchange
●
Absor ption
●
Movement
blood
●
●
into
of
of
and
digested
oxygen
carbon
Movement
of
a
ner vous
oxygen
and
glucose
t hese
water
will
by
be
t he
small
dissolved
dioxide
and
across
diffusion
dioxide
t he
lungs.
intestine.
nutrient
a
waste
out
synapse
by
an
Bot h
same
glucose
Af ter
on
glucose
molecules
of
cells
(gap)
from
into
t he
between
bot h
Cell
A.2.2.2
membrane
and
a
molecules,
t hem.
Figure
ar ticial
diffusion.
t he
of
t hrough
subst ances.
equilibr ium
are
movement
from
in
in
t he
blood.
ner ve
cells
in
water
while,
sides
of
membranes
shows
t hat
is
two
fully
molecules
t he
water,
can
membrane,
are
solutions
of
per me able
pass
concentrations
t he
ions,
as
of
to
t hrough
glucose
you
can
t he
and
see
in
A.2.2.3.
molecules
to
t hese
separated
dynamic
lef t
allow
subst ances.
Figure
and
chemical
carbon
to
membrane
food
dioxide
system.
membranes
per meable
carbon
cells.
of
Cell
to
oxygen
Movement
t he
A
of
r ight
lef t
r ight
to
still
means
and
t hen
moving,
no
eight
r ight,
has
but
t here
is
been
but
overall
move
if
ten
no
set
t hat
Dynamic
t here
movement,
from
move
net
up.
r ight
from
to
is
no
e.g.
if
lef t,
r ight
t hat
t he
net
movement.
ten
molecules
t he
to
means
net
lef t
Net
move
movement
and
ten
move
is
from
two
from
lef t
movement.
22
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
2.indd
22
08/01/2015
15:57
Movement
into
and
out
of
cells
concentrated
glucose
(less
glucose
water)
(more
-
•
•
•
• •
• ,,..;;
· I· ./ . ' •
permeable
and
permeable
=
Movement
glucose
of
by
p
water
when
either
a
fully
A.2.2.3
A
dynamic
concentrations
side
molecules
of
the
still
movement
diffusion
membranes
•
•
the
surface
'•
glucose
Figure
molecules
through
membrane
=
cell
•
membrane
•
A.2.2.2
water
•
••
glucose
Figure
of
• +--
across
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•• •
• •
I
fully
p
\
/
•
=
•
solution
water)
• •
•
•
•
dilute
solution
\
Movement
from
one
but
side
water
equilibrium;
are
the
membrane,
occurs
=
there
to
same
on
movement
the
is
no
of
net
other
Osmosis
As
you
read
t his
section
remember
t hat
a
solution
is
made
of
a
solvent
and
concentrated
one
or
more
solutes.
Water
is
t he
usual
solvent
and
dissolves
a
solid,
liquid
glucose
gas,
whic h
separated
it
whic h
by
is
a
only
t he
solute.
par tially
allow
Figure
A.2.2.4
per meable
small
shows
membrane.
molecules
t hrough
–
two
This
in
glucose
has
t his
solutions
pores
case
(holes)
water,
but
in
not
glucose.
is
a
solutions
called
special
in
t he
case
which
of
diffusion.
water
is
t he
It
diffusion
(i.e.
solvent
(t he
chemical
dissolved
in
it
is
solute)
a
of
water
dilute
a
par tially
molecules
solution)
concentrated
●
to
a
from
region
a
region
where
where
t here
are
t here
fewer
are
of
lots
of
t hem
t hem
(i.e.
a
solution)
permeable
membrane
–
one
t hat
will
allow
free
movement
t
of
molecules,
Figure
A.2.2.4,
but
t he
not
net
of
ow
t he
of
solute
water
•
partially
=
water
In
(more
movement
of
water
is
an
will
example
permeable
is
membrane
a
high
t he
from
equal
Importance
Animal
cells
Animal
cells
cell
called
a
diffusion
place
concentration
become
no
net
and
of
t here
blood
The
water
a
low
solute.
is
a
t herefore
of
be
from
right
to
lef t.
p
Figure
to
It
living
cells
by
by
a
T
wo
glucose
partially
=
water
solutions
permeable
par tially
until
of
permeable
solute
t he
two
to
a
water
place
wit h
the
from
there
the
solution
on
is
net
solution
the
movement
on
the
of
right
to
left
concentrations
equilibrium.
cells
permeable
suspended
concentration
a
concentration
continues
par tially
are
membrane
•
A.2.2.4
•
osmosis.
t hrough
dynamic
surrounded
Red
plasma.
wit h
of
osmosis
are
walls.
of
•
glucose
membrane;
Osmosis
•
molecules.
separated
This
solution
water)
\.
involves:
•
●
water)
1. ,/•/
Osmosis
●
glucose
. -.~ .I ·. ....
. ·1.. . .
_,, . . I . •\.• •
.:. .•..\. _.,, ..
•
(less
or
dilute
solution
of
in
plasma
t he
membranes.
liquid
remains
par t
of
relatively
They
t he
have
blood
constant
all
23
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
2.indd
23
08/01/2015
15:57
Movement
0
across
cell
surface
Movement
membranes
t he
✔
Exam
tip
●
Never
use
‘strong’
time
what
and
a
so
describe
solutions.
‘concentrated’
and
red
blood
happen
solution
to
a
cells
red
do
not
blood
change
cell
if
it
in
were
size.
Figure
placed
wit h
a
solute
concentration
higher
wit h
a
solute
concentration
lower
t han
and
out
A.2.2.5
of
cells
shows
in:
plasma
–
net
ow
of
‘weak’
water
to
t hat
would
into
out
Use
‘dilute’
instead.
●
a
solution
water
t han
plasma
t
Cell
surrounded
more
net
cell
by
concentrated
flow
water
is
a
solution
than
that
is
plasma
Cell
is
surrounded
more
dilute
by
than
a
solution
net
of
scale
marked
flow
water
•
~
becomes
is
cell
\
ow
of
Figure
A.2.2.5
effects
of
The
on
of
red
osmosis
blood
cells
in
bursts
(lysis)
;
\
tube
net
that
plasma
out
crenated
glass
–
in.
with
250
in
mm
200
In
our
bodies
we
have
mechanisms
t hat
keep
our
blood
plasma
not
happen.
at
a
150
constant
meniscus
100
solution
the
50
of
the
moved
concentration,
so
t hese
changes
do
sugar
up
tube
Written
Activity
0
Observing
and
recording
osmosis
water
A
student
which
sugar
solution
Visking
is
surface
set
also
up
the
known
membrane.
moved
up
regular
intervals
the
tube.
apparatus
shown
as
tubing,
Visking
Over
The
and
a
period
student
recorded
of
Figure
is
in
the
a
A.2.2.6.
partially
time
used
them
in
the
meniscus
scale
Dialysis
permeable
to
take
of
tubing,
like
the
the
sugar
cell
solution
measurements
at
table.
(dialysis)
tubing
Time/minutes
Position
of
the
meniscus
in
the
tube/mm
p
Figure
A.2.2.6
Answer
the
a
0
0
1
24
2
52
3
73
4
102
5
127
6
138
7
180
8
190
following
1
Draw
graph
2
Describe
the
of
questions.
the
results
student’s
shown
by
results
your
in
the
graph.
table.
[6]
[2]
24
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
2.indd
24
08/01/2015
15:57
Movement
into
3
Calculate
4
Explain
over
the
Osmosis
Plant
wit hstands
Eventually
of
t he
This
to
stems
so
the
a
of
cells
Movement
movement
in
mm
per
minute
of
the
across
solution
t he
as
cell
When
pressure
will
turgid.
moved
and
be
If
ow
of
no
t he
water,
for
t hey
up
and
kept
is
we
is
a
the
of
lef t
tube.
ow
in
t he
t he
rigid
against
of
t he
into
cell
water
t he
water
t hat
‘stiffness’
can
more
into
permeable
water
cell
t his
is
a
plant
wall,
into
and
t he
t he
anot her
cell
which
cell.
cell
is
example
before.
pressure
and
of
to
builds
t heir
suppor t
up
in
t he
leaves,
cells,
owers
t hemselves.
is
and
Stems
of
0
Key
do
not
have
wood,
stand
erect
and
leaves
are
at
right
angles
stem
to
absorb
most
ow
a
of
away
plant
water
from
cell
out
t he
is
by
cell
so
in
osmosis.
a
a
concentrated
The
vacuole
movement
t hat
solution
shr inks
is
t here
and
called
t he
will
be
a
net
cytoplasm
pulls
cell,
like
t hat
in
Figure
A.2.2.8,
is
water
The
tissue
is
no
is
but
instead
it
is
wilt
of
on
t he
hot
days.
direct
rays
descr ibed
The
of
as
accid.
This
is
what
happens
to
light
of
do
advantage
t he
Sun,
so
of
wilting
t hey
are
is
t hat
protected
t he
leaves
against
A
cell
not
that
has
because
push
lost
the
against
cell
the
are
The
movement
of
plants
cell
surface
membrane
away
taken
damage
the
cell
wall
when
the
cell
by
loses
high
full
push
wall.
from
out
is
longer
the
t hat
which
contents
wall.
limp
Plasmolysis
turgid,
cell
the
cell
cell
and
contents
plasmolysis.
plasmolysed.
the
Flaccid
cell
The
A
that
sunlight.
placed
wall,
cell
to
against
When
terms
!
water,
t he
membranes
[4]
par tially
ow
water
described
gives
t he
net
pushes
t he
ow
cell
It
around
and
resists
net
plants.
are
wall
t here
swells
equilibrium
useful
t hat
cell.
cytoplasm
t here
t hat
surface
meniscus
Turgid
plants,
cell
[2]
sugar
cellulose
each
t he
inward
rate
of
minutes.
dynamic
extremely
out
plants
of
osmosis,
referred
8
have
membrane
by
the
why
in
cells
and
water.
intensities.
cell
wall
–
fully
permeable
nucleus
•
molecules
cell
surface
membrane
of
solutes
•
vacuole
cytoplasm
concentrated
water
inside
--....
dilute
More
water
solution
The
cell
p
solution
molecules
Figure
molecules
inside
pressure
the
of
cell
the
pass
to
from
the
solution
the
solution
outside
the
solution
cell
into
the
cell
outside
the
cell
the
cell
than
from
the
outside
in
the
vacuole
increases,
pressing
the
cytoplasm
against
the
wall
A.2.2.7
A
turgid
plant
cell
25
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Movement
across
cell
surface
Movement
membranes
cell
into
and
out
of
cells
wall
nucleus
cell
molecules
surface
membrane
of
solutes
vacuole
cytoplasm
from
the
shrinks
pulls
cell
away
wall
water
dilute
solution
inside
molecules
the
• •
More
water
solution
The
pressure
cytoplasm
well
excavated
grains
of
here
and
sucrose
dish
of
of
pass
cell
the
solution
against
the
to
from
the
cell
the
the
•
concentrated
solution
inside
the
cell
to
solution
the
outside
outside
than
the
from
cell
the
inside
in
the
wall;
vacuole
eventually
decreases,
the
reducing
cytoplasm
pulls
the
away
pressure
from
the
pressing
cell
the
wall
containing
(not
salt)
p
Figure
A.2.2.8
A
plasmolysed
plant
cell
water
Roots
peeled
molecules
outside
•
cell
have
specialised
cells,
known
as
root
hairs,
which
increase
t he
surface
portion
area
available
for
water
uptake
by
osmosis.
Water moves from the soil into the root hair cell by osmosis. Water moves from
the root hair cell across the cells of the root to the hollow xylem vessels in the
centre. Once the water is in the xylem it is transported to the rest of the plant.
unboiled
p
potato
Figure
boiled
half
potato
half
-
A.2.2.9
Key
Net
movement
water
by
soil
of
particle
osmosis
soil
water
root
xylem
the
cortex
vessel
carries
water
rest
of
hair
cytoplasm
cells
to
the
plant
Lower
p
p
Figure
A.2.2.11
very
large
give
a
water
Plant
number
large
from
of
surface
the
roots
tiny
area
have
root
for
Figure
A.2.2.10
water
concentration
Uptake
of
water
by
High
a
root
water
concentration
hair
a
hairs
to
absorbing
Tr y
soil
this
yourself
Requirements
●
a
large
●
a
sharp
Irish
●
a
white
potato
knife
tile
or
scalpel
●
two
●
a
bag
dishes
●
a
spoon
of
sugar
(sucrose)
26
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2.indd
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15:57
Movement
into
1
Cut
a
2
Remove
large
shown
3
4
Place
a
Place
the
half
the
each
of
cells
potato
10
mm
diagram
in
sharp
in
into
in
across
cell
surface
membranes
two.
circumference
of
peel
from
cut
the
ends
as
below.
boiling
knife,
Movement
or
water
for
scalpel,
10
minutes.
carefully
make
a
well
in
each
half
as
diagram.
half
in
a
separate
dish
containing
water
to
the
level
seen
in
diagrams.
6
Place
7
Leave
8
Observe
a
Irish
the
one
Using
out
about
in
shown
5
and
some
for
sucrose
roughly
the
in
24
pieces
each
well
(about
half
way
up
the
sides).
hours.
of
potato
and
write
a
record
of
what
you
see
or
take
photograph.
Tr y
this
Softening
up
yourself
an
eggplant
Requirements
an
●
if
eggplant
they
firm,
not
●
some
●
a
1
are
(or
two
small;
or
three
must
be
five
●
very
soft)
salt
●
permanent
●
scales
cups
or
other
small
marker
stirrer
Weigh
out
58
grams
of
table
or
cooking
salt.
3
2
plastic
containers
Dissolve
the
salt
in
1
dm
3
of
water
(1
dm
is
the
same
as
1
litre).
This
-3
is
a
solution
stock
3
Pour
it
4
with
the
concentration
of
58
g
dm
which
we
will
call
the
solution.
some
of
this
some
more
solution
to
half-fill
one
of
your
containers
and
label
A
Pour
half
full
and
Y
ou
now
of
label
it
your
B.
stock
Fill
this
solution
into
container
another
with
water
container
and
stir
so
it
is
thoroughly.
-3
5
Pour
C.
6
Pour
it
half
Fill
D.
the
have
of
this
half
Fill
a
the
solution
contents
container
of
this
solution
the
of
with
contents
container
from
that
has
of
container
concentration
container
water
with
a
and
container
water
D
so
B
stir
C
and
that
into
third
29
g
dm
container
and
label
and
label
it
thoroughly.
into
stir
all
a
of
a
fourth
container
thoroughly.
the
Pour
containers
away
have
the
half
of
same
volume.
7
Half-fill
8
Cut
an
a
fifth
eggplant
containers
9
After
10
decide
container
and
five
place
minutes
how
into
they
with
have
the
and
equal-sized
them
take
water
into
the
pieces
changed
label
pieces
different
out
over
of
the
the
it
E
that
just
solutions
solutions,
time
they
fit
into
you
feel
have
the
have
them
been
in
made.
and
the
solutions.
10
Use
the
term
osmosis
to
explain
the
changes
that
you
have
observed.
27
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15:57
Movement
across
cell
surface
Movement
membranes
into
and
out
of
cells
Questions
1
Suggest
2
process.
Look
Figure
at
a
reason
reason.
What
c
effect
Which
do
will
the
you
becoming
your
would
of
through
A.2.2.2.
for
What
movement
4
diffusion
passive
Give
3
why
What
a
or
happen
What
will
permeable
molecules
would
dilute
b
membranes
to
the
is
glucose
happen
to
the
said
to
be
a
molecules?
water?
Give
a
eventually?
partially
glucose
surface
will
answer.
happen
think
more
a
cell
be
more
in
membrane
Figure
harmful
more
becoming
–
have
on
the
A.2.2.2?
our
blood
plasma
concentrated
than
our
red
1
blood
cell
low
surface
concentration
outside
membrane
cells?
cell
5
Explain
and
high
why
leaves
6
How
does
7
Explain
8
Create
9
Explain
it
b
is
important
help
wilting
how
that
the
following
are
held
upright:
a
stems
flowers.
root
a
hairs
plant
survive
absorb
during
a
hot
day?
water.
concentration
inside
cell
a
table
why
to
compare
energy
is
the
processes
needed
for
active
of
and
diffusion
active
transport.
transport.
2
tneidarg
• •
molecule
into
10
fits
protein
State
noitartnecnoc
Active
- ~~ -
•••
• •
are
cells
to
substances
).
Cells
as
have
ATP
to
of
active
energy
Table
need
of
to
t heir
to
use
They
of
transpor t,
into
across
use
same
ATP
occur
q
T
able
out
in
of
of
source
t he
of
bot h
t he
helping
to
keep
our
cells
cell
active
This
means
t hem
of
t hat
against
energy
to
at
a
t hey
t heir
move
t hese
against
concentration
transpor t.
animals
energy
we
functioning
A.2.2.1
Examples
Cells
of
active
transport
Substance
active
and
plants
consume
is
as
shown
used
in
in
active
properly.
in
plant
moved
and
animal
cells
Reason
transport
process
direction)
Root
hair
cells
Nitrate
ions
magnesium
the
•••
• ••
t he
move
are
repeated
Plant
~
as
to
t hat
the
(and
-
cytoplasm.
energy
process
one-quar ter
by
is
t heir
surroundings
the
Organism
the
in
t heir
substances
t he
transpor t
About
t han
some
t heir
cells.
move
t hey
active
A.2.2.1.
outside
use
from
move
membrane
4
transport.
substances
gradient.
into
and
Examples
uses
molecules
cell
also
gradients
pump
require
concentration
going
concentration
- - ..- •\C•W-
examples
transport
Sometimes
lower
••
3
four
pump
Nitrate
and
ions
(into
used
for
making
ions
are
used
for
making
are
into
cells
Potassium
against
ions
(into
T
o
help
T
o
open
absorb
water
by
osmosis
the
the
cell
are
chlorophyll
Guard
moved
ions
acids
Magnesium
cells)
-molecules
amino
cells)
the
stomata
for
diffusion
of
their
gases
into
and
out
of
the
leaves
concentration
gradient
Animal
Red
blood
cells
Sodium
the
Nerve
p
Figure
A.2.2.12
A
protein
cells
the
cell
surface
membrane
molecule
against
a
into
the
cell
T
o
prevent
water
Potassium
ions
(into
T
o
and
help
in
them
absorbing
too
much
expanding
cells)
the
transmission
of
impulses
cells
Glucose
(into
the
Absorb
glucose
from
digested
food
concentration
from
gradient
of
moves
Epithelial
a
(out
molecule
the
in
ions
cells)
by
the
small
cells)
into
the
blood
to
provide
energy
active
intestine
transport
28
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2.indd
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15:57
Movement
Figure
into
and
A.2.2.12
molecules
out
of
cells
represents
across
Movement
one
membranes
way
via
in
a
which
protein
energy
‘pump’
in
in
ATP
t he
is
used
to
across
cell
surface
membranes
move
membrane.
Summary
Movement
●
A
chemical
simpler
An
or
●
is
a
smallest
the
atoms
Energy
of
different
exists
and
Particles
are
molecules
Diffusion
all
the
is
the
moving
the
heat
be
two
element.
broken
or
down
more
Ions
are
to
a
elements.
Molecules
elements.
energy,
a
about
light
Catabolism
down
place
in
that
are
particles
charged
energy,
all
smaller
atoms
chemical
low
a
kinetic
small
the
energy.
within
the
body.
molecules
reactions
in
are
built
which
large
ones.
substances
with
of
occur
which
includes
into
of
because
reactions
reactions
movement
to
an
more
forms:
chemical
broken
concentration
of
of
atoms.
all
ones.
are
or
cannot
made
energy.
includes
larger
one
that
are
particle
of
constantly
is
substance
different
kinetic
Metabolism
into
in
cells
Compounds
the
Anabolism
●
element
of
is
groups
up
out
from
energy
●
and
substance.
atom
made
●
into
from
a
place
concentration
with
(down
a
high
a
concentration gradient).
●
Substances
active
●
permeable
as
water),
membranes
●
Osmosis
a
cell
surface
membranes
by
diffusion,
osmosis
and
transport.
Partially
(such
cross
is
and
a
membranes
but
not
dialysis
special
dilute solution
large
to
a
allow
ones
membranes
type
of
more
the
(such
are
diffusion
in
movement
as
partially
which
concentrated
of
sucrose).
molecules
surface
permeable.
water
solution
small
Cell
moves
across
from
partially
permeable membranes.
●
If
animal
cells
osmosis,
solution
they
cellulose
●
If
they
wall
cells
by
are
cell
●
said
to
pump
get
●
rid
their
in
of
the
If
water,
resist
into
and
crenated.
the
is
If
and
of
need
burst
They
are
they
into
surface
water
very
dilute
to
they
have
by
a
turgid.
solution,
red
immersed
by
gain
a
because
are
happens
water
are
gradient
they
not
cells
cell
They
solution
immersed
concentrated
this
lose
movement
that
do
very
plant
also
cytoplasm
the
a
When
plasmolysis.
concentration
but
dilute
are
expansion.
into
shrink.
very
cells
swell,
their
they
a
plant
immersed
substances
of
Diffusion
to
be
causing
transport
against
burst.
solution,
pulling
wall
Active
are
osmosis
concentrated
shrinks
immersed
and
absorb
cell
animal
water
are
swell
osmosis.
blood
they
lose
cells
into
a
The
vacuole
membrane
very
away
from
the
flaccid.
substance
using
and
across
energy
pump
from
them
a
membrane
respiration.
out
if
they
Cells
need
to
them.
and
osmosis
molecules
are
passive
themselves
processes
rather
than
ATP
relying
on
supplied
the
by
kinetic
energy
respiration.
29
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15:57
Practice
Movement
Questions
Which
Practice
1
Some
sugar
drops
solution
(dialysis)
of
red
food
was
put
tubing
as
inside
shown
colouring
were
a
bag
in
t he
made
from
diagram.
added
to
inside
a
t he
Two
for
t he
upward
of
cells
t he
sugar
solution
A
plasmolysis
B
osmosis
C
diffusion
D
active
in
t he
movement
tube?
t he
bag.
The
bag
was
t hen
put
beaker
Which
Af ter
star ted
to
ten
turn
minutes
red.
t he
Which
water
caused
in
t he
t he
beaker
water
to
process
results
in
t he
movement
of
water
into
an
of
animal
water.
transpor t
contents
5
in
responsible
out
A
Visking
of
is
and
Questions
of
Section
process
into
cell?
had
A
diffusion
B
active
C
osmosis
D
absor ption
change
transpor t
colour?
glass
rod
6
Which
substance
enters
an
animal
cell
by
active
transpor t?
visking
sugar
red
tubing
solution
food
A
carbon
B
potassium
dioxide
C
oxygen
D
water
and
ions
colouring
water
7
A
bag
of
Visking
tubing
contains
a
concentrated
beaker
A
solution
of
of
sugar
dilute
sugar.
B
active
C
diffusion
D
osmosis
Which
Changes
is
an
example
Oxygen
moving
B
Mineral
ions
C
Water
D
Carbon
of
osmosis
into
t he
moving
entering
t he
dioxide
into
root
moving
in
root
t he
hair
out
a
root
hair
hair
cell?
cell.
root
hair
into
will
a
beaker
happen
is
an
A
Carbon
B
Water
example
dioxide
into
a
Magnesium
Potassium
The
of
t he
sugar
solutions
af ter
to
an
t he
hour?
of
ions
ions
apparatus
into
flaccid
of
diffusion
a
t he
root
into
into
into
shown
mesophyll
leaf
a
in
a
in
the
the
concentrations
Visking
tubing
of
bag
the
In
sugar
the
solutions
beaker
A
increases
decreases
B
increases
increases
C
decreases
decreases
D
decreases
increases
cell.
hair
cell.
a
plant
Which
is
required
for
active
transpor t
to
take
place
into
cell?
a
4
Which
cell.
8
Which
D
placed
transpor t
A
C
is
dissolving
Inside
3
bag
solution.
concentration
2
The
cell?
cell.
A
Energy.
B
A
C
Formation
D
A
cell.
root
guard
t he
hair
cell
cell
wall.
cell.
of
diagram
a
was
set
tube
scale
marked
high
vacuoles.
concentration
of
solutes
outside
t he
cell.
up.
9
glass
of
stoma.
A
sample
of
red
concentrated
with
blood
salt
cells
was
solution.
The
placed
into
diagram
a
shows
t he
250
in
mm
appearance
of
t he
cells.
200
150
meniscus
100
solution
the
of
the
moved
sugar
up
tube
50
0
water
Which
A
sugar
explains
t he
Water
entered
B
Water
lef t
C
Salt
entered
D
Salt
lef t
appearance
t he
cells
by
of
t he
cells?
osmosis.
solution
t he
cells
t he
by
cells
osmosis.
by
diffusion.
Visking
t he
cells
by
diffusion.
(dialysis)
tubing
30
835292
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Unit
A
Topic
2.indd
30
08/01/2015
15:57
Movement
10
into
Which
and
process
respiration
in
A
active
B
cell
C
diffusion
D
muscle
out
of
does
cells
not
Practice
require
a
supply
of
energy
from
2
cells?
a
What
b
Describe
cell
transpor t
c
oxygen
B
Visking
t his
•
it
of
in
tubing
is
similar
to
cell
surface
membrane
The
is
par tially
permeable.
Some
students
i)
salt.
what
what
pure
happens
water,
ii)
a
when
an
animal
concentrated
[6]
is
meant
by
‘more
concentrated
[1]
Compare
t he
permeability
terms
of
cell
flaccid,
of
cell
walls
membranes.
plasmolysis
wit h
t he
[4]
and
turgid
refer
to
in
plant
t hat
placed
Explain
[1]
explain
permeability
e
1
water?
and
solution’.
contraction
d
Section
pure
solution
division
of
is
is
Questions
cells
followed
Explain
t he
meaning
What
meant
of
each
of
t hese
terms.
[3]
procedure.
Six
pieces
length
were
filled
weighed
water
of
with
the
The
bags
in
large
•
Af ter
wit h
Visking
tied
10.0 g.
•
a
of
were
six
at
a
beaker
paper
sixth
measuring
to
make
sugar
bag
a
140 mm
bag.
solution
was
filled
Five
until
with
in
3
of
towels
cotton
distilled
bags
and
t hread
and
b
they
reweighed.
The
blotted
results
in
t he
what
why
t he
par tially
when
solution
diffusion
permeable
of
a
plant
salt.
cell
is
placed
in
[6]
t hrough
cell
membranes
is
a
[3]
term
diffusion
term
happens
process.
Explain
t he
dynamic
across
cell
equilibrium
membranes.
as
it
applies
[4]
are
4
shown
Explain
to
dr y
by
[2]
concentrated
passive
suspended
d
removed,
Explain
a
distilled
water.
were
is
membrane?
c
wit h
t he
a
bags
mass.
tied
hours,
end
different
The
same
were
tubing
one
a
All
human
cells
carr y
out
respiration
to
provide
graph.
t hemselves
wit h
energy.
22
Explain
why
membrane
20
cells.
g/sruoh
b
18
is
across
impor tant
for
t he
cell
surface
respiration
in
human
[6]
Identify
four
diffusion.
c
diffusion
Describe
factors
which
affect
t he
rate
of
[4]
and
explain
what
will
happen
to
a
piece
6
retfa
of
16
potato
when
solution.
placed
in
a
concentrated
sugar
[5]
ssam
14
5
a
Describe
t hat
two
simple
diffusion
experiments
occurs
in
air
and
in
to
demonstrate
water.
[6]
12
b
Explain
t he
between
two
similarities
osmosis
and
and
diffusion.
t hree
differences
[4]
10
c
0
60
180
120
240
i)
Suggest
why
a
cell
needs
energy
for
active
300
transpor t.
[3]
–3
concentration
of
sugar/g
dm
ii)
a
Explain
i)
why
t he
included
water;
ii)
t hem.
Describe
c
Explain
d
A
t he
t he
not
e
of
active
transpor t.
[2]
a
bag
t hat
contained
distilled
dried
t he
bags
before
weighing
results
results
shown
of
t he
in
t he
graph.
[4]
students’
[5]
criticised
t he
results
saying
t hat
t hey
were
reliable.
State
t he
examples
[1]
investigation.
student
two
[1]
surface
b
Give
students:
how
t he
results
Predict
bags
if
what
lef t
procedure
more
will
for
prediction.
should
reliable.
happen
anot her
18
be
changed
to
make
[1]
to
t he
hours.
mass
of
t he
Explain
your
[3]
31
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Topic
2.indd
31
08/01/2015
15:57
Unit
A
Photosynthesis,
A.3
Learning
By
the
end
and
A.3.1
outcomes
of
this
topic
be
able
define
the
process
state
the
of
photosynthesis
to:
term
is
t he
process
by
which
green
plants
make
t heir
own
food.
photosynthesis
They
●
webs
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
●
chains
you
The
should
food
food
requirements
do
t his
by
conver ting
light
energy
from
t he
Sun
into
chemical
energy
for
in
glucose.
The
glucose
t hat
is
made
by
t he
plant
is
stored
as
starch
and
photosynthesis
also
●
explain
what
happens
conver ted
into
many
ot her
molecules.
The
following
are
needed
for
during
photosynt hesis
to
take
place.
photosynthesis
●
●
describe
the
fate
of
Chloroplasts
chlorophyll
products
of
in
cell
str uctures
t hat
contain
t he
green
pigment
the
and
enzymes
t hat
catalyse
reactions
to
make
glucose.
photosynthesis.
●
Light
●
energy
Carbon
●
Water
The
dioxide
used
in
of
(some
by
we
can
t he
t he
root
Sun
which
by
write
is
hairs
used
ot her
a
or
from
by
+
e.g.
lamps.
are
by
glucose
t he
(which
plant).
The
can
rest
be
is
stored
excreted
as
starch),
and
can
be
organisms.
word
dioxide
sources,
osmosis.
equation
for
light
carbon
ar ticial
atmosphere.
photosynt hesis
of
respiration
Overall,
from
from
absorbed
products
oxygen
eit her
photosynt hesis
as
follows:
energy
water
glucose
+
oxygen
chlorophyll
A
p
Figure
A.3.1.1
The
success
of
simplied
chemical
equation
for
photosynt hesis
light
such
as
these
bananas
depends
+
6H
2
understanding
of
and
why
plants
food
for
O
C
2
need
to
produce
themselves
and
H
6
photosynthesis
O
12
+
6O
6
2
chlorophyll
carbon
own
energy
on
6CO
an
is:
crops
dioxide
water
glucose
oxygen
their
us
Practical
T
o
test
a
leaf
for
Activity
the
presence
A.3.1
of
starch
Requirements
●
a
suitable
●
a
beaker,
leaf,
e.g.
●
a
water
●
a
test
●
a
thermometer
●
forceps
●
a
●
ethanol
Hibiscus
●
dilute
iodine
in
potassium
iodide
3
The
p
Figure
A.3.1.2
T
o
produce
a
of
need
and
corn
plenty
good
materials
water
(maize),
of
light,
supplies
for
and
these
high
of
85°C
●
a
Bunsen
solution)
burner
or
electric
water
heater
tile
biochemical
test
for
starch
●
a
●
gauze
●
eye
●
matches
involves
tripod
protection
is
brown,
turns
blue-black.
checking
However,
whether
leaves
cannot
iodine
be
solution,
tested
for
plants
starch
simply
by
putting
iodine
solution
on
them
because:
raw
photosynthesis
carbon
at
(iodine
good
temperatures
the
bath
tube
white
which
crop
solution
250 cm
●
the
●
leaves
chlorophyll
in
leaves
makes
any
colour
change
more
difficult
to
see
–
are
not
very
permeable
to
iodine
solution.
dioxide
32
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CSEC
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Unit
A
Topic
3.indd
32
08/01/2015
15:58
Photosynthesis,
For
these
food
reasons
1
Remove
2
Place
it
the
in
chains
the
leaf
following
to
boiling
and
be
food
for
Photosynthesis
procedure
tested
water
webs
from
20
the
is
used.
plant.
seconds.
This
makes
the
leaf
more
boiling
permeable
3
Ensure
to
that
the
all
iodine
Bunsen
solution.
burners
ethanol
are
turned
leaf
off.
water
at
85°C
4
Place
the
ethanol
leaf
and
in
the
a
test
leaf
tube
in
a
of
ethanol.
water
bath
at
Place
about
the
test
85°C,
tube
as
with
shown
the
in
gauze
Figure
5
After
A.3.1.3.
10
The
minutes,
ethanol
remove
will
the
boil
leaf
and
from
de-colourise
the
ethanol
the
and
leaf.
wash
it
in
the
tripod
water
6
bath
Spread
to
the
cover
record
for
20
leaf
the
your
seconds.
out
leaf
on
and
a
white
wait
for
tile
1
and
add
minute.
enough
Pour
off
of
the
the
iodine
iodine
solution
solution
and
p
observation.
Figure
A.3.1.3
ethanol
7
Record
the
colour
of
the
I
Bunsen
o_ _ _ _ o
the
lid
Wear
i.____
is
of
ammable.
the
eye
ethanol
protection
All
Bunsen
bottle
and
is
burners
must
be
turned
off
choose
light
be
t hat
two
and
tested
shown
plants
t he
for
in
leaves
in
starch
Figure
produce
from
ot her
t he
t he
using
take
care
not
to
burn
l
yourself.
starch
same
dark.
t he
when
species;
Af ter
a
t hey
for
week,
procedure
1
are
photosynt hesising,
week
a
leaf
described
keep
from
one
each
above.
The
shows
starch
are
t hat
Key
used
destarched.
destarched
a
up.
A
Plants
plants,
leaf
plant
plant
in
t he
and
should
results
leaf
t hat
are
Practical
T
o
find
out
if
a
plant
kept
in
t he
wit hout
have
used
t he
Activity
needs
any
been
in
dark
in
for
stores
t he
next
a
of
dark
t hree
week
all
starch
for
a
is
of
stores
described
week,
practical
its
known
which
energy
near
this
such
apparatus
and
from
has
use
carbon
Destarched
are
The
chemical
plants
it
absorb
to
make
dioxide
water.
been
week,
is
in
lights
terms
by
glucose
A.3.1.4.
if
burners
Photosynthesis
is
This
heating
naked
!
light
check
When
place
before
removed.
process
To
not
leaf.
as
Ethanol
do
in
so
that
up
used
plant
the
in
A
dark
all
of
plant
for
its
that
about
stored
a
starch
respiration.
of
as
as
a
leaf
kept
in
the
b
light
leaf
kept
in
the
dark
activities.
A.3.2
chlorophyll
to
make
starch
Requirements
p
Figure
two
●
as
●
leaves
for
Practical
Activity
a
variegated
plant
that
has
been
Y
ou
will
The
plant
several
2
Pick
need
green
plant
with
have
if
results
plants
of
testing
produce
variegated
been
leaves,
destarched
when
and
e.g.
variegated
then
put
in
the
and
(b)
kept
the
for
a
week
in
(a)
the
dark
Hibiscus.
light
for
days.
one
upper
a
should
The
see
destarched
light
1
to
A.3.1
starch
from
A.3.1.4
leaves
of
side,
and
the
leaves
making
the
a
and
clear
non-green
make
a
drawing
distinction
areas
(such
of
its
between
as
the
Figure
A.3.1.5a).
3
Using
the
method
in
Practical
Activity
A.3.1,
carry
out
Before
a
starch
test
on
the
whole
with
Figure
A.3.1.5b
shows
the
testing
After
testing
with
leaf.
results.
p
Figure
iodine
solution
iodine
solution
A.3.1.5a
p
Figure
A.3.1.5b
variegated
leaf
The
for
results
of
testing
a
starch
33
835292
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Unit
A
Topic
3.indd
33
08/01/2015
15:58
Photosynthesis,
Photosynthesis
Practical
T
o
find
out
if
a
Activity
plant
needs
food
chains
and
food
webs
A.3.3
light
in
order
to
make
starch
Requirements
●
as
●
a
for
●
foil
1
Y
ou
for
2
Practical
potted
or
black
will
a
paper
need
a
a
strip
upper
shown
stray
in
A.3.1
the
and
plant
3
Put
4
After
in
dark
paper
which
can
the
for
a
week
clips
has
plant
for
reach
in
paper
sides
A.3.1.6a.
paper
several
it
black
lower
Figure
of
the
of
and
light
edges
test
Activity
kept
been
destarched
a
Practical
a
Make
leaf
foil)
leaf,
with
pick
using
Activity
A.3.1.6b.
to
sure
under
a
in
the
dark
b
no
the
the
the
bright
leaf
light.
and
method
p
in
Figure
if
a
the
The
result
leaf
of
in
testing
a
A.3.1.
shows
Practical
out
A.3.1.6
shows
the
Activity
plant
to
see
if
plants
need
light
results.
to
find
it
as
leaf
T
o
placing
foil.
place
days
starch
the
(or
of
b
Figure
by
week.
Attach
the
plant
needs
photosynthesise
A.3.4
carbon
dioxide
in
order
to
make
starch
Requirements
●
2
potted
●
2
polythene
plants
that
●
2
elastic
●
dish
of
soda
●
dish
of
saturated
have
been
in
the
dark
for
a
week
to
destarch
them
bags
bands
lime
sodium
hydrogencarbonate
solution
saturated
1
sodium
hydrogencarbonate
releases
carbon
solution
Put
a
dish
cover
the
saturated
with
a
sodium
hydrogencarbonate
polythene
bag
secured
solution
tightly
with
inside
an
a
elastic
pot
and
band.
dioxide
Sodium
2
polythene
of
plant
Prepare
hydrogencarbonate
another
potted
solution
plant
in
breaks
exactly
down
the
to
same
release
way,
but
carbon
use
dioxide.
soda
lime,
bag
which
3
Put
4
After
absorbs
the
plants
several
carbon
in
the
days
in
dioxide.
light
the
and
leave
light
test
from
the
a
them
leaf
for
several
from
each
days.
plant
for
starch.
Questions
1
What
can
you
conclude
results
shown
in
Figures
A.3.1.5b
and
dampened
A.3.1.6?
soda
lime
absorb
to
carbon
2
Explain
why
the
potted
plant
with
saturated
hydrogencarbonate
solution
dioxide
elastic
should
be
used
in
Practical
Activity
A.3.4
(see
Figure
A.3.1.7).
Figure
A.3.1.7
band
3
p
Figure
A.3.1.7
T
wo
potted
plants
Predict
like
one
provided
one
without
with
any
carbon
carbon
dioxide
dioxide
what
the
leaves
from
the
two
plants
in
will
look
–
after
testing
with
iodine
solution.
and
4
Explain
why
destarched
plants
should
be
used
in
these
practicals.
34
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15:58
Photosynthesis,
food
chains
and
food
webs
Photosynthesis
It is very difcult to quantify how much starch is produced by leaves. The
iodine test tells us that starch is present, but not how much. This means it is
no good for telling us how much photosynthesis goes on in a plant. It is much
easier if we look at using oxygen, the by-product of photosynthesis, instead.
Practical
T
o
demonstrate
Activity
the
evolution
A.3.5
of
oxygen
by
a
photosynthesising
plant
Requirements
●
a
test
●
a
glass
tube
beaker,
●
a
●
pondweed,
●
a
glass
funnel
●
2
funnel
●
●
●
stop
clock
●
sodium
●
scissors
water
●
a
a
thermometer
●
matches
a
lamp
3
An
aquatic
the
rate
gas
the
1
are
of
supports
plant,
released
of
Assemble
as
to
and
can
the
2
blow
3
pondweed
Check
Record
many
4
that
the
with
the
the
are
light
for
of
or
can
be
plant
Remove
the
lamp
counted
the
bubbles
These
bubbles
by
number
of
so
number
of
adding
solution
under
is
Figure
a
or
if
Use
either
by
amount
using
of
investigate
bubbles
oxygen,
of
one
of
warm
using
water
a
sodium
solid).
Cut
a
short
length
water.
bubbles.
produced
over
60
seconds
by
to
shining
that
a
lamp
acclimatise
the
step
to
produced
conditions
3.
bubbles
Again,
are
the
new
over
wait
produced
onto
the
(longer
60
the
3–5
over
apparatus.
if
not
Wait
environmental
seconds
same
as
(or
conditions.
longer).
when
you
minutes.
60
seconds
evolved
tube
collect
to
small
contain
A.3.1.8.
small
1 g
producing
bubbles
in
in
concentration,
(largely
test
used
photosynthesises,
produced).
intensity
the
shown
bubbles
being
6
the
it
as
dioxide
pondweed
Record
Count
cut
splint
pondweed,
plant
counted.
(0.1%
5
7
the
the
scissors
number
minutes
be
carbon
through
bubbles
Increase
3–5
As
apparatus
the
hydrogencarbonate
of
Canadian
freshly
hydrogencarbonate
photosynthesis.
increase
straw
such
photosynthesis.
products
and
250 cm
(or
longer).
gas
oxygen)
to
bubbles
bubble
0
of
0
gas
0
glass
0
(transparent)
1~ ------1
beaker
~o f ' - - - - - - ' I
0
0
0
warm
0
0
with
0
carbon
freshly
water
dissolved
dioxide
cut
pondweed
glass
(transparent)
funnel
to
gas
bubbles
test
tube
p
(to
into
water
to
Figure
of
support
direct
A.3.1.8
aquatic
The
apparatus
to
measure
the
rate
of
for
funnel
allow
to
fresh
circulate
pondweed)
photosynthesis
plants
35
835292
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HSB
Unit
A
Topic
3.indd
35
08/01/2015
15:58
Photosynthesis,
Photosynthesis
The
apparatus
various
in
factors
pondweed.
Figure
on
These
temperature,
and
t he
factors
A
group
of
the
the
species
an
They
of
used
distances
are
in
the
Light
a
of
used
light
the
intensity
aquatic
ruler
light
dioxide
effect
light
from
can
be
Figure
A.3.1.9
freshwater
bubbles
in
the
of
bright
to
and
light
plant
oxygen;
water
animals
In
aquatic
plant
and
the
a
1
Plot
2
Describe
a
apparatus
that
to
intensity
they
meter
give
a
5
The
are
o ___
it
does
very
not
store
cells
starch
with
dissolve
●
●
instead
than
in
if
the
be
cell
of
in
a
light
to
nd
out
photosynthesis
a
local
bench
how
of
a
stream.
lamp
intensities.
units
Rate
of
at
different
Their
results
photosynthesis /number
bubbles
per
minute
6
40
18
60
24
100
25
a
of
main
the
student’s
your
graph
results.
shows
[6]
about
the
effect
of
light
intensity
[4]
realised
how
reasons
students
plant
from
valid
that
they
for
the
wanted
to
another
they
could
shape
of
the
the
use
for
a
light
intensity
[2]
that
results
the
how
you
with
they
have
drawn.
another
would
[4]
species
do
this
to
plants.
[3]
products
photosynt hesis
Plants
reading
graph
Suggest
between
photosynthetic
no
this.
of
compare
stream.
comparison
product
had
get
t he
is
glucose,
glucose
made
which
in
is
a
sugar.
All
photosynt hesis
sugars
for
t hings.
Much of the glucose is converted into starch and then stored. Starch, like
Conver ted
into
t he
Conver ted
into
ot her
make
so
in
is
insoluble
complex
sugar
sucrose
for
transpor t.
water
much
stored
just
plant
cell
carbohydrates,
such
as
cellulose,
which
is
used
to
walls.
as
kept
Combined
wit h
ions
containing
t he
elements
nitrogen
and
phosphor us
–
to
and
make
nucleic
acids
(DNA
and
RNA).
more
●
can
found
position
range
A.3.1.8
of
photosynthesis
glucose?
glucose,
compact,
glucose
rate
of
glucose, is a carbohydrate. The rest of the glucose is used in a variety of ways.
●
is
light,
tip
plants
unlike
Figure
rate
10
carbohydrates.
several
Starch,
the
20
what
Suggest
Suggest
The
their
of
of
as
plant.
4
Fate
lling
in
the
had
to
on
30
of
students
0.
make
●
graph
the
The
of
of
wavelengt h
such
for
of
do
effects
dissolve
oxygen
3
Why
t he
t he
plants
webs
concentration
inuences
light
plant
intensity /arbitrary
microbes
Study
aquatic
food
table.
this
on
✔
investigate
of
and
produces
some
provide
to
intensity,
of
p
used
photosynt hesis
chains
Activity
students
increasing
of
are
carbon
Written
Investigating
A.3.1.8
rate
food
Combined
wit h
nitrogen,
sulphur
and
ot her
elements
to
make
proteins.
starch
glucose
●
Respired
to
release
energy
t hat
is
needed
for
growt h
and
cell
activities.
seeds,
e.g.
peanuts,
solution.
●
Conver ted
cashew
into
nuts
lipids,
and
soya
such
as
oils
found
in
many
beans.
36
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A
Topic
3.indd
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15:58
Photosynthesis,
food
chains
and
food
webs
Photosynthesis
enzymes,
cell
membranes
nitrate
from
ions
the
soil
proteins
photosynthesis
amino
stored
e.g.
in
peas
stored
seeds,
and
in
respiration
acids
beans
seeds
glucose
lipids
as
energy
glucose
store
stored
short
cellulose
in
leaves
term
as
energy
starch
sucrose
store
for
use
at
night
transported
to
stored
cellulose
fibres
in
cassava,
cell
in
yams,
potatoes
as
stems
walls
bolls
and
for
in
seed
cotton
long-term
roots
stored
in
stored
A.3.1.10
The
fate
Photosynthesis
Photosynt hesis
contain
strikes
rst
t he
it
step
dioxide
in
molecules
t he
rest
uses
a
is
series
not
diffuses
Chloroplasts
The
also
of
shows
so
in
t hese
t he
photosynthesis
chloroplasts,
to
it
of
This
break
is
used
and
palisade
cells
str ucture
in
of
water
by
to
and
are
green
absorbs
molecules
released
from
make
t he
is
single
light
apar t.
sugar.
This
reacts
in
is
t he
wit h
Oxygen
t hey
t hat
carbon
from
respiration
water
and
air.
spongy
leaves
because
t he
water
mitochondria
into
a
which
pigment
reactions
cells
cane
structure
Hydrogen
leaf
found
of
in
chemical
needed,
are
plant
energy
sugar.
of
out
ar rangement
whic h
and
products
chlorophyll.
t he
making
the
place
pigment
and
in
takes
of
in
beet
sugar
Figure
store
dispersal
sugar
p
energy
mesophyll
shown
in
palisade
Figure
cells
in
leaves.
A.3.1.12,
mesophyll
cell.
p
Figure
A.3.1.11
adapted
large
they
to
surface
are
distance
diffuse
thin,
for
to
Leaves
absorb
area
so
light
of
the
cells
is
a
a
tissues;
short
dioxide
that
well
having
green
there
carbon
are
by
to
absorb
it
for
photosynthesis
37
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A
Topic
3.indd
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15:58
Photosynthesis,
Photosynthesis
food
chains
and
food
webs
sunlight
upper
cuticle:
layer
cuts
waterproof
that
also
down
water
lost
epidermis:
cells
with
no
goes
straight
single
layer
chloroplasts.
of
Light
through
the
by
palisade
mesophyll:
evaporation
chloroplasts
the
palisade
contain
lots
cells
of
chloroplasts.
cell
wall
cytoplasm
Most
photosynthesis
cell
spongy
occurs
mesophyll:
here
membrane
leaf
more
stem
cells
rounded
with
lots
of
vein:
air
spaces
contains
nucleolus
between
xylem
vessels
them
that
bring
and
salts
water
vacuole
lower
thick
epidermis:
cuticle.
Has
no
leaf
lots
and
to
the
nucleus
phloem
root
of
tiny
holes
tubes
called
stoma).
t.
(singular
These
gases
to
in
p
Figure
A.3.1.12
chloroplasts,
0
The
which
arrangement
are
found
in
allow
diffuse
and
of
out
cells
palisade
that
take
stoma
guard
stomata
in
a
and
plant
palisade
dissolved
mesophyll
cell
food
away
carbon
enables
spongy
cell
it
to
mesophyll
dioxide
diffuses
in
photosynthesise
efficiently;
photosynthesis
takes
place
inside
cells
Questions
Key
terms
!
Mesophyll
The
between
upper
and
cells
the
in
the
lower
the
tissues
in
a
1
Define
the
2
Write
3
Identify
term
photosynthesis
leaf
out
the
word
equation
for
photosynthesis.
epidermis
epidermis.
mesophyll
The
the
raw
materials,
source
of
energy
and
the
products
of
have
photosynthesis.
many
chloroplasts
that
carry
out
4
What
is
the
role
of
5
Explain
6
a
Why
do
leaves
b
Why
do
they
chlorophyll
in
plants?
photosynthesis.
Stoma
A
epidermis
diffusion
dioxide
small
of
of
a
hole
leaf
gases
and
that
–
oxygen
the
atmosphere
the
leaf.
in
the
how
leaves
gain
their
light,
carbon
dioxide
and
water.
allows
have
a
large
surface
area?
carbon
–
and
have
many
small
holes
on
the
lower
surfaces?
between
the
air
inside
38
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A
Topic
3.indd
38
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15:58
Photosynthesis,
A.3.2
Plants
food
chains
and
food
webs
Interdependence
are
microbes
are
eaten
are
called
impor tant
on
by
t he
to
Ear t h
us
and
all
because
herbivores,
of
organisms
ot her
t hey
whic h
in
Interdependence
animals,
make
tur n
food
are
and
Learning
most
available
eaten
by
of
for
By
t he
us.
car nivores.
Plants
the
because
t hey
photosynt hesise
and
be
Producers
are
and
t he
also
for
indirect
all
t he
source
of
parasites
food
and
for
car nivores
t hat
shows
show
two
feeding
different
relationships
food
chains.
by
The
means
arrows
of
food
show
chains.
t he
Figure
energy
plants
ways
in
which
depend
either
directly
direction
in
which
draw
.. .. ..
and
●
the
food
chains
from
broad-winged
both
aquatic
of
and
a
habitats
identify
trophic
the
in
a
food
terrestrial
(marine
freshwater)
organisms
lizard
principles
chain
webs
long-horned
you
indirectly
food
ows.
grass
the
organisms
explain
A.3.2.1
●
t he
topic
to:
eat
●
can
this
decomposers.
or
We
of
able
explain
on
herbivores,
outcomes
provide
other
food.
organisms
Plants
●
producers
end
should
of
and
levels
food
of
chain.
hawk
grasshopper
..
mangrove
shrimp
tree
great
blue
p
heron
p
Figure
A.3.2.1
T
wo
examples
of
a
food
chain
Figure
0
A.3.2.2
Key
A
mangrove
forest
terms
!
Herbivores
are
primary
second ary
consumers.
consumers
In
t he
rst
and
food
animals
chain
in
t hat
feed
Figure
on
t hem
A.3.2.1,
t he
are
broad-
Producer
its
winged
heron
hawk
is
a
is
a
terti ary
secondar y
consumer,
in
t he
second
chain
t he
great
own
food
chain
may
have
t hree,
Primary
four,
ve
or
more
trophic
organism
by
that
makes
photosynthesis.
blue
consumer.
that
Each
An
food
consumer
gains
energy
by
An
organism
eating
levels:
producers.
Secondary
producer
primary consumer
secondary consumer
organism
There
are
leaves.
plants
many
Ver y
and
pr imar y
few
animals
animals
are
consumer s
feed
on
t hat
one
feed
type
of
on
g rass
food.
and
Animals
on
mang rove
t hat
eat
bot h
omnivores
eating
better
way
to
show
to
draw
t he
feeding
relationships
in
a
community
is
a
food
web .
Figure
A.3.2.4
shows
a
in
a
forest
in
by
consumers.
energy
by
An
organism
eating
consumers.
of
simplified
level
Feeding
level
in
a
food
food
web
An
energy
consumer
gains
Trophic
organisms
gains
primary
T
ertiary
that
that
secondary
A
consumer
tertiary consumer
chain.
Producers,
consumers
Dominica.
and
decomposers
trophic
Food
show
are
examples
of
levels.
chain
feeding
organism
at
A
simple
way
relationships
each
trophic
to
with
one
level.
39
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Topic
3.indd
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15:58
Interdependence
of
Photosynthesis,
organisms
barn
antilles
p
Figure
A.3.2.3
Herbivory
in
racer
food
chains
and
food
webs
owl
(snake)
action
mangrove
cuckoo
Dominican
0
anole
(lizard)
common
Study
✔
bat
caterpillars
Many
are
fruit
tip
producers
microscopic
in
aquatic
algae.
habitats
Some
grow
bush-crickets
on
rocks
or
suspended
the
on
in
coral,
the
many
water
are
forming
phytoplankton.
grass
p
Figure
A.3.2.4
organisms
Many
such
fungi
insects.
As
released.
water
aquatic
Phytoplankton
habitat
from
(×100)
Decomposers
and
fall
and
suppor t
reef.
some
of
the
litter
break
organic
become
also
root
matter
hairs
under
also
down
on
for
Decomposers
soil
food
ground.
between
roots
and
which
(see
Decomposers,
in
t he
soil
ear t hworms
organic
ions
matter,
Figure
dark-
soil
mineral
magnesium
absorb
to
and
ions
t hem
A.2.2.10,
are
along
page
wit h
26).
webs
but
in
rest
food
trees
t hey
do
turn
of
web
t he
food
and
not
are
t hat
is
secondar y
rst
eat
eaten
food
algae
for
are
all
by
of
t hem.
small
into
small
Bacteria
animals,
and
which
e.g.
mangrove
pieces
fungi
by
crabs
feed
provide
on
food
to
web.
suppor ted
live
consumers,
shredded
on
t he
by
ver y
coral,
small
absorb
on
Bacteria
dead
and
and
fungi
Here
are
are
grazed
t hree
by
sea
food
urchins
chains
for
and
coral
sh
like
organisms
sunlight
is
and
t he
coral
produce
food.
decaying
Algae
growing
on
coral
reefs
Phytoplankton
web
A
more
show
feeding
many
organisms.
complex
relationships
way
to
between
Phytoplankton
of
A
many
food
food
web
is
chains.
-
- -
parrotsh
zooplankton
coral
parrotsh.
reefs.
matter.
composed
relationships
matter
suppor ts
plants,
t heir
t he
organic
phosphate
available
and
and
down
break
ions,
provide
t he
Microscopic
They
Food
feeding
trees
terms
!
feed
leaf
nitrate
chains
t hey
t he
Anot her
that
in
This
shows
forest
Dominica
bacteria,
t he
from
shrimps,
t hem
0
web
fruits,
an
leaves
Key
as
These
food
in
decomposers
such
t hrough
Aquatic
A.3.2.5
live
and
t he
food
forest
humus.
nutrients
Figure
This
a
organisms
as
coloured
p
in
leaves,
coral
buttery
sh
moray
eel
parrotsh
octopus
moray
eel
dolphin
40
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HSB
Unit
A
Topic
3.indd
40
08/01/2015
15:58
Photosynthesis,
food
chains
and
food
webs
Interdependence
of
organisms
Figure A.3.2.7 shows a food web for a coral reef, showing how the feeding
relationships are more complex than shown in the three food chains opposite.
sun
phytoplankton
zooplankton
p
Figure
sea
from
coral
A.3.2.6
the
many
These
are
urchins
surface
of
these
long-spined
grazing
of
sea
a
the
coral
algae
reef;
urchins
when
died
off
anemone
around
Jamaica
the
algae
grew,
jellyfish
overshadowing
the
coral
which
died
parrotfish
crab
0
butterflyfish
sea
turtle
Talk
about
?
The
complex
Discuss
web
these
friends,
family
of
life
questions
and
with
teachers.
your
Y
ou
octopus
may
nd
webs
●
that
will
How
drawing
help
are
the
the
organisms
some
food
discussion.
following
marine
dependent
on
each
shark
other:
p
Figure
A.3.2.7
Part
of
a
food
web
for
a
Caribbean
coral
algae,
phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
reef
parrotsh,
crabs,
coral,
sharks,
shrimps,
sea
sea
urchins,
birds,
lobsters
and
turtles?
carnivorous
●
fish
What
are
the
long-term
consequences
water
if
shermen
take
beetles
too
many
of
the
edible
species?
tadpoles
small
fish
i
water
fleas
mosquito
larvae
freshwater
mussels
green
p
Figure
A.3.2.8
Part
of
a
algae
food
web
for
a
freshwater
pool
41
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A
Topic
3.indd
41
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15:58
Interdependence
of
Photosynthesis,
organisms
We
are
dependent
indirectly.
chemical
plant
0
for
our
food
Photosynt hesis
energy
material,
in
plants.
If
we
from
plants.
The
on
t he
compounds
e.g.
from
is
cereals
eat
sh
process
or
or
plants
process
t hat
beans,
meat,
t hat
animals
t hat
make
t hen
t hen
star ts
and
we
plant
are
are
light
tissues.
getting
getting
ever yt hing
chains
is
and
directly
conver ts
up
we
food
food
and
energy
When
our
into
we
energy
energy
webs
eat
directly
indirectly
photosynt hesis.
Questions
Exam
✔
tip
1
When
drawing
food
chains
or
Believe
These
webs
point
The
make
from
the
arrows
energy
sure
that
food
show
the
to
the
it
or
not
there
are
animals
that
feed
on
long-spined
sea
urchins.
food
are
crabs,
starfish,
porcupine
fish
and
wrasse.
arrows
the
way
feeder.
a
Draw
a
food
b
State
the
chain
that
includes
sea
urchins.
the
trophic
levels
of
each
of
the
organisms
in
the
food
chain.
ows.
2
Referring
the
3
to
trophic
Refer
two
to
level
Figures
freshwater
each
A.3.2.4,
Figure
of
each
two
terrestrial
food
chains
indicating
organism.
A.3.2.7
food
draw
and
A.3.2.8
chains.
In
to
each
draw
case
two
marine
indicate
the
food
chains
trophic
level
and
of
organism.
Summary
Photosynthesis,
●
●
Photosynthesis
The
site
The
source
artificial
●
Plants
many
are
cell
into
energy
The
walls
Plants
are
is
of
webs
light
energy
chloroplasts
photosynthesis
materials
such
to
as
for
and
are
in
is
transport
also
to
either
which
energy
sulphur
–
chemical
are
cellulose
the
amino
to
or
water.
converted
throughout
converted
sunlight
and
storage,
make
energy.
cells.
dioxide
sugars,
for
into
plant
light
carbon
make
sucrose
Sugars
are
starch
nitrogen
proteins.
producers
and
lipids
into
for
plant.
acids
that
Sugars
that
are
are
stored
or
are
eat
as
they
for
for
many
them,
responsible
living
indirectly
decomposers
both
are
themselves
herbivores
that
and
and
for
for
organisms,
if
they
feed
on
are
and
either
directly
animals
so
also
food
if
that
and
rely
to
supply
decomposers.
carnivores
dead
carnivores,
producing
animals
on
they
eat
are
live
plants.
plants
Many
in
the
ways.
food
more
food
that
herbivores,
same
nutrients
provide
humans
chain
shows
organisms
interconnecting
the
for
and
food
conversion
raw
with
and
energy.
Plants
A
the
photosynthesis
herbivores
●
of
light.
use
energy
●
is
chains
photosynthesis
combined
made
for
of
compounds,
making
●
food
feeding
freshwater
at
the
feeding
different
food
chains
relationships
in
relationships
trophic
and
a
is
levels.
a
habitat,
more
such
A
between
food
web
complete
as
a
three
way
forest,
or
shows
to
coral
many
show
reef
or
pool.
42
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Unit
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Topic
3.indd
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15:58
Photosynthesis,
food
chains
and
food
webs
Practice
8
Practice
Section
1
Chloroplasts
in
a
palisade
mesophyll
cell
are
Questions
in
t he
Questions
A
vacuole
B
nucleus
C
cytoplasm
D
between
A
Which
best
describes
t he
process
known
as
t he
cell
membrane
and
t he
cell
wall
photosynt hesis?
9
A
The
uptake
of
water
by
t he
roots
of
A
student
He
B
Transpor t
of
sugar
in
t he
phloem
of
t hen
Absor ption
D
The
of
carbon
dioxide
by
t he
2
Which
of
of
t he
light
energy
following
is
to
make
t he
gas
oxygen
nitrogen
Which
The
leaves
C
carbon
hydrogen
Which
of
used
B
The
stained
brown
in
indicating
that
the
The
stained
D
is
a
leaves
leaves
The
4
lion
B
rabbit
C
cabbage
D
human
Which
and
10
being
organism
absorbs
t he
producer
B
consumer
C
carnivore
D
decomposer
Which
is
t he
of
all
all
with
t hat
stored
and
a
week.
t hem
for
conclusions?
iodine
t he
starch
with
stored
black
stained
t hat
solution
plant
had
had
iodine
starch
wit h
brown
t he
had
iodine
made
been
used
up.
solution
been
used
up.
solution
glucose
and
plant
wit h
had
iodine
made
solution
glucose
and
of
starch.
t he
following
digests
dead
organic
matter
A
Sunlight
B
Water
and
carbon
are
t he
raw
materials
for
and
oxygen
C
Water
and
sunlight
D
Carbon
dioxide
externally
products?
Section
1
A
term
for
t he
green
pigment
found
in
dioxide
and
oxygen
B
student
used
t he
t he
apparatus
effect
of
shown
different
in
light
t he
diagram
intensities
to
on
t he
t he
leaves
for
tested
photosynt hesis?
A
What
dark
and
producer?
investigate
5
t he
starch.
leaves
stored
A
in
leaves
results
black
stored
following
his
the
dioxide
t he
describes
that
indicating
3
t he
stained
indicating
D
plant
of
indicating
C
B
two
food.
photosynt hesis?
A
potted
leaves.
A
use
a
removed
plants.
starch.
C
kept
plants.
rate
of
photosynt hesis
of
a
pond
plant.
The
student
plants?
monitored
A
vacuole
B
chlorophyll
C
mesophyll
D
stomata
t he
investigation.
gas
room
The
temperature
table
shows
t hroughout
t he
student’s
t he
results.
collects
glass
tank
here
with
water
test-tube
6
In
a
food
chain,
which
provides
energy
for
secondar y
consumers?
pond
A
producers
B
sunlight
C
ter tiar y
D
primar y
plant
consumers
consumers
syringe
0
7
The
diagram
shows
t he
trophic
levels
in
a
food
chain.
scale / mm
10
Producers
Primar y
consumers
consumers
Ter tiar y
Which
level
trophic
Secondar y
20
consumers
has
t he
most
energy?
30
air
A
Producers
B
Primar y
bubble
40
in
movement
of
capillary
consumers
air
bubble
tube
50
movable
C
Secondar y
D
Ter tiar y
consumers
60
lamp
consumers
70
80
ruler
-I-~_'__'_'_'__________________
43
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Unit
A
Topic
3.indd
43
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15:58
Practice
Photosynthesis,
Questions
3
Distance
lamp
of
from
Distance
pond
by
air
travelled
bubble
Rate
in
a
A
student
investigated
a
food
local
chains
habitat
and
and
food
webs
found
four
of
photosynthesis/
organisms
feeding
organisms
are:
at
different
trophic
levels.
The
−1
plant/mm
5
minutes/mm
20
mm min
30
long-horned
6.0
i)
30
26
5.2
40
14
2.8
ii)
50
7
60
3
t he
chain.
[2]
Indicate
of
b
0.6
In
one
i)
Describe
how
apparatus
ii)
State
why
to
t he
obtain
gas
is
investigation.
iii)
State
why
tubing.
b
i)
ii)
c
t he
Draw
Explain
t he
a
t he
t hese
produced
would
use
results.
during
in
t he
c
t he
The
bubble
moves
down
Sea
t he
grass
t he
rate
graph
of
results.
of
photosynt hesis
t he
Sea
results.
The
products
of
chain
tur tles,
[4]
photosynt hesis
are
sugar
and
i)
Write
a
word
equation
for
are
of
Describe
how
cell.
photosynthesis.
photosynt hesis
Describe
c
Explain
t he
fate
photosynt hesis.
process
why
to
all
t he
lizard
hawk
food
trophic
level
found
t he
no
to
grasshoppers.
t he
ot her
grasshoppers
organisms
were
describes
marine
food
algae
eaten
sea
t he
which
parrotfish.
food
for
on
by
and
chains
t he
feeding
habitat.
urchins
sea
are
puffer
and
grass
grazed
fish.
Humans
tur tles.
including
by
parrotfish.
Groupers
catch
and
are
eat
groupers.
to
occurs
wit hin
given
in
show
t he
t he
passage.
feeding
Use
different
[2]
in
each
food
chain.
[2]
a
Using
only
information
in
t he
passage
describe
t he
[5]
likely
b
chain
a
oxygen.
d
leaf
all
grow
parrotfish
two
organisms
ii)
a
provides
relationships
a
if
make
[4]
happen
passage
in
organisms
predators
[5]
food
anolis
to
[4]
urchins
Draw
2
student
photosynt hetic
missing
[1]
your
would
following
Many
table.
food
relationships
[1]
air
t he
on
grass
organisms
organism.
t he
what
removed.
[3]
[1]
Calculate
from
student
each
area
Suggest
a
grasshopper
Arrange
of
t he
sugar
made
effect
of
humans
on
t his
marine
habitat.
[3]
during
[5]
photosynt hesis
living
t hings.
is
a
ver y
impor tant
[3]
44
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Unit
A
Topic
3.indd
44
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15:58
Unit
A
Energy
ow
and
cycles
A.4
A.4.1
Energy
through
an
ecosystem
Learning
By
Energy
ow
and
the
end
principal
source
of
energy
for
life
on
Ear t h
is
t he
Sun.
and
use
it
The
Sun’s
made
available
by
producers
t hat
absorb
it
to
make
be
sugars
conver ted
into
a
explain
wide
range
of
ot her
up
of
the
the
Sun’s
energy
atmosphere,
the
never
soil
or
reaches
the
producers
oceans.
Many
(plants).
Instead
terrestrial
it
warms
ecosystems,
why
in
almost
Figure
all
of
A.4.1.3,
the
Sun’s
are
too
inhospitable
energy
that
falls
●
to
here
support
is
wasted
much
as
far
plant
as
life,
each
concerned.
explain
so
●
how
As
you
producers
However,
in
some
is
can
of
not
see
in
t he
photosynt hesis
to
used
Figure
Sun’s
make
by
a
energy
A.4.1.2,
much
of
the
level
energy
trophic
each
explain
is
used
what
level
is
shown
by
photosynthesis
energy
of
numbers
that
and
reaches
is
available
trophic
pyramids
is
there
in
like
at
that
you
compounds.
at
Most
topic
to:
t hat
reduction
are
this
able
energy
●
is
of
loss
should
The
outcomes
biomass.
them.
energy
reaches
carbohydrates
producers
and
ot her
and
is
used
organic
by
t hem
molecules.
'I'
energy
is
available
not
for
photosynthesis
its
wavelength
not
suitable
absorption
if
is
for
by
chlorophyll
approximately
energy
400 000 kJ
from
the
Sun
of
radiant
falls
on
2
1
energy
is
m
of
the
plants
each
year
not
around
available
1%
of
the
energy
of
for
sunlight
falling
on
the
plant
photosynthesis
is
if
light
is
absorbed
and
from
the
by
chlorophyll
reflected
used
for
photosynthesis
plants’
surfaces
p
energy
is
not
available
for
Figure
light
passes
through
the
Figure
A.4.1.2
producers
Very
(green
little
of
the
energy
available
if
we
Is
only
it
better
eat
plant
for
the
foods
and
leaf
give
p
A.4.1.1
photosynthesis
planet
when
from
the
Sun
is
absorbed
up
more
by
eating
food
for
meat?
Would
there
be
everyone?
plants)
t
Figure
A.4.1.3
Most
Earth’s
surface
is
by
water;
surface
much
is
fairly
of
the
covered
of
the
land
barren
like
this
0
✔
Study
The
area
of
tundra
in
north
kilojoule
does
much
not
plant
Caribbean
support
life
as
(kJ)
is
the
unit
for
Norway
energy.
that
tip
There
are
1000
Joules
as
land
in
the
in
one
kilojoule.
10 000
alive.
unit,
kJ
every
You
day
Remember
kJ,
gures
when
for
to
you
energy
need
to
use
write
ow
about
stay
the
any
or
energy
consumption.
45
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
4.indd
45
08/01/2015
16:00
Energy
through
an
Energy
ecosystem
Energy
has
have
is
not
of
t he
Some
t heir
par ts
end
to
any
to
energy
t he
energy
wit hin
t he
t hat
plants
biological
up
to
being
photosynt hesis
organisms.
passes
plants
level
of
ot her
energy
of
trophic
may
happens
products
available
t hat
one
what
chemical
have
and
absorbed
molecules
t hat
cycles
and
t hey
made.
Some
so
ow
become
ow
are
to
respired
respired
shed
by
t heir
t he
plants,
leaves
and
so
t his
t hey
is
die
decomposers.
eaten
anot her.
are
Plants
by
herbivores
The
by
energy
t he
so
t he
energy
herbivores
herbivores,
get
passing
has
from
to
moved
eating
carnivores
from
plants
or
to
decomposers.
respiration
–
1025
production
urine
37
and
faeces
1900
consumed
3050
0
Exam
✔
Energy
ows
through
tip
in
one
direction
ecosystems,
it
does
not
p
cycle.
Energy
is
never
Figure
A.4.1.4
Energy
flow
through
a
herbivore
(primary
consumer)
in
kJ
recycled.
2
per
When
you
eat
respiration
food
and
you
much
use
it
lost
as
is
year
your
surroundings.
You
it
back
to
the
plants
heat
as
does
are
not
a
beacon
of
of
t he
•- 1-~~
input
during
from
the
cycle
The
an
of
ecosystem
energy
such
from
as
a
forest,
producers
to
coral
reef
herbivores
or
is
energy
trapped
by
t he
plants
in
photosynt hesis.
The
about
transfer
t he
ot her
trophic
levels
is
also
about
10%.
Sun
photosynthesis
energy
in
lost
energy
respiration
in
10%
---+
Producers
lost
energy
respiration
in
--.....-
excretion
+
Figure
A.4.1.5
energy
is
‘lost’
The
as
a
flow
of
result
energy
of
excretion
Top
and
excretion
••
Decomposition
ecosystem;
As
you
When
all
of
goes
that
t he
all
the
animals,
along
in
grow
in
farmers
such
crops,
t he
as
or
barley
food
and
such
food
grow,
energy
is
in
the
as
chain,
rice
plant
maize,
producers
digestion
‘lost’
to
food
or
less
in
goes
and
into
the
consumers
–
excretion
energy
is
available
because
respiration.
and
available
buy,
or
is
lost
respiration
death
incomplete
t he
decomposers
energy
cereals,
not
by
fur t her
to
farmers
Livestock
buy
note
consumption
move
energy
and
defecation
death
+
an
carnivores
energy
death
incomplete
lost
respiration
10%
defecation
through
respiration,
energy
in
Carnivores
and
•
death
lost
respiration
10%
Herbivores
defecation
p
round
transfer
light!
between
energy
not
farm.
light.
10%
You
grassland
don’t
livestock
give
of
1 m
in
Energy
to
for
yam
us
to
t hey
as
for
human
primar y
feed
may
t heir
grow
consumption,
consumers.
animals.
fodder
They
crops,
may
such
as
46
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
4.indd
46
08/01/2015
16:00
Energy
grass,
and
ow
and
alfalfa
cycles
and
chickens,
Energy
clover,
use
up
for
animals
much
of
t he
to
graze.
energy
in
Animals,
t he
food
such
t hat
as
t he
pigs,
cattle
farmer
gives
0
Talk
through
an
ecosystem
about
?
t hem.
This
available
A
means
to
us
vegetar ian
of
links
in
as
t he
diet
t he
t hat
of
t he
secondar y
can
food
little
suppor t
chain
energy
in
t he
plant
food
t hat
t hey
eat
is
Energy
consumer.
far
more
more
people.
individuals
at
If
we
t he
cut
end
down
of
t he
t he
number
food
chain
Discuss
friends,
may
can
be
fed.
This
is
because
we
are
cutting
down
t he
90%
‘wastage’
losses
this
that
t hat
consumers
occurs
between
t he
producers
(crop
plants)
and
of
many
meat
is
in
plant
(humans).
many
or igin
We
people
from
have
may
animal
a
poultr y,
increasing.
diet
countr ies
wit h
If
have
some
are
to
to
have
or
diet
lamb,
c hange
to
meat
var ied
sh,
far mer s
to
tend
sh.
t hat
beef
In
t hat
t he
includes
and
provide
one
diets
t hat
mainly
more
a
pork .
enough
includes
consist
developed
higher
The
food
more
for
of
drawing
Y
ou
some
might
help
the
discussion.
could
if
do
we
a
lot
all
to
save
became
the
vegetarians.
food
of
population
ever yone,
plant
your
countr ies
propor tion
human
with
teachers.
secondar y
planet
People
and
chains
of
diagrams
energy
food
statement
family
nd
in
foods
our
and
less
foods.
Questions
1
Use
Figures
energy
that
A.4.1.2
and
reaches
A.4.1.3
Earth
is
to
explain
made
why
available
to
very
little
food
of
the
Sun’s
webs.
p
Figure
these
2
Explain
why
all
the
producers
in
an
ecosystem
much
receive
3
What
the
than
next
Diagrams
way
trophic
Pyramids
cattle
t hen
t he
a
ot her
eaten
farm
number
by
will
of
the
consumers
energy
that
in
the
enters
same
a
we
draw
number
we
of
might
pyramid
each
pyramids
moves
self-sustained
animals,
t he
be
people
much
such
who
greater
will
diagram
draw
of
are
a
t hrough
of ten
farm,
as
be
like
on
t han
t he
t he
much
represent
somet hing
level
to
A.4.1.8
trophic
level
is
available
of
convenient
met hod
of
showing
t hat
in
pigs
farm.
of
A.4.1.7
goats,
The
number
greater
Figure
and
are
in
which
number
animals.
t han
t he
reared
of
tree
In
turn,
t hat
much
of
it?
number
of
on
t he
people.
p
Figure
is
of
t he
It
t he
like
number
t he
chain
it
number
t he
Figure
shows
food
t he
and
A.4.1.8,
numbers
in
t his
represents
pyramid-shaped.
of
number
However,
of
of
t his
is
an
The
trophic
is
not
of
numbers.
Figure
A.4.1.9
shows
a
pyramid
of
t hat
suppor ts
large
numbers
of
herbivores
each
t he
at
bar
case
numbers
and
a
t he
producer
and
herbivore
trophic
levels
form
few
an
mixed
farm
a
is
level.
always
of
small
t he
organisms
widt h
A
(people)
example
individual
each
(plants),
carnivores
which
farm.
at
producers
A.4.1.7
Cuba
0
for
Key
term
!
Pyramids
of
that
the
shows
numbers
numbers
A
of
diagram
organisms
wit h
each
trophic
level
in
an
ecosystem.
a
size
of
each
block
represents
the
carnivores.
numbers
Note
waste
and
plants
The
single
to
to
at
pyramids
give
for
ecosystems.
chicken,
live
(animals)
numbers.
propor tional
Figure
to
herbivores
trophic
to
energy
level?
energy
animals
a
afford
ecosystem.
in
If
we
food
numbers
small,
and
of
ecological
which
of
tertiary
Can
this
pyramids
called
in
Imagine
the
percentage
Ecological
t he
all
all
more
them
energy
A.4.1.6
cows
of
individual
organisms
at
inver ted
each
trophic
level.
pyramid.
47
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
A
Topic
4.indd
47
08/01/2015
16:00
Energy
Trophic
through
an
Energy
ecosystem
ow
and
cycles
levels
carnivores
secondary
consumers
small
birds
herbivores
primary
consumers
F \
caterpillars
plants
producers
oak
p
Figure
A.4.1.8
A
pyramid
of
numbers
for
an
imaginary
farm
Pyramids
A
0
second
bioma ss
Key
terms
known
!
into
Biomass
an
The
biological
organism.
This
sor t
a
Figure
A.4.1.9
An
inverted
pyramid
of
numbers
biomass
(i.e.
as
of
ecological
dr y
mass
pyramid
account
t he
of
of
fact
pyramid
living
biomass.
t hat
is
constr ucted
mater ial)
This,
organisms
at
eac h
unlike
var y
a
by
showing
trophic
pyramid
g reatly
in
of
size.
t he
level.
This
is
numbers,
Pyramids
takes
of
material
biomass
in
of
p
tree
excludes
are
hardly
ever
inver ted.
This
is
because
it
takes
many
kilog rams
the
of
plants
to
to
suppor t
suppor t
1 kg
of
herbivores
and
many
kilog rams
of
herbivores
water.
Pyramid
that
of
shows
organisms
biomass
the
at
A
biomass
each
1 kg
of
car nivores.
diagram
The
of
trophic
level
typical
four
in
shape
trophic
of
levels
a
is
pyramid
shown
in
of
biomass
Figure
in
a
A.4.1.10.
food
The
chain
units
or
for
food
each
web
level
wit h
of
a
2
an
ecosystem.
pyramid
Trophic
of
biomass
are
mass
per
unit
e.g.
kg
per
m
levels
2nd
tertiary
area,
level
carnivores
consumers
1st
secondary
level
carnivores
consumers
herbivores
primary
consumers
plants
producers
p
Figure
A.4.1.10
ecosystem
Pyramids
Pyramids
of
of
ecosystem
Trophic
with
A
typical
four
of
biomass
in
an
levels
energy
numbers
at
pyramid
trophic
a
and
moment
in
pyramids
time.
A
of
biomass
pyramid
of
give
a
energy,
snapshot
however,
of
an
is
levels
determined
carnivores
secondary
4
energy
herbivores
primary
over
a
period
of
time.
This
is
because
it
shows
t he
rate
at
which
consumers
ows
or
is
in
Figure
t hrough
estimated
for
a
a
trophic
whole
level.
year.
An
This
is
example
determined
of
a
for
pyramid
a
of
day
or
energy
a
is
week,
given
consumers
24
plants
producers
4925
Unlike
can
p
A.4.1.1
1.
Figure
A.4.1.11
A
pyramid
of
pyramids
never
be
arctic
tundra
on
Devon
Island
per
the
figures
are
in
kJ
per
m
energy
get
all
t hrough
Indeed,
year
inver ted.
To
and
pyramids
understand
why,
of
biomass,
look
again
pyramids
at
Figure
of
energy
t heir
energy
from
t he
producers.
Therefore,
A.4.1.5.
t he
ow
The
of
in
2
Canada;
numbers
energy
herbivores
for
of
as
t he
herbivores
producers
use
some
cannot
of
t heir
exceed
t hat
organic
t hrough
compounds
t he
in
producers.
respiration,
48
835292
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Topic
4.indd
48
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16:00
Energy
while
ow
In
cycles
herbivores
herbivores
most
any
and
is
fail
to
eat
signicantly
pyramids
one
Carbon
trophic
of
all
energy,
level
t he
less
producers,
t han
10%,
reaches
t he
t he
or
t he
energy
less,
of
trophic
t he
level
energy
ow
ow
t hrough
energy
above.
t hat
For
t hrough
t he
and
nitrogen
cycles
t he
producers.
ows
t hrough
example,
on
A
a
typical
and
farm
ot her
ot her
dead
only
plants
animals
leaves
about
in
t hat
to
a
10%
eld
graze
(at
gets
t hat
decomposers
most)
eaten
eld.
and
as
by
of
t he
t he
Most
heat
energy
cows,
of
t he
xed
chickens,
remaining
energy
by
from
t he
t he
goats
90%
plants
is
grass
or
lost
to
as
t he
atmosphere.
B
Questions
1
‘Energy
to
2
that
is
Match
a
a
is
up
the
c
a
heavily
why
predatory
Suggest
and
5
for
6
in
(see
your
an
as
units
of
of
such
the
eels
in
in
Figure
with
of
plants
a
the
energy
go
C
A.4.1.12
flies
very
and
all
A.4.1.5?
on
p
a
single
horses
Figure
with
flow
recycling
of
lizard,
which
are
herbivorous
and
fish
to
support
a
few
sharks.
levels
of
a
pyramid
of
numbers
a
flow
tundra
carnivores
ecosystem
A.4.1.11).
a
the
through
Suggest
pyramid
of
the
like
the
what
biomass
in
an
ecosystem
herbivores.
one
you
for
a
on
Devon
might
Island
expect
Caribbean
if
farm.
and
nitrogen
cycles
Learning
By
the
end
should
provides
life
on
Ear t h
wit h
a
seemingly
inexhaustible
supply
photosynt hesis.
Life
has
existed
on
Ear t h
for
about
4
be
and
it
is
estimated
it
will
last
for
anot her
1
billion
years
until
t he
too
hot
for
life
to
this
able
topic
you
to:
explain
processes
involved
carbon
is
recycled
Sun
●
becomes
of
billion
when
years
outcomes
of
●
for
different
answer.
Global
energy
Three
numbers
ticks.
of
through
energy
Figure
Carbon
Sun
of
biomass.
the
A.4.2
The
A.4.1.12
pyramids
a
numbers
and
few
with
which
large
grasshoppers
as
trophic
does
Figure
numbers
grassland
kilograms
moray
where
shown
number
numbers
for
So
shown
large
of
large
many
energy
it
area
a
as
numbers
parasites
shows
compared
chains
of
large
such
than
A.4.1.3
Explain
a
takes
the
less
b
with
pyramid
Canada
you
it
fish,
why
be
Figure
with
destroyed’.
supporting
quite
suitable
a
Explain
must
feed,
infested
Explain
food
bush
plants,
field
nor
pyramids
ladybirds
and
from
rose
individual
4
created
‘lost’
single
few
3
not
describe
the
recycling
of
the
recycling
of
continue.
carbon
Recycling
of
energy
environment
is
cannot
impossible:
be
turned
t he
back
heat
into
t hat
light.
all
organisms
Life
will
not
lose
to
t heir
continue
●
describe
if
nitrogen
t he
elements
t hat
comprise
living
tissues
are
not
recycled.
There
is
no
a
continuous
shower
from
space
of
carbon,
nitrogen,
oxygen
and
the
uptake
we
have
on
Ear t h
has
to
be
enough,
as
t here
is
no
external
down
by
would
has
calculated
decomposers
ll
up
wit h
concentration
low
t hat
t here
of
t hat
and
dead
be
cellulose
recycled
plants
carbon
would
if
metres
dioxide
no
as
more
in
in
plant
carbon
high.
t he
tissue
dioxide
Also,
was
t hat
wit hin
atmosphere
t he
20
would
not
green
nitrate
plants
to
proteins
broken
b
decomposers
c
nitrifying
d
nitrogen-fixing
world
years
fall
by
supply.
form
Someone
of
hydrogen.
ions
What
involving
to
t he
levels
bacteria
so
bacteria.
photosynt hesis.
49
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4.indd
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Carbon
and
nitrogen
Energy
cycles
A
similar
‘element
naturally
growt h
is
ver y
consumers
The
crisis’
decient
in
slow.
and
so
carbon
would
nitrogen.
The
t here
occur
The
impact
are
of
ver y
wit h
soil
t his
few
of
nitrogen.
contains
is
t hat
Some
few
t here
little
and
cycles
ecosystems
nitrate
is
ow
ions
and
energy
to
are
plant
pass
to
t hem.
cycle
The element carbon (C) is found in all
organic molecules. The
carbon cycle
illustrated in Figure A.4.2.2 shows how carbon atoms are continuously taken
up, converted into compounds and then recycled. Carbon atoms may remain
in some places in the cycle for thousands or millions of years. Think of the
carbon atoms in human bodies preser ved for a thousand years in the peat in
Denmark or the coal that has been in the ground for 300 million years.
p
Figure
in
the
A.4.2.1
carbon
happening
How
cycle
many
can
stages
you
see
here?
carbon
in
respiration
dioxide
the
air
produces
photosynthesis
carbon
0
dioxide
as
uses
it
Key
releases
to
!
from
Organic
based
molecules
on
the
examples
make
dioxide
food
food
Molecules
element
are
carbon
energy
terms
eaten
carbon;
by
fungi
carbohydrates,
animals
respire
proteins
and
fats.
bacteria
Carbon
cycle
The
element
respire
carbon
is
present
in
all
living
decay
organisms.
It’
s
recycled
dead
various
processes,
of
through
which
animals
human
are
of
described
in
the
carbon
cycle.
decay
dead
Fossil
the
fuels
dead
Fuels
and
formed
fossilised
oforganisms;
extraction
fossil
fuels
of
plants
from
fossil
fuels
remains
examples
are
coal,
fossilisation
oil
and
gas.
p
Figure
Look
A.4.2.2
carefully
following
●
The
at
carbon
Figure
cycle
A.4.2.2
of
t he
carbon
cycle
and
note
t he
points.
Carbon
dioxide
oceans)
by
is
taken
from
photosynt hesis
in
t he
atmosphere
plants,
algae
and
and
from
some
water
(e.g.
lakes,
photosynt hetic
bacteria.
●
Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere and to water by respiration,
which occurs in all organisms.
●
Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere by the combustion of wood and
fossil fuels
p
Figure
A.4.2.3
vegetation
properly.
It
Peat
that
is
forms
does
carbon
not
from
decompose
sink
that
●
Carbon
food
up
carbon
for
many
years
going
carbon
dug
back
in
to
the
dioxide.
In
some
out
and
burnt
as
chains
from
such
plants
as
to
carbohydrates,
herbivores
and
fats
t hen
and
to
proteins,
pass
along
carnivores.
preventing
●
it
compounds,
locks
atmosphere
places
it
as
is
Plants
and
fuel.
lose
faeces.
matter,
●
Some
in
leaves
and
release
carbon
carbon
carbon
and
die;
Decomposers
carbon
compounds
sinks,
animals
feed
e.g.
compounds
in
are
not
bogs.
fossil
pass
dead
dioxide
peat
form
on
by
out
and
t heir
waste
products
decaying
plant
in
t heir
and
urine
animal
respiration.
decomposed;
Eventually
instead
t hese
t hey
accumulate
undecomposed
fuels.
50
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Topic
4.indd
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Energy
Trace
●
ow
and
around
Carbon
cycles
t he
carbon
atoms
tropical
Carbon
can
forests
be
cycle
to
nd
recycled
where
examples
ver y
conditions
quickly
are
ver y
of
–
t he
t his
following.
happens
favourable
for
in
0
Did
a
dead
leaf
is
broken
down
in
Carbon
atoms
dioxide
in
pass
t he
t hrough
atmosphere
four
and
decomposers
so
‘sinks’
organisms
back
on
t heir
way
from
carbon
reducing
Carbon
carbon
that
become
again.
atoms
remain
in
some
compounds
for
a
ver y
long
time
released
into
t he
years
ago
Case
The
The
effect
last
fossil
still
of
150
fuels
years
and
in
carbon
t he
in
may
which
is
Sea
●
have
of
(e.g.
●
●
●
and
scientist
climate
a
of
the
size
of
atmosphere
350
in
England
in
2014
in
was
Central
Congo
Africa.
million
fuels.
gases
in
of
become
t he
Over
and
concentration
‘locked
of
t he
from
in
same
past
50
–
may
Antarctic
get
has
atmosphere
especially
t hat
years
t he
heat
Ear t h’s
Alt hough
consequences
and
far
of
in
greenhouse
way
0.5 °C.
and
wood.
t he
t he
atmosphere
t he
in
of
burning
regions
up’
dioxide
about
following
t he
temperate
t he
by
cycle
result
results
much
apparent
Arctic
in
carbon
warmer
in
t he
Ear t h’s
in
greenhouse.
t he
rise
carbon
This
t he
carbon
is
bot h
of
energy
become
the
This
trees,
change.
much,
in
in
areas
people
patterns
been
have
low-lying
of
of
t his
climate
worse.
melted.
countries
(e.g.
Guyana)
and
coastal
Bangladesh).
are
killed
are
in
changing,
are
of
oods
and
tens
of
t housands
making
droughts
and
famine
should
increasing
becoming
Lovelock
is
as
hurricanes
in
and
abundance,
rarer
t hat
concentration
renewable
adapt
such
storms,
typhoons.
most
worr yingly
pests
crops.
are
dioxide
more
James
more
recommended
change
changes,
of
of
species
carbon
risk
the
rising.
species
Scientists
we
t he
signicant
amount
heat
ooding
diseases
Some
fuels
by
large
have
Some
and
in
carbon
likely.
There
●
massive
homeless.
Rainfall
more
in
are
Hundreds
made
trap
ice
a
on
concentration
ver y
t he
seen
climate
already
Increased
●
fossil
activity
t he
probably
levels
land
–
sound
Some
●
in
from
atmosphere.
various
trapped
has
not
change
●
up’
burning
t he
to
dioxide
climate
t he
reducing
increase
energy
absorbed
‘locked
have
in
contributing
effect
were
human
dioxide
tropics,
This
is
are
t hat
A
otherwise
dioxide
study
carbon
t he
atoms
important
atmosphere.
Brazzaville
Carbon
very
holding
might
carbon
discovered
●
are
before
sink
being
know?
and
atmosphere.
●
cycles
days.
for
●
nitrogen
?
humid
Carbon
t hat
you
and
has
to
t hese
coastal
and
changes
defences
t he
of
argued
happening
extinct.
steps
in
sources
or
taken
instead.
humans
cannot
and
and
to
atmosphere
energy
t hat
we
are
make
stop
by
it.
resources
moving
using
The
should
reverse
people
t he
increase
less
fossil
independent
accept
Instead,
available
away
t hat
he
says,
for
from
t hese
areas
at
ooding.
51
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Unit
A
Topic
4.indd
51
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16:00
Carbon
and
nitrogen
Energy
cycles
ow
and
cycles
Questions
1
State
and
explain
concentration
a
t he
b
an
c
t he
burning
increase
change
renewable
2
Suggest
rat her
0
The
Key
of
some
t han
what
carbon
of
in
fossil
t he
from
steps
of
in
t he
t he
following
has
on
t he
atmosphere:
fuels;
of
using
of
t hat
to
each
dioxide
rate
sources
tr ying
nitrogen
effect
photosynt hesis
fossil
fuels
in
of
power
plants;
stations
to
t he
use
of
energy.
we
can
reverse
take
to
adapt
to
climate
change
it.
cycle
term
!
In just the same way that carbon has to be recycled for life to continue, so
it is with
Nitrogen
An
element
needed
nitrogen. This element (N) is found in many organic molecules,
for
particularly proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Although almost
healthy
plant
ions.
plant
roots
growth,
in
the
Chemical
supply
nitrate
taken
form
of
fertilisers
up
by
nitrate
80% of the air is made up of nitrogen gas (N
), most organisms cannot make
2
use of it directly. This is because the two nitrogen atoms are bonded together
often
ions.
ver y rmly and it takes much energy to break them apart so that nitrogen can
combine with atoms of other elements, e.g. hydrogen, oxygen and carbon.
Q __
✔
Study
Look
very
version
Figure
about
chain.
are
carefully
of
the
and
nitrogen
involved
at
the
nitrogen
A.4.2.5
Notice
Nitrogen
along
read
along
that
as
cycle
the
the
in
section
food
microorganisms
decomposers
Nitrogen
and
rst
t hat
here
as
a
to
make
we
nitrate
nitrifying
is
food
chain
combined
will
ion
follow
in
protein.
t he
plant
t he
nitrogen
onto
t he
soil
Some
t he
of
soil.
wit h
t he
by
a
t his
Here
compounds
t hese
journey
in
peanut
protein
t here
t he
are
leaf
elements
of
a
is
nitrogen
plant.
will
The
be
in
called
atom
plant
leaves
decomposers
to
release
‘xed
af ter
uses
t hat
t hat
it
t he
die
will
ammonia,
nitrogen’
is
absorbed
nitrate
and
break
which
fall
ions
off
down
all
becomes
and
ammonium
as
the
tip
ions
in
t he
soil
water.
bacteria.
Nitrication
0
There
Key
terms
!
ions
Nitrication
The
are
process
in
to
ammonium
ions
Nitrifying
by
are
bacteria
nitrite
ions.
in
ions
This
t he
is
a
converted
wit h
t hese
ver y
nitrif ying
t hat
gain
t heir
and
specialist
energy
ot hers
way
of
by
by
oxidising
oxidising
life,
but
nitrite
many
bacteri a.
Plants
are
able
to
soils
absorb
are
nitrate
to
as
t heir
source
of
nitrogen
and
it
is
not
toxic
to
t hem.
Plants
t hen
bacteria.
bacteria
Bacteria
uptake
that
the
convert
soil
(nitrication)
which
ions
ions
to
nitrate
teeming
nitrate
some
ammonia
ammonium
ions
to
by
roots
proteins
nitrate
nitrate
ions
in
in
soil
ions.
plants
nitrifying
bacteria
death
nitrite
ions
in
soil
dead
nitrifying
(or
ammonium
ions
p
Figure
in
bodies
bacteria
parts
,
e.g.
dead
leaves)
decomposers
soil
A.4.2.5
The
cycling
of
‘fixed’
nitrogen
through
plants,
animals
and
bacteria
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Energy
use
ow
t he
and
energy
cycles
t hey
photosynt hesis
now
But
come
t hat
is
Imagine
peanut,
more
are
full
not
digest
protein
broken
absorb
into
t he
a
it
as
end
and
down
t he
of
peanut,
t han
light
nitrogen
t he
stor y
make
need,
to
conver t
compounds,
which
t hen
you
by
from
nitrogen
circle
eating
Carbon
is
atom
as
a
your
t hen
decomposers
been
are
source
own
you
to
has
peanuts
good
sugars
grown
of
produced
proteins.
We
and
fungi
use
t he
nitrogen
in
for
protein.
If
t he
nitrogen
human
food.
You
t he
eat
peanut
gives
compounds.
you
These
ammonia.
compounds
like
protein
as
sources
Figure
and
but
turn
includes
it
before
to
t hey
can
ammonia.
animals
in
respire
Now
Figure
t hem
look
at
t hey
t he
have
to
expanded
remove
nitrogen
t he
A.4.2.6
Fish
are
rich
in
protein;
of
some
energy,
cycles
have
p
Bacteria
nitrogen
recycled.
proteins.
excrete
give
t he
especially
and
of
the
nitrogen
proteins
will
pass
in
the
fish
nitrogen
cycle
t hat
the
nitrogen
on
its
way
through
cycle
A.4.2.7
.
absorption
proteins
nitrate
ions
in
in
feeding
proteins
and
in
soil
plants
nitrifying
animals
digestion
bacteria
death
death
nitrite
ions
in
soil
excretion
and
egestion
dead
nitrifying
bodies
bacteria
decomposers
ammonium
ions
in
soil
wastes
decomposers
p
Figure
A.4.2.7
Nitrogen
There
are
some
‘xed
wit h
nitrogen
nitrogen’.
It
is
is
compounds.
organisms,
break
organisms
nitrogen
once
useful
nitrogen
cycle
from
Figure
A.4.2.5
with
the
addition
of
animals
xation
combine
t hat
The
t he
xing
t hat
ot her
combined
nitrogen
Unlike
nitrogen
molecules
can
of
break
elements
wit h
t hat
is
molecules
( nitrogen
t hese
now
xed
photosynt hesis,
is
for
t he
few
ot her
so
of
nitrogen
xation).
elements
it
which
specialist
is
is
used
it
bacteria
is
to
carried
apar t
and
0
Remember
make
out
t hat
by
are
Key
many
Nitrogen
many
which
able
into
to
nitrogen.
xation
bacteria
process
nitrogen
in
gas
ions.
Denitrication
nitrate
The
convert
ammonium
which
Nitrogen-xing bacteria
terms
!
called
The
ions
are
process
in
converted
to
live in the root nodules of plants known as
nitrogen
gas
(N
).
2
legumes, such as peanut, soya beans and pigeon peas, as well as many trees
like Poinciana. They are important because they supply a source of nitrogen
compounds to the plant. These are used by the plants to make proteins. Some
nitrogen-xing bacteria live not in root nodules, but free in the soil. These add
nitrogen compounds to the soil, increasing the nitrate ions available to plants.
Nitrogen
is
also
xed
during
t hunderstorms.
Lightning
causes
0
Did
oxygen
to
react
toget her
at
high
temperatures
wit h
t he
formation
you
oxides
t hat
form
nitrate
ions
in
t he
ever
had
to
change
of
nappies
nitrogen
know?
nitrogen
Have
and
you
?
soil.
a
smell
that
(diapers)
of
and
ammonia?
bacteria
have
detected
It
is
been
likely
breaking
Denitrication
down
nitrogen
baby’s
Denitrifying
in
Trinidad
conditions
bacteria
and
of
t he
ver y
live
in
Zapata
low
water-logged
wetlands
oxygen
in
soils,
Cuba.
such
These
concentrations
by
as
t he
Nariva
bacteria
conver ting
compounds
in
the
urine.
swamp
sur vive
nitrate
in
ions
to
53
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Topic
4.indd
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Carbon
and
nitrogen
Energy
cycles
ow
and
cycles
'
nitrogen
gas
materials
in
(denitrication)
t he
soil.
This
as
t heir
balances
t he
way
of
releasing
loss
of
nitrogen
energy
gas
by
from
organic
nitrogen
xation.
So,
to
we
can
give
an
add
some
almost
more
stages
complete
nitrogen
(N
to
our
nitrogen
2
)
nitrogen
cycle
in
cycle
Figure
-
~
Figure
A.4.2.7
.
I
in
atmosphere
~
from
A.4.2.8.
lightning
I-
animal
fertilisers
plant
nitrogen
nitrogen
compounds
compounds
nitrogen
fixation
absorption
by
death;
plants
wastes
denitrifiers
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
root
dead
in
nodules
matter
nitrate
ions
the
in
soil
decomposers
nitrifying
decomposition
bacteria
nitrogen
ammonium
in
p
Figure
A.4.2.8
The
nitrogen
Humans
t he
use
t he
Haber
nitrogen
t his
nitrogen
compounds.
as
soil
cycle
inuence
of
the
fixation
ions
cycle
fer tilisers
Nitrogen
process.
from
This
in
to
t he
many
ways.
provide
air
is
produces
One
crops
xed
by
of
wit h
t he
ammonia,
t he
most
nitrate
or
chemical
which
is
signicant
ammonium
process
used
is
to
known
make
t he
fer tilisers.
t
Figure
A.4.2.10
These
stem
swellings
ground
are
level
root
on
the
root
nodules
full
of
bacteria
root
root
nodule
contains
hair
–
the
nitrogen-fixing
bacterium
Rhizobium
u
p
Figure
A.4.2.9
A
legume
plant
Figure
root
root
A.4.2.11
These
with
nodules
have
nodules
been
show
are
cut
open
that
pink
the
where
nitrogen-fixing
are
to
insides
most
the
bacteria
active
54
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Topic
4.indd
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Energy
ow
and
The
recycling
The
roles
q
T
able
of
cycles
of
nitrogen
t hese
A.4.2.1
Carbon
are
Roles
is
ver y
of
microbes
Microorganism
Decomposers
in
and
bacteria)
the
Break
bacteria
Table
on
t he
actions
of
down
Convert
bacteria
microbes.
of
nitrogen
compounds
acids
to
of
nitrogen
ammonium
ammonium
ions
to
such
as
proteins
ions
nitrite
ions
and
then
to
ions
Convert
nitrate
ions
Convert
nitrogen
to
nitrogen
gas
p
Figure
inside
Nitrogen-xing
bacteria,
e.g.
gas
into
ammonium
ions,
which
are
in
nodules
of
legumes
by
legumes
the
to
make
A.4.2.12
the
root
The
cells
nodule
are
full
used
of
Rhizobium
cycles
A.4.2.1.
recycling
amino
nitrate
Denitrifying
in
nitrogen
Role
(fungi
and
Nitrifying
dependent
summarised
and
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.
This
proteins
is
a
photograph
electron
taken
microscope
using
an
(x1000)
Questions
1
What
are
the
advantages
to
farmers
of
growing
legume
crops,
such
as
0
Did
you
know?
?
peanuts
and
pigeon
peas?
The
2
Which
processes
in
the
nitrogen
cycle
nitrogen
take
from
the
air
manufacture
requires
convert
it
into
fixed
Which
process
nitrogen
in
the
available
to
nitrogen
cycle
reduces
the
quantity
of
fixed
which
fuels
What
are
the
roles
of
fertilisers
energy,
generate
organisms?
of
comes
burnt
fertiliser
4
lots
most
nitrogen?
of
3
of
and
and
decomposers
nitrifying
bacteria
in
in
from
power
the
the
electricity
factories
fossil
stations
that
need.
to
the
This
recycling
use
of
fossil
fuels
adds
to
the
nitrogen?
environmental
impact
of
fertilisers.
Summary
●
●
Energy
A
flows
food
through
chain
organisms
shows
in
an
ecosystems,
how
energy
it
is
flows
not
0
recycled.
through
a
small
number
Talk
ecosystem.
Modern
●
T
rophic
out
levels
●
are
the
photosynthesis
consumers;
Food
webs
there
is
plant
and
feeding
are
show
each
that
more
more
levels
producers;
carnivores
usually
eat
herbivore
a
food
one
eats
that
are
relationships
herbivore
usually
chain.
herbivores
herbivores
feeding
than
in
that
more
Green
eat
plants
secondary
than
food
feeds
than
on
one
plants
are
that
carry
primary
consumers.
chains
each
plant;
do,
much
fuels.
herbivores
are
to
must
have
more
than
one
predator
and
carnivores
usually
feed
on
than
one
prey
change
and
ecosystems
are
those
on
land
including
woodland,
in
and
mountainside.
freshwater,
such
as
Aquatic
streams,
habitats
rivers,
are
lakes
in
and
water
and
ponds,
include
habitats
and
What
marine
in
the
sea,
such
as
coral
reefs,
open
water
and
areas
of
them.
lost
to
capture
Most
the
of
to
the
and
only
the
next
in
at
small
energy
dead
trophic
decomposers
animals
a
surroundings
decomposers
our
and
planet
ways:
others,
eat
if
we
we
less,
waste
farm
sustainably
less
without
each
that
as
they
heat
leaves.
level.
at
percentage
higher
consumer
is
is
lost
trophic
trophic
the
convert
when
There
Energy
of
they
into
little
each
levels,
energy
chemical
respire
very
at
light
and
is
energy
trophic
which
limits
that
passed
left
the
land
and
destroying
can
to
to
we
the
do
as
impact
consumers
of
farming
to
on
environment?
reaches
energy
level
the
environments.
seagrass.
the
Plants
great
this
up
the
those
reduce
●
too
on
grassland,
aquatic
beach
causes
using
impact
on
with
is
species.
polluting
T
errestrial
fertilisers,
more
food
●
is
survive
food
and
The
environment
of
uses
herbicides,
pollution
fossil
as
species
farming
pesticides,
share
usually
about
?
of
be
is
Discuss
to
family
this
and
with
your
friends,
teachers.
passed
respiration
number
of
level.
55
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4.indd
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Carbon
and
nitrogen
Energy
cycles
●
Pyramids
trophic
each
the
the
●
On
the
●
during
as
●
gain
each
number
energy
trophic
quantity
carbon
are
of
and
mass
organisms
all
sometimes
but
are
very
never
level
the
of
to
nitrogen.
at
inverted
large
each
organisms
in
at
usually
biomass
inverted
the
chemical
the
cycles
and
as
show
next.
elements
These
that
are
elements
dioxide
they
carbohydrates
returns
that
energy.
In
from
absorb
to
of
the
atmosphere
as
and
dead
they
and
sugars
fossil
and
release
and
when
fuels.
decrease
dioxide
is
starch.
organisms
Fungi
decaying
carbon
they
Carbon
photosynthesis.
atmosphere
wood
doing
the
for
such
breakdown
so
it
and
material
dioxide
to
respire
and
bacteria
and
the
are
respire
it
atmosphere
well.
Nitrogen
nucleic
ions
is
and
proteins
that
are
ions.
an
acids
use
digesting
the
in
important
(DNA
them
broken
Nitrifying
Most
and
to
protein
muscle
ammonium
●
as
combustion
decomposers
to
carbon
dioxide
the
from
in
of
individual
the
numbers
small
limited
such
when
make
Carbon
are
of
of
show
and
recycled.
require
to
a
numbers
Pyramids
energy
is
the
biomass
Pyramids
trees.
need,
quantity
used
in
there
continually
Plants
of
producers
with
reduction
Earth,
show
Pyramids
level.
the
case
organisms
●
numbers
trophic
because
is
of
level.
ow
make
and
down
by
organisms
into
their
They
the
nitrate
compounds
it
to
make
release
soil
ions
make
absorb
proteins.
microbes
in
cannot
in
Plants
using
tissue.
bacteria
ions
element
RNA).
for
use
their
are
as
in
proteins
the
feed
proteins,
products
to
for
form
on
e.g.
and
of
the
nitrate
plants,
contractile
containing
decomposers
responsible
plant
of
Herbivores
waste
that
are
such
nitrogen
into
nitrogen
ammonium
recycling
of
absorb.
nitrogen
(N
)
gas
in
the
atmosphere
as
2
it
is
very
unreactive.
ammonium
such
as
these
bacteria
agriculture
as
Denitrifying
in
respiring
and
ions
this
so
legumes.
Nitrogen-fixing
that
The
and
legume
growing
bacteria
organic
balances
nitrogen
cells
crops,
them
is
in
materials.
the
becomes
inside
survive
an
root
can
such
as
of
soya
alternative
release
gas
convert
available
nodules
to
other
are
applying
soils
nitrogen
absorbed
to
by
nitrogen
legumes
beans,
oxygen-deficient
The
nitrogen
bacteria
by
gas
gas
organisms,
are
packed
important
chemical
using
as
a
into
fertilisers.
nitrate
waste
nitrogen-fixing
with
in
ions
product
bacteria.
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16:00
Energy
ow
and
cycles
Practice
8
Practice
Which
of
t he
following
organisms
digest
dead
Questions
organic
Questions
matter?
Section
1
Which
is
t he
A
glucose
B
t he
C
plants
main
source
of
energy
for
life
on
Ear t h?
2
nitrifying
C
denitrifying
D
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
A
pyramid
of
biomass
A
t he
organisms
at
B
t he
biomass
C
t he
total
number
D
t he
total
mass
shows:
each
trophic
Which
returns
carbon
cycle?
carbon
A
combustion
B
photosynt hesis
C
respiration
D
combustion
Which
dioxide
to
t he
atmosphere
in
t he
of
organisms
of
of
each
organisms
organisms
in
in
a
trophic
a
food
food
level
chain
chain.
Which
process
in
t he
carbon
cycle
uses
carbon
dioxide?
only
A
respiration
B
deat h
C
photosynt hesis
D
feeding
only
and
are
respiration
found
in
t he
root
nodules
of
plants?
A
nitrogen-fixing
B
nitrifying
C
protein-fixing
D
denitrifying
Section
bacteria
B
bacteria
1
The
diagram
below
shows
a
simplified
cycle.
bacteria
in
student
carbon
bacteria
Carbon
A
at
only
bacteria
legume
4
level
starch
10
3
fungi
B
Sun
9
D
A
A
investigated
a
habitat
and
drew
t his
dioxide
air
diagram
A
to
show
some
of
t he
D
results.
B
C
–2
Snake:
500
kJ
m
Carbon
in
animals
Carbon
in
plants
–2
Bird:
1572
kJ
m
–2
Berries:
2215
kJ
m
E
What
is
represented
by
t he
diagram?
Dead
A
a
pyramid
of
numbers
animals
B
a
pyramid
of
biomass
C
a
pyramid
of
energy
D
a
pyramid
of
organisms
and
plants
F
5
Which
of
nitrogen
t he
following
does
not
contain
t he
element
Fossil
A
proteins
B
deoxyribonucleic
C
glucose
D
ammonia
acid
a
(DNA)
b
Give
t he
i)
Which
is
t he
role
of
denitrifying
To
conver t
protein
to
Name
ammonium
B
To
conver t
nitrate
To
conver t
ammonium
ions
to
i)
Identify
to
nitrate
7
conver t
Which
of
t hrough
A
All
t he
a
t he
nitrogen
gas
following
food
chain
energy
is
to
labelled
gives
rise
to
A
to
F.
[6]
fossil
examples
ammonium
statements
t he
two
raw
of
fossil
fuels.
materials
[2]
needed
D.
for
[2]
Explain
how
t his
process
is
impor tant
to
ot her
ions.
living
To
F
gas.
ii)
D
processes
process
ions.
nitrogen
ions
t he
[2]
two
process
C
of
how
bacteria?
c
A
names
Explain
fuels.
ii)
6
fuels
(N)?
about
t hings.
[3]
ions.
energy
flow
correct?
conver ted
by
producers
goes
to
t he
consumers.
B
The
C
Producers
available
available
D
The
energy
capture
to
increases
all
t he
with
light
the
energy
trophic
t hat
levels.
is
t hem.
available
energy
decreases
as
t he
trophic
levels
increase.
57
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Unit
B
Nutrition
B.1
Learning
By
the
end
B.1.1
outcomes
of
this
topic
Balanced
diet
you
Diet
should
be
able
to:
The
●
explain
what
is
meant
by
quantity
refer red
balanced
describe
to
the
major
nutr ient
their
is
a
into
state
the
functions
and
and
state
of
the
vitamins
A,
B
t hat
types
you
eat
of
food
are
t hat
made
of
you
eat
is
nutr ients .
type
of
subst ance
broad
found
g roups:
in
our
food.
macronutr ients
We
and
divide
micronutr ients.
e.g.
are
fats,
t he
food
proteins
subst ances
and
t hat
you
carbohydrates.
eat
in
relatively
Micronutr ients
large
are
,
t he
functions
and
food
subst ances
you
eat
in
small
quantities,
e.g.
vit amins
and
of
the
is
impor tant
classify
soluble
and
iron
vitamins
or
fat
to
eat
a
balanced
d iet
t hat
relates
to
our
needs.
A
balanced
minerals
diet
calcium
salts.
main
It
sources
●
different
D
mineral
●
t he
foods
main
1
C
of
The
sources
amounts,
sources
diet .
two
Macronutr ients
●
quality
your
nutrients
nutr ients
and
as
diet
A
●
and
a
in
the
as
must
include:
diet
water
●
enough
soluble.
●
●
●
for
essential
amino
acids,
essential
fatty
water
●
our
fats
bre
to
for
from
eaten
balanced
cor rect
replace
proper
t he
in
t he
diet,
good
of
t hese
from
whic h
of
a
provided
by
macronutrients
lost
of
in
urine,
t he
sweat,
digestive
breat h
system
and
in
faeces
moving
found
anus.
healt hy
muc h,
components
is
minerals
propor tions,
is
energy
proteins
and
nutr ients
Too
our
fats
water
t he
cor rect
healt h.
from
functioning
to
–
proteins)
vitamins
t he
mout h
quantity
in
–
needs
and
acids,
micronutrients
●
If
energy
(carbohydrates,
can
in
or
t hese
diet.
t he
too
A
components
balanced
r ight
make
diet
propor tions
up
cont ains
so
t hat
a
t he
we
remain
few,
L
e
g
u
m
s
e
o
t
a
t
o
have
e
s
e
g
d
consequences.
b
e
boy
A
who
nurse
shows
cares
for
a
symptoms
food
or
packets
food
of
tables
of
nutrition
p
e
a
s
a
n
d
n
u
st
S
t
a
lp
e
s
by
malnutrition
organisations.
foods
in
much
diet
you
is
to
quantities
eat
of
F
balanced
appropriate
A
ensure
r
a
to
u
eat
way
s
t
i
easier
t he
each
of
t he
groups,
as
described
different
F
a
t
s
food
Caribbean
Institute
Food
and
(CFNI).
dooF
on
consult
published
severe
to
e
young
B.1.1.1
is
g
Figure
you
nutritional
information
p
diet
sl
am
ina
ensure
m
or
f
t he
food.
slaerec
study
nutrient
s
to
balanced
a
b
way
a
t heir
e
c
ir
eat
in
know
n
One
is
each
a
t
s
a
p
t here
rarely
of
a
people
much
n
how
a
Most
a
a
n
ser ious
by
a
n
d
t he
o
il s
ge
Ve
ta
b
le
s
Nutrition
p
Figure
B.1.1.2
showing
the
A
chart
different
from
food
the
CFNI
groups
58
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
58
08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
Figure
of
Balanced
B.1.1.2
foods
t hat
shows
t he
belong
to
different
each
food
group.
groups
Each
along
sector
is
a
wit h
some
different
examples
size.
This
0
Key
diet
terms
!
demonstrates
healt hy,
t he
relative
balanced
quantity
of
each
food
group
required
for
a
Nutrients
diet.
required
Types
of
nutrients
are
we
Unlike
plants,
we
must
have
a
supply
of
organic
compounds
in
our
food
large
t he
raw
materials
for
growt h
and
repair
as
well
as
supplying
diet.
complex
in
that
are
Macronutrients
compounds
large
quantities
that
in
the
to
Micronutrients
are
minerals
sources
and
of
Substances
the
require
diet.
provide
in
vitamins
that
we
require
in
very
energy.
small
quantities
Balanced
in
diet
the
A
diet.
diet
that
Macronutrients
provides
Proteins
the
energy
correct
Food
and
nutrients
in
quantities.
group
A
group
of
different
Proteins are molecules made of long chains of amino acids held together by
foods
that
provide
the
same
peptide bonds (Figure B.1.1.4). Amino acids are made of the elements carbon,
nutrients
in
roughly
the
same
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen – some also contain sulphur. Proteins are
proportions.
either brous or globular. Fibrous proteins are straight, or spiral, chains of
amino acids that are usually very strong. Keratin and collagen are two brous
proteins. Keratin is in hair and skin; collagen is in organs all over the body
including bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels and the skin.
Globular
found
is
a
proteins
in
solution
globular
Enzymes
Proteins
used
in
Proteins
also
are
acids
in
into
essential
must
be
is
used
two
In
packed
cells
as
in
a
into
red
growth
of
diet.
considering
t hat
cells
are
and
and
energy.
t heir
are
t he
cells
in
water
blood.
to
and
are
Haemoglobin
transpor t
oxygen.
proteins.
repair
hormones
There
soluble
in
blood
globular
some
source
our
of
are
for
enzymes,
protein
proteins
cytoplasm
reactions
inside
cells,
proteins.
grouped
●
t he
It
catalyse
membranes
digesting
spherical
t he
protein.
t hat
are
are
in
We
20
and
(e.g.
gain
the
our
different
usefulness
to
formation
insulin)
us
and
amino
types
in
t he
acids
of
of
antibodies.
by
amino
diet,
t hey
are
groups:
amino
acids
obtained
(EAAs),
from
t he
which
cannot
be
made
by
t he
body
so
diet
p
●
non-essential
amino
acids,
which
can
be
made
by
t he
body
from
Figure
would
amino
acids
and
so
need
not
be
in
t he
B.1.1.3
What
food
items
ot her
diet.
the
you
French
needed
for
give
this
fries?
a
child
What
balanced
as
well
nutrients
as
are
diet?
Most proteins contain most (or all) of the amino acids, so a varied diet is
never decient in any of the EAAs. Good foods for providing proteins include
lean meat, sh, eggs, cheese, pulses (peas, beans and lentils) and nuts.
amino
acids
SAFETY
Make
sure
that
you
always
follow
these
simple
safety
rules
when
you
are
peptide
working
in
the
lab.
Always
follow
the
instructions
given
by
your
teacher/lecturer
.
protein
1
Never
2
Wear
3
Tie
taste
eye
any
chemicals
protection
when
or
foods
to
be
tested.
indicated.
p
long
hair
Figure
make
4
When
heating
5
When
heating,
never
point
6
When
heating,
never
look
Wear
B.1.1.4
Chains
of
amino
acids
back.
eye
chemicals,
use
a
test
water
tubes
down
a
bath
at
test
whenever
one
up
peptides
and
proteins
possible.
another.
tube.
protection.
59
835292
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
59
08/01/2015
16:02
Balanced
Nutrition
diet
Practical
T
esting
foods
for
Activity
proteins
using
the
biuret
test
Requirements
●
test
●
a
test
tubes
●
a
solution
protein,
foods
●
tube
of
e.g.
a
0.1M
●
egg
albumen
p
Figure
carry
B.1.1.5
out
your
This
food
is
how
you
containing
0.1M
●
protein
rack
copper
sulphate
sodium
●
water
hydroxide
●
a
solution
●
eye
solution
dropping
pipette
protection
should
tests
3
1
Pour
2
cm
volume
of
of
the
water
egg
albumen
test
into
tube
solution
into
test
tube
1.
Put
the
same
2.
3
2
Add
3
Add
and
2 cm
of
dilute
copper
sodium
hydroxide
sulphate
solution
to
to
each
each
test
test
tube.
tube
drop
by
drop
shake.
4
A
5
Make
positive
result
will
suspensions
described
6
dilute
Record
be
or
indicated
solutions
by
of
a
violet
various
colour.
foods
and
test
these
as
above.
your
results
in
a
table.
Lipids
There
oils),
and
p
Figure
B.1.1.6
positive
biuret
test
A
for
negative
protein
and
with
is
waxes
are
the
made
which
·---·
acids
are
Figure
B.1.1.7
triglyceride
The
are
of
sebum
of
t he
B.1.1.7).
lipid
molecules
produced
at
most
by
of
t he
is
a
t he
lipid
carbon,
glycerol
when
t han
room
common
elements
There
t hat
gram
solid
t he
molecule
means
each
including
skin)
and
triglycerides
steroids
(e.g.
(fats
and
oestrogen
ver y
t hey
ot her
in
hydrogen
combines
high
are
our
ratio
wit h
of
respired
oils
are
and
fatty
hydrogen
release
Fats
triglycerides
and
oxygen
t hree
t hey
macronutrients.
temperature;
bodies
are
to
in
our
and
acid
are
in
more
are
made
liquid
lipids,
energy
triglycerides
t hat
They
molecules
oxygen
much
diet.
t hat
at
room
temperatures.
Triglycerides
are
used
and
to
heat
are
deposited
provide
a
insulation.
under
long-term
They
are
t he
store
skin
of
modied
and
around
energy,
to
delicate
protection
form
organs.
from
phospholipids
They
knocks
when
one
of
triglyceride
the
p
(e.g.
up
one
(Figure
for
variety
cholesterol).
when
fatty
wide
Triglycerides
a
test
glycerol
a
formation
molecule
(a
of
molecule
a
of
fatty
t hen
acids
used
to
is
replaced
make
cell
by
a
phosphate
membranes,
group.
including
These
t he
cell
phospholipids
surface
are
membrane,
fat)
nuclear
envelope
Food
sources
meat
and
vit amins
on
page
and
r ic h
fish.
t hat
in
These
are
cell
organelles.
lipids
foods
soluble
are
are
in
butter,
also
lipids.
margar ine,
impor t ant
There
is
veget able
because
more
t hey
about
oil,
fatty
cont ain
t hese
vit amins
65.
60
835292
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
60
08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
Balanced
Practical
T
esting
foods
for
diet
Activity
lipids
using
the
emulsion
test
Requirements
●
ethanol
●
oil
●
test
1
Place
(e.g.
olive
oil)
tubes
5
drops
of
oil
●
test
●
water
●
eye
into
test
tube
rack
foods
●
(such
as
seeds)
protection
tube
1.
3
2
Add
5
of
cm
ethanol.
ethanol
Some
may
into
test
remain
tube
1
and
undissolved
shake
at
the
to
dissolve
bottom
of
the
the
oil
test
in
the
tube.
3
3
Put
4
Pour
5
A
6
5
cm
the
white
Cut
up
Seeds
lipids
of
water
solution
some
to
of
emulsion
make
is
foods
good
dissolve
into
test
tube
and
ethanol
the
into
positive
small
material
and
then
to
2.
oil
into
result
pieces
test.
pour
for
and
Add
into
test
tube
fats
2.
and
oil.
place
into
separate
ethanol
and
wait
test
tubes
of
water
5
as
test
tubes.
minutes
for
described
any
above.
p
7
Record
your
results
in
a
Figure
B.1.1.8
A
positive
result
for
table.
lipids
Carbohydrates
0
using
Did
the
emulsion
you
test
know?
?
Carbohydrates
t he
elements
are
t he
carbon,
sugars
and
hydrogen
starches
and
in
oxygen.
our
diet.
The
They
ratio
of
are
made
hydrogen
from
There
to
acids.
oxygen
in
carbohydrate
molecules
is
2:1.
In
proteins
and
fats
t he
ratio
are
different
Some
are
types
of
saturated
fatty
and
is
are
found
mainly
in
animals.
different.
Others
found
are
unsaturated
mainly
in
and
are
plants.
Monosaccharides
The
simplest
such
as
carbohydrates
glucose.
disacchar ides.
are
a
long
single
absorbed
taste,
are
into
generate
All
t he
ATP
sources
when
Dis acchar ides
Food
and
sources
milk .
All
Benedict ’s
●
body
in
in
are
joined
are
blood;
t hey
it
need
used
is
wit h
complex
in
for m
into
as
Benedict’s
sugar s
except
and
single
pairs
sugars)
to
for m
polysacchar ides
and
galactose,
glucose.
ready
by
They
source
cells
which
are
of
t hat
t hat
consist
sweet
energy;
require
of
are
to
glucose
it
to
1
12).
include
sugars
disacc har ides
a
page
(or
into
Monosacchar ides
absorbed
(see
reducing
to
joined
fr uctose
monosaccharides
are
be
chains.
conver ted
and
disacc har ides
and
biscuits,
will
give
cakes
a
and
positive
honey.
red/brown
reagent.
provide
include
sucrose
a
cane
give
source
(or
a
of
beet)
positive
energy.
sugar,
test
fr uit
wit h
reagent.
Disaccharides
a
be
can
glucose,
and
t he
boiled
r ic h
as
water
monosaccharides
precipitate
monosaccharides
unbranched
t hat
rich
also
such
in
energy
t he
can
or
unit,
soluble
transpor ts
Food
They
branched
sugar
are
Monosacchar ides
chemical
are
bond
made
known
up
as
of
a
two
monosaccharides
glycosidic
joined
toget her
by
bond.
61
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Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Balanced
Nutrition
diet
●
•
•
• ••
Sucrose,
monosaccharides
lactose
complex
lactose
......
●
and
sugars
are
Sucrose
as
Lactose
is
are
bot h
cane
maltose
also
impor tant
sugar
is
are
soluble
examples
in
par ts
used
as
water
of
a
t he
of
disaccharides.
and
sweet
human
to
taste.
These
Sucrose
and
diet.
sweetener.
disaccharides
●
●
Maltose
used
in
t he
(malt
t he
making
carbohydrate
sugar)
is
in
milk.
produced
manufacture
of
by
some
t he
foods
breakdown
as
well
as
a
of
starch
raw
and
material
is
for
alcohol.
polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
made
p
Figure
B.1.1.9
(simple
Monosaccharides
sugars),
●
sugars)
(complex
carbohydrates);
and
They
polysaccharides
note
by
chains
of
glycosidic
many
carbohydrates
(poly)
simple
wit h
sugar
much
units
larger
molecules
(saccharides)
joined
bonds.
are
much
are
all
insoluble
in
water.
that
●
longer
Polysaccharides
are
made
as
energy
storage
compounds
in
plants
than
and
shown
long
complex
disaccharides
(complex
polysaccharides
of
toget her
are
animals.
here
●
As
●
we
saw
in
in
make
cellulose
Food
and
t he
A.3,
sugar
plants
form
sources
of
for
rich
store
sugar
glycogen,
t heir
in
cell
starch
as
which
starch.
is
ver y
Animals
similar
and
to
fungi
starch.
store
Plants
walls.
include
bread,
pasta,
potatoes,
cassava
yams.
Practical
T
esting
Sugars
foods
are
occurs
for
called
when
Activity
reducing
reducing
they
give
a
sugars
sugars
positive
using
Benedict’s
because
result
the
with
type
solution
of
Benedict’s
chemical
solution
reaction
is
known
that
as
a
reduction.
Requirements
●
test
tubes
●
Benedict’s
●
test
tube
●
1%
●
water
●
test
●
eye
racks
baths
greater
at
than
any
temperature
70°C
solution
glucose
tube
solution
holders
protection
3
1
Put
2
water
of
cm
into
1%
test
glucose
tube
solution
in
test
tube
1.
Put
the
same
volume
of
2.
3
2
Add
3
Place
4
A
2 cm
both
positive
glucose
or
5
p
Figure
B.1.1.10
A
negative
result
positive
if
you
result
look
precipitate
on
the
for
carefully
at
the
reducing
you
can
bottom
right
of
Benedict’s
tubes
result
will
be
red-brown
Make
into
is
a
a
any
solution
of
water
colour
green
suspensions
solution
bath
a
test
at
change
solution;
with
to
a
any
foods
by
1
and
2.
temperature
from
high
precipitate
different
tubes
blue.
A
low
concentration
of
the
same
mixing
with
above
70°C.
concentration
will
give
an
of
orange
colour.
water.
Leave
them
and
for
a
of
a
few
minutes
for
any
reducing
sugars
to
dissolve
in
the
water.
sugars;
see
the
the
6
T
est
them
with
Benedict’s
All
monosaccharides
solution
following
the
instructions
above.
tube
reducing
and
all
disaccharides
apart
from
sucrose
are
sugars.
62
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Topic
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16:02
Nutrition
Balanced
Practical
T
esting
foods
for
diet
Activity
non-reducing
sugars
using
Benedict’s
solution
Requirements
●
test
tubes
●
0.1M
hydrochloric
●
test
tube
●
0.1M
sodium
●
water
●
Benedict’s
●
1%
●
test
●
eye
be
racks
baths
sucrose
sucrose
supplier,
T
o
identify
T
est
for
boiling
solution
from
not
a
cane
(this
should
chemical
tube
acid
hydroxide
solution
solution
holders
protection
sugar)
non-reducing
sugars,
two
tests
must
be
performed.
1
3
1
Put
2
cm
1%
sucrose
solution
into
test
tube
1.
3
2
Add
2 cm
3
Place
than
4
tube
two
Note
Benedict’s
1
into
a
solution
water
bath
to
at
a
test
tube
1.
temperature
above
70°C
for
no
longer
minutes.
that
sucrose
T
est
of
the
solution
solution
is
stays
blue.
If
contaminated
there
by
is
any
reducing
colour
change
then
the
sugars.
2
3
1
Put
2
Add
3
Boil
4
2
cm
2
1%
drops
this
sucrose
of
hydrochloric
mixture
Remove
from
solution
for
the
2–3
water
into
test
tube
2.
acid.
minutes
bath
in
using
a
water
test
bath
tube
of
boiling
holders.
water.
Cool
the
test
tube
3
and
neutralise
with
1 cm
dilute
sodium
hydroxide
solution.
3
5
Add
6
Replace
7
A
2 cm
of
the
positive
red-brown
Note:
into
By
tube
result
with
boiling
glucose
Benedict’s
foods
be
seen
dilute
fructose,
for
boiling
water
by
any
bath.
change
in
colour,
e.g.
orange
or
precipitate.
Practical
T
esting
the
will
a
with
and
in
solution.
hydrochloric
both
of
acid,
which
are
the
sucrose
reducing
is
broken
down
sugars.
Activity
starch
using
iodine
solution
Requirements
●
test
tubes
●
test
tube
●
spotting
1
Put
●
rack
iodine
in
iodide
solution
(iodine
tile
potassium
●
1%
starch
suspension
solution)
●
eye
protection
3
2
cm
volume
2
Add
two
tubes
3
A
1
of
of
or
1%
into
three
and
positive
the
water
starch
test
drops
suspension
tube
of
into
test
tube
1.
Put
the
same
2.
iodine
in
potassium
iodide
solution
to
test
2.
result
will
be
indicated
by
a
blue-black
colour,
a
negative
result
p
Figure
tile
by
a
yellow
and
B.1.1.11
iodine
Using
solution
a
spotting
to
test
foods
colour.
for
starch
63
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CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
63
08/01/2015
16:02
Balanced
Nutrition
diet
4
T
est
a
variety
adding
and
5
T
able
B.1.1.1
Macronutrient
Summary
I
Chemical
C,
Protein
table
H,
O
of
N
to
form
I
present
amino
H
Rich
Meat,
acids
in
your
C,
monosaccharides,
to
and
O
disaccharides,
saccharides
being
with
2
to
the
results
summarises
(lipid)
in
C,
H
and
O
the
1;
ratio
they
of
food
sh,
Sugar,
H
cakes,
form
I
source
eggs,
biscuits,
bread,
pasta,
oxygen
hydrogen
form
carbohydrates
tile
or
Y
ou
in
information
Functions
them
can
test
on
test
a
spotting
liquid
tile
foods
and
(e.g.
milk
tubes.
about
macronutrients.
and
pork,
oils
properties
3
Some
in
4
Transport
5
Protection
1
Energy
source
2
Energy
storage
the
repair
proteins
haemoglobin,
hormones
(not
energy
to
3
Protection
in
4
Part
5
Solvent
of
disaccharides
starch
store
in
are
Polysaccharides
which
soluble
in
keratin,
water
and
soluble
are
in
water
insoluble
plants)
Insoluble
against
for
(e.g.
insoluble
Monosaccharides
e.g.
source
cell
proteins
collagen)
(antibodies)
(e.g.
enzymes)
water
Fibrous
Energy
proteins
Physical
Globular
Enzymes
Insulation
Butter,
and
I
humans
2
1
than
and
in
Growth
2
glycerol
atoms
atoms
putting
table.
glycogen
acids
Fewer
by
solution.
1
cereal
(sugars)
to
a
t he
is
fatty
starch
iodine
spotting
polysaccharides
Fat
for
of
pulses
Carbohydrate:
O
foods
drops
juices)
all
B.1.1.1
of
few
macronutrients
elements
and
fruit
Record
Table
q
a
in
water
knocks
membrane
vitamins
A
and
D
Micronutrients
Micronutrients
day.
Minerals
compounds
are
are
t hat
required
inorganic
are
made
vitamins
from
simpler
(vitamin
C)
t heir
t his,
lack
so
of
in
ascorbic
one
mineral
by
as
has
or
t he
t hey
to
one
body
plants.
substances,
diet
acid
by
substances.
be
Some
e.g.
make
in
t he
vitamin
in
small
it
are
animals
cattle
do
You
eating
make
need
of
each
organic
t heir
ascorbic
Humans
cannot
more
quantities
complex
can
not
t hemselves.
diet.
by
ver y
Vitamins
acid
cannot
compensate
do
for
t he
anot her.
Minerals
Minerals
mineral
used
are
to
par t
lists
T
able
B.1.1.2
Roles
of
minerals
Mineral
Sources
Iron
Liver,
Water,
the
make
ions,
in
All
str uctures
as
of
t he
iron,
soluble
as
of
bones
blood
copper
reactions.
more
str uctures.
are
such
components
such
chemical
some
simple
minerals
and
There
impor tant
is
They
in
and
and
long
are
list
green
Sodium
body
bound
of
chloride
Many
enzymes
minerals
salts
or
phosphate
and
uids.
to
ions,
and
and
of
t he
and
Table
are
ions
take
B.1.1.2
ones.
body
vegetables,
callaloo/dasheen
table
inorganic
Calcium
teet h.
ot her
zinc,
a
are
water.
Function
eggs,
spinach,
Iodine
in
relatively
impor tant
metal
q
are
salts.
e.g.
bush
salt
Production
blood
haemoglobin
in
red
cells
Production
the
Deciency
of
Anaemia
blood
of
metabolic
thyroxine
which
controls
rate
–
less
haemoglobin
in
red
cells
Reduction
in
sluggishness
metabolic
in
adults;
rate,
causes
cretinism
in
the
young
Calcium
Cheese,
milk,
water,
tinned
tuna/
Fluoride
Water;
Phosphate
Water,
some
fresh
products,
Sodium
and
potassium
Water,
Healthy
bones
clotting;
salmon
toothpastes
vegetables,
milk,
fresh
Strengthens
dairy
ATP
vegetables,
milk,
liver
Nerve
acids
teeth;
in
teeth
bones
(DNA
impulse
blood
Weak
bones;
poor
blood
clotting
contraction
enamel
production;
nucleic
liver
and
muscle
and
and
teeth;
T
ooth
Rarely
decay
decient
RNA)
conduction
Rarely
decient
64
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B
Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Nutrition
Balanced
Vitamins
Like
minerals,
Vitamins
vitamin
are
vitamins
substances
performs
vitamins
are
and
a
needed
t hat
different
many
of
are
are
tiny
needed
role
t hem
in
in
t he
known
amounts
in
order
body.
by
to
t he
keep
There
letters
in
as
is
us
also
well
diet
healt hy.
a
as
each
long
by
0
Each
Mineral
salts
Also
minerals.
These
are
ascorbic
acid
is
vitamin
C.
The
vitamins
are
divided
into
●
by
whet her
Water-soluble
●
Examples
of
t hey
vitamins
t he
are
are
water
t he
lipid-soluble
B
soluble
group
vitamins
or
two
are
A,
D
and
vitamin
quantities
absorbed
e.g.
and
as
in
in
the
diet.
They
groups
not.
vitamins
needed
names,
are
determined
known
of
small
e.g.
terms
!
day.
list
Key
diet
sodium
from
ions,
food
as
chloride
phosphate
ions.
Vitamins
Complex
ions,
ions,
C.
compounds
K.
needed
in
the
diet
for
specic
functions.
The
solubility
likely
to
variety
q
be
of
T
able
of
vitamins
found.
specic
B.1.1.3
Table
uses
Roles
in
of
determines
B.1.1.3
t he
A
(fat
in
the
Milk,
soluble)
group
of
food
vitamins
in
are
which
used
(e.g.
B
water
a
are
great
Function
butter,
liver,
fresh
rods
extract,
liver,
eggs
Deciency
Manufacture
vegetables,
carrots
Yeast
soluble)
t hey
for
body
Source
e.g.
B
type
t hat
body.
vitamins
Vitamin
t he
shows
and
in
Many
the
of
eye
uses,
rhodopsin
(see
page
particularly
in
the
Nightblindness
233)
in
Many,
e.g.
nervous
and
muscle
1
vegetables
C
(water
Fresh
soluble)
e.g.
fruit,
respiration
particularly
citrus
fruits,
Healing
oranges
of
of
systems
wounds,
collagen
the
body,
in
e.g.
stimulates
many
in
formation
Scurvy
places
out;
skin
uptake
of
and
iron
in
are
–
can
less
efcient
bleeding
lead
to
gums,
teeth
fall
anaemia
gums;
from
the
gut
D
(fat
Liver,
soluble)
butter,
sunlight
on
cheese;
also
action
of
Stimulates
and
skin
absorption
phosphate
therefore
from
important
of
calcium
Rickets
–
weakened
bones
food,
in
bone
formation
K
(fat
Green
soluble)
vegetables;
produce
E
fat
Green
soluble
this
in
gut
the
bacteria
Clotting
of
blood
Prevent
chemical
vegetables
membranes
Practical
The
test
for
vitamin
Poor
clotting
of
blood
colon
damage
to
cell
Red
blood
cells
break
easily
nerve
cells
are
leading
break
fragile
to
and
anaemia;
down
Activity
C
Requirements
●
test
tubes
●
test
tube
●
1 cm
●
beakers
●
1%
several
●
racks
foods,
oranges
and
e.g.
lemons,
grapefruit
3
by
syringes
vitamin
C
dissolving
or
dropping
solution
1
gram
pipettes
●
1%
DCPIP
solution
●
eye
protection
prepared
of
a
vitamin
3
C
tablet
in
100
cm
of
water
3
1
Put
1 cm
2
Using
the
blue
Record
number
DCPIP
syringe
DCPIP
The
3
a
of
one
or
of
a
drop
DCPIP
the
solution
dropping
at
a
solution
volume
into
of
Shake
turn
vitamin
test
pipette
time.
will
a
C
tube.
add
the
1%
tube
vitamin
after
C
solution
adding
each
to
drop.
colourless.
solution
required
to
do
this
or
the
drops.
65
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
65
08/01/2015
16:02
Balanced
Nutrition
diet
4
Extract
a
5
the
juice
Repeat
you
steps
know
6
Repeat
7
Compare
in
a
you
is
the
had
1–3
rich
test
the
table.
vitamin
If
to
C
Calculating
student
variety
The
of
a
add
of
C
of
a
fruits.
test
C
content
a
of
syringe
DCPIP
the
you
to
to
content
the
0
good
lemon,
an
orange
and
of
3
that
for
it
drops
took
to
in
of
6
a
and
idea
another
juices
can
by
record
decolourise
to
use
a
fruit
that
it.
type
of
presenting
the
volume
Rate
the
juice.
your
of
results
juice
juices
in
that
order
of
fruits
activity
drops
of
of
decolourise
lemons
Therefore
calculating
drops
student
of
0.1%
drops
of
recorded
the
the
as
as
described
0.1%
in
the
the
vitamin
DCPIP
,
0.1%
percentage
of
concentration
vitamin
above
and
tested
a
C
solution
to
there
must
solution,
vitamin
of
C
as
is
vitamin
C
it
be
double
took
half
the
0.2%.
in
the
foods
is:
C
0.1%
extract
the
Number
results
of
drops
Orange
2
Grapes
8
in
of
a
table:
extract
36
a
Calculate
b
Explain
the
why
Dietary
bre
Dietar y
bre
major
is
lowest).
practical
Potato
term
a
DCPIP
.
content
Food
Key
It
tube
×
A
e.g.
first.
clean
C
the
the
C
(highest
out
drops.
number
The
fruits,
skills
found
the
formula
number
to
content
took
vitamin
The
one
vitamin
used
vitamin
student
number
for
in
vitamin
carried
lemon
the
different
foods.
decolourise
If
several
using
you
Maths
A
from
grapefruit.
is
vitamin
these
found
component
C
content
results
are
mainly
of
these
unlikely
in
dietar y
of
plant
bre
is
to
three
be
foods.
accurate.
mater ial,
cellulose
e.g.
vegetables.
from
t he
walls
of
plant
!
cells.
Fibre
helps
Indigestible
to
bowel
prevent
matter
that
constipation
cancer.
and
give
t he
Fibre
t he
provides
muscles
small
and
large
constipation .
By
(diver ticulitis)
and
passes
body
all
t he
when
bulk
to
t he
somet hing
intestines.
regularly
way
bowel
are
food
work
so
t he
passed
to
on
stimulate
and
Stimulating
removing
cancer
t hrough
faeces
to
are
push
digestive
t he
per istalsis
faeces,
less
per istalsis
all
food
helps
inammation
likely
to
system
occur.
so
is
and
along
to
of
prevent
t he
Dietar y
egested
colon
bre
from
t he
out.
Water
Water
water
is
an
and
present
in
impor tant
we
lose
body
a
constituent
great
uids
deal
and
in
of
each
cells.
t he
day,
It
is
diet
as
so
especially
found
much
in
hot
of
t he
body
climates.
is
Water
is
in:
66
835292
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
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08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
●
●
●
●
Teeth
blood
plasma,
lymph,
tissue
which
anot her
uid,
cytoplasm
body
which
–
makes
many
uid
up
t hat
surrounds
cells
about
55%
transpor ts
all
contain
t he
cells
of
our
blood
materials
inside
approximately
our
volume
around
t he
body
bodies
60–70%
0
water.
Did
you
know?
?
Water
is
vital
for
body
functioning.
We
need
it
as
a:
There
●
coolant
in
t he
skin
large
are
many
bacterium
●
solvent
for
t he
transpor t
of
water
soluble
substances,
including
carbon
dioxide
and
waste
substances
(see
page
●
solvent
for
reactant
water
in
soluble
chemical
substances
reactions,
e.g.
inside
tissue
hydrolysis
uid
and
reactions
cytoplasm
in
t he
digestive
act
when
we
and
on
the
produce
vitamins
of
vitamins
are
coli.
These
cellulose
the
B
vitamin
group.
absorbed
K
in
and
These
through
digest
the
foods
Escherichia
our
the
92)
food
●
in
particularly
absorbed
bacteria
nutrients,
microbes
intestines,
colon
and
used
by
the
body.
system.
These
are
useful
bacteria.
Questions
1
State
the
2
What
elements
3
a
What
make
4
a
is
a
a
a
source
5
types
are
elements
up
Name
that
three
Naming
proteins
are
in
fats
made
from?
(lipids)?
b
What
are
the
components
that
food
that
is
source
a
good
of
source
starch.
c
of
protein.
Name
a
b
Name
different
food
a
different
that
is
a
food
good
lipids.
a
following
carbohydrate.
triglyceride?
good
of
of
different
vitamins
food
and
in
each
case,
minerals:
state
vitamin
A,
a
good
vitamin
source
,
B
of
the
vitamin
C,
vitamin
1
D,
6
iron
Which
B.1.2
and
calcium.
vitamins
are
a
fat
soluble
and
b
water
soluble?
Teeth
Learning
By
T
eeth
We
the
should
have
two
childhood
sets
and
of
teet h
in
permanent
our
lifetime:
teet h
t hat
milk
replace
(deciduous)
t he
milk
teet h
teet h
in
from
t he
●
age
end
be
of
six
years
describe
The
human
onwards.
adult
●
dentition
is
composed
of
four
types
of
teet h
topic
you
to:
the
structure
and
of
relate
tooth
of
the
to
a
typical
structure
its
tooth
of
a
functions
(see
●
Figure
this
able
function
about
outcomes
state
the
causes
of
tooth
B.1.2.1):
decay
●
incisors
–
chisel-like
for
biting
●
●
canines
–
pointed,
wit h
no
par ticular
function
in
humans
alt hough
●
help
t he
incisors
bite
into
food
describe
tooth
t hey
outline
for
●
●
premolars
molars
You
can
see
dentition
your
–
–
cheek
cheek
t he
by
mout h,
teet h,
teet h,
ridged
difference
writing
t he
top
out
jaw
ridged
for
for
between
dental
over
process
of
the
your
ways
to
care
teeth.
grinding
grinding.
t he
milk
formulae.
t he
the
decay
lower
dentition
Each
and
formula
t he
refers
permanent
to
half
of
jaw.
67
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
67
08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
Teeth
Figure
Did
you
B.1.2.2
shows
t he
str ucture
and
functions
of
enamel:
white
As
a
young
child,
your
canine
toot h.
very
shiny
hard
material,
dental
96%
formula
a
know?
was:
mineral
mainly
salts
calcium
phosphate
2
1
i
2
c
0
p
2
1
m
2
dentine:
0
tooth
the
main
substance,
crown:
As
an
adult,
your
dental
formula
exposed
mouth
will
yellowish
or
like
bone
but
be:
has
fine
1
2
c
1
cytoplasm
3
p
2
harder;
canals
containing
2
i
ivory,
to
cavity
passing
m
2
through
it
3
neck:
gum
surrounded
by
pulp
soft
cavity:
contains
gum
incisors
small
blood
nerve
vessels,
fibres,
sensory
pain
receptors
and
and
canine
tooth-forming
cells
root
premolars
embedded
in
cement:
molars
bone-like,
socket
fixes
bone
tooth
allows
tooth
in
fibrous
marrow
cavity:
i
tissue
nerve
blood
socket
slight
movement
in
in
membrane:
of
socket
connective
covering
jaw
bone
jaw
bone
vessel
molars
canine
premolars
p
In
Figure
B.1.2.2
humans
t he
Structure
upper
of
and
a
canine
lower
tooth
jaws
have
t he
same
number
and
type
of
incisors
teet h,
p
Figure
B.1.2.1
Human
adult
as
seen
in
Figure
B.1.2.1.
dentition
Care
Too
of
muc h
bacter ia
enamel
(see
teeth
sugar
in
of
our
Figure
neutral
–
our
in
t he
teet h.
B.1.2.4).
neit her
pH
acid
of
can
tur n
As
acid
is
a
not
sugar
pH
diet
mout hs
result
t he
in
sugar
toot h
into
accumulates
measure
of
decay.
acids
in
t he
acidity
This
whic h
teet h
and
is
because
att ac k
t he
pH
alkalinity.
t he
decreases
pH
7
is
alkaline.
eaten
pH
falls
as
bacteria
pH
returns
to
8
break
mouth
to
sugar
down
normal
acids
about
after
30–45
minutes
normal
of
pH
7
mouth
6
pH
beneath
which
can
decay
..
I
I
occur
5
,
p
Figure
B.1.2.3
showing
signs
An
of
extracted
4
I
3
I
I
I
during
time
can
this
I
I
+I
decay
occur
I
I
I
I
Time
molar
decay
p
Figure
B.1.2.4
How
the
pH
in
your
mouth
will
vary
after
eating
sugary
food
68
835292
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Nutrition
Plaque
Teeth
is
a
t he
teet h.
t he
food,
mixture
Bacteria
of
in
saliva,
t he
food
plaque
and
bacteria
produce
acids
which
and
forms
toxins
naturally
(poisons)
on
from
0
Key
terms
!
par ticularly
if
t he
food
is
sugar y.
Plaque
Dental
caries
are
caused
by
t he
acid
dissolving
t he
enamel
and
t he
and
of
t he
toot h.
This
leads
to
a
cavity
in
t he
toot h,
which
may
leading
to
food
t he
mout h.
toot h
t he
and
toot h
disease
These
gum
may
is
caused
cause
meet.
fall
by
toxic
inammation
Eventually
out
substances
later
in
t he
of
gum
t he
released
gum
may
at
pull
t he
back
by
bacteria
the
point
from
where
Practical
t he
toot h
and
area
that
is
Indicator
paper
or
various
●
household
spotting
Indicator
tile
or
cell
rubber
eye
1
Place
tube.
cork
2
3
a
colour
test
or
If
small
test
cleaning
antacid
chart
tubes
cork
and
colas,
with
stoppers
plastic
quantity
tubes
The
swelling
Blood
white
to
of
blood
remove
an
ow
cells
bacteria
NEUTRAL
fluids,
tablets
fruit
are
of
mouthwash,
bottled
gloves
in
detergents,
each
used,
item
cover
on
a
each
spotting
one
shampoo,
water
with
or
tile
a
in
rubber
strong
2
3
4
5
pH
bleach,
tap
test
bung
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
value
as
in
shown
by
Universal
different
Indicator
water,
p
a
6
water,
milk
or
ALKALI
weak
juices,
dissolved
vinegar,
weak
Figure
B.1.2.5
Colour
chart
Figure
B.1.2.6
Universal
Indicator
or
stopper.
Either
or
bungs
protection
by
debris.
colour
●
decay
substances,
1
●
T
ooth
and
ACID
e.g.
Universal
saliva
surface
scale
solution
●
the
released
infected.
together
strong
Universal
acid
increased
and
Activity
pH
caries
by
Inammation
life.
Requirements
●
to
bacteria.
t he
collect
the
bacteria,
teeth.
caused
in
is
Investigating
of
sticks
toot hache.
Dental
Periodontal
layer
that
become
of
infected,
A
dentine
place
place
a
Compare
a
few
piece
the
drops
of
of
Universal
Universal
colours
with
Indicator
Indicator
the
colour
paper
chart
solution
into
and
each
give
a
into
each
item
item.
pH
value
to
each
substance.
Place
the
record
of
substances
the
Prevention
Toot h
q
T
able
1
of
decay
on
tooth
can
be
prevented
Brushing
T
eeth
T
oothpaste
and
should
at
Use
use
by
of
1
taking
bacteria
3
T
oothbrush
Your
4
Dental
Dental
to
14
good
and
take
photographs
as
a
care
of
t he
teet h.
oss
Disclosing
Disclosing
so
you
Eating
habits
good
Eating
to
are
sugary
other
damages
juices
the
can
on
to
the
very
foods
to
as
not
thoroughly
after
each
meal
oss
These
concentrate
thoroughness
taking
bacteria
contain
the
in
acid
teeth.
of
the
enamel
food
and
particles
at
is
a
least
your
care
on.
against
the
good
once
plaque
and
to
way
a
prevent
day.
on
your
ossing.
teeth
They
brushing.
of
your
Also
teeth.
avoid
preservation.
eat
plaque.
months.
and
their
not
the
protects
brushing
feed
for
Do
also
stain
your
of
dislodge.
2–3
teeth
dental
chewed.
that
every
strengthens
some
always
between
use
this
remove
changed
which
of
motion
antiseptic
important
which
enamel
all
be
where
check
habits
avoid
and
see
be
debris
should
tablets
can
uoride
does
contain
should
We
circular
brushing
brushing
removes
decay.
a
plaque.
contains
after
mouthwashes
tablets
a
that
in
remove
that
toothbrush
tooth
are
brushed
to
mouthwash
Some
oss
be
bedtime
toothpaste
a
and
6
scale
B.1.2.1
mouthwash
5
pH
decay
and
2
the
results.
too
often
Always
the
soft
The
try
drinks
acid
between
meals.
p
T
eeth
are
not
bottle
openers!
69
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Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Nutrition
Enzymes
0
q
Talk
T
able
B.1.2.1
Continued
about
?
7
Dentist
Dentists
check
to
regularly
T
ooth
leading
condition,
Discuss
this
statement
with
friends,
family
and
seems
that
if
glass
you
of
overnight
it
is
a
collection
unlikely
properly
Instead,
say
tooth
leave
have
that
will
to
is
important
resolved
to
visit
before
they
the
dentist
get
that
out
visits
llings
can
be
or
tooth
every
extraction.
year,
but
if
not
If
your
then
teeth
every
are
6
in
too
good
by
most
months
is
dentists.
practice
Use
your
teeth
for
what
they
do
best
–
eating.
Questions
1
What
is
2
Name
3
Give
the
maximum
number
of
teeth
in
the
adult
human
dentition?
a
to
out
the
four
types
of
teeth.
your
a
pulp
role
for
each
of
the
following:
a
enamel,
b
dentine,
c
cement,
and
cavity.
and
discuss
rots
d
others
videoed.
and
to
experiment.
carried
‘cola
it
have
try
Internet
or
Good
4
What
is
dental
caries?
5
What
is
periodontal
6
How
Assess
the
teeth’
should
you
disease?
take
care
of
your
teeth
to
avoid
dental
decay,
others.
injections,
Learning
By
It
are
disappeared.
you
teeth
the
evidence
with
a
have
experiments
they
claim
decay.
the
and
controlled
use
know
put
that
of
photographed
the
to
cola
will
It
nd
any
problems
teachers.
8
Everyone
a
for
any
your
advised
in
teeth
that
decay
serious
story
your
ensure
the
end
B.1.3
outcomes
of
this
topic
fillings
and
extractions?
Enzymes
you
Enzymes
should
be
able
to:
Catalysts
●
define
the
term
are
biological
●
explain
how
an
enzyme
describe
the
catalysts
t hat
t hat
are
speed
made
up
by
chemical
cells
to
reactions.
speed
up
Enz ymes
chemical
are
reactions
in
works
t he
●
substances
enzyme
properties
body.
Enzymes
catalyse
reactions
t hat
would
ot her wise
take
too
long
of
to
enable
us
to
sur vive,
e.g.
wit hout
enzymes
to
help
us
digest
our
food
we
enzymes.
would
The
t he
not
vast
by
are
ver y
are
secreted
Each
is
Figure
B.1.3.1
This
meal
is
If
we
and
within
had
no
to
would
this
digest.
be
hours
enzymes
intestines,
years
48
in
meal
Life
as
impossible
of
being
our
named
into
are
in
t he
found
active
is
a
site,
t heir
proteins
(see
alimentar y
cells
food
proteins
af ter
digestion
inside
enzymes
are
our
by
where
and
do
are
ver y
proteases
B.1.4).
it
must
t hey
much!
unchanged
substrates,
Unit
canal,
to
e.g.
and
lipids
Alt hough
be
at
by
end
lipases.
t hese
remembered
control
t he
carbohydrates
of
are
They
enzymes
t hat
most
metabolism.
work
complex
which
t hree-dimensional
has
a
par ticular
shape
molecule.
where
t he
Par t
of
its
reaction
str ucture
occurs.
used
to
explain
how
t he
active
site
works
is
shown
in
Figure
B.1.3.2
shows
t he
and
is
substrate
called
t he
molecules
lock
and
tting
key
into
mechanism.
t he
active
site
The
and
diagram
being
take
know
without
mechanism
eaten.
stomach
would
we
enzymes
are
from
fully
The
digested
energy
carbohydrases,
enzyme
t he
of
They
impor tant
enzymes
How
enough
majority
reaction.
digested
p
have
it
enzymes
conver ted
enzymes
down
to
into
to
a
product
catalyse
product
molecule.
reactions
in
The
which
practical
substrate
activities
molecules
involve
are
using
broken
molecules.
70
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B
Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Nutrition
Enzymes
1
2
}
enzyme
On
a
the
enzyme
particular
known
active
p
as
active
is
with
the
4
41 ..
site
Substrate
shape
3
molecules
The
complementary
fit
shapes
substrate
into
such
site
the
a
molecules
active
way
that
site
a
A
in
of
reaction
is
product
the
now
two
made
up
Product
substrates
end
B.1.3.2
Lock
and
key
mechanism
of
enzyme
Tr y
this
yourself
If
a
the
Exam
word
the
activity
of
catalase
in
different
Requirements
–ase,
do
not
made
hydrogen
peroxide
(from
a
knife,
●
of
small
have
or
glasses
peroxide
extremely
enzyme
cutting
is
toxic
made
to
catalase
cells
is
by
so
peroxide
to
peroxide
produced
People
gloves
1
use
Add
rate
try
a
results
different
Properties
of
quantity
also
the
the
as
volumes
small
Record
it
of
as
is
many
board
and
few
of
reduce
t he
t he
speed
We
do
we
of
of
and
The
Make
the
t he
need
need
to
t he
energy
inside
in
such
in
the
numbers
of
reactions
Enzymes
are
of
buy
you
is
and
at
wear
to
t he
will
rate
end
occur.
to
is
peroxide
or
quantity
design
of
needed
to
large
t he
before
t he
The
t he
to
type
of
enzyme
enzyme
water
active
This
body
of
a
into
pepsin,
stomach
that
which
to
start
is
the
protein.
it
is
formed.
the
more
made.
animal
tissues.
pharmacies.
some
suitable
meat
of
plastic
that
containers.
you
have
at
home.
yeast.
properly
the
for
vigour
controlled
of
molecules
would
sur vive
reaction
t hey
occur
wit hout
quantities
of
t hey
become
site
of
must
will
t hat
catalase
and
means
t hat
reaction.
molecules
maltose;
peroxide
and
one
substrate
Amylase
down
specic.
of
ending
plenty
breakdown
the
experiment
to
reaction.
to
at
react
anyt hing
enzymes
enzymes
speed
worn
toget her.
up
–
to
catalyse
B.1.3.3
to
vigorous
is
t
only
Note
into
are
huge
out.
t he
amylase
t he
enzyme
Catalase
is
in
not
type
of
Figure
t he
catalyse
catalyses
oxygen.
each
active
t he
t hat
specic
B.1.3.4
site
reaction
reaction
will
enzyme
in
breaks
not
for
will
how
before
where
which
down
accept
t he
speed
shape
reaction
t his
occurs.
starch
is
broken
hydrogen
starch
hydrogen
only
t he
as
a
When
hydrogen
reaction
raw
liver
peroxide
with
lots
of
is
there
is
a
frothing
t hem.
t hey
catalyse
Figure
added
approaching
because
and
Ver y
0
Key
terms
!
Catalyst
t he
as
are
corrosive.
order
t he
order
make
at
of
there
processes.
as
tissue,
catalase
plant
can
many
soon
tissues
active
some
sure
as
animal
more
you
from
down
more
in
vegetables
then
and
the
which
hair.
small
in
plant
catalase
very
any
tissues
unchanged
up
names
be
Many
enzymes
reactions
not
will
small
p
Enzymes
it
gloves
product
broken
therefore
hydrogen
very
waste
be
oxygen.
and
their
it
a
to
peroxide,
bleaching
use
in
and
activity
hydrogen
for
could
water
relative
you
equal
a
Y
ou
3
it
when
Pour
2
the
some
cells
needs
present
hydrogen
need
plastic
●
hydrogen
Investigate
-ase
enzyme.
spoons
cups
Hydrogen
in
an
but
digestion
pharmacy)
Y
ou
the
reaction
tissues
in
The
the
tip
ends
name
enzymes
Investigating
is
of
remains
at
action
✔
It
enzyme
unchanged
produced
0
●
The
occurs
Figure
●
is
released
substrate
Speeds
up
remaining
unchanged
Enzyme
A
speeds
up
Substrate
changed
rate
The
during
Product
formed
biological
the
in
The
a
of
a
reaction
at
the
catalyst
that
reaction.
substance
a
end.
that
is
reaction.
substance
that
is
reaction.
peroxide.
71
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
71
08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
Enzymes
Factors
that
affect
enzymes
A
Enzymes
B
In
are
extremes
do
not
that
affected
of
pH
function
we
by
and
as
two
on
–
temperature,
catalysts.
experience
factors
enzymes
Within
Ear th,
temperature
the
enzymes
lose
range
of
respond
and
pH.
their
special
moderate
to
changes
str ucture
and
temperatures
in
temperature
C
by
increasing
or
decreasing
the
rate
at
which
they
work.
D
T
emperature
Figure
p
Figure
B.1.3.4
Enzyme
B.1.3.5
human
See
question
3
on
page
t he
effect
of
temperature
on
t he
action
of
a
enzyme.
76
Look
axis
to
a
t he
an
noitcaer
maximum
shows
specificity.
carefully
from
lef t
at
to
maximum.
optimum
optimum
t he
graph
right.
The
by
From
working
0°C
to
temperature
temperature
temperature
for
of
at
t he
steadily
37°C
t he
which
t he
enzyme.
37°C.
This
be
of
t he
horizontal
reaction
maximum
All
can
across
rate
human
increases
rate
occurs
enzymes
explained
by
t he
is
have
kinetic
rate
t heor y.
t he
The
enzyme
temperature
fo
toget her
t hey
so
etar
t he
permanently
molecules
t here
collide
temperature,
temperature
substrate
increases,
because
optimum
and
into
rate
is
a
greater
each
rapidly
changes
move
t he
ot her
chance
more
decreases.
shape
around
of
of
faster
t hem
frequently.
This
t he
is
as
tting
Above
because
enzyme
t he
t he
higher
molecules
so
optimum
temperature
0
10
20
t he
30
40
50
70
60
temperature / °C
Heating
is
a
get
p
Figure
effect
the
by
0
B.1.3.5
of
rate
a
This
increasing
of
a
human
graph
shows
temperature
reaction
that
is
active
sites
proteins
it
back
again.
on
catalysed
of
the
hot
egg
oil
is
you
practical
effect
look
of
and
amount
start
activity
to
temperatures
You
see
shapes.
of
Protein
this
60°C
or
higher
molecules
happening
lose
when
denatures
their
you
shape
cook
an
proteins.
and
egg.
This
cannot
of
the
egg
cooling
the
protein
white
will
Practical
goes
albumen.
solid.
restore
it
to
This
the
Heat
is
an
egg
in
boiling
The
white
denaturation
liquid
sate
of
a
of
fresh
water
albumen
or
and
no
egg.
Activity
tip
reading
page
on
63
the
effect
of
converts
starch
to
temperature
on
amylase
the
‘investigating
temperature
back
specic
change.
mostly
Investigating
Before
t heir
the
enzyme
Study
to
non-reversible
===========::]
✔
loses
Amylase
the
amylase’,
where
colours
when
samples
of
sugar.
the
The
reaction
change
mixture
is
followed
are
tested
by
with
recording
iodine
the
solution.
the
Requirements
iodine
A
test
for
blue-back
present.
In
substrate
beginning
when
it
starch
colour
this
is
described.
means
activity,
so
will
be
of
the
reaction,
has
all
been
starch
starch
present
is
at
but
is
the
●
test
tubes
●
spotting
●
test
tube
●
timers
●
permanent
●
thermometers
●
dropping
●
1%
starch
)
●
1%
amylase
beaker
●
iodine
racks
tiles
the
markers
for
test
tubes
not
converted
pipettes
to
or
plastic
3
syringes
(1 cm
solution
3
and
5 cm
solution
products.
●
water
of
baths
water
(use
plus
ice
a
for
cold
in
solution
potassium
(iodine
iodide
solution)
temperatures)
3
1
Put
1 cm
of
amylase
of
starch
into
a
test
tube
and
label.
3
2
Put
3 cm
3
Place
each
Record
4
After
the
the
15
test
into
tube
into
temperature
minutes
reaction
mix
mixture
another
a
of
the
warm
the
two
using
test
a
tube
water
water
bath,
bath
solutions,
dropping
and
label.
e.g.
and
start
a
at
keep
timer
35°C
it
for
15
minutes.
constant.
and
take
a
sample
of
pipette.
72
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Nutrition
5
Enzymes
Place
(this
6
this
should
Clean
the
iodine
7
turn
into
the
spotting
tile
and
add
colour
taking
take
another
samples
record
the
the
whole
temperatures,
sample
after
30
every
time
in
of
iodine
solution
seconds
and
test
with
procedure
e.g.
10°C,
30
seconds
until
tubes
containing
a
there
is
no
blue-black
seconds.
using
20°C,
water
40°C
baths
and
at
four
different
70°C.
3
T
est
drop
blue-black).
pipette,
and
Repeat
9
a
solution.
Continue
8
sample
3
1 cm
water
and
3
3 cm
starch,
and
b
1 cm
3
amylase
and
3 cm
water
should
also
be
set
up
and
sampled
at
each
temperature.
10
Record
the
results
as
T
emperature / °C
a
table.
Time
for
the
blue-
Rate = 1000 /
to
time/seconds
–1
colour
black
disappear / seconds
Time
a
taken
long
time
starch
the
is
in
all
for
the
broken
times
taken
for
into
the
starch
starch
down
relative
seconds
for
to
very
disappear
broken
quickly,
rates
each
to
be
of
then
enzyme
tube
as
is
not
down
the
the
then
rate
activity
by
rate
the
is
of
rate
very
reaction.
is
very
fast.
dividing
Y
ou
1000
If
it
slow.
can
by
the
takes
If
the
convert
0
✔
time
Exam
When
follows:
you
enzymes
correct
relative
rate
of
enzyme
activity
=
If
no
rate
a
t
=
time
change
of
a
activity
graph
of
terms,
Explain
c
Why
is
water
your
it
the
such
to
as
use
on
the
rate
denaturation
colour
of
the
iodine,
assume
that
the
of
optimum,
and
reaction,
lock
and
key.
relative
0.
relative
on
the
rate
of
horizontal
enzyme
axis
of
activity
your
against
graph
temperature.
paper.
results.
necessary
and
in
questions
sure
1000 / t
seconds).
=
the
temperature
b
in
recorded
enzyme
Plot
Put
is
taken
answer
make
maximum,
(where
tip
amylase
to
at
include
each
test
tubes
with
water
and
starch
and
with
temperature?
pH
Enzymes
are
also
different
pH,
t he
is
and
in
denatured.
enzymes
some
t he
pH.
solutions
Figure
from
by
will
B.1.3.6
digestive
If
work
t here
shows
an
enzyme
rapidly
will
t he
system,
be
in
no
effect
pepsin
is
put
some
into
reaction
of
pH
and
solutions
values
on
at
of
all
two
pH,
as
of
pepsin
slowly
t he
enzyme
different
amylase
in
human
amylase.
noitcaer
ot hers
affected
enzyme
fo
can
value.
the
be
seen,
Either
rate
Which
of
each
side
of
reaction.
means
that
enzyme
the
This
the
is
active
optimum,
is
because
active
site
over
a
changes
the
has
a
pH
range
in
pH
affects
shape
that
of
pH
cause
the
around
a
steep
shape
does
not
of
an
optimum
decrease
the
accept
etaR
As
in
enzyme.
substrate
2.0
molecules.
optimum
amylase
The
pH.
is
two
enzymes,
Pepsin
found
in
is
the
found
pepsin
in
mouth
the
and
amylase,
stomach
which
has
a
do
where
pH
not
there
around
work
is
an
neutral.
at
the
acid
7.0
pH
same
pH
and
p
Figure
on
two
B.1.3.6
shows
enzymes,
the
pepsin
effect
and
of
pH
amylase
73
835292
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
73
08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
Enzymes
Practical
Investigating
Amylase
using
to
acts
iodine
keep
the
on
effect
starch,
solution
mixtures
Activity
of
as
of
pH
on
turning
in
the
enzyme
it
into
rst
and
amylase
sugar.
practical
substrate
This
change
activity.
at
is
Buffer
chosen
detected
solutions
values
of
by
are
used
pH.
Requirements
●
test
tubes
●
test
tube
●
permanent
●
dropping
racks
markers
pipettes
for
or
test
plastic
3
syringes
●
water
●
timers
5 cm
Put
starch
1%
amylase
●
iodine
in
buffer
●
solution
solution
potassium
(iodine
iodide
solution)
solutions
of
a
range
of
pH
3
of
1 cm
and
1%
●
solution
bath
tube
●
)
3
1
thermometers
3
and
(1 cm
tubes
●
amylase
and
1 cm
of
a
buffer
solution
at
pH
7.0
into
a
test
label.
3
2
3
4
Put
3 cm
Place
these
reach
this
After
of
starch
in
a
water
minutes
iodine
the
suspension
bath
at
into
another
30°C
for
15
test
tube
minutes
and
so
label.
that
the
solutions
temperature.
reaction
of
Clean
for
6
15
the
drop
5
of
mix
the
mixture
using
solution
pipette,
two
(this
take
solutions,
a
clean
should
another
start
a
timer
dropping
turn
sample
and
pipette.
take
Place
a
sample
this
into
a
blue-black).
after
30
seconds
and
test
starch.
Repeat
until
there
is
no
blue-black
colour
and
record
the
time
in
minutes.
7
Repeat
and
the
experiment
using
buffer
solutions
at
pH
4.0,
5.0,
3
8
6.0,
8.0
9.0.
Controls
should
be
set
up
at
each
pH
using
1 cm
3
water,
1 cm
buffer
3
solution
9
Record
and
the
3 cm
results
starch
as
pH
a
solution
in
each
tube.
table:
Time
for
black
the
colour
blue-
Rate
to
1000 / time/
=
–1
disappear / seconds
10
Convert
the
practical
11
Plot
the
12
a
times
relative
rates
of
enzyme
activity
as
in
the
previous
activity.
graph
of
horizontal
Explain
into
seconds
your
relative
axis
of
rate
your
of
enzyme
graph
activity
against
pH.
Put
pH
on
paper.
results.
74
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
74
08/01/2015
16:02
Nutrition
Enzymes
Practical
Investigating
Pepsin
acts
cloudiness
on
of
solutions
are
values
pH.
of
the
Activity
effect
proteins,
the
of
pH
e.g.
to
keep
the
protease
albumen,
suspension
used
on
clears
mixtures
as
as
of
the
enzyme,
reaction
albumen
enzyme
is
proceeds
broken
and
pepsin
the
down.
substrate
at
Buffer
chosen
Requirements
●
test
tubes
●
test
tube
●
permanent
●
dropping
racks
markers
pipettes
for
or
test
plastic
3
syringes
●
water
●
timers
1
Put
tubes
●
thermometers
●
1%
pepsin
●
1%
albumen
●
water
●
buffer
solution
suspension
bath
3
and
(1 cm
5 cm
)
of
baths
3
solutions
of
a
range
pH
3
1 cm
of
pepsin
and
of
albumen
1 cm
of
pH
buffer
7.0
into
a
test
tube
and
label.
3
2
Put
3
Place
these
reach
this
4
3 cm
After
this
cloudy
5
6
in
a
suspension
water
bath
at
into
30°C
another
for
15
test
tube
minutes
so
and
that
label.
the
solutions
temperature.
time,
mix
the
suspension
to
Repeat
the
experiment
Record
the
results
as
two
clear.
solutions
Record
using
a
table
pH
and
this
buffers
and
time
time
4.0,
calculate
how
in
long
it
takes
for
the
seconds.
5.0,
the
6.0,
8.0
relative
and
rates
9.0.
of
enzyme
activity.
pH
Time
for
Rate=1000 / time
the
–1
suspension
(seconds
to
I
7
Plot
a
graph
of
relative
rates
of
)
i
clear / seconds
enzyme
activity
against
pH.
3
8
Controls
should
be
set
up
at
each
pH
of
3
1 cm
water,
1 cm
buffer
solution
3
and
9
Explain
The
substrate
a
your
high
Enzymes
available.
of
substrate
work
The
concentration
remember
suspension.
results.
concentrations
reactions.
will
albumen
3 cm
from
much
rates
of
of
and
A.2
if
are
Kinetic
t hat
also
t here
reaction
enzyme.
Unit
enzyme
faster
is
a
also
t heor y
molecules
inuence
high
much
also
move
t he
rate
of
concentration
faster
if
explains
around
t here
t his.
quite
of
is
You
freely
0
✔
Exam
Exam
solution.
If
t here
is
a
high
concentration
of
substrate
molecules
t he
chance
t hat
t hey
will
collide
wit h
enzyme
molecules
is
higher
concentration
is
of
substrate
molecules
is
low.
Similarly,
if
different
can
using
parts
often
be
information
is
a
good
of
point
your
to
go
course.
back
t han
to
t he
by
t hen
This
if
questions
answered
from
in
tip
Unit
A.2
and
read
about
kinetic
t here
energy.
is
a
high
concentration
collisions
between
concentration
There
are
Many
poisons,
is
some
of
enzymes
enzyme
and
t here
substrate
are
going
to
molecules
be
many
t han
if
more
t he
enzyme
low.
chemicals,
such
as
called
cyanide,
inhibitors
are
enzyme
t hat
stop
enzymes
working.
inhibitors.
75
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
75
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16:02
Digestive
Nutrition
system
Questions
1
Draw
annotated
reaction
in
diagrams
which
a
to
show
how
molecule
substrate
an
is
enzyme
broken
catalyses
down
into
a
chemical
two
product
molecules.
2
Name
c
3
Imagine
+
By
the
end
of
this
topic
AB
Explain
why
why
we
5
Describe
6
What
is
family
be
able
how
identify
the
digestive
parts
system:
b
proteins
and
D
à
reactions
Explain
do
your
not
enzymes
scale?
some
will
in
pH
Digestive
make
to
would
affect
many
and
changes
you
use
chemicals
studied
never
catalysed
stomach
respond
household
in
to
the
How
be
by
the
enzyme
shown
in
answer.
need
enzymes
who
CD
an
in
in
cells,
Indicator
demonstrate
at
our
and
temperature.
Universal
to
science
enzymes
intestines.
the
solution
pH
scale
to
school?
enzyme?
system
of
the
alimentary
canal
and
digestion
is
t he
breakdown
of
food
into
molecules
t hat
can
be
absorbed
t he
body.
There
are
two
forms
of
digestion.
Mechanical
d igestion
is
t he
breakdown
of
large
pieces
of
food
into
stomach,
ileum,
large
these
two
changes
smaller
pieces.
Mechanical
digestion
involves
chewing
and
t he
liver,
churning
relate
lipids,
mouth,
much
pancreas,
a
of
●
oesophagus,
●
down
to:
following
duodenum,
break
you
into
the
+
C
we
pH
and
friend
do
Digestion
●
a
have
the
paper
How
these
Structure
should
and
B.1.3.4?
B.1.4
outcomes
à
Figure
a
that
reactions:
of
or
Learning
B
two
Which
b
7
enzymes
carbohydrates.
A
4
the
action
of
t he
stomach.
intestine
parts
to
their
●
Chemical
d igestion
is
t he
breakdown
of
large,
insoluble
molecules
functions
to
●
describe
digestion
in
smaller,
distinguish
and
●
between
t hat
t hey
can
be
absorbed.
Enzymes
t he
chemical
digestion
of
large
food
molecules.
the
●
role
of
canal
is
adapted
to
enable
us
to
carr y
out:
ingestion
by
taking
food
into
our
bodies
and
●
importance
alimentar y
egestion
excretion
explain
so
canal
Our
●
molecules
the
catalyse
alimentary
soluble
enzymes
mechanical
digestion
by
breaking
up
large
par ticles
of
food
into
smaller
in
pieces
wit h
a
larger
surface
area
digestion.
●
0
in
!
●
Key
large,
absor ption
small,
down
food
digestion
large,
small,
by
into
smaller
digestion
insoluble
soluble
soluble
nutrients
Breaking
by
using
enzymes
molecules
providing
a
to
large
form
to
catalyse
smaller,
surface
area
t he
breaking
soluble
for
t he
of
bonds
molecules
to
molecules
all
par ts
of
from
t he
t he
body
gut
into
where
t he
movement
blood,
assimilation
which
of
distributes
occurs
pieces.
●
Chemical
digestion
insoluble
terms
Mechanical
of
chemical
egestion
by
removing
the
undigested
remains
of
the
food
we
have
eaten.
Breakdown
molecules
to
molecules.
76
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Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
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16:02
Nutrition
Figure
Digestive
B.1.4.1
alimentar y
is
a
highlights
canal
drawing
of
as
t he
a
t hese
simple
ideas
tube
alimentar y
wit h
a
passing
canal
and
ver y
simple
t hrough
t he
associated
diagram
body.
of
t he
Figure
B.1.4.2
0
system
!
Key
terms
organs.
Ingestion
body
T
aking
through
the
food
into
the
mouth.
ingestion
Egestion
The
undigested
secretion
physical
large
are
digestion:
particles
broken
small
of
juices
food
down
of
removal
food
from
of
the
anus.
digestive
containing
enzymes
into
particles
chemical
large
broken
small
digestion:
molecules
down
0
are
into
✔
assimilation
soluble
in
molecules
a
cell,
using
e.g.
small
molecules
Do
Exam
not
confuse
egestion
with
to
excretion.
make
tip
Egestion
is
removal
larger
of
undigested
material
from
through
the
the
ones
absorption
digested
of
large
intestine
food
Excretion
of
the
of
undigested
Figure
ideas
B.1.4.1
of
Diagrammatic
removal
inside
whole
of
reactions
body.
cells
products
that
have
throughout
There
is
more
food
about
p
is
chemical
occurred
egestion
anus.
version
of
the
alimentary
canal
showing
the
excretion
in
Unit
B.5.1.
key
digestion
Mouth
Mechanical
●
●
Incisor
The
●
The
of
bite
t he
food
into
is
by
chemical
food
to
pieces,
moving
secreted
by
digestion
break
especially
smaller
helps
which
and
teet h,
into
tongue
saliva,
●
teet h
rest
chew
digestion
t he
a
small
premolar
process
food
t he
off
six
star t
in
t he
t he
0
mout h.
teet h
mout h
as
and
term
t he
molar
teet h,
Mastication
Chewing
food.
mastication.
and
glands
Key
!
pieces.
known
salivar y
in
in
mixing
t he
food
wit h
head.
The smell, taste and the texture of food in the mouth all stimulate the
secretion of saliva, which is the rst digestive juice to be secreted onto
food. Saliva contains the enzyme salivar y amylase, which catalyses the
chemical digestion of starch to maltose.
●
Saliva also contains mucus to help lubricate food as it is swallowed. It has
a pH that is near 7
.0, which is the optimum pH for amylase.
Swallowing
Swallowing
tongue
to
mout h.
ot her
is
a
roll
Apar t
actions
complex
food
from
of
into
t he
series
a
ball
of
actions
(bolus)
conscious
swallowing
are
act
and
of
t hat
occur
push
it
pushing
controlled
to
when
t he
t he
you
back
tongue
use
of
your
your
backwards,
t he
automatically.
77
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
1.indd
77
08/01/2015
16:02
Digestive
Nutrition
system
Use
Figure
B.1.4.3.
B.1.4.2
You
can
to
identify
also
see
the
the
organs
hear t
and
of
the
the
digestive
lungs
in
the
system
in
soft
mouth
Figure
thorax.
palate
cavity
(buccal
cavity)
throat
(pharynx)
mouth
epiglottis
tongue
salivary
gland
gullet
(oesophagus)
diaphragm
ring
of
muscle
(pyloric
stomach
llams
liver
gall
sphincter)
bladder
duct
pancreas
ileum
egral
bile
enitsetni
duodenum
enitsetni
colon
caecum
appendix
abdominal
cavity
rectum
anus
p
Figure
B.1.4.3
The
virtual
body;
this
ring
of
muscle
computer
around
generated
main
image
organs
of
shows
the
the
thorax
position
(chest)
of
and
anus
the
abdomen
p
Figure
B.1.4.2
Human
alimentary
canal
and
its
associated
organs
Oesophagus
bolus
bolus
is
moved
along
the
gut
Af ter
●
●
swallowing,
gravity,
if
you
a
food
are
bolus
standing
travels
or
down
sitting
t he
oesophagus
by:
upright
peristalsis – a wave-like contraction and relaxation of the circular muscles in
circular
circular
the oesophagus that pushes the bolus along as you can see in Figure B.1.4.4.
muscles
muscles
contract
relax
Stomach
p
Figure
the
of
B.1.4.4
Food
oesophagus
circular
bolus
of
by
muscles
food.
This
is
the
just
pushed
along
contraction
behind
movement
each
The
stomach
end
where
it
is
a
highly
joins
t he
muscular
small
sac
wit h
intestine.
a
Look
t hick
at
ring
Figure
of
muscle
B.1.4.2
for
at
t he
t he
pyloric
is
sphincter
muscle
at
t he
junction
between
stomach
and
duodenum.
The
peristalsis
stomach
t he
food
Cells
in
stores
is
via
t he
decreases
Refer
to
wall
of
our
food
to
Pepsin
is
amino
acids
a
a
t he
approximately
semi-solid
stomach
Hydrochlor ic
food
is
and
mixed
about
Figure
for
into
pepsin.
infection
When
made
t he
protease,
food
1.5.
B.1.3.6
protease
called
it
Any
on
enzyme
acid
t hat
or
to
as
of
t he
its
amylase
conr m
in
action
acid
protect
by
t he
t he
we
and
us
t he
against
have
ingested.
stomach
food
stops
its
pH
working.
t his.
down
polypeptides.
to
churning
chyme.
bacter ia
secreted
breaks
By
hydrochlor ic
secreted
most
salivar y
73
is
hours.
known
secrete
t he
page
peptides
mass
acid
kills
wit h
3–4
protein
Its
into
optimum
smaller
pH
is
chains
of
2.0.
78
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Topic
1.indd
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Nutrition
The
Digestive
X-ray
which
in
does
diseases
of
Figure
not
t he
B.1.4.5
allow
t he
stomach
is
taken
X-rays
and
af ter
to
t he
person
penetrate.
This
took
is
a
one
barium
way
to
o ___
meal,
diagnose
✔
intestine.
Study
Pyloric
Duodenum
The
is
Periodically
t he
pyloric
sphincter
muscle
relaxes
and
chyme
is
released
known
duodenum.
it
is
ver y
The
acid
and
stomach
t his
does
would
not
release
damage
t he
all
wall
of
of
its
contents
t he
at
more
delicate
t han
t he
wall
of
t he
stomach.
food
t hat
juice
from
is
mixed
t he
wit h
bile,
which
is
secreted
by
t he
entering
liver,
and
for
is
in
t he
pancreatic
meaning
terms
liver
and
stored
in
t he
gall
bladder.
The
entr y
of
t he
stimulus
Figure
t he
B.1.4.7
,
pancreatic
neutralise
The
for
pH
most
is
t he
duct.
about
down
contains
substances
droplets
Figure
t he
of
drops.
lipid
The
gallstones
cannot
and
called
large
t he
means
so
bladder.
mix
are
wit h
bot h
alkaline
pH
(duodenum
proteins,
stop
of
bile
lipid
surface
t hat
salts
As
alkaline
in
t he
and
can
you
can
pancreatic
be
and
see
juice
uids
small
ileum)
carbohydrates
t hey
drops
t he
enzyme
digestive
of
bile
are
the
It
to
are
●
amylase,
is
to
t he
t he
organ
Cells
rise
cells
which
proteases,
Figure
of
as
comes
grip
from
tightly.
and
a
a
word
Biological
easier
remember
to
if
they
are
you
derived.
in
t hat
intestine.
is
where
lipids
are
a
can
much
is
It
is
not
from
is
t he
t he
larger
have
t hat
put
liver
effect
access
t he
at
smaller
surface
chemical
just
system
much
see
to
lipid
of
much
digestion
in
t he
t his
area
droplets
risk
into
These
more
as
t he
have
people
in
t han
got
who
duodenum
have
and
properly.
B.1.4.7
.
pancreatic
lipases,
ring
known
in
lying
just
wit hin
beneat h
t he
t he
pancreas
stomach.
make
an
Find
alkaline
it
on
uid
Figures
t hat
in
pH
of
t he
food
in
t he
duodenum
to
about
p
Figure
e.g.
which
B.1.4.7
food
A
peristaltic
down
to
the
wave
lowest
the
part
stomach
secrete:
conver ts
tr ypsin,
conver t
shows
B.1.4.5
8.0.
of
●
Any
is
sometimes
how
moving
●
body
juice
contributes
These
which
Greek
absorbed.
emulsiers.
many
You
molecules
chemically.
ow
into
have
Emulsication
t he
t hat
tension.
droplets
t hat
unchanged
fats
t he
gall
to
juice
intestine
all
t he
duct
provide
molecules
smaller
healt h
pancreas
B.1.4.2
t he
substrate.
digest
–
from
bile
pancreatic
and
small
place
bile
t he
pylorus,
Ancient
fat
The
t hat
Pancreatic
The
of
This
remains
smaller.
The
reducing
lipid
and
acid
smaller
change
by
Bile
takes
of
down
substances
B.1.4.6.
t heir
8.0.
into
Emulsication
Bile
release
ows
stomach
digestion
broken
t he
bile
name.
stomach
food
know
is
strange
t he
pancreas.
produced
an
gatekeeper.
in
understand
Bile
the
a
the
is
sphincter.
duodenum
is
of
once
duodenum
The
as
from
muscle
much
end
into
word
as
tip
sphincter
lower
comes
t he
system
t he
any
remaining
which
t he
conver t
emulsied
duodenum
and
starch
to
maltose
polypeptides
lipids
its
to
fatty
to
peptides
acids
relationship
to
and
t he
glycerol.
liver
and
lipid
drop
lipid
droplets
pancreas.
p
Figure
B.1.4.6
Emulsification
of
fats
Ileum
Digestion
is
membranes
These
●
●
completed
of
t he
enzymes
Maltase
cells
are
breaks
here
by
lining
listed
down
enzymes
t he
ileum
t hat
or
in
work
t he
eit her
on
cytoplasm
t he
of
cell
t hese
surface
cells.
below.
maltose
to
glucose.
Sucrase (also called invertase) breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose.
79
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Absorption
and
the
fate
of
digested
Nutrition
products
●
Lactase
breaks
down
lactose
to
glucose
and
galactose.
liver
●
Peptidases
break
down
peptides
into
individual
amino
acids.
gall
All
bladder
t hese
enzymes
work
in
a
neutral
or
slightly
alkaline
pH.
The
roles
of
t he
stomach
enzymes
bile
in
chemical
digestion
are
summarised
in
Table
B.1.4.1.
pyloric
duct
sphincter
q
T
able
B.1.4.1
Summary
table
of
the
enzymes
in
the
digestive
system
duodenum
pancreas
Enzyme
pancreatic
Food
amylase
Salivary
duct
Pepsin
p
Figure
B.1.4.7
The
the
digestive
with
help
you
enzymes
make
a
in
of
pH,
organs
that
learn
are
of
Polypeptides
Polypeptides
Peptides
Starch
Maltose
the
associated
about
Pancreatic
amylase
Lipase
Lipids
Sucrase
Sucrose
Maltase
Maltose
Lactase
Lactose
Peptidases
Peptides
Fatty
acids
Glucose
and
glycerol
and
fructose
and
galactose
Glucose
their
of
(milk
sugar)
Glucose
Amino
acids
various
Questions
system,
the
effects
enzymes
on
1
food
Explain
why
processes
substances.
Key
(triglycerides)
system
the
digestive
names
and
the
digestive
showing
the
the
secreted
0
Protein
tip
the
table
regions
their
Product(s)
Maltose
it
Study
✔
T
o
other
system
(substrate)
duodenum
Trypsin
showing
substance
Starch
in
2
What
3
a
State
what
b
What
is
term
is
mastication
the
the
digestive
advantage
happens
the
and
of
digestion
are
necessary
system.
secreting
to
advantage
chemical
the
of
hydrochloric
surface
this
area
of
the
acid
into
lipids
in
the
stomach?
Figure
B.1.4.6?
change?
!
4
Absorption
Movement
of
Describe
journey
food
into
molecules
the
blood
Learning
By
the
end
should
be
from
and
the
of
this
to
happens
through
the
a
molecule
digestive
system
of
protein
from
the
in
a
piece
mouth
to
of
the
meat
small
on
its
intestine.
intestine
lymph.
5
topic
Where
B.1.5
outcomes
able
what
soluble
you
is
bile
a
secreted,
Absorption
digested
b
stored,
and
and
the
c
active
fate
in
digestion?
of
products
to:
Absorption
●
describe
in
●
relation
describe
the
●
●
the
villus
to
structure
Absorption
absorption
what
products
happens
after
to
absorption
describe
the
role
describe
the
causes
of
the
liver
digestion
especially
Figures
t he
of
t he
t he
movement
blood
ileum
B.1.5.1
and
is
and
ver y
of
t he
well
t he
small
molecules
lymphatic
adapted
for
system.
t his
produced
The
small
pur pose
as
by
chemical
intestine,
you
can
see
in
B.1.5.2.
and
Str uctures
effects
is
into
constipation
in
t he
body
t hat
are
well
adapted
for
absor ption
have
large
and
surface
areas
for
as
much
movement
of
molecules
as
possible,
a
t hin
lining
diarrhoea
●
describe
of
a
how
villus
is
the
to
give
a
to
take
away
related
to
of
absorption
describe
●
what
happens
products
after
of
to
t he
molecules
maintain
a
to
steep
travel
and
a
good
concentration
blood
supply
gradient.
features
t hat
make
t he
ileum
well
adapted
for
absor ption
are:
long
lengt h
–
nearly
6
metres
in
lengt h
to
●
the
for
of
nutrients
●
distance
molecules
its
The
function
shor t
structure
folded
internal
surface
digestion
absorption.
●
many
villi
80
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Topic
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16:03
Nutrition
Absorption
villus:
area
large
for
blood
surface
capillaries:
therefore
absorption
much
very
and
the
fate
of
digested
products
Q _ __
extensive,
absorption
✔
Study
This
at
is
a
Unit
tip
good
A.2.2
opportunity
to
remind
to
look
yourself
microvilli:
about
provide
large
a
diffusion
of
molecules.
very
surface
area
p
Figure
B.1.5.1
micrograph
intestine
they
are
area
for
food
of
This
villi
shows
to
give
in
how
a
electron
the
very
absorption
small
closely
of
large
packed
surface
digested
(×30)
mitochondrion
epithelium:
therefore
one
molecules
easily
move
blood
system
p
●
across
Figure
detail
their
t he
●
villi
cells
contain
each
t he
The
is
is
rich
water
villi
a
to
in
to
a
long,
of
is
the
folded
wall
of
internally
the
ileum
and
has
showing
many
two
villi.
villi
The
with
have
microvilli,
which
are
projections
of
t he
many
of
mitochondria
molecules,
such
to
as
supply
energy
minerals,
as
glucose
ATP
and
Figure
blood
t he
capillaries
for
t he
transpor t
of
absorbed
liver
lacteal
for
absorbing
lipids
and
transpor ting
t hem
into
system.
ows
liver.
absorbed
t he
very
villi
contain
network
t he
triglyceride
reach
substances
cells.
t he
many
has
t hat
soluble
in
of
is
section
transpor t
lymphatic
system
ileum
vertical
away
villus
blood
which
of
acids
molecules
●
for
uptake
membrane
active
amino
active
much
absorption
epithelial
cells
surface
epit helial
for
the
The
a
ATP
extensive,
therefore
into
shows
epit helial
lacteal:
can
B.1.5.2
of
supplies
thick,
diagram
cell
●
cell
away
of
from
vessels
When
a
t hat
meal
molecules,
vitamins.
B.1.5.2
The
absorb
molecules.
t he
carr y
has
such
These
blood
t hat
in
you
and
t he
t he
from
t he
glucose,
acids
travel
enters
reached
as
lacteals
fatty
ileum
hepatic
most
small
amino
can
see
glycerol
t he
acids,
in
t he
t his
minerals
centre
are
vessels
vein,
digestive
intestine,
t hat
lymphatic
of
por tal
of
t he
reformed
and
blood
and
into
eventually
blood.
81
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Absorption
0
and
the
fate
of
digested
Nutrition
products
Assimilation
Key
term
!
The
products
used
Assimilation
Use
of
for
t his.
amino
acids
the
to
body,
make
glucose
store
fatty
as
acids
e.g.
glycogen
and
are
used
such
as
in
t he
t hose
body.
given
Assimilation
in
Table
B.1.5.1
is
t he
term
become
in
t he
body
–
t hey
become
par t
of
us.
using
proteins,
q
store
digestion
food
assimilated
in
molecules
of
Substances
T
able
B.1.5.1
Assimilation:
fate
of
absorbed
nutrients
and
glycerol
as
fat.
Absorbed
Fate
of
absorbed
nutrients
in
assimilation
nutrients
Amino
acids
•
Transported
•
Some
are
made
enzymes
•
Excess
into
Fatty
and
acids
glycerol
Large
Before
trace
small
t he
in
stomach
Excess
•
Converted
been
into
Absorbed
into
Eventually
this
•
Triglycerides
intestine
t he
absorbed.
the
a
the
lacteal,
into
stored
large
and
in
portal
vein
and
to
liver.
go
to
all
repair,
collagen
the
substance
in
the
liver
body
and
cells
globular
where
they
proteins,
e.g.
skin.
to
form
ammonia,
which
is
urea.
to
the
travels
glycogen
which
the
long
around
liver.
to
and
all
cells
stored
for
in
use
the
in
liver
respiration.
and
in
muscles.
of
the
vital
organs
turn
When
and
lymph
system,
by
diffusion.
stream.
for,
it
e.g.,
t he
to
from
and
have
protection.
rectum)
B.1.4.2
Food
t he
most
no
and
and
Figure
ileum.
passes
molecules
appendix
insulation
colon
back
leaving
nutrient
caecum
part
caecum,
af ter
time.
is
blood
intestine
takes
useful
The
e.g.
liver
converted
drains
food
quite
of
growth
the
and
triglycerides.
are
t he
t hat
for
hepatic
is
toxic
(appendix,
about
most
the
glucose
•
read
less
to
liver
deaminated
the
through
•
pat hway
colon
does
vein
•
in
passes
for
proteins,
are
vein
the
ileum
of
and
stays
t he
specic
in
t he
into
water
functions
humans.
The
hepatic
you
caecum
have
Transported
Some
portal
through
proteins
acids
into
•
hepatic
pass
brous
amino
•
intestine
t he
the
new
and
converted
Glucose
in
molecules
not
Many
which
have
bacteria
producing
other
has
villi
live
in
vitamin
harmful
three
like
K
the
the
colon,
and
bacteria
sections
small
the
from
absorbs
intestine
which
B-group
growing
water
as
it
digest
is
the
vitamins
and
and
not
minerals
adapted
remaining
(see
causing
page
although
for
it
absor ption.
food,
65).
discomfor t
They
or
prevent
disease.
liver
As
more
and
more
water
is
absorbed,
t he
remaining
indigestible
food,
cells
hepatic
and
portal
tissues
r ubbed
off
t he
walls
of
t he
intestine
and
bacteria
accumulate
vein
to
form
faeces.
released
when
The
we
dr y
faeces
are
stored
in
t he
rectum
and
periodically
defecate.
Liver
The
liver
is
t he
largest
organ
in
t he
human
body
and
has
many
different
large
intestine
functions
small
Control
of
including
some
t hat
are
par t
of
assimilation
and
excretion.
glucose
intestine
appendix
The
liver
from
anus
t he
Figure
B.1.5.3
Blood
flows
from
in
the
are
and
large
hepatic
being
intestines
portal
absorbed
vein.
the
to
the
is
very
glucose,
and
of
blood
glucagon
sugar
which
under
are
instr uctions
secreted
While
blood
in
rich
amino
in
nutrients,
acids,
meals
79).
Liver
cells
conver t
molecules
of
by
glucose
t he
into
glycogen
for
shor t-ter m
storage.
Making
proteins
this
such
vitamins
page
polysacchar ide
cells
use
amino
acids
to
make
t heir
own
proteins.
They
also
make
as
and
proteins
for
albumen
minerals
(see
liver
Liver
vein
concentration
insulin
the
t he
small
t he
hor mones
rectum
pancreas
p
controls
t he
for
blood,
such
maintaining
as
t he
brinogen
for
concentration
use
of
in
blood
clotting
and
plasma.
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Nutrition
Absorption
and
the
fate
of
digested
products
Excretion
The
body
These
cells
use
cannot
molecules
remove
t he
par t
acid
Breaking
as
and
cells
t he
t he
Urea
kidneys
t hat
but
The
is
are
are
sur plus
used
par t
of
process
as
a
t hese
of
to
Liver
nitrogen-containing
where
from
it
is
liver
cells
excreted
of
excess
removing
deamination.
passes
requirements.
source
in
t he
cells
par t
into
energy.
amino
t he
and
nitrogen-
make
of
Liver
acids
each
t he
of
blood
t hese
and
is
urine.
toxins
by
that
have
bacteria
detoxication.
of
acids
from
paracetamol,
Storage
Liver
respiration.
substances
of
acids
wasted,
amino
urea
t he
produced
process
such
to
down
toxic
been
in
of
molecules.
transpor ted
amino
not
nitrogen-containing
substance
amino
Any
t he
molecule
containing
waste
store
are
and
in
not
the
been
gut
Example
are
of
warfarin,
broken
down
in
broken
down
by
these
which
substances
is
taken
to
the
gut
liver
are
or
cells
alcohol,
prevent
have
in
the
dr ugs
blood
clotting.
micronutrients
store
fat
minerals,
soluble
especially
vitamins
A,
D
iron
and
for
t he
synt hesis
of
haemoglobin,
K.
Constipation
Constipation
have
is
difculty
difculty
wit h
in
bowel
passing
faeces.
movements,
may
People
suffer
who
from
are
constipated
pain
and
swelling
0
Key
term
!
in
t he
abdomen,
meals.
This
Examples
will
more
of
will
for
They
rich
more
also
some
vomit.
foods
encourage
water
problem
and
in
need
bre
peristalsis,
help;
dr ugs
to
have
include
so
more
vegetables,
preventing
known
as
dietar y
t he
laxatives
bre
fr uit
in
and
condition.
may
help
to
t heir
bran.
Drinking
cure
t he
Constipation
compacted
void
from
A
condition
faeces
the
are
where
difcult
to
body.
people.
Diarrhoea
Di arrhoea
in
a
liquid
of
t he
is
a
condition
form.
The
in
body
which
can
a
person
become
is
continually
dehydrated
passing
quickly
as
a
faeces
result
0
Key
term
!
loss
of
rehydration.
uid
is
put
water
If
in
t his
directly
is
t he
not
into
faeces.
In
effective,
t he
serious
a
saline
cases
drip
it
is
may
treated
be
wit h
needed,
oral
by
which
Diarrhoea
the
bloodstream.
faeces
A
condition
released
are
where
loose
and
watery.
Food
poisoning
poisoning
●
ensuring
t heir
●
●
can
is
be
t hat
keeping
ies,
keeping
raw
cleaning
and
●
●
●
t hose
common
cause
eliminated
involved
cockroaches,
meat
cooking
t hawing
separate
cooked
working
af ter
in
of
diarrhoea.
The
chances
of
food
by:
t he
preparation
of
food
regularly
wash
rodents
from
meat
surfaces
cooked
(see
and
and
Figure
kitchen
ot her
meat
animals
to
away
prevent
from
raw
food
meat
from
B.1.5.5)
equipment
t horoughly
before
use
meats
and
frozen
excluding
food
ver y
hands
cross-infecting
●
a
vir tually
meat
food
known
products
t horoughly
carriers
of
t horoughly
before
food
cooking
poisoning
microorganisms
from
t he
industr y
p
Figure
spread
●
motivating
kitchen
staff
by
means
of
a
good
working
environment
easily
Salmonella
when
bacteria
chickens
are
kept
and
in
adequate
B.1.5.4
large
numbers
like
this
wages.
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Absorption
and
the
fate
of
digested
Nutrition
products
Figure
B.1.5.5
shows
how
someone
can
become
infected
wit h
Salmonella.
1
2
carrier:
contaminates
chicken
feed
person:
develops
Salmonella
food
poisoning
7
infected
may
chicken
or
eggs:
result
poisoning
meat:
in
food
other
if
eaten
remains
undercooked
infected
with
6
Salmonella
a
result
as
of
undercooking
3
4
butcher:
infects
from
other
meat
infected
chicken
5
p
Figure
B.1.5.5
inadequately
practice.
Salmonella
cooked.
Chickens
Salmonella
food
food
Notice
kept
in
poisoning
It
poisoning
how
food
battery
can
can
cages
also
possible
2
3
but
given
is
a
eggs
are
Chicken
Flies
from
likely
to
drinking
hard
eating
by
be
chicken,
pathogens
infected
unpasteurised
to
meat
chickens
of
trace
is
t he
of ten
a
by
eggs
or
through
meat
animal
Salmonella
than
which
feed
have
and
been
abattoir
free-range
chickens.
milk.
source
likely
of
an
source.
infection
The
of
t hese
diagram
shows
a
cooked
become
contaminated,
maybe
by
someone
chickens
properly
eats
t hem.
babies,
t he
and
t hen
Most
some
bacter ia
at
elderly
bacteria
r isk
and
may
are
pass
sur vive
people
anyone
into
t heir
and
wit hout
who
is
eggs.
can
a
strong
already
ill
for
reason.
meat
may
processing
can
–
can
bacteria.
t he
who
system
are
t he
infect
not
ot her
bacteria
5
to
anyone
immune
meat
be
carrier
bacteria
some
more
from
chicken
Feed
The
results
contaminated
scenario.
infect
4
are
result
who
If
be
sometimes
bacteria,
1
often
can
have
factor y,
transferred
transfer
bacteria.
market
to
bacteria
ot her
to
If
or
conditions
butcher’s
meats
and
in
shop
meat
a
slaughterhouse,
are
not
hygienic,
t hen
products
foods.
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Nutrition
6
Undereating
Putting
7
uncooked
result
in
bacteria
eaten
wit hout
Anot her
bacteria
being
source
and
chicken
next
transferring
of
t hen
to
to
ot her
foods
foods
t hat
are
in
a
refrigerator
taken
from
t he
and
overeating
may
fr idge
and
cooked.
infection
not
is
cooked
eating
meat
t hat
is
contaminated
wit h
properly.
Questions
1
State
six
features
2
What
are
of
the
ileum
that
make
it
suitable
for
absorbing
food.
p
the
digested
end
products
of
a
proteins,
b
fats
and
c
Figure
in
which
can
then
be
absorbed
and
B.1.5.6
meat
processing
of
a
4
What
5
What
is
happens
Explain
food
constipation?
how
to
b
amino
someone
What
acids
may
they
infected
are
a
Undereating
metabolic
person
with
Salmonella
and
suffer
from
and
overeating
Learning
the
end
is
lying
When
we
down
are
and
totally
doing
not hing,
relaxed,
we
are
he
or
still
she
will
breat hing,
still
our
beat,
blood
still
t he
of
outline
ows
around
ner vous
t he
system
is
whole
still
body,
active
food
and,
at
is
being
t he
the
are
being
topic
you
made
and
ions
moved
across
cell
of
energy
by
body
digested
cellular
surface
to:
uses
human
define
the
terms
basal
level,
metabolic
proteins
this
able
use
●
absorbed,
be
hear ts
the
and
outcomes
rate
●
still
the
food
should
energy.
reduce
contamination
assimilated?
By
If
Salmonella
poisoning.
B.1.6
Basal
of
diarrhoea?
is
when
be
conditions
plants
assimilated?
chances
3
Hygienic
starch
rate
and
membranes.
malnutrition
All
t hese
processes
require
energy.
●
The
energy
t hat
we
use
at
rest
is
our
basal
metabolic
rate
(BMR).
explain
protein
energy
However,
malnutrition
ver y
few,
if
metabolic
any,
rate
people
for
t he
are
totally
whole
day
inactive
is
much
t hroughout
more
t han
t heir
t his.
life,
The
so
t he
energy
●
distinguish
and
we
need
to
consume
carbohydrates
and
to
maintain
proteins
in
our
our
metabolism
diet.
These
is
provided
substances
are
by
lipids,
respired
energy
t hat
is
used
to
make
ATP,
t he
energy
currency
of
●
explain
energy
needs
are
affected
by
many
factors
such
cells.
●
age,
younger
people,
on
average,
require
more
causes
of
determine
whet her
●
our
●
level
body
●
of
mass
gender
–
females
●
we
are
physical
–
larger
males
of
t he
quantity
●
our
and
the
In
3
have
individual
addition,
mont hs
require
a
of
energy
t han
older
an
energy
size
and
of
explain
the
effects
–
constitution
extra
of
human
on
the
body.
who
energy
requirement
wit h
less
–
on
equal
energy
are
people
t heir
t han
about
levels
is
of
smaller
10%
people
more
t han
activity
needed
if
it
is
warm
of
who
energy.
var y
considerably
in
t heir
energy
physiology.
pregnant
Women
intake
more
clot hing
depending
pregnancy.
large
mass
people
not
need
conditions
women
body
activity
quality
requirements
or
people
same
environmental
●
growing
risks
(BMI)
malnutrition
●
and
obesity
as:
●
●
the
health
index
Our
anorexia
bulimia
to
to
release
between
t hat
require
choose
extra
to
energy
breastfeed
during
t heir
t he
last
babies
p
Figure
is
used
B.1.6.1
to
metabolic
Equipment
determine
like
this
people’s
rate
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Undereating
and
Nutrition
overeating
The
energy
needs
of
values
q
are
T
able
T
ype
only
B.1.6.1
of
1
year
Child
5
years
12–15
Boy
food
of
Approximate
kJ
daily
per
years
16–19
measured
are
in
listed
kilojoules
in
Table
(kJ).
The
B.1.6.1.
total
Note
energy
t hat
t hese
approximate.
years
12–15
is
people
baby
Child
Woman
by
types
person
Newborn
Girl
provided
different
energy
requirements
day
T
ype
different
types
person
Ofce
worker
(adult
female)
3000
Ofce
worker
(adult
male)
7000
Heavy
9500
Full-time
athlete
(female)
Full-time
athlete
(male)
8500
manual
Pregnant
of
kJ
2000
11000
years
of
of
per
day
9000
11000
worker
woman
people.
15000
(last
15000+
20000+
three
10000
months)
Man
16–19
years
10000
Written
Energy
Dr
in
a
found
diet
period
typical
q
carried
She
their
of
of
T
able
Family
breast-feeding
11000
Activity
needs
Sharma
family.
Woman
and
a
out
out
investigation
much
compared
week.
their
an
how
The
usual
this
family
diet.
with
said
T
able
into
energy
the
the
nutrition
people
energy
that
B.1.6.2
the
the
they
food
shows
in
an
extended
family
actually
they
her
of
the
ate
should
consumed
that
week
Daily
energy
needs/kJ
Mother
Father
7-year-old
per
Average
day
daily
intake/kJ
per
energy
day
9300
9250
10500
13500
3800
3300
Baby
5800
4250
13-year-old
girl
9100
9150
15-year-old
boy
9600
13050
9105
7000
1
State
2
Plot
in
3
Dr
child
pregnant
a
the
three
bar
and
chart
i
Who
ii
Explain
iii
The
What
factors
sister
that
that
decided
advised
in
the
influence
shows
not
would
that
them
family
why
family
would
4
younger
the
a
person’s
daily
energy
energy
needs
needs.
of
the
different
people
family.
Sharma
risk
was
results.
B.1.6.2
member
Mother’
s
have
over
you
told
to
do
Dr
say
their
the
the
family
some
think
she
Sharma
to
of
make
you
think
change
you
some
Dr
made
that
eating
family
may
changes
Sharma
these
none
of
be
to
putting
their
their
health
at
diet.
identified
as
being
at
risk?
decisions.
them
was
ill
and
that
they
habits.
to
support
Dr
Sharma?
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16:03
Nutrition
Undereating
Tr y
this
Calculate
Find
out
overeating
yourself
your
how
and
energy
much
intake
energy
for
you
a
day
consume
during
a
day.
typical
Requirements
●
a
●
access
camera
energy
1
T
ake
one
or
to
content
a
Find
the
or
3
Y
our
out
weigh
this
of
of
different
of
balance/kitchen
scales
foods
each
meal,
must
include
much
the
how
want
laboratory
●
the
of
to
energy
food
much
or
you
items
before
information
who
photos
about
photos
them
out
take
snack
and
drink
everything
that
you
you
ingest
have
with
during
the
water.
how
mass
Find
to
photograph
day.
exception
2
phone
information
you
so
eat
energy
you
‘watch
consumed.
the
First,
information
you
printed
need
on
to
the
know
packet
them.
each
can
their
have
use
use
food
one
calories’
item
of
the
and/or
provides.
apps
lose
Many
designed
weight.
websites
for
have
people
These
have
lists
of
0
✔
foods
4
Y
ou
and
can
the
also
energy
work
content
out
how
per
much
serving
energy
and
you
energy
have
per
used
100
grams.
during
the
The
day.
is
Keep
a
diary
of
the
different
activities
you
have
done,
such
as
down,
walking,
running,
and
how
long
you
did
each
over
24
can
and
add
find
out
how
much
energy
people
use
in
each
of
used
is
is
Choose
include
suitable
your
calculate
ways
to
present
photographs
the
of
energy
that
people.
these
to
4.2
needed
kJ
to
and
raise
is
the
activities
of
1
kg
of
water
by
up.
1
°C.
5
unit
many
equivalent
energy
temperature
them
a
by
hours.
the
Y
ou
calorie
still
tip
sitting,
It
lying
Exam
energy
and
content
all
the
of
the
information
sources
food
and
of
you
collect.
information
how
much
you
energy
Also
used
you
unit
to
it
The
of
calorie
energy
used
in
this
is
so
not
will
you
book
the
or
in
scientic
not
see
exam
papers.
used.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition
simply
mean
is
t he
t hat
result
t here
of
are
a
lack
of
nutrients
balance
missing
in
t he
from
diet.
t he
This
diet,
does
t he
not
term
covers
0
Key
term
!
bot h
too
overeating
much
healt h
and
energy
from
or
undereating.
too
much
malnutrition.
fat.
For
an
An
unbalanced
There
adult,
are
diet
many
can
serious
consuming
less
be
one
wit h
far
consequences
t han
5000
kJ
for
per
Malnutrition
Having
provides
more
much
day
eventually
leads
to
deat h
by
much
less
energy
or
a
diet
energy
that
or
nutrients
than
star vation.
required.
A
shor tage
to
or
complete
starvation.
t he
BMR
wit hout
to
stores
t he
of
and
how
much
If
adapts
t his
long
tissues
are
t hey
and
by
as
food
of
water,
sources
protein
for
do
about
on
activity
how
has
down
to
t hat
have
t hen
of
not
much
be
leading
Fat
fat
done.
to
bodies
as
in
for
can
As
t he
provides
is
a
stored,
period
adapts
who
long.
stores
Lastly,
body
over
body
People
sur vive
day.
t he
sur vived
t heir
energy.
glycogen
a
extends
star vation,
people
conver ting
lasts
broken
of
Some
have
depends
physical
lack
periods
energy.
protein
energy
body
respiration;
but
save
food.
glycogen
During
up
70
energy
how
for
cold
in
of
have
into
fat,
good
proceeds
glucose
much
it
leads
days
stores
not
time
reducing
star vation
liver
protein
to
use
do
of
by
is
and
muscles
for
longer,
how
and
ot her
wasting.
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16:03
Undereating
and
Nutrition
overeating
Protein
energy
Protein
energy
protein
and
protein
it
is
a
PEM
are
energy.
for
t hat
energy
mostly
marasmus
symptoms
Those
malnutrition
total
can
disease
of
wit h
malnutrition
(PEM)
When
so
t hat
affects
and
is
t his
it
is
not
young
marasmus
are
not
used
to
t he
adapting
a
t he
for
Exper ts
adapting
are
by
children.
kwashiorkor.
kwashiorkor
caused
happens
diet
two
believe
all
lacks
bot h
metabolises
growt h
The
limited
at
t hat
body
and
repair.
extreme
t hat
what
children
availability
This
forms
of
of
wit h
food.
well.
Marasmus
Children
body
is
There
a
wit h
ver y
is
little
wrinkled
and
have
marasmus
t hin
wit h
muscle
or
fat
appearance.
no
loss
of
have
a
shr unken,
especially
and
t hin
a
wizened,
However,
emaciated
arms
t hese
and
legs
appearance.
(see
old-looking
children
are
Figure
face.
usually
The
B.1.6.2).
The
skin
has
mentally
aler t
appetite.
Kwashiorkor
The
little
boy
in
characteristic
p
Figure
B.1.6.2
This
girl
is
circumference
of
her
upper
from
to
severe
marasmus,
causes
show
a
loss
that
she
malnutrition.
disease
of
tissue
of
is
She
legs
can
t his
swell
means
children
that
reddish
of ten
Some
for
of
hair.
reasons
people
t hey
of ten
If
food
who
t hat
15
is
by
a
over
to
and
a
at
if
by
doctor
see
is
Some
a
3-year-old
condition
boy
belly
in
to
a
severe
drought
he
soon
been
living
on
hardly
a
any
very
fibrous
nutritional
hard
of
is
t he
well
to
star vation.
swollen
The
abdomen.
Sometimes
make
much
less
protein
for
t he
blood
not
a
drain
‘moon
water
have
face’
from
ver y
and
t he
little
dr y,
tissues.
brittle
These
and
appetite.
one
Most
to
tackle
are
exper ts
using
large
adopt
It
is
Many
eat
an
unbalanced
estimated
of
t hem
t hat
are
diet
85–90%
young,
ver y
condition
of
t heir
food
as
a
enough
means
even
wit h
of
extremely
has
wit h
t hough
anorexia
exercising
af ter
quickly,
healt hy
while
like
a
even
by
or
encouragement
encouraging
intake,
been
serious,
obsessed
counselling
reasonably
unhealt hy
ver y
years
combines
involves
food
life
an
be
many
stay
vomiting
into
eat
someone
problems
to
t heir
or
can
spend
frequently
develop
little
usually
enough
what
not
t hat
life.
might
about
quantities
does
agree
underlying
laxatives
can
eat
t heir
Treatment
strict
explore
This
to
of
Therapy
so
food
female.
someone
t he
t he
to
of
understand.
are
person
weight.
way.
to
area
enough,
a
plenty
age.
where
food.
fatal,
to
tr y
down.
to
disorders
dietician
t hem
to
meal
at
while
t he
t he
person
same
time
date.
to
keep
repetitive
followed
t heir
cycle
by
of
eating
induced
which
vomiting.
This
condition
is
called
bulimia.
It
is
accompanied
swell.
various
healt h
problems,
can
be
dangerous,
is
expensive
and
time-
has
consuming
with
of ten
least
not
or
abnormally
by
Following
lifeless
subconsciously,
t hey
(deliberate)
the
does
liver,
access
years
to
t heir
people
weight
have
30
under
why
enabling
causes
blood
of ten
condition
treated
Even
t herapy
kwashiorkor,
children
swollen
are
are
access
psychot herapy
malnutrition
These
t he
a
eating
and
chooses,
not
fatal.
has
t hat
have
wit h
have
control
This
adapting
disorders
Anorexia
B.1.6.3
too.
They
people
between
Figure
not
wasting
Eating
p
is
kwashiorkor
suffering
has
starvation
and
of
arm
and
measured
B.1.6.3
having
t he
the
Figure
symptom
palm
value
at
and
may
r uin
self-esteem.
fruit
all
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Nutrition
Undereating
and
overeating
Obesity
Too
high
cause
us
weight
t han
an
to
for
30
his
is
Obesity
is
a
of
on
or
said
nutritional
par ts
energy
put
intake
her
to
be
form
height
of
world
to
excess
Someone
or
who
carbohydrate
who
has
is
a
20%
body
and
above
mass
animal
t heir
index
fat
can
recommended
(BMI)
greater
obese.
malnutrition
disorders
t he
due
weight.
affecting
t he
and
t he
numbers
of
is
one
people
people
of
of
t he
t he
wit h
most
common
Caribbean.
obesity
are
In
many
increasing.
p
Figure
a
BMI
is
used
to
determine
t he
relative
weight
and
nutritional
status
whet her
obese,
healt hy
or
under weight.
is
calculated
using
t his
matching
among
of
BMI
A
woman
therapy
with
session
anorexia.
for
She
of
is
individuals
B.1.6.4
young
a
photograph
several
women.
outline
Many
of
herself
drawings
people
with
formula:
anorexia
have
a
poor
body
image
of
themselves
Body
BMI
mass
(in
kilograms)
=
2
Height
As
you
and
can
24.9
see
are
in
Table
B.1.6.3,
considered
most
people
(in
metres)
wit h
healt hy,
a
while
BMI
if
a
ranging
person’s
between
BMI
is
18.5
higher
0
Key
t han
Obesity
25
t hey
are
regarded
as
T
able
B.1.6.3
overweight
International
and
classification
according
obesity
BMI
to
of
adult
overweight
underweight,
BMI
index
18.5
than
to
24.9
condition
30%
have
than
a
or
in
more
body
mass
30.
Acceptable
to
29.9
Overweight
30
to
34.9
Obese
(class
1)
35
to
35.9
Obese
(class
2)
Over
40
Source:
Severely
Centers
Individuals
conditions
hear t
for
Disease
wit h
and
disease,
a
Control
BMI
Prevention
exceeding
diseases,
varicose
and
such
veins,
obese
as
29
(class
(2009)
are
classed
hernias,
strokes,
3)
as
ar t hritis,
diabetes,
and
may
be
at
risk
hyper tension,
prostate
cancer
(in
of
coronar y
p
Figure
effect
men),
the
cer vical
There
are
Fir stly,
diets
a
a
spend
are
in
a
to
Height
people
ot her.
could
t he
is
an
may
The
be
in
a
and
t hat
have
traditional
fatty
low
One
bulimia
action
of
is
serious
rotting
stomach
side
teeth
acid
on
from
enamel
foods
fibre
an
of
and
decrease
an
in
food
levels
an
of
rat her
working
obesity
diet
Secondly,
transpor t
people
to
refined
content.
public
led
high-fibre
in
to
so
wit h
epidemic.
called
high
increase
physical
t han
‘ Wester n’
sugar
in
income
activity
walking.
occupations
wit h
Finally,
t hat
to
a
require
work .
are
weight
lower
factor s
number
who
small
of
B.1.6.5
of
women).
Thirdly,
car s
physical
Individuals
Even
r ic h
food.
(in
from
wit h
using
decrease
muc h
var iety
and
on
people
cancer
c hange
t hat
content
help
or
greater
are
Underweight
25
and
medical
people
Category
Less
18.5
A
over weight.
which
q
term
!
t he
considered
loss
risk
of
impor tant
have
taller
t he
(just
of
developing
factor
same
person
obese
10%
in
body
may
are
t he
recommended
individual’s
diseases
associated
determining
mass,
have
a
but
if
one
normal
a
BMI,
lose
wit h
person
may
to
current
be
is
t he
will
obesity.
healt hy.
much
while
weight.
weight)
taller
shor ter
Two
t han
t he
person
obese.
p
Figure
B.1.6.6
problem
in
the
Obesity
is
a
growing
Caribbean
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Undereating
and
Nutrition
overeating
BMI
to
values
degree
In
are
differences
of
recent
years,
BMI
evidence
BMI
fat
of
lower
body
fatness
different
body
age-independent
in
in
different
t here
limits
t hat
t he
25
and
t han
has
for
been
a
over
is
same
may
growing
different
differ
t he
BMI
for
not
bot h
sexes.
correspond
However,
to
t he
due
same
populations.
associations
distribution
and
propor tions,
et hnic
between
across
debate
groups.
BMI,
a
person
t he
is
This
still
need
of
means
might
to
develop
increasing
percentage
populations.
‘over weight’,
over
There
be
body
t hat
at
risk
fat
and
alt hough
wit h
a
a
BMI
t his.
BMI
32
30
28
obese
26
24
e
o
o
i
s
y
t
b
f
k
s
22
r
a
i
t
e
n
20
a
g
a
r
l
m
r
o
n
18
16
14
12
10
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Age
p
Figure
B.1.6.7
Graph
Written
Children
There
is
and
take
the
growth
q
charts
is
age
help
B.1.6.4
into
to
BMI
weight
T
o
how
see
then
body
really
is
lose
this
not
much
trousers
in
to
weight,
have
the
but
needed
first
a
17
index
18
(BMI)
interpret
are
to
to
the
Control
19
20
and
age
variation
of
in
up
than
or
data
with
use
a
obesity
growth
child
is
in
children.
because
charts
it
for
overweight
is
necessary
boys
or
and
obese
to
girls.
or
The
not.
percentile
to
the
the
85th
95th
equal
to
for
95th
size
look
B.1.6.4
and
to
at
which
at
two
be
age
growth
questions
patterns
each
can
the
answer
growth
children
mass
percentile
(2009)
children,
T
able
the
percentile
percentile
the
Prevention
healthy
body
about
children
children
5th
and
assess
samples
and
for
than
BMI
for
whether
less
together
used
of
countries
percentile
85th
Disease
them
wide
age
of
are
shown
charts
1
and
children.
recorded.
on
2.
The
This
(see
page
290
for
an
example
of
a
histogram).
This
histograms
population
for
is
much
known
easier
to
use
16
possible
each
to
for
masses
reveals
It
than
Greater
Centers
Percentiles
B.1.6.8
decide
5th
overweight
Source:
and
many
account
Less
of
15
complicated
Underweight
risk
mass
categories
Overweight
Figure
in
more
BMI
Healthy
p
body
Category
At
14
Activity
concern
BMI
child’s
T
able
13
BMI
great
Interpreting
of
12
(years)
this
size
as
the
reference
population.
of
place
90
835292
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Topic
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16:03
Nutrition
The
Undereating
body
mass
population
whose
body
greater
less
A
than
than
child
of
of
be
a
mass
25%
75%
whose
children
of
in
child
children
of
is
of
at
body
is
compared
the
the
the
the
the
of
25th
16-year-old
mass
is
the
For
percentile,
reference
sample
to
age.
same
over
the
population
in
that
95%
of
the
of
mass
the
reference
16-year-old
that
is
16-year-old
the
girls;
girl
same
she
as
or
weighs
population.
percentile
weighs
same
and
age
is
more
than
95%
considered
to
BMI
–2
–2
kg
m
m
34
34
Body
mass
index-for-age
Body
percentiles:
mass
index-for-age
percentiles:
32
32
Boys,
2 –20
-. · +
30
Girls,
years
.
. . ..· "-~
30
:+ .
l V,.,
.
,
.
rH
-+24
26
.....
.i ).e"
:t
50th
.
85th
,
.,.
75th
•
i),
~
. i-,,
t;.~
~
+ ·
20
10th
.... -:r
50th
25th
25th
~'
~
,,, .
18
i,~
;:;:~ ~
l:Ht
~
~:, _., ~
16
. _:.. la>
... i:
t
:r t
• :.L
......
CT
. !
tt
. 1.1
+.
12
H+
12
4
6
8
10
12
Age
Figure
Chronic
5th
14
~
Source:
10th
HJ:
~
16
:f tt
.c ,.•
"
fH+
~~ :
~
":;?
5th
18
2
I
22
,;..~
~
,/ .
~
20
14
90th
~
,
.1 H. ...l
75th
95th
+iri:+
+
.
24
I:t
:t: . . t
22
,
.
85th
l!
/.~
years
f
.
90th
28
26
2 – 20
95th
28
p
a
in
a
B.1.6.9
National
Disease
14
16
18
..
20
2
4
~
t
6
8
10
(years)
Growth
Center
for
charts
Health
Prevention
12
Age
and
for
boys
Statistics
Health
in
and
16
18
20
girls
collaboration
Promotion
14
(years)
with
the
National
Center
for
(2000)
0
✔
Questions
1
A
doctor
23.
Use
calculates
the
growth
the
BMI
chart
for
for
four
boys
10-year-old
in
Figure
boys
B.1.6.9
as
and
13,
18,
T
able
21
Making
and
B.1.6.4
Study
the
to
the
BMI
categories
for
the
four
girls
of
different
ages
each
have
a
13
and
16.
What
advice
would
the
BMI
of
24.
The
girls’
ages
the
answer
by
reference
to
the
doctor
growth
3
T
able
Suggest
to
summarise
malnutrition
the
form
give
to
the
girls?
chart
for
girls
in
Figure
effects
to
of
will
all
help
on
the
malnutrition
body.
include
the
vitamin
Don’t
and
Explain
deciencies
from
Unit
B.1
B.1.6.9
(pages
and
of
are
mineral
your
table
match
forget
10,
tip
boys.
with
Three
a
forms
you
determine
2
overeating
overweight.
BMI
kg
has
population
girls
variation
example,
and
64
and
65).
B.1.6.4.
two
ways
in
which
parents
contribute
to
their
children
becoming
overweight.
0
Talk
about
?
Discuss
The
the
with
World
Health
world’s
bulimia,
make
family,
have
friends
Organization
greatest
can
sure
your
health
very
people
eat
and
has
threats.
serious
teachers
identied
Eating
effects
on
the
the
statement
obesity
disorders,
young
epidemic
such
people.
below.
as
as
one
anorexia
What
can
be
of
and
done
to
properly?
p
Figure
B.1.6.10
sedentary
energy
the
ways
content
obesity
Lack
of
…
of
life,
all
exercise,
foods
factors
with
that
high
fuel
epidemic
91
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Undereating
and
Nutrition
overeating
Questions
1
What
is
meant
2
Define
3
What
is
the
cause
of
kwashiorkor?
4
What
is
the
cause
of
marasmus?
5
What
causes
6
Calculate
7
Identify
8
Give
9
Describe
a
balanced
diet?
malnutrition
obesity?
the
BMI
three
three
Discuss
uses
of
is
man
of
1.73 m,
who
with
associated
weighs
70 kg.
obesity.
BMI.
the
dietary
advice
a
nutritionist
might
give
to
an
obese.
health
the
a
explain
who
Caribbean
for
diseases
and
individual
10
by
risks
countries
associated
with
overeating,
especially
in
the
today.
Summary
Nutrition
●
A
balanced
out.
Energy
and
fats.
cells
●
The
is
The
and
provides
provided
diet
tissues,
essential
●
diet
fatty
must
in
acids
Vitamin
A
gums,
water;
is
also
for
are
provide
essential
making
for
for
B
energy
A,
D,
vision,
for
all
macronutrients
cell
vitamins
vitamins
needed
vitamin
the
including
micronutrients
soluble
enough
by
molecules
acids
minerals.
and
K
vitamin
respiration,
activities
we
carbohydrates,
for
for
making
carry
proteins
building
proteins
and
membranes.
and
E
biological
amino
the
–
are
C
vitamin
for
D
Vitamins
fat
making
for
B
and
C
are
soluble.
collagen
absorbing
and
in
skin
and
depositing
1
calcium
●
T
wo
for
●
bone.
minerals
that
transporting
The
q
in
table
T
able
Food
need
to
oxygen,
shows
the
be
and
tests
in
the
diet
calcium
for
are
for
iron
for
making
strengthening
identifying
food
haemoglobin
bones
and
teeth.
substances:
B.1.6.5
substances
Biochemical
Proteins
Biuret
test
copper
Starch
Iodine
–
test
sodium
sulphate
in
hydroxide
solution
and
solution
potassium
iodide
solution
(iodine
solution)
Reducing
fructose,
sugars,
maltose
Non-reducing
Lipids
(fats
Vitamin
●
Water
urea
sugars,
and
glucose,
Benedict’
s
is
e.g.
sucrose
Positive
result
reacting
with
oils)
Emulsion
required
in
the
in
the
gut
by
transporting
many
other
body
as
a
hydrolysis
blood
useful
sugar,
and
as
for
the
DCPIP
test after
acid
solution
breaking
major
hormones,
waste
s
Benedict’
test
solvent,
and
with
hydrochloric
Decolourising
for
and
solution
lactose
C
molecules
plasma
e.g.
and
down
food
component
carbon
dioxide,
in
blood
salts,
substances.
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Nutrition
●
●
Undereating
Dietary
The
fibre
cause
symptom
of
bacterium
in
●
the
prevents
of
many
food
leads
children
quantities
●
Body
of
in
to
in
against
the
including
bowel
diet.
food
poisoning
cancer.
Diarrhoea
poisoning
is
but
in
a
Anorexia
often
is
by
poor
it
by
variety
and
with
of
with
are
a
the
hygiene
dividing
T
wo
result
of
or
are
disorders
their
even
as
young
extremes
reduce
such
body
the
lack
mostly
eating
normal
measures,
by
affects
anorexia
eat
is
complete
ways.
bulimia
bulimia
extreme
calculated
Obesity
A
malnutrition
People
people
is
required.
energy
women.
lose
(BMI)
undernutrition.
than
starvation
young
food
fibre
food
and
food
Protein
marasmus.
index
of
protects
of
disorders
overeating
considerably;
mass
and
lack
cause
energy
respond
and
mainly
intake
The
the
overeating
food.
starvation.
who
affect
food
more
to
kwashiorkor
that
of
includes
consuming
is
intestinal
Salmonella.
preparation
Malnutrition
of
constipation
constipation
and
large
vomiting.
mass
in
kilograms
2
by
●
(height
The
first
in
set
permanent
into
●
food
Each
The
the
●
such
of
on
activities
Regular
are
speed
the
in
These
are
molars
is
are
replaced
incisors
that
enamel
pulp
tooth
chew
that
cavity
above
full
the
and
food
a
cells,
gum,
the
that
bite
(mastication).
covers
of
by
canines
softer
blood
the
root
dentine.
vessels
is
the
and
part
of
bone.
feed
to
brushing
to
teeth.
teeth
hard
the
leading
as
of
and
is
teeth
visits
the
water
proteins
up
As
the
on
sugar
tooth
teeth
and
at
least
are
convert
Decay
decay.
dentist
catalysed
such
as
twice
a
essential
it
to
can
day
in
acid
be
which
breaks
prevented
and
using
identifying
by
dental
early
stages
of
affects
extends
into
over
below
or
associated
intestine
biological
without
end
of
a
catalysts
being
used
reaction
the
breakdown
triglycerides.
water
soluble
enzymes.
which
is
The
steeply
maximum
up
they
catalyse
This
of
large
food
converts
molecules
that
large,
can
be
rate
body
steeply
rate
from
of
of
reactions
low
temperatures
reaction
occurs
temperature.
because
they
After
are
at
the
37°C,
denatured
by
40°C.
enzymes.
stomach
pH
All
has
has
with
enzymes
an
an
have
optimum
optimum
enzymes
being
an
pH
pH
optimum
of
of
2.0
8.0.
denatured
and
pH.
trypsin
Activity
at
values
of
range.
consists
of
mouth,
(duodenum
(colon,
The
intestine
of
organs:
of
increase
37°C,
of
of
this
system
intestine
the
and
small
decreases
the
range
and
large
of
small
above
digestive
at
catalyse
proteins
into
activity
37°C.
into
the
The
small
to
activity
a
enzymes
enzymes
excess
secreted
secreted
pH
the
are
again.
the
enzymes
in
They
reactions
blood.
temperature
activity
Pepsin
up
cells.
unchanged
starch,
human
temperatures
pH
as
by
chemical
molecules
the
10°C
optimum
are
over
affects
by
of
system,
insoluble
T
emperature
the
and
into
made
rate
they
digestive
absorbed
such
the
over
molecules
●
of
milk
with
tooth
enamel
reactions
●
the
crown
themselves.
●
covered
living
Enzymes
In
the
types
decay.
that
●
is
The
embedded
the
floss.
●
teeth
premolars
is
The
tooth
down
of
and
centre
Bacteria
of
teeth.
tooth
nerves.
metres)
and
rectum,
the
main
salivary
ileum),
regions
glands,
of
the
alimentary
oesophagus,
pancreas,
liver,
gall
canal
stomach,
bladder
and
anus).
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Undereating
and
Nutrition
overeating
●
The
mouth
moves
is
food
to
contraction.
acid
●
The
to
kill
small
surface
stores
●
Villi
lacteal
●
The
for
excess
which
acids
of
of
epithelial
digestion
the
(adipose)
Egestion
excretion
is
acids
glycerol
in
to
large
cells
are
liver
urea
is
of
has
be
and
acids
it
digestion
has
absorbs
the
a
very
muscular
by
of
by
blood
to
water
and
defecation.
increase
capillaries
protein.
large
remaining
anus
which
many
of
hydrochloric
the
and
one
digestion.
are
are
stored
so
into
into
in
the
the
body
liver
or
synthesised
used
excreted
recombined
waves
supplied
through
glycogen
they
as
microvilli,
villus
are
containing
well
intestine
with
oesophagus
chemical
assimilated
as
amino
the
juice
the
and
out
products
cannot
are
villi
each
stored
body;
body:
start
the
which
gastric
absorption
passed
absorption;
converted
and
The
of
to
for
many
are
transport
in
the
of
digestion,
peristalsis,
pepsin
food.
they
Glucose
amino
is
in
for
products
everywhere
●
until
by
secretes
adapted
composed
the
absorbed.
organs
and
is
absorbed
area
mechanical
stomach
bacteria
covered
surface
for
stomach
intestine
faeces
are
the
The
area
transport
adapted
are
to
after
is
into
make
through
the
into
kidneys;
and
are
proteins
plasma
deaminated
triglycerides
they
respired
in
all
proteins;
ammonia,
fatty
stored
in
fat
tissue.
is
is
the
the
removal
removal
of
of
undigested
waste
food
products
from
of
the
large
intestine;
metabolism.
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Nutrition
Practice
9
Practice
From
t he
table
below,
features
which
best
Questions
describe
Questions
enzymes?
Section
1
A
Which
of
t he
following
is
a
list
of
fat
soluble
Biological
Contains
Affected
Affected
catalyst
active
by
temperature
2
A,
B
B,
C
A,
D
B,
C,
E,
D,
C,
Which
by
û
ü
ü
û
K
K
D,
pH
vitamins?
A
A
sites
E,
K
B
û
û
ü
ü
C
ü
ü
û
ü
D
ü
ü
ü
ü
D
type
of
teet h
are
responsible
for
most
of
t he
KEY
mechanical
digestion
in
t he
mout h?
=
ü
A
û
3
B
molars
C
canines
D
premolars
The
10
=
NO
Which
of
of
salad
which
to
your
diet
can
help
in
t he
following
is
an
example
of
a
A
cellulose
B
starch
C
glucose
D
maltose
t he
disease?
constipation
B
rickets
C
diarrhoea
D
anaemia
Section
1
4
of
monosaccharide?
addition
prevention
A
YES
incisors
The
biuret
colour
test
change
is
carried
from
out
blue
to
on
a
sample
violet
is
of
seen.
milk.
This
B
a
Define
b
Malnutrition
t he
term
which
of
t he
following
nutrients
is
can
be
diet
caused
[2]
by
undereating
and
indicates
overeating.
t hat
balanced
A
i)
Complete
t he
table
below
about
under
present?
nutrition.
A
sugar
B
starch
C
fat
D
protein
Nutrient
Vitamin
Deficiency
Nutrient
Disease
food
source
A
Anaemia
5
The
enzyme
amylase
is
found
in
our
digestive
tract.
Kwashiorkor
Which
pH
A
pH
9
B
pH
3
C
pH
5
D
pH
7
does
t his
enzyme
work
best
[5]
ii)
Obesity
by
is
an
Someone
t he
lacking
vitamin
C
in
t heir
diet
can
healt h
deformation
in
t he
weakness
C
night
c
Identify
Harold
bleeding
Marasmus
is
A
lack
carbohydrates
B
increased
of
a
condition
due
to
D
of
t he
two
factors
obesity.
ot her
t han
diet
t hat
can
a
[2]
chocolate
determine
if
fats
muffin
(lipids)
for
are
breakfast.
present
in
He
his
Write
a
list
of
steps
for
t he
procedure
to
test
[3]
a
Distinguish
b
Explain
between
what
excretion
happens
in
t he
and
large
egestion.
intestines
[3]
of
t he
proteins
increased
of
to
lipids.
digestive
tract
Our
are
for
t he
formation
of
faeces.
[4]
calcium
cells
i)
All
is
iron
c
8
which
obesity
t he:
2
lack
caused
in
gums
for
C
wit h
way
[3]
bought
to
muffin.
7
person
disease
blindness
wants
D
a
a
one
bones
lead
B
of
of
Describe
experience:
iii)
A
example
overeating.
affected.
6
Meat
at?
following
are
conditions
related
to
List
made
t hree
up
uses
of
of
almost
water
in
70%
t he
of
water.
body.
[3]
obesity
ii)
Name
two
diseases/conditions
t hat
are
caused
except:
by
A
coronar y
B
ast hma
hear t
a
lack
of
Give
t hree
conditions
diabetes
D
hyper tension
in
t he
diet.
[2]
disease
iii)
C
water
signs
or
named
symptoms
in
(c)
(ii)
of
t he
above.
diseases/
[3]
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Practice
3
We
Nutrition
Questions
need
to
balanced
only
t hree
a
i)
eat
diet
a
is
balanced
made
undergo
t he
diet
of
for
us
different
to
be
healt hy.
nutrients
of
A
which
a
Name
b
What
digestion.
Complete
products
up
t he
of
following
table
t hat
are
about
t he
absorbed
c
into
What
b
[3]
d
End
product
of
is
Delroy
A
to
name
B?
D
of
on
t he
t he
diagram.
enzyme
[4]
released
by
t he
par t
[1]
t he
above?
t he
Nutrient
par ts
t he
labelled
digestion
bloodstream.
t he
is
function
of
t he
enzyme
named
in
[1]
had
blank
a
slice
spaces
of
in
fish
t he
as
par t
diagram
of
a
meal.
below
Fill
which
in
shows
digestion
stages
in
t he
digestion
of
t he
protein
in
t he
fish.
[6]
Carbohydrates
Proteins
1.
Mouth:
Teeth
crush
2.
Stomach:
Enzyme___________
Fats
and
grind
smaller
ii)
Name
two
balanced
each.
b
Food
i)
and
give
a
present
food
in
source
pieces.
a
for
for
consumption
must
be
done
under
conditions.
Make
when
ii)
diet
nutrients
into
[4]
prepared
hygienic
ot her
food
a
list
Diarrhoea
infection
hygiene
two
of
4
hygienic
preparing
is
in
a
food.
condition
t he
during
gut
by
food
practices
a
caused
vir us
by
due
preparation.
signs/symptoms
to
PROTEIN
follow
[4]
of
t his
an
to
poor
Suggest
disease
and
3.
two
Small
the
measures
of
treatment
t hat
can
be
taken.
Intestines(I):
______________
enzyme
4.
juice
contains
_____________
diagram
below
shows
t he
human
alimentar y
juice
contains
the
that
polypeptides
to
__________________
peptides.
The
intestines(II):
[4]
converts
4
Small
Intestinal
e
The
digested
from
the
the
materials
alimentar y
bloodstream.
allow
5
to
_____________________.
canal.
Samuel
them
ate
a
to
of
the
canal
State
absorb
hamburger
protein
through
THREE
features
digested
for
are
the
of
materials
lunch
at
absorbed
villi
and
the
into
villi
that
quickly.
[3]
school.
B
a
Name
b
Explain
teet h
two
in
major
how
his
Samuel’s
toot h
to
i)
t he
are
different
involved
brot her
for
t hey
toot h
of
present
in
his
types
in
meal.
[2]
of
mechanical
[4]
little
ac hes
dentist,
each
mout h
digestion.
c
nutrients
some
found
Keron
time.
out
has
Af ter
t hat
been
having
c hec king
Keron
had
a
wit h
cavity
a
due
decay.
Describe
t he
process
of
toot h
decay.
[5]
A
ii)
Make
a
follow
list
to
of
care
four
for
guidelines
his
teet h
for
and
Keron
prevent
to
any
D
ot her
cavities.
[4]
C
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Unit
B
The
B.2
B.2.1
The
exchange
respiratory
(gas
structure
of
the
exchange)
breathing
and
gas
system
Learning
system
By
the
end
should
Are
you
a
rst
aider?
If
you
are,
you
will
know
what
to
do
if
someone
in
an
accident
and
stops
breat hing.
You
should
also
know
of
this
able
topic
you
to:
is
●
involved
be
outcomes
explain
the
importance
of
why
breathing
breat hing
out
expired
air
into
someone
else’s
lungs
will
help
to
keep
●
t hem
alive.
This
chapter
deals
wit h
t he
impor tance
of
how
we
relate
the
breathing
and
what
happens
to
t he
oxygen
t hat
t he
trainee
rst
aiders
structures
of
system
their
the
breat he
watching
to
t he
functions
demonstration
in
t he
photograph
may
one
day
have
to
provide.
●
distinguish
breathing,
Structure
of
the
respiratory
(breathing)
between
gas
exchange
and
system
respiration
Breathing
is
t he
exchange
of
surface
t he
ow
oxygen
of
and
air
in
and
carbon
out
of
dioxide
t he
by
lungs.
Gas
diffusion
at
exchange
t he
gas
is
t he
●
explain
vital
In
in
humans,
lungs
and
nasal
cavity:
small
hairs
cells
stale
dust
also
moistens
and
a
air
in
carbon
is
in
fresh,
t he
lungs,
par t
oxygen-rich
dioxide,
is
air
removed
t he
from
to
leading
capacity.
our
into
our
lungs.
of
to
tube
middle
ear
good
that
warmed
palate:
nasal
closes
opening
when
swallowing
p
Figure
B.2.1.1
demonstrates
closes
A
first
mouth
aid
to
instructor
mouth
larynx
breathing
when
by
respirator y
brought
Eustachian
soft
epiglottis:
meant
air;
so
is
of
is
opening
bacteria;
very
supply
inspired
rich
surface
ensures
goblet
mucus)
trap
blood
air,
exchange
which
contains
(secrete
contains
gas
system
and
is
lungs.
t he
(breat hing)
what
exchange
–
closing
the
nostrils
and
swallowing
tilting
back
the
head
of
the
model
oesophagus
larynx:
contains
vocal
trachea
cords.
When
air
passes
Key
over
and
them
they
speech
terms
!
vibrate
results
Breathing
bronchiole
bronchus
diaphragm
in
and
Gas
left
out
of
movement
ribcage
the
exchange
to
of
the
move
air
lungs.
The
diffusion
lung
of
rib
oxygen
between
intercostal
The
and
and
air
carbon
and
blood
dioxide
in
the
lungs.
muscle
alveoli
pleurae:
which
contain
cushions
diaphragm
fluid
muscle
lungs
diaphragm
when
p
breathing
Figure
B.2.1.2
breathing
A
vertical
section
through
the
head
and
thorax
showing
the
system
97
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The
structure
of
the
breathing
and
gas
exchange
The
The
system
terms
respiration
remember
t hat
and
breat hing
respiration
is
t he
are
respiratory
of ten
process
t hat
(gas
confused.
occurs
exchange)
You
inside
system
should
cells,
oesophagus
no
cartilage
reduce
to
t hroughout
t he
glucose
fat).
and
to
release
Breat hing
is
energy
t he
ow
from
of
air
nutrient
into
and
molecules
out
of
t he
(mostly
lungs
friction
brought
with
body,
about
by
movement
of
t he
diaphragm
and
ribcage.
oesophagus
cartilage:
Breat hing
supports
trachea
is
also
in
in
is
known
t hrough
also
as
t he
known
as
expiration
mout h
inspiration
and
and/or
and
exhalation.
nose,
passes
inhalation;
Dur ing
t hrough
breat hing
inspiration
t he
t hroat
air
out
ows
and
lar ynx
lumen
and
to
inner
lining
into
end
in
dust
tiny
air ways
poc kets,
t hat
called
extends
alveoli.
into
You
t he
can
dept hs
trace
of
t his
t he
lungs
pat hway
in
B.2.1.2.
bacteria
Figures
trapped;
cilia
beat
to
B.2.1.2
plus
debris
B.2.1.3
Transverse
the
B.2.1.3
t he
show
head
and
t he
str uctures
t horax
t hat
(chest).
are
The
involved
upper
in
respirator y
tract
oesophagus
as
far
as
t he
lar ynx;
t he
lower
respirator y
tract
extends
from
t he
sections
top
through
wit hin
upwards
extends
Figure
and
drive
breat hing
p
air
of
epithelium;
and
mucus
system
of
Figure
ciliated
a
and
of
t he
trachea
to
t he
alveoli.
Table
B.2.1.1
describes
t he
str ucture
and
the
functions
of
t he
par ts
of
t he
respirator y
tract.
trachea
q
T
able
Name
Study
✔
B.2.1.1
of
part
Figures
and
T
able
names
B.2.1.2
B.2.1.1
and
and
functions
of
the
human
Structure
respiratory
Function(s)
and
to
functions
learn
of
Made
the
of
nine
muscles;
B.2.1.3
Trachea
A
wide
rings
these
tube
of
pieces
contains
of
the
stiffened
cartilage
vocal
by
and
Vocal
cords
in
the
gas
vibrate
and
produce
sound
cords
C-shaped
Allows
cartilage
air
bronchi.
to
ow
from
Cartilage
C-shaped
structures
tract
tip
Larynx
Use
Structure
ring
throat
holds
allows
the
the
to
tube
open.
oesophagus
exchange
behind
it
to
expand
when
it
carries
food
system.
(see
Bronchi
T
wo
branches
surrounded
for
Bronchioles
of
by
the
Allows
trachea
blocks
of
(singular:
thin
tubes
to
ow
in
single
branching
air
layer
surrounded
from
the
Allows
air
to
ow
between
of
by
sacs.
thin
Lined
cells
blood
Gas
by
exchange
diffuses
and
dioxide
capillaries
alveolar
mucus-secreting
goblet
The
diaphragm
out
of
of
t he
tissue;
t he
ribs
The
Ciliated
separates
t he
lungs.
it
is
to
t he
t horax
diaphragm
The
central
surrounded
t he
t he
bronchi
B.2.1.4).
by
sternum.
move
trachea,
Figure
B.2.1.4
of
and
contract
Figure
out
of
each
bronchi
and
from
t he
from
occurs
air
diffuses
to
here
blood;
from
–
oxygen
carbon
blood
into
the
air
abdominal
cavity.
cell
Movements
p
and
alveoli
Blind-ending
a
air
support
Very
alveolus)
B.2.1.3)
lung
cartilage
bronchi
Alveoli
Figure
The
par t
t he
of
t hick
up
ribcage
t he
t he
and
t hat
ribs
are
is
air
is
a
to
joined
t he
ow
tough
to
t he
intercostal
into
and
brous
sheet
backbone,
muscles
t hat
down.
bronchioles
mucus-secreting
cause
diaphragm
muscle
Between
ribcage
and
and
are
cells
lined
make
by
a
ciliated
sticky
epit helium
mucus
t hat
(see
covers
epithelium
t he
to
epit helium.
t he
mucus.
mucus
ver y
air
along
Gas
from
of
par ticles
cilia
beat
air ways
way
to
of
back
and
towards
protect
t he
dust,
t he
pollen,
for t h
in
t hroat.
lungs
bacteria
a
coordinated
This
against
and
vir uses
way
epit helium
damage
from
to
stick
move
provides
par ticles
a
in
t he
infection.
exchange
Sections
full
The
t he
effective
and
Small
t hrough
air.
Lung
t he
tissue
lungs
is
like
ver y
t he
one
spongy
in
and
Figure
most
of
B.2.1.5
what
show
you
t he
can
lungs
see
as
lling
98
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The
t he
respiratory
upper
t heir
can
par t
ver y
right,
widen
of
when
t he
allow
you
system
photograph
There
folded
blood
a
you
are
air
to
sections
two
internal
more
are
The
linings
reach
t hrough
bronchioles
t he
so
at
during
alveoli.
t he
t he
deep
The
alveoli
bottom
‘tube’
of
the
breathing
t his
fairly
t he
alveoli
constant
breat he
of
process
direction.
oxygen
t hat
it
in,
air
out
oxygen
oxygen
around
The
t hat
has
Follow
so
t hat
enter ing
t he
t he
concentration
alveoli
and
t he
blood
it
can
t he
air
of
a
inside
is
oxygen
alveoli
recoil
t hat
of
makes
little
to
occurs
air
in
carbon
into
t he
t he
is
constantly
and
carbon
t hem
help
exchange
and
t hey
a
cross
refreshed
out
a
bit;
some
of
owing
lungs
t hrough
and
enters
t he
carbon
all
t he
has
about
blood
dioxide
t he
in
70%
carries
blood
t he
of
opposite
t he
carbon
total
dioxide
tissue.
in
owing
During
into
diffuses
respiring
capillar y
time.
Figure
passed
B.2.1.6.
t he
alveolus.
p
is
blood
t hat
has
been
pumped
by
t he
hear t
to
t he
Figure
Oxygen
dissolves
in
t he
lm
of
water
lining
t he
B.2.1.5
alveolus.
and
tissue
showing
transverse
bronchioles
Oxygen
diffuses
gradient
t he
cells
plasma,
down
t hrough
t hat
and
line
t he
its
alveolar
sections
and
a
blood
through
vessel
cells
t he
capillar y,
lining
surface
t he
t he
blood
Oxygen
two
(x18)
alveolus,
blood
membrane
of
t he
red
red
of
tissue
concentration
t he
cell
Photomicrograph
lungs.
lung
4
system
dioxide.
enlarge
push
alveolus
dioxide
deoxygenated
oxygen
blood
t he
and
ows
This
while
dioxide
from
alveolus
carr y.
pat hway
Deoxygenated
carbon
diffuses
absorbed
t he
This
3
gas
vessel.
breat he
capillaries
2
and
wit h
lef t
breat hing
t hird
structure
air.
Exchange
1
t he
ventilates
achieve
When
exchange)
linings.
have
to
a
Breat hing
to
of
t hin
which
section
(gas
blood
cell
cell.
combines
temporar ily
wit h
capillar y
haemoglobin
to
for m
oxyhaemoglobin.
The
movement
oxygen
red
blood
cell
transpor ts
oxygen
to
5
in
Blood
t he
is
alveolus
body.
now
movement
carbon
of
dioxide
respir ing
the
cells
of
into
out
of
the
alveolus
fully
saturated
wit h
oxygen
2
and
4
ows
into
a
vein
t hat
takes
blood
from
diusion
t he
oxygen
3
lungs
back
to
t he
of
into
diusion
the
blood
carbon
from
Features
of
gas
of
hear t.
exchange
dioxide
the
blood
surfaces
cells
The
alveoli
share
t he
following
lining
the
characteristics
alveolus
wit h
t he
gas
exchange
surfaces
of
ot her
ver tebrate
animals.
●
A
ver y
space
large
for
surface
molecules
area
of
so
t here
carbon
is
plenty
dioxide
of
and
p
oxygen
t hese
●
A
to
diffuse
gases
ver y
t hat
good
oxygen
and
–
are
blood
t his
maximises
exchanged
supply
carbon
to
dioxide
t he
volumes
between
maintain
between
air
and
blood
B.2.1.6
Gas
exchange
in
an
alveolus
blood.
concentration
t he
Figure
of
and
gradients
t he
air
in
for
t he
alveoli.
Key
term
!
●
A
lining
A
t hin
t hat
is
permeable
to
oxygen
and
carbon
dioxide.
Deoxygenated
●
lining,
so
t here
is
a
shor t
distance
for
t he
molecules
to
has
The
lining
of
the
alveoli
is
made
of
ver y
thin
cells
that
are
similar
to
the
cells
about
blood
it
dioxide
that
line
capillaries.
These
two
layers
of
thin
cells
separate
air
blood
Blood
that
diffuse.
from
70%
can
than
of
carry
is
in
the
and
maximum
more
carbon
oxygenated
blood.
blood.
99
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The
structure
of
the
breathing
and
gas
exchange
The
The
effect
of
gas
composition
from
Table
q
The
system
t he
of
t he
composition
B.2.1.2
T
able
exchange
shows
B.2.1.2
air
of
t hese
of
Inspired
Oxygen
21
dioxide
Nitrogen
Water
%
%
vapour
alveoli
you
air
breat he
t hat
you
inspired
and
the
out
exchange)
composition
(expired
breat he
expired
air
in
air)
of
system
the
air
differs
(inspired
air).
air
Expired
air
16
0.04
4
79
79
Variable
(depends
on
the
Saturated
humidity)
with
evaporated
T
emperature
Variable
Warm
Purity
Variable
Most
Practical
to
on
(gas
differences.
Component
Carbon
the
t hat
t he
Comparison
%
in
respiratory
dust
water
from
the
particles
vapour
lining
of
that
the
has
airways
removed
Activity
disinfected
Showing
that
expired
air
contains
more
carbon
dioxide
than
inspired
air
mouthpiece
Requirements
●
apparatus
●
lime
●
dilute
Lime
lime
p
Figure
B.2.1.7
apparatus
for
inspired
and
The
of
shown
in
Figure
B.2.1.7
two
●
solution
water
pieces
sign
turns
of
disinfectant
milky
when
eye
●
carbon
dioxide
is
(+)
of
paper
drawn
on
with
each
a
plus
one
protection
passed
into
it.
water
‘huff
and
carbon
expired
1
Sterilise
2
Put
3
With
a
a
clip
mouthpiece
on
your
and
nose
or
attach
hold
it
to
your
the
nose
apparatus
with
your
on
the
apparatus.
fingers.
puff’
comparing
concentrations
as
water
dioxide
your
several
in
mouth
over
the
mouthpiece,
breathe
gently
in
and
out
times.
air
4
In
Observe
which
ask,
breathing
6
Clean
and
A
until
out
or
B,
B
as
does
asks
pieces
you
the
have
apparatus
the
steps
to
breathe
to
disappear
and
2,
in
of
Douglas
are
shown
out
in
The
student
and
the
the
the
into
the
breathe.
lime
water
turned
and
refill
paper
it
with
turn
milky
rst?
Y
ou
can
continue
milky.
with
the
limewater,
crosses
sterilise
drawn
on
the
mouthpiece
them
underneath
used
an
4,
but
this
time
mouthpiece.
tubes
results
A
and
you
start
Time
a
timer
how
as
long
it
soon
takes
as
for
you
the
start
cross
B.
obtain.
1
air
to
collect
empty
samples
Douglas
bag.
of
air.
The
In
bag
an
investigation,
was
tted
with
a
student
ow
valves
diagram.
breathed
volume
the
skills
of
bags
and
both
explain
Composition
breathed
3
through
Maths
as
and
flasks.
Repeat
Record
A
both
the
place
both
7
flasks
of
air
out
four
inside
in
times
the
into
bag
the
was
bag.
The
measured.
bag
A
was
sealed
sample
of
air
100
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Topic
2.indd
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16:05
The
respiratory
from
the
bag
(gas
was
exchange)
analysed
system
for
the
The
composition
of
oxygen,
structure
of
the
breathing
and
gas
exchange
carbon
atmospheric
dioxide
and
system
air
nitrogen.
valve
The
the
student
then
exercise,
the
did
some
student
vigorous
repeated
exercise
the
for
5
procedure
minutes.
to
collect
Immediately
a
second
after
sample
valve
of
air.
The
In
both
results
cases
of
the
his
breathing
investigation
rates
are
was
shown
12
in
breaths
T
able
per
minute.
air
bag
B.2.1.3.
of
q
T
able
breathed
B.2.1.3
for
collection
breathed
breathed
Sample
of
exercise
out
out
air
air
air
p
Before
out
After
Figure
B.2.1.8
This
student
is
filling
a
exercise
Douglas
bag
with
expired
air
3
Volume
of
air/cm
2000
15 000
3
Mean
volume
of
air
per
Percentage
of
oxygen
Percentage
of
carbon
Percentage
of
nitrogen
1
Calculate
the
2
Calculate
the
Douglas
3
The
4
air
Calculate
Use
figures
samples
to
15.3
3.6
5.5
74.9
74.7
in
the
air
into
table
the
per
in
breath
the
compared
the
student’s
the
calculate
of
change
exercise
moved
volume.
the
volume
percentage
after
of
500
17.2
dioxide
mean
bag
volume
breath/cm
for
minute
the
volume
volume
with
lungs
after
in
of
air
collected
in
the
before.
1
minute
volume
percentage
of
exercise.
oxygen
is
called
before
of
and
oxygen
absorbed
by
the
after
in
the
the
minute
exercise.
two
student
in
3
dm
5
per
minute
Calculate
the
before
volume
and
of
after
carbon
exercise.
dioxide
breathed
out
by
the
student
in
3
dm
In
a
the
per
separate
air
he
alveolar
●
air
those
Vital
air
B.2.1.9
is
the
This
exercise.
student
air
is
carbon
●
the
percentages
rst
out
you
is
as
in
sample
much
as
have
using
capacity
in
not
and
t he
air
much
just
a
is
breat hing
move
It
14%
the
breat hing
af ter
out.
after
from
collected
the
only
alveoli.
the
The
very
last
part
composition
of
of
his
of
of
dioxide
oxygen
expired
air
5.6%
and
that
carbon
he
nitrogen
●
dioxide
are
80.4%
different
from
collected.
capacity
Breat he
Vit al
and
was:
why
in
before
investigation,
breathed
oxygen
Explain
The
minute
t he
out
tot al
to
can.
you
your
is
lungs
volume
of
take
a
ver y
Now
breat he
is
your
vital
her
vital
out
record
This
Now
can.
maximum
fully.
of
you
as
breat hed
meter
in
as
air
volume
t he
breat h
hard
capacity.
of
air
of
t hat
air
breat hing
lungs
as
as
The
by
you
girl
in
can.
Figure
capacity.
volume
when
your
deep
out
because
can
t hat
as
be
deeply
you
exhaled
you
can
can
as
possible.
never
breat he
3
out
all
alveoli
It
is
to
a
t he
air.
There
is
always
about
1
dm
remaining
to
keep
your
inated.
possible
band
volume
to
record
around
of
your
p
your
your
chest
breat hing
chest.
are
As
you
recorded
movements
breat he
on
a
in
char t
by
and
attaching
out
(Figure
t he
a
Figure
B.2.1.9
Measuring
vital
capacity
sensor
changes
in
B.2.1.10).
101
835292
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Topic
2.indd
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16:05
The
structure
of
the
breathing
and
gas
exchange
Yo u
The
system
can
see
from
t he
Figure
B.2.1.10
respiratory
t h at
t he
(gas
p er so n
exchange)
b reat h ed
in
system
and
ou t
3
about
50 0 cm
while
breat hing
n o r mally
(t h is
volume
is
3
1
as
t he
3
dm
tidal
volume)
and
t h ey
3
Note:
It
is
age.
p
kn own
Figure
B.2.1.10
movements
Volume
recorded
of
over
a
vit al
c apac it y
of
50 0 0 c m
3
1dm
=
possible
Such
h ave
1000
to
cm
predict
calculators
a
person’s
are
vital
available
as
capacity
based
on
t heir
height
and
apps.
chest
time
Practical
Measuring
tidal
Activity
volume
and
vital
capacity
Requirements
3
bell
jar
plastic
(or
large
●
bell
jar
●
a
●
three
1
Set
marked
in
dm
trough
●
tubing
●
dilute
solution
of
disinfectant
wedges
up
the
apparatus
as
shown
above,
ensuring
that
the
water
level
is
on
container)
the
scale.
Sterilise
the
mouthpiece.
3
volume
scale /dm
2
Record
the
initial
3
T
ake
4
Measure
5
This
6
Repeat
steps
volume
can
volume.
blow
a
deep
breath
then
breathe
out
fully
through
the
mouthpiece.
here
the
decrease
in
volume
in
the
bell
jar.
tubing
3
connected
to
is
your
vital
capacity
in
dm
disinfected
water
mouthpiece
wedge
free
of
to
to
4,
only
this
time
exhale
normally,
so
that
the
tidal
be
measured.
water
Ask
p
1
allow
circulation
Figure
B.2.1.11
measuring
vital
Apparatus
capacity
for
and
other
capacity
students
and
tidal
in
your
class
volumes.
to
Use
use
an
the
app
to
apparatus
predict
to
their
measure
vital
their
capacity
vital
and
see
tidal
how
many
match
the
predictions.
Now
try
Maths
skills
2.
volume
Maths
Is
there
a
correlation
Researchers
referred
to
age;
sample
q
of
T
able
BMI
calculated
they
correlation
in
the
a
the
BMI
people
vital
North
determined
between
the
2
between
measured
hospitals
researchers
and
skills
BMI
and
vital
capacities
American
predicted
the
and
BMI
of
vital
are
over
for
person
vital
300
lung
capacity
each
predicted
investigated
of
city
capacity?
from
to
in
each
see
capacity.
shown
people
function
T
able
if
The
who
were
tests.
The
person’s
there
is
results
height
any
for
a
small
B.2.1.4.
B.2.1.4
Vital
of
capacity/%
BMI
predicted
Vital
of
capacity/%
BMI
predicted
Vital
of
capacity/%
predicted
50
61
35
95
20
96
56
75
30
85
22
130
45
90
31
98
52
77
42
84
25
82
27
92
43
102
24
110
38
75
1
Describe
2
Plot
how
these
the
results
researchers
on
a
calculated
scattergraph
with
the
BMI
BMI
on
of
the
each
person.
horizontal
axis.
102
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Topic
2.indd
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16:05
The
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
The
breathing
mechanism
a
2
3
Do
you
the
think
there
evidence
for
is
a
your
correlation
between
BMI
and
vital
capacity?
Give
answer.
3
Suggest
the
limitations
5
Suggest
the
problems
of
the
that
information
people
with
a
in
T
able
high
md / ria
4
B.2.1.4.
BMI
might
have
with
their
fo
1
emulov
breathing.
Questions
0
0
1
Refer
to
Figures
B.2.1.2
and
B.2.1.5
to
list
the
pathway
taken
by
10
20
30
40
50
60
a
time / s
molecule
of
oxygen
from
the
atmosphere
to
the
gas
exchange
surface.
b
2
2
Refer
gas
to
Figure
exchange
B.2.1.6
in
the
to
list
the
route
taken
by
carbon
dioxide
during
lungs.
3
Refer
to
are
4
What
the
5
Distinguish
6
Some
adapted
role
of
the
between
students
and
for
B.2.1.6
gas
in
the
exchange
investigated
describe
three
ways
in
which
exchange.
cartilage
gas
to
the
trachea
and
and
in
the
1
emulov
is
well
B.2.1.5
fo
alveoli
Figures
md / ria
3
bronchi?
breathing.
breathing
of
a
16-year
old
male
athlete.
0
Figure
B.2.1.12a
shows
his
pattern
of
breathing
for
a
minute
0
when
10
20
30
40
50
60
time / s
resting.
took
Figure
some
B.2.1.12b
shows
the
pattern
of
his
breathing
while
he
exercise.
p
Figure
of
a
Make
a
table
to
compare
his
breathing
at
rest
and
during
a
●
●
●
b
in
the
volume
the
rate
the
volume
of
of
the
breathing
when
The
air
breathed
breathing
Calculate
B.2.2
air
in
percentage
he
in
takes
with
breaths
breathed
in
each
per
resting
change
in
a
breat hing
each
of
Include
these
your
aspects
answers
of
in
exchange
1
minute
while
1
minute
exercising
table.
mechanism
Learning
the
end
outcomes
of
this
topic
you
breathing
mechanism
of
b
his
the
ensures
t hat
t he
air
in
t he
alveoli
is
refreshed
gases
in
t he
lungs
continues
be
able
to:
so
●
t hat
patterns
a
minute.
should
The
athlete;
breath
By
of
breathing
minute
during
exercise.
breathing
Mechanism
The
male
table:
the
of
old
exercise.
while
Include
B.2.1.12
16-year
describe
the
breathing
efciently.
mechanism
Movement
high
of
pressure
air
during
region
to
breathing
a
low
depends
pressure
on
region.
the
Air
fact
is
that
air
breathed
moves
in
from
a
●
outline
the
when
than
our
chests
expand.
atmospheric
This
pressure
so
makes
that
the
air
is
pressure
pushed
of
by
air
the
inside
higher
the
our
lungs
pressure
less
●
rate
explain
of
lungs.
This
so
Air
makes
that
is
the
some
of
breathed
pressure
the
air
out
(expiration)
inside
is
our
pushed
chests
out
by
when
we
greater
the
compress
than
higher
affecting
our
breathing
rescue
breathing
into
(artificial
our
factors
(inspiration)
resuscitation).
chests.
atmospheric
pressure
pressure.
Inspiration
During
inspiration
backbone,
par t
made
t he
of
t he
lower
tough
muscles
ribs
and
brous
of
t he
t he
diaphragm
sternum
tissue.
The
t hat
contract
external
connect
and
atten
intercostal
to
t he
t he
muscles
central
contract
103
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Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
103
08/01/2015
16:05
The
breathing
The
mechanism
and
t he
internal
outwards.
These
decreasing
is
greater
air ways
During
●
t he
t han
air
pressure
t he
inating
muscles
air
t he
relax.
increase
inside
pressure
t he
of
The
t he
ribcage
volume
lungs.
inside
Now
lungs,
moves
inside
t he
so
exchange)
t he
upwards
chest
moves
into
and
(t horax),
atmospheric
air
system
pressure
t he
lungs.
external
muscles
contract
intercostal
muscles
to
move
contract
passage
passage
t he
(gas
inspiration:
diaphragm
●
intercostal
movements
respiratory
of
t he
to
diaphragm
move
t he
down
ribcage
up
and
out.
air
air
trachea
trachea
external
external
intercostal
intercostal
muscles
muscles
relax
contract
ribs
move
and
out
up
ribs
move
and
in
down
lungs
lungs
ribcage
ribcage
diaphragm
the
volume
the
chest
the
volume
the
chest
of
of
cavity
cavity
diaphragm
decreases
increases
contracts
and
diaphragm
relaxes
and
diaphragm
moves
upwards
down
front
front
p
view
Figure
during
rib
cage
up
chest
side
B.2.2.1(a)
breathing
Movement
of
the
of
rib
cage
and
down
moves
diaphragm
diaphragm
thorax
volume
increases
and
the
ribcage
down
moves
view
of
chest
p
Figure
B.2.2.1(b)
breathing
Movement
of
the
diaphragm
and
the
ribcage
out
up
of
thorax
t he
expiration
abdomen
shape.
The
t he
diaphragm
pushes
internal
t he
muscles
central
intercostal
relax
brous
muscles
and
tissue
contract
t he
pressure
upwards
and
t he
into
a
exer ted
dome
external
decreases
These
of
side
Expiration
intercostal
volume
chest
inwards
by
of
of
chest
During
volume
view
during
out
moves
view
in
moves
and
diaphragm
of
bulges
lungs
volume
increases
of
lungs
muscles
movements
pressure
inside
relax
so
decrease
t he
lungs.
t he
t he
The
ribcage
moves
volume
inside
elastic
tissue
downwards
t he
t horax,
around
t he
and
inwards.
increasing
alveoli
recoils
t he
air
and
decreases
t his
helps
to
force
air
out
of
t he
lungs.
Note that the diaphragm muscles and intercostal muscles are used together
air
pressure
in
lungs
air
decreases
pressure
in
lungs
when you breathe in and out. Sometimes when breathing with shallow breaths
increases
you can just use your diaphragm and the intercostal muscles are not used at all.
The
air
flows
into
the
breathing
p
Figure
lungs
air
IN
flows
out
of
breathing
B.2.2.2
Flow
charts
the
breathing
Tr y
OUT
happens
breathing
during
breathing
out
is
summarised
in
the
ow
charts
in
Figure
B.2.2.2.
this
yourself
showing
Making
what
mechanism
lungs
in
a
model
of
the
breathing
mechanism
and
Requirements
●
2
balloons
●
a
clear
●
a
pair
1
Cut
the
plastic
of
off
for
a
one-lung
water
model
bottle
(without
cap)
●
a
thumbtack
●
sticky
tape
or
masking
tape
scissors
the
balloon
part
is
of
the
going
to
balloon
be
the
with
the
hole
diaphragm
in
for
blowing
your
into.
The
rest
of
model.
104
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Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
104
08/01/2015
16:05
The
respiratory
2
Use
of
3
the
the
the
in
exchange)
thumbtack
water
Cover
stays
(gas
to
system
make
a
The
small
hole
about
3
mm
wide
in
the
breathing
mechanism
bottom
bottle.
bottom
place
of
you
the
can
water
fix
it
bottle
with
with
the
balloon.
T
o
make
sure
it
tape.
balloon
4
Put
the
around
the
of
second
the
top.
the
rim
Y
ou
balloon
of
can
the
use
inside
bottle
more
the
so
bottle.
the
sticky
Fold
balloon
tape
to
the
hangs
hold
top
of
into
the
the
the
balloon
bottle
balloon
onto
from
the
rim
bottle.
plastic
5
Now
use
your
model
to
show
what
happens
to
the
lungs
during
drinks
breathing
bottle
in
6
and
breathing
Match
a
the
Which
out.
structures
parts
between
are
the
of
your
respiratory
represented
bottle
and
the
by:
the
system
bottle,
balloon,
the
to
the
the
parts
balloon,
of
the
the
model.
space
balloon
diaphragm?
cut
b
Which
c
What
in
7
Use
T
ake
some
we
Y
ou
can
some
respiratory
with
your
system
model
as
a
are
not
way
of
represented
in
demonstrating
the
the
make
and
to
teach
a
artist
two-lung
tubing.
be
to
to
The
secured
someone
show
draw
by
model
an
air
how
for
plastic
else
in
a
tubing
tight
your
much
us
with
in
better
Figure
Y
-
or
a
must
seal.
family
your
how
we
model
breathing
p
Figure
brain
brain
of
exercise
detects
each
changes
of
t he
time
integrates
determines
inuences
●
A
one-lung
model
to
breathe
is
than
the
B.2.2.3.
T
-shaped
t
inside
Modelling
connector
the
clay
opening
could
be
and
of
the
used
on
in
blood
breathing
t he
and
oxygen
t he
and
extent
carbon
to
which
t he
Study
✔
dioxide
you
breat he
in
and
out.
The
lungs
breat hing
t he
our
in
an
an
increase
increase
increase
t he
information
and
rate
of
from
inside
breat hing.
and
outside
Exercise
is
one
t he
body
factor
effects
in
in
in
of
exercise
breat hing
t he
dept h
t he
on
breat hing
and
t hat
minute
information
make
happens
a
table
to
breathing
in
this
in
the
showing
following
and
chapter
what
during
breathing
●
diaphragm
●
intercostal
●
ribcage
●
volume
of
thorax
●
volume
of
lungs
●
air
●
movement
out:
muscles
are:
rate
of
the
t he
breat hing.
shor t-term
an
all
dept h
tip
are
centre
to
●
we
breathe.
Use
stretched
●
B.2.2.3
how
this.
concentrations
The
top
model?
show
photographs
asked
Effects
The
the
wrong
model
plastic
bottle
for
is
of
humans?
the
one
parts
with
off
breat hing
volume
(volume
of
air
breat hed
in
during
pressure
in
the
lungs
a
of
air
in
the
airways
minute)
●
an
increase
Regular
exercise
physiology.
●
●
●
in
t he
also
These
an
increase
an
expansion
an
increase
diaphragm
in
in
amount
has
of
carbon
long-term
dioxide
benecial
in
expired
effects
on
air.
t he
body’s
include:
t he
of
number
t he
size
of
capillaries
in
t he
lungs
alveoli
and
strengt h
of
t he
intercostal
muscles
and
muscles.
105
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
105
08/01/2015
16:05
The
breathing
The
mechanism
Other
factors
that
affect
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
breathing
Drugs
Some
dr ugs,
breat hing.
e.g.
amphetamines,
Ot hers
are
are
depressants
stimulants
and
have
and
t he
speed
opposite
up
t he
rate
of
effect.
Anxiety
If
we
are
frightened
increase
needs
our
to
be
adrenaline
removed.
and
t his
Environmental
You
may
and
t here
increase
brain
to
have
is
in
or
breat hing
worried
as
about
more
This
is
because
increases
somet hing,
oxygen
t he
is
needed
when
rate
of
t hen
and
anxious
t his
is
more
we
likely
carbon
tend
to
to
dioxide
secrete
more
respiration.
factors
noticed
little
carbon
increase
t hat
if
you
ventilation
dioxide
t he
are
t hat
in
you
a
small
star t
concentrations
breat hing
rate
and
room
wit h
yawning.
in
also
t he
to
This
air.
This
ot her
is
t he
people
effect
stimulates
of
an
t he
yawn.
Altitude
As
you
move
up
concentration
g round
t his,
about
t he
level
our
limit
is
at
2250
is
and
metres
for
difculties
mountain
t here
dept h
5500
a
remains
less
rate
to
above
air
but
oxygen
pressure
as
in
50%
live.
sea
less
People
when
t he
t he
breat hing
is
breat hing
metres
t he
21%,
of
t here
humans
in
at
decreases.
air
air
is
muc h
breat hed
increases.
oxygen
At
t han
used
to
living
to
cities
in.
ver y
at
travelling
The
In
at
at
to
altitudes
level.
sea
t han
response
high
sea
like
oxygen
t hinner
This
level
is
of
about
exper ience
Mexico
City,
whic h
level.
Weight
Excess
weight
because
it
is
can
cause
difcult
for
people
t he
to
become
diaphragm
to
breat hless.
move
This
down
is
mainly
properly.
Sleep
This
at
will
reduce
Fresh
This
air
breat hing
rate
as
ver y
rate
as
t he
little
carbon
dioxide
is
produced
will
environment
reduce
Effective
Sometimes
gas
‘t he
kiss
During
in
is
t he
of
who
has
had
To
sensitive
exchange
to
lack
accident
of
to
oxygen
wit hin
called
will
breat hing.
organs
for
a
level
be
low.
resuscitation)
stops
damage
begin
(once
dioxide
(articial
prevent
must
breat hing
an
carbon
its
few
–
own
This
slows
especially
t he
respiration
minutes.
mout h-to-mout h
This
–
can
be
resuscitation
life’).
breat hing
person.
This
breat hing
t hemselves
perform
breathing
lungs.
ver y
rescue
rescue
injured
Rescue
by
breat hing
person
gaseous
achieved
for
a
which
efcient
t he
rescue
exchange
brain,
or
t he
rest.
rescue
should
again
air
is
moved
substitutes
or
be
into
t he
continued
until
breat hing
for
aid
from
successfully
and
out
person’s
until
a
t he
t he
should
lungs
of
breat hing
person
breat hing
you
of
own
begins
machine
follow
is
t he
t he
movements.
to
breat he
available.
steps
To
below.
106
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CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
106
08/01/2015
16:05
The
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
1
Lift
the
Pinch
the
hand,
lower
This
the
the
the
The
nostrils
shut
with
the
fingers
breathing
mechanism
of
chin
one
Tilt
system
will
air
then
jaw
tilt
the
forward
force
the
head
so
back
the
tongue
chin
and
juts
forward
push
out.
and
open
passages.
head
backward
2
Take
your
a
deep
mouth
against
the
breath,
and
seal
person’s
then
your
open
lips
mouth.
3
Breathe
out
firmly
but
Lift
the
person’s
your
mouth
to
look
into
the
at
off,
then
person’s
turn
your
chest.
If
head
you
so
have
successful
you
will
see
that
it
has
risen
lungs.
and
4
is
now
Repeat
The
Figure
B.2.2.4
Step
1:
Lie
t he
Step
2:
Place
Rescue
injured
one
gently
steps
t he
2
as
air
and
colour
comes
3
at
a
should
breathing
out
steady
of
start
lungs.
rate.
improve
should
the
up
and
again.
breathing
person
hand
tilt
falling
person’s
eventually
p
the
and
been
so
mouth
gently
as
into
on
on
top
head
of
t heir
t he
back.
head,
backwards
to
two
open
ngers
t he
air
under
t he
chin
and
passageway.
Step 3: Push the chin up to lift the tongue and search for and remove any
debris (including false teeth) in the mouth.
Step
4:
Pinch
t he
nostrils
of
t he
injured
person,
take
a
deep
breat h,
seal
t he
p
Figure
chest
mout h
wit h
your
lips
and
breat he
out
B.2.2.5
is
rising
Checking
and
falling
to
see
during
if
the
rescue
deeply.
breathing
Step
5:
Repeat
Step
6:
Check
twice.
t hat
indicates
Step
7:
Check
etc.
for
for
for
Step
8:
signs
When
of
t he
position
of
of
If
yes,
a
rate
circulation
person
(see
injured
breat hs
circulation,
circulation
(at
t he
rescue
seconds.
of
compressions
for
chest
t he
signs
ten
signs
t he
t hat
is
Figure
of
e.g.
give
ever y
10
per
is
rising
effective
colour,
breat hs
minute.
100
ever y
person
are
If
and
per
minute
give
to
This
B.2.2.5).
swallowing,
and
cycles
two
falling.
Figure
movement,
no,
minute)
(see
of
check
15
breat hs
chest
and
check
minute.
breat hing
normally,
put
t hem
into
t he
recover y
p
B.2.2.6).
Figure
put
NB
It
is
essential
t hat
an
ambulance
and
medical
help
are
B.2.2.6
into
the
The
person
recovery
should
position
be
when
called.
they
are
breathing
normally
107
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
107
08/01/2015
16:05
The
Smoking
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
Questions
1
The
diaphragm
During
the
forced
2
a
State
5500
3
State
4
How
By
the
end
should
●
be
of
this
able
outline
why
topic
you
of
is
so
●
volume
percentage
b
you
the
the
other
why
than
the
used
for
muscles
thorax?
b
of
breathing
altitude,
the
that
biological
As
at
difficult
result,
affect
principle
an
at
breathing.
contract,
a
pressure
oxygen
is
gentle
also
diaphragm.
concentration
explain
aid
of
are
abdominal
against
Explain
factors,
first
smoke
constituents
smoking
the
the
up
muscles
in
the
will
lungs?
altitude
that
pushing
what
of
altitude.
breathing.
of
rescue
breathing
to
a
volunteers?
Smoking
Cigarette
to:
the
would
B.2.3
outcomes
a
organs
metres.
five
group
Learning
to:
intercostal
expiration,
abdominal
happen
and
nicotine
has
over
4000
substances
in
it.
The
impor tant
are:
–
t he
dr ug
in
tobacco
t hat
is
absorbed
into
t he
blood
addictive
●
●
explain
the
damage
carbon
monoxide
–
a
gas
produced
when
substances
do
not
burn
that
efciently
smoking
●
explain
causes
the
monoxide
to
effect
on
the
the
of
lungs
●
carbon
tar
●
●
black
the
effects
on
carcinogens
Tobacco
health
against
smoking
present
graphs
data
and
on
smoking
a
charts.
dr ug
t hat
settles
cancer-causing
acts
difcult
nicotine
as
a
to
has
and
blood
The
carbon
in
t he
bronchi
and
bronchioles
chemicals.
into
B.2.3.1
The
adverse
effects
on
health
people
are
widely
people
smoke
is
a
choose
feel
that
personal
to
the
right
dr ug
to
t he
a
on
into
wit h
is
t hat
t he
one
dr ug
of
t he
healt h
of
people
most
a
defence
dried
inhale.
and
interferes
say
t hat
t hat
addictive
dr ugs
body
also
has
of ten
we
is
wit h
t he
it
people
cardiovascular
t hen
Nicotine
t hroughout
Smokers
one
as
are
t hat
cells
and
t he
makes
leaves
body
ner ve
awareness.
powerful
t he
plant
tobacco
vapour
taken
increase
is
t he
When
interacts
Nicotine
effects
blood
to
t he
in
by
carbon
by
up
tobacco
have
to
isolated
it
smoke
haemoglobin.
monoxide.
10%.
circulator y
air ways
t he
bronchi.
a
nd
know
system
(hear t
This
also
is
reduces
leads
to
t he
volume
because
t he
hear t
of
oxygen
haemoglobin
oxygen
disease
t hat
and
binds
can
damaged
system.
many
settles
It
reduces
This
on
compounds
t he
from
epit helium
at
tar.
t he
When
base
of
it
is
t he
breat hed
trachea
Tar
eventually
destroys
t he
cilia
t hat
line
much
of
our
and
gas
known
exchange
still
up.
in
substance
This
which
of
in
smoking
t he
a
monoxide
t he
in
present
Nicotine
transpor ted
Chemists
is
nicotine,
herbivores.
vessels).
permanently
ar teries
is
serious
in
by
stimulant
give
it
carried
Figure
it
effect.
and
be
contain
because
calming
Many
liquid
eaten
physiology.
and
but
–
leaves
being
smoked,
as
our
p
oily
oxygen
outline
of
a
transport
●
of
–
system
(see
page
97).
Cilia
protect
our
lungs
by
carr ying
mucus,
smoke.
decision
to
wit h
it
is
trapped
t he
site
and
bacteria,
from
t he
air
passages
into
t he
t hroat,
where
swallowed.
Smokers
of
dust
go
on
lungs.
for
secreting
Mucus
bacteria.
epit helial
cells
The
leads
lots
collects
of
in
mucus
t he
destr uction
to
t he
but
have
bronchi
of
cilia
formation
of
and
and
scar
lost
t he
cilia
becomes
t he
a
continual
tissue
(see
to
move
good
irritation
Figure
it
out
breeding
of
t he
B.2.3.2).
108
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2.indd
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The
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
a
Smoking
b
ciliated
cilia
cells
mucus
move
along
dust
these
particles
make
cells
✔
mucus
Study
There
is
about
drugs
use
tip
much
nicotine
more
in
Unit
as
an
information
D.7.
You
example
can
of
a
stimulant.
p
Figure
B.2.3.2
airways,
Many
and
smokers
developing
Wit hout
become
alveoli.
lining
t he
t he
alveoli
the
cannot
Many
is
t he
bronchi.
not
repaired
is
t he
a
genes
t he
star t
may
to
break
if
t his
It
took
for
so
which
wit h
and
a
t he
bronchi
phlegm.
greater
The
risk
of
white
much
alveoli
dust
blood
The
to
and
that
cells
white
reach
they
in
t he
lungs
bacteria
t hrough
blood
them.
break
can
enter
t he
t he
cells
Eventually
down
cells
digest
and
a
p
this
B.2.3.3
cancer
begins
form
burst,
smoke
or
leaves
people
remove
enter
t he
DNA
gasping
carbon
bronchitis
wit h
changes
It
and
a
and
dioxide
breath
how
cell
tumour
like
lung
divides
this
to
(x50)
as
efciently.
of
epit helial
damage
The
it.
If
cells
t his
permanent
lining
damage
change
is
in
t hat
are
cells
one
is
It
t hat
not
by
divide
may
air ways
and
spread
t hese
out
take
causes
of
20
mutations
control
years
symptoms
discovered
block
off
affected
can
it
and
into
may
g row
blood
ot her
before
(see
are
and
a
vessels.
Worse,
a
a
Cancers
t hat
for m
t his
B.2.3.4
occupy
organs.
to
tumour
Figures
to
t hose
star t
par t
are
of
has
B.2.3.5).
area
far
cell
tumour
size
and
large
control
a
of
t he
t he
If
lung
tumour
harder
to
treat
scientists
lung
to
a
sur pr isingly
cancer.
r ise,
e.g.
Indeed,
in
t he
UK
long
when
in
t he
time
t he
to
realise
number
1930s
and
of
t hat
cases
1940s,
cigarette
of
lung
cigarette
smoking
cancer
smoking
Figure
B.2.3.4
cancer
ends
area
at
the
from
a
even
suspected
pollution
a
or
t he
team
of
as
a
cause!
tar mac
medical
t hat
It
was
was
put
scientists
t hought
on
led
t he
by
t hat
ot her
roads,
Richard
factors,
might
Doll
be
such
–
This
the
top
heavy
of
is
how
cancer
this
smoker
lung
is
lung
after
the
white
removed
death.
The
was
whole
Then,
is
one
happens.
causes
not
small
This
–
emphysema.
nuclei
permanently.
for
p
began
Figure
exchange.
both
interact
DNA
t he
of
alveoli
oxygen
have
cilia,
bacteria.
the
gas
in
obstr ucted
coughing
and
emphysema.
tobacco
t hey
of
the
diseases.
send
t hese
in
smoke
condition
Par ticles
to
alveoli
enough
B.2.3.3).
into
tumour
and
Here
t hen
Figure
grown
in
is
epithelium
who
mutation.
division,
(see
the
area
smokers
t hen
mucus
lining
called
absorb
long-term
carcinogens
DNA
of
surface
condition
of
a
and
heavy
ot her
damaged.
destroy
the
walls
the
are
response
to
people
inamed
and
protection
body’s
ciliated
in
bronchitis,
bronchitis
through
reducing
If
of
replaces
bronchi,
become
pneumonia
The
weakens
they
the
permanently
pathway
This
tissue
in
develop
bronchioles
consequences
The
Scar
especially
as
lung
is
full
of
deposits
of
tar
air
responsible.
showed
t hat
t here
Key
terms
!
was
a
statistical
cancer.
was
a
He
high
link
studied
between
many
correlation
cigarette
tens
of
between
smoking
t housands
t he
people
of
and
t he
people
who
incidence
and
found
developed
lung
of
t hat
lung
t here
cancer
and
Emphysema
in
which
large
smoking.
This
convinced
most
people
of
t he
work
was
not
experimental.
Instead,
it
‘holes’
involved
using
data
about
of
lung
cancer
in
non-smokers
as
a
sor t
of
control
to
baseline
for
comparison
wit h
t he
the
decreasing
the
to
lung
leave
surface
for
gaseous
frequency
in
smokers.
The
exchange.
Any
change
in
the
DNA
establish
in
a
of
down
t he
Mutation
frequency
break
link.
area
Doll’s
Disease
alveoli
graph
a
cell.
in
109
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The
Smoking
Figure
B.2.3.6
1910
to
from
lung
cancer
In
a
t he
t heir
had
of
of
an
B.2.3.5
area
that
to
the
should
This
right
be
CAT
of
black
scan
the
to
indicate
He
for
developed
lung
and
cancer.
c hanges.
lung
dogs
t he
of
This
from
It
same
on
to
cancer
the
has
same
enlarged
grown
level
in
with
this
in
the
the
cancer
were
out
found
t hat
not
exper imental
tobacco
smoke
if
New
smoke
occur
forced
work
in
men
of
each
deat hs
and
t he
in
to
later
of
system
year
men
t he
in
did
work
link
conducted
cause
had
t he
not
on
lung
examined
t hat
people
later
conr med
can
dogs
smoke
and
York,
smoking
t hat
smoked
early
stages
develop
isolating
between
t he
smoking
cancer.
are
a
number
of
social
factor s
t hat
on
which
contr ibute
is
patient
lung
to
cancer
an
increased
caused
unemployment,
30000
especially
rep
4000
20000
fo
nosrep
2000
deaths
per
year
rep
rebmun
10000
lung
cancer
for
1000
bot h
class
lower
to
who
ver y
women
group,
sexes.
like
people
get
t han
years
would
recnac
from
t he
r isk
of
smoking.
pover ty,
among
men
15–25
morf
smoked
More
raey
hcae
setteragic
of
cigarettes
3000
by
developing
These
and
include
culture
socioeconomic
g roups.
gnul
raey
dekoms
shtaed
5000
number
by
number
researc her
nd
cigarette
He
c hanges
t hat
smoked
t he
exchange)
air.
lungs
heart
a
to
inhale
cancer.
cigarettes
shows
(gas
period.
dogs
There
A
of
also
Auerbac h,
same
Dogs
UK.
t he
Oscar
signs
number
t he
over
forced
carcinogens
shows
backbone
Dr
t he
in
exper iments
lungs
t hese
Figure
1980
1960s,
ser ies
cancer.
p
shows
from
respiratory
Most
give
irritated
infringements
on
On
do
by
t he
people
up.
smoke
smoke,
where
what
t heir
who
t he
not
except
in
numbers
smoke
ot her
want
t hey
to
personal
as
age
similar
say
hand,
give
see
t he
are
t hey
many
up
and
increasing
liber ty
as
smoking
0
is
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
banned
in
more
and
more
public
places.
1980
year
p
Figure
cause
B.2.3.6
of
lung
Evidence
for
the
idea
that
smoking
is
the
cancer
Maths
Study
✔
Presenting
Statistics
in
on
different
Incidence
disease
ways.
is
the
are
Three
of
number
a
disease
that
occur
data
these
of
time
period,
during
e.g.
are:
Smoking
is
responsible
month
or
per
activity
per
a
is
the
disease
in
charts
number
a
of
same
Mortality
that
proportion
of
early
deaths.
is
about
and
presenting
use
the
data.
program
to
Y
ou
can
present
enter
the
the
data
data
or
you
into
can
a
draw
and
graphs
by
hand.
Data
on
tobacco
and
its
impact
on
your
health
from
every
country
in
the
world.
T
able
B.2.3.1
shows
selected
is
data
13
countries
including
some
from
the
Caribbean
as
published
in
the
2012
at
of
the
T
obacco
Atlas.
The
table
shows:
time.
is
occur
period,
high
people
population
edition
the
very
year.
for
with
a
week,
collected
Prevalence
for
a
own
per
smoking
cases
spreadsheet
specic
on
expressed
This
of
skills
tip
the
number
over
e.g.
per
a
of
deaths
particular
week,
time
month
or
●
the
number
●
the
percentage
year
.
of
cigarettes
smoked
per
of
the
adult
male
adult
female
person
population
per
who
year
smoke
(prevalence
of
smoking)
●
the
percentage
of
the
●
the
percentage
of
deaths
as
a
population
result
of
who
smoking
in
smoke
males
and
females
110
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The
q
respiratory
T
able
(gas
exchange)
system
Smoking
B.2.3.1
Country
Cigarettes
Male
Female
Male
Female
per
person
prevalence/%
prevalence/%
deaths/%
deaths/%
per
year
Barbados
Bulgaria
344
15
2
4
0
2822
50
28
22
5
809
23
16
23
20
Canada
Cuba
1261
31
16
21
18
Czech
2125
43
30
26
10
339
12
3
9
13
Republic
Dominica
p
Figure
taking
Guyana
49
29
3
3
283
23
8
12
6
1841
38
11
22
12
539
46
2
22
15
1106
30
21
10
1
Jamaica
Japan
B.2.3.7
risks
This
with
9-year-old
his
boy
is
health
1
Did
you
know?
?
Malaysia
In
Trinidad
and
2014,
was
T
obago
of
UK
750
22
21
22
1028
31
23
US$23.6
23
who
the
Present
the
countries
lowest
data
from
on
cigarette
T
able
cigarette
B.2.3.1,
consumption
including
the
as
a
bar
chart
by
with
the
countries
to
Is
there
of
any
deaths
against
3
Is
4
Discuss
5
Suggest
linked
to
between
smoking?
of
deaths
correlation
smoking?
the
other
smoking,
cigarette
Plot
in
the
data
the
data
from
disease
in
of
to
find
in
1996
of
of
a
lung
choosing
highest
six
and
Her
informing
of
lawyers
company
was
people
consuming
argued
that
negligent
of
the
in
dangers
tobacco.
death
the
of
to
percentage
consumption
find
out.
smoking
and
July
2014.
from
BBC
News
20th
http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/world-us-canada-28389273
deaths
out.
in
countries
early
and
cigarette
females
presented
these
and
and
prevalence
scattergraphs
of
consumption
scattergraphs
males
between
Plot
limitations
what
between
Case
correlation
any
to
damages
widow
consumption.
percentage
there
linked
company
pay
the
died
[Information
2
to
23
cancer.
1
tobacco
20
man
USA
a
ordered
the
table.
would
much
make
the
link
clearer.
study
Evidence
for
the
link
between
smoking
and
lung
cancer
53
100
a
page
what
famous
109).
might
doctors
habits
Toget her
to
was
take
British
of
In
he
par t
in
obtained
his
t he
in
disease.
information
1951,
and
of
epidemiologist
collected
it.
patterns
he
began
researchers
study.
1951
a
and
who
on
worked
lung
recr uited
inter vals
in
cancer
long-term
Information
at
Professor
nd
of
34 439
about
Richard
Oxford
to
study
t heir
t hereaf ter
Sir
out
British
male
British
smoking
until
t he
study
egatnecrep
doctors.
He
cause
study
lavivrus
(see
was
t he
80
morf
Doll
is
ega
Epidemiology
60
cigarette
smokers
40
20
0
was
ended
in
2001.
When
each
doctor
died,
t he
researchers
recorded
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
age / years
t he
cause
smokers
of
deat h.
were
The
cancer,
most
common
respirator y
causes
diseases
and
of
deat h
hear t
among
t he
disease.
p
Figure
B.2.3.8
doctors
Figure
B.2.3.8
shows
t he
sur vival
of
smokers
and
non-smokers
doctors
who
were
50
or
younger
when
t he
study
The
survival
between
of
1900
male
and
among
1930
t he
bor n
–
some
of
the
results
from
the
star ted.
British
Doctors
Study
111
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16:05
Cell
The
respiration
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
Questions
Talk
about
?
1
Ban
Why
smoking!
Consider
the
of
following:
2
do
t his
you
t hink
long-term
Professor
Doll
chose
male
doctors
as
t he
subjects
study?
Use the information in Figure B.2.3.8 to state the percentage of male
British doctors who had died by the age of 70 in each of the two groups.
Over
●
die
90%
from
the
lung
smoked
●
of
people
cancer
who
have
3
Describe
cigarettes.
Up
to
50%
die
early
of
t he
smokers
trends
shown
in
t he
results
of
t his
study
numbers
of
cases
as
shown
in
graph.
may
4
from
t he
In
many
in
females
par ts
of
t he
world
t he
of
lung
cancer
smoking-related
has
risen
shar ply
in
recent
years.
Suggest
why
t his
has
diseases.
happened.
Smokers
●
die
in
are
more
middle
age
likely
than
to
non-
5
Suggest
smokers.
T
obacco
●
than
5
use
causes
million
The
deaths
by
per
a
is
the
costs
smoking
time
complete
smoking
your
to
tobacco.
of
ill
are
1
Name
and
on
two
this
2
State
the
end
3
Suggest
of
this
able
explain
define
topic
the
role
of
than
lung
cancer,
which
are
associated
with
pieces
of
evidence
that
link
smoking
to
lung
cancer.
some
and
people
have
lower
vital
capacities
than
predicted
by
height.
Cell
respiration
heat.
is
the
Energy
breakdown
was
dened
of
on
food
page
to
release
20
as
the
energy
ability
in
to
t he
do
form
work.
of
ATP
Examples
ATP
between
anaerobic
cells
in
our
bodies
doing
the
work
enzymes
are
to
and
applications
and
all
cells
energy
to
do
t his
work
lose
a
triphosphate
muscle
cells
taking
comes
phosphate
(ATP).
group
and
cells
contracting,
engulng
bacteria,
ner ve
cells
pancreas
up
ions
by
active
cells
transpor t.
from
This
a
chemical
releases
form
its
present
adenosine
energy
in
when
all
it
cells,
breaks
down
diphosphate:
of
adenosine
anaerobic
blood
of
adenosine
industrial
domestic
white
respiration
concept
debt
describe
impulses,
aerobic
The
explain
oxygen
●
other
respiration
distinguish
and
t he
you
making
●
diseases,
why
age
transmitting
●
reduce
to:
of
●
to
Caribbean.
outcomes
and
●
attempt
t he
smoking.
two
Respiration
be
can
in
with
B.2.4
should
cancer
teachers.
their
By
lung
health
huge.
ban
Discuss
family
Learning
governments
of
introduce
worldwide
friends,
which
cases
year
cigarette
Now
in
new
Questions
economic
caused
of
more
worldwide.
●
ways
number
adenosine
respiration.
triphosphate
(ATP)
diphosphate
(ADP)
+
phosphate
(P
)
+
energy
i
All
cells
stay
Key
in
all
Cell
respiration
chemical
breakdown
(carbohydrate,
using
oxygen
form
and
of
of
protein
to
ATP
nutrients
and
release
and
cells
–
it
breakdown
●
fat)
energy
breakdown
stored
respiration
of
oxygen
form
using
of
supply
out
of
t heir
ATP
in
various
t heir
cells
functions.
if
t hey
ATP
is
are
t he
to
continue
‘energy
to
nutrients
to
ATP
release
and
t he
is
form
t he
in
which
process
by
all
energy
which
t his
transactions
ATP
is
made.
are
currency’
It
conducted.
involves
t he:
in
of
t heir
nutrients
(mainly
glucose
and
lipid)
to
release
t he
energy
molecules
in
use
of
some
of
t his
energy
to
rebuild
ATP
from
ADP
and
phosphate:
heat.
+
phosphate
energy
(p
)
+
energy
from
nutrients
ATP
i
without
heat
diphosphate
The
●
loss
of
t he
rest
of
t he
energy
as
heat.
in
There
the
carr y
is
respiration
adenosine
Anaerobic
using
a
The
●
the
alive
have
terms
!
Aerobic
must
are
two
types
of
respiration:
aerobic
respiration
and
anaerobic
without
respiration
oxygen.
112
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The
respiratory
Aerobic
(gas
exchange)
system
Cell
respiration
respiration
ADP
Energy
+
In
t his
process
t he
breakdown
of
nutrients
(glucose
and
lipids)
Pi
involves
for
cell
e.g.
t he
use
of
oxygen.
Carbon
dioxide
and
water
are
always
produced
as
activities,
movement,
waste
making
products
and
energy
to
rebuild
ATP
is
released.
The
most
commonly
active
substrate,
Aerobic
and
t he
only
respiration
of
one
t hat
glucose
cells
can
in
be
our
brains
represented
can
by
use,
t he
is
protein,
used
transport
glucose.
word
equation:
ATP
glucose
+
oxygen
carbon
dioxide
+
water
+
energy
energy
Aerobic
respiration
occurs
inside
t he
mitochondria
of
our
cells
(see
used
B.2.4.2
by
a
and
B.2.4.3)
molecule
of
and
releases
glucose
in
a
great
aerobic
deal
of
respiration
energy.
is
The
enough
energy
to
released
rebuild
up
Pi
30
molecules
of
ATP
from
ADP
and
to
during
cells.
ATP
Cristae
is
and
sausage-shaped
infoldings
of
Figure
B.2.4.1
recycles
organelles
t he
inner
found
in
membrane
t he
of
cytoplasm
t his
organelle
for
respiration
t hat
cells
do
not
receive
enough
oxygen
for
all
t he
t hey
want
to
do.
For tunately,
t his
does
not
respiration
back
slows
down
or
stops.
Cells
can
still
carr y
out
many
chemical
reactions
mitochondria
absence
t his
of
because
oxygen
process
cannot
respire
anaerobic
respire
bacteria
Instead
of
anaerobic
acid
of
respiration
is
t he
fat
t he
wit h
lack
breakdown
by
to
provide
activities
but
t hey
are
unable
to
oxygen.
when
of
respiration,
as
in
a
glucose
This
does
respiration,
make
many
and
e.g.
produced
oxygen.
greater
We
making
dioxide
a
of
form
to
of
use
lactic
acid
is
or
of
not
only
lesser
use
fungi
and
in
plants,
respiration
in
remind
energy.
write
about
respiration
occurs
in
cells
make
process
sure
to
the
role
of
you
ATP
.
t he
involve
glucose.
extent;
oxygen.
All
some
anaerobic
We
organisms
can
microorganisms
respiration
in
yeasts
ot her
bacteria
and
waste
in
products
animals
are
produced
(including
in
humans),
product:
lactic
acid
+
energy
known
as
Figure
B.2.4.2
micrograph
lactate.)
et hanol
and
carbon
dioxide
are
produced
as
added
products:
are
glucose
to
and
energy-consuming
of
An
a
mitochondrion.
waste
A.2
cells
products.
water,
waste
also
Unit
t heir
p
t hat
to
respiration.
anaerobic
respiration
carbon
is
of
anaerobic
glucose
In
cell’s
of
refer
●
continually
A
TP
tip
about
you
any
that
(Note
the
into
mean
or
lactic
all
Pi
aerobic
When
and
Respiration
and
Exam
yourself
never
ADP
where
Look
our
use
and
and
respiration
Sometimes
In
ADP
made.
Anaerobic
t he
released
of
✔
t hat
is
from
respiration
energy
are
ATP
P
i
Mitochondria
glucose
make
to
p
about
from
Figures
et hanol
+
carbon
dioxide
+
to
not
this
red
electron
section
Colour
image
and
–
blue
through
has
a
been
mitochondria
(x 20
000)
energy
cristae
The
waste
substances
substances.
molecules.
from
t he
aerobic
lactic
Anaerobic
Only
two
anaerobic
acid
respiration
molecules
respiration
respiration.
and
When
is
of
of
et hanol
wasteful
ATP
are
glucose.
sprinters
r un
are
of
t he
made
That
t he
still
energy
wit h
is
100
energy-rich
15
t he
times
metres
in
glucose
energy
less
t heir
released
t han
hear t
in
and
matrix
lungs
cannot
respiration
get
so
enough
t hey
have
oxygen
to
use
to
t heir
anaerobic
muscles
to
maintain
respiration
instead.
aerobic
This
uses
lots
inner
of
glucose
molecules
to
generate
t he
ATP
t hat
t hey
need.
Their
training
outer
designed
to
have
energy
lots
make
sure
t hat
stored
as
by
t he
time
glycogen
t he
star ter
because
so
gun
much
goes
of
t he
t heir
t he
lactic
acid
t hey
membrane
muscles
energy
is
wasted
p
in
membrane
is
Figure
B.2.4.3
Compare
the
structure
produce.
of
the
with
mitochondrion
this
in
Figure
B.2.4.2
diagram
113
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Cell
The
respiration
q
Study
✔
T
able
B.2.4.1
Comparison
of
aerobic
and
respiratory
anaerobic
(gas
respiration
in
of
is
an
opportunity
maths
skills.
actual
size
Figure
B.2.4.2?
of
the
to
What
Anaerobic
practise
is
the
Is
mitochondrion
oxygen
required?
Yes
No
in
How
per
much
energy
molecule
What
are
of
the
is
released
A
lot
A
Does
you
it
end
occur
little
glucose?
products?
CO
and
H
2
Did
animals
respiration
Aerobic
your
system
tip
T
ype
Here
exchange)
in
mitochondria?
O
Lactic
acid
2
Yes
No
know?
?
Mitochondria
lead
a
semi-
Oxygen
independent
They
the
take
rest
A
TP
in
in
of
life
from
cell
return.
your
and
Y
ou
from
your
fertilised
in
to
the
egg
become
Humans
back
dur ing
your
mother
are
cells
as
Exam
produced
cell
that
shor t
of
key
much
glucose
waste
t here
is
oxygen,
energy
here
is
an
oxygen
an
the
Lactic
diffuses
acid
to
t he
acid
you
start
lactic
builds
we
die.
However,
to
active
muscle
anaerobically.
Lactic
acid
up
in
t he
muscle
cells
t hat
is
muscle
fatigue
and
soreness.
Dur ing
are
t his
because
soon
oxygen
is
going
to
be
time
needed
to
hear t
acid.
out
and
of
t he
per
a e ro b i c a l ly.
fo r
p rov i d e
molecule
end
of
all
respiration.
of
sto ra g e
t he
lactic
Fi g u re
muscle
l i ve r.
cells
Hear t
i n to
t he
muscle
blood
uses
and
is
ox yg e n
car r ied
to
of
and
the
as
difference
debt.
exercise
decit
we
we
L i ve r
cells
glyc o g e n
c o nve r t
and
some
re s p i re
t he
of
t he
re st
lactic
re s p i re
acid
a e ro b i c a l ly
i n to
to
build
cannot
to
acid
wit h
e n e r g y.
re s p i re
has
lactic
been
The
acid
e x t ra
is
re m ove d ,
ox yg e n
called
t he
up
t he
ox yg e n
t hat
t he
is
needed
ox yg e n
debt
has
debt.
been
at
t he
Once
re p a i d
B.2.4.4).
ideal
know
as
t h e m s e lve s
e xe rc i s e
tip
decit
oxygen
respire
oxygen
delivered
deficit
and
a
–
real
difference
oxygen
between
an
update
oxygen
negyxO
At
and
be
ekatpu
sure
to
decit
t he
oxygen
between
some
product
wit hout
cannot
that
releases
aerobic
Exam
Make
t hat
leading
metabolise
(see
✔
so
oxygen
you.
respiration
than
enough
a
aerobically:
tip
message
less
as
respire
exercise,
was
gl u c o s e
anaerobic
to
descended
lactic
The
have
vigorous
quic kly
away
✔
debt
cells.
from
give
inherited
mitochondria
those
your
compounds
the
mitochondria
all
inside
that
debt
is
lactic
–
needed
extra
to
oxygen
convert
acid
resting
get
oxygen
enough
result
oxygen
we
have
anaerobic
debt
is
into
lots
our
of
lactic
respiration.
the
volume
of
bodies.
The
acid
As
a
uptake
from
oxygen
oxygen
that
before
needs
to
respire
be
the
‘repaid’
lactic
after
exercise
to
Study
tip
Figure
carefully
at
the
graph.
The
is
much
the
the
curve
oxygen
that
was
shows
taken
make
up
exercise
Oxygen
uses
much
use
uptake
of
of
into
the
body
anaerobic
t he
products
of
before,
during
and
after
strenuous
exercise
respiration
anaerobic
respiration
in
yeast
and
We
use
t hese
microorganisms
in
many
industrial
and
domestic
how
by
processes,
also
athlete.
after
red
bacteria.
line
B.2.4.4
Economic
We
Look
exercise
Time
acid.
p
✔
during
exercise
in
Yeast
not
providing
is
a
and
respire
Usually
for
t he
making
ser vices
single-celled
aerobically
cells
only
such
fungus
yeast
as
initial
page
When
anaerobically
has
such
breaking
(see
anaerobically.
glucose
substances
access
to
to
9)
down
t hat
t here
for m
as
is
a
beer
our
can
oxygen
so
yoghur t,
but
wastes.
respire
lac k
et hanol
and
of
and
t hat
bot h
oxygen,
it
carbon
respires
yeast
dioxide.
aerobically,
114
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16:05
The
respiratory
produces
t hen
t hat
and
a
lot
of
decreases
is
exchange)
ATP
and
required.
it
For
and
system
t herefore
st ar ts
divides
respir ing
centur ies
Cell
rapidly.
anaerobically
humans
have
The
to
oxygen
produce
exploited
yeast
in
respiration
supply
t he
product
brewing
breadmaking.
Many
bacter ia
decreases
of
(gas
milk .
t he
It
pH
might
organisms
do
refr igeration
most
also
of
t he
seem
not
and
common
respire
wit hout
sur roundings
strange
g row
oxygen
well,
freezing,
met hods
to
if
at
all,
sour ing
of
food
and
make
to
has
milk
in
and
produce
acid
been
go
preser vation.
used
sour,
pH.
salting
In
lactic
but
t he
foods
Think
in
t he
food
days
were
of
acid.
This
sour ing
spoilage
before
two
of
yoghur t
t he
and
p
salted
cod
Figure
B.2.4.5
These
sprinters
rely
sh.
on
anaerobic
respiration
in
their
leg
muscles
Today
fermentation
domestic
yeast
and
bacteria
Domestic
Many
uses
foods
respiration
make
(see
beer,
Tr y
is
used
consumption.
mass
home
are
also
produce
beverages
and
wine
yourself
uses
t he
to
produce
industries
a
range
large
and
of
foods
small
for
t hat
use
foods.
fermentation
yeasts
home
this
Industrial
of
and
of
to
in
There
on
be
made
in
bacteria,
can
some
examples
making,
pages
bread
t he
making
home
using
are
and
t he
home
yoghur t
anaerobic
brewing
to
making
1
16–17).
of
fermentation
of
beer
Brewing
p
The
in
production
Guyana
brewing
into
is
is
t hen
respires
t he
This
Hot
and
t he
t he
is
spent
group
is
widely
Red
to
in
Stripe
t he
in
germinated
used
added
glucose
t he
B
is
and
grain
water
yeast
process,
especially
Barbados
grain.
maltose.
cooled
of
and
occurs
to
to
it.
Yeast
form
yeast
extract
be
Jamaica.
so
t he
and
breaks
et hanol
can
Caribbean,
seeds
dissolve
down
and
eaten,
The
it
is
a
raw
Banks
breakdown
t he
to
for
and
t his
glucose
and
At
source
Figure
B2.4.6
These
runners
(5000
aerobic
respiration
long
metres)
in
distance
depend
their
leg
on
muscles
starch
maltose
dioxide.
rich
Beer
material
maltose
carbon
as
e.g.
t he
of
end
vitamins,
vitamins.
Breadmaking
Dough
will
is
produced
allow
dioxide.
causes
it
et hanol
t he
The
to
yeast
by
to
carbon
rise.
dioxide
When
t he
our,
down
causes
dough
water,
t he
is
sugar
sugar,
t he
dough
baked,
and
yeast.
producing
t he
to
increase
yeast
Gentle
et hanol
cells
in
die
warming
and
volume
and
carbon
t hat
t he
evaporates.
Practical
Rising
mixing
break
Activity
dough
p
Figure
B.2.4.7
Mauby,
which
is
made
Requirements
from
●
stirring
●
measuring
jug
●
measuring
cylinder,
●
thermometer,
●
timer
●
laboratory
fermented
bark
rod
3
e.g.
e.g.
50
cm
0–100°C
balance
115
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16:05
Cell
The
respiration
●
water
●
plain
●
dried
baths
set
at
a
variety
of
respiratory
temperatures,
(gas
exchange)
including
system
40°C
flour
yeast
made
into
a
yeast
suspension
(add
7
g
dried
yeast
to
3
450
warm
water
and
stir)
sugar
●
1
cm
Add
25
add
1
g
g
of
of
flour
to
a
measuring
jug
or
other
to
the
suitable
container
and
then
sugar.
3
2
Add
30
cm
have
made
Pour
the
of
a
the
yeast
smooth
suspension
paste
that
can
be
flour
and
sugar.
Stir
until
you
poured.
3
3
to
p
Figure
for
B.2.4.8
industrial
Fermenting
alcohol
sugar
let
paste
the
into
paste
a
50
touch
cm
the
measuring
sides
–
this
cylinder
is
very
and
take
great
care
not
important.
cane
production
4
Note
the
water
2
volume
baths.
minutes
for
Repeat
steps
6
Record
your
7
Plot
Y
ou
of
can
more
use
plot
the
the
for
the
than
Describe
b
Explain
c
Suggest
should
of
if
the
the
Suggest
a
cylinder.
different
Place
and
note
the
the
cylinder
volume
in
of
one
of
paste
the
every
temperature
each
time.
table.
the
for
they
volume
the
are
on
of
different
the
the
separate
allows
graphs.
and
Alternatively,
dough
increases
temperatures
results
spreadsheet
graph.
print
use
you
It
is
them
the
on
to
the
graph
for
time.
same
compare
quicker,
out
with
pair
them
however,
everyone
drawing
to
to
facility
of
program.
effect
effect
suitable
be
the
presenting
on
the
spreadsheet
a
a
how
results
way
plotting
in
show
in
temperature
minutes.
using
results
a
d
to
This
easily
collect
1– 4
the
30
results
graph
axes.
paste
about
5
a
of
Record
of
of
different
temperatures
temperature
controls
for
this
on
the
on
rising
the
of
investigation
dough.
dough.
and
explain
why
they
included.
ways
to
improve
the
investigation.
Yoghurt
Bacteria,
They
t he
such
ferment
protein,
yoghur t
is
Making
Lactobacillus
lactose
lowers
not
avourings
Tr y
as
t he
to
and
this
t he
and
sugar
pH
and
ever yone’s
in
Streptococcus
milk
gives
taste
so
to
t he
give
are
used
lactic
yoghur t
a
sour
manufacturers
to
acid,
add
make
which
taste.
such
yoghur t.
coagulates
Natural
t hings
as
fr uit.
yourself
yoghurt
Requirements
p
Figure
B.2.4.9
Homemade
yoghurt
●
any
●
spoon
type
●
stirring
●
measuring
●
sterilised
●
pot
of
of
milk
rod
jug
container,
live
yoghurt
glass
(check
jar
or
the
plastic
label
to
cup
make
sure
it
contains
live
bacteria)
116
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HSB
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B
Topic
2.indd
116
08/01/2015
16:05
The
respiratory
●
a
●
foil
1
Heat
(gas
exchange)
system
Cell
respiration
thermometer
or
cling
wrap
some
milk
in
a
saucepan
to
about
75°C.
Allow
to
cool
to
room
temperature.
3
2
Pour
50
cm
into
a
sterilised
container.
3
3
Add
1
cm
4
Cover
the
5
Place
to
6
6
If
the
hours
you
a
do
and
try
in
a
not
of
the
with
different
live
ingredients
things
to
add
a
What
b
Research
of
is
it
doesn’t
is
the
if
different
yoghurts
almost
to
as
hygiene
of
it
hourly
and
fruit,
intervals.
keep
this
of
the
precautions
in
milk,
a
school
even
at
In
order
42– 43°C
for
of
you
milk
adding
the
nuts,
milk.
eat
the
and
coconut
live
yoghurt;
the
bacteria;
seeds,
may
lab.
goat’s
before
source
–
thoroughly.
37.7°C.
powder
the
at
try
appearance
make
types
yoghurts
Try
adding
oatmeal.
The
range
endless.
nutritional
online
the
milk
but
wrap.
below
you
gently
observe
drop
in
stir
should
suitable
product
your
and
you
changes
with
and
cling
place
skimmed
to
milk
or
bacteria,
any
some
the
foil
warm
kitchen
eat
adding
using
a
ensure
record
Do
different
of
in
to
with
cultivate
experimenting
milk;
try
milk
this
product.
yoghurt
container
properly
Keep
Try
live
value
find
out
of
yoghurt?
what
food
additives
are
in
different
brands
yoghurt.
c
What
are
d
Design
these
an
additives
investigation
for?
to
find
the
best
temperature
to
use
for
of
star ter
making
yoghurt.
Case
study
Acidophilus
The
yoghurts
production
cultures
of
two
of
all
yoghur ts
bacteria:
star ts
wit h
Lactobacillus
t he
addition
bulgar icus
and
✔
Study
tip
Streptococcus
Microorganisms
thermophilus.
If
a
food
is
to
be
marketed
as
a
‘yoghur t’
t hen
it
has
services
be
made
using
t hese
two
bacteria
t hat
can
sur vive
in
milk,
respire
for
(milk
sugar)
and
make
lactic
commonly
acidophilus
added
to
is
anot her
yoghur ts.
species
This
is
of
bacter ium
because
it
has
t hat
unique
is
are
benecial
to
human
to
sur vive
stomach
acid
healt h.
before
not
conditions
of
climate.
gut
it
has
This
infections.
promote
a
many
healt h
benets
‘good
of
bacter ial
in
t he
break
Firstly,
it
is
highly
enter ing
our
resilient
intestines
to
t he
gut
har mful
known
as
a
wall
and
down
‘pro-biotic ’
which
is
promote
for
its
why
it
the
in
human
aerobic
anaerobic
biogas
page
118).
generators
Make
a
list
of
all
the
and
of
microorganisms
and
add
to
and,
microorganisms
environment,
often
an
t hat
you
work
through
the
book.
acidic
cause
ability
is
as
to
now
yoghur t.
brands
can
diarrhoea
is
bind
of
Lactobacillus
bacteria’
This
to
deter
t herefore
leading
and
wellbeing.
is
found
Today,
gassiness
It
ability
helps
positive
commonly
t hese
an
acid
many
sewage
proper ties
it
secondly,
works
although
conditions
uses
able
in
also
(see
t hat
provide
Bacteria
acid.
wastes,
Lactobacillus
us.
t he
treatment
lactose
also
to
help
and
because
yoghur t
to
so
are
acidophilus.
alleviate
bacteria
to
an
based
brands
symptoms
contribute
t hese
marketed
Leading
such
increased
increase
in
on
t he
claim
as
sense
number
t hat
bloating,
in
of
t he
117
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CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
117
08/01/2015
16:05
Cell
The
respiration
large
intestine,
digestion.
intestine
people
is
t he
Some
of
t he
yeast
for
Danone
which
t heir
uses
t hey
Yoghur t
a
per
and
ar ticial
of
to
have
to
yoghur t
a
have
of
adver tisements
also
claimed
t hat
claims
t hey
are
not
effect.
t he
large
When
consequence
intestine.
drinks
as
have
developed
extravagant
healt h
company
Bidobacter ium
of
between
However,
sucrose,
and
had
improving
antibiotics.
Spanish–French
‘bad
probiotic
have
t hereby
system
lactis,
ActiRegularis®.
contain
yeasts
exchange)
repopulate
made
population
probiotic
which
t hese
as
a
drinks
sweeteners,
Some
bacterial
have
(gas
unwanted
large
known
Bidus
of
an
have
Bidobacter ium,
as
use
t he
t he
and
also
yoghur t
and
example,
trademarked
pot
t he
in
and
bacteria
can
diseases,
bacteria
For
bacteria’
and
bacterial
yoghur ts
products.
strain
Manufacturers
diseases.
of
‘bad
yoghur ts
infections
for
probiotic
have
needs
million
yogur ts
of
t he
t hese
benecial
manufacturers
strains
out
in
antibiotics
deat h
claims
or
crowding
bacteria
following
take
special
20
The
respiratory
to
suppor ted
fr uit
by
and
of
sugars
bacteria’
yoghur ts
be
10
many
feed
on.
prevent
wit hdrawn
scientic
t hese
(fr uctose)
childhood
from
evidence.
Question
How
would
benets
of
you
design
probiotic
a
long-term
study
to
investigate
t he
healt h
yoghur ts?
tap
Biogas
to
production
house
Some
types
met hane
of
bacteria
(CH
)
as
t he
sur vive
waste
entirely
product
in
of
anaerobic
t heir
conditions
respiration.
and
Met hane
release
is
a
gas
4
methane
+
CO
2
water
seal
t hat
is
a
way
to
useful
source
of
energy;
it
is
one
of
t he
gases
in
natural
gas.
One
inlet
tank
dispose
bacteria
Figure
ground
pump
and
of
human,
collect
B.2.4.10
is
a
t he
animal
gas
diagram
and
plant
wastes
is
to
mix
it
wit h
t hese
produced.
of
a
small
scale
biogas
generator.
Many
of
t hese
digested
are
level
used
across
t he
world,
especially
in
remote
places
where
t here
is
no
sludge
mains
(used
drainage
and
unreliable
or
non-existent
supplies
of
power.
They
are
as
fertilizer)
also
used
to
supplement
national
power
supplies,
e.g.
China
where
t here
partition
are
millions
of
t hem.
The
met hane
is
used
for
cooking
and
heating
and
(retains
may
coarse
also
be
used
to
generate
electricity.
sludge)
Questions
sludge
p
Figure
B.2.4.10
generator
wastes
and
cooking
used
to
uses
A
turns
and
domestic
animal
it
into
heating
generate
and
biogas
methane
and
1
a
What
does
ATP
stand
2
Describe
the
role
3
What
the
waste
for?
b
Where
is
most
ATP
produced
in
the
cell?
human
can
gas
also
be
of
ATP
in
a
human
cell.
for
electricity
are
respiration
4
What
5
Explain
as
6
are
in
the
why
products
human
waste
long
muscle
a
aerobic
respiration,
b
anaerobic
tissue?
products
distance
of
of
anaerobic
runners
cannot
respiration
run
as
fast
in
yeast
during
cells?
their
event
sprinters.
List
the
products
that
are
made
by
bacteria
and
yeasts
for
human
consumption.
118
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2.indd
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16:05
The
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
Cell
respiration
Summary
The
●
respiratory
Breathing
is
refreshes
●
●
carbon
The
airways
upper
–
lower
The
many
The
in
of
the
and
so
have
–
are
a
the
Expiration
the
increases
rate
dioxide
●
●
Vital
in
●
of
much
Respiration
ATP
is
the
in
with
into
into
air
the
blood
and
larynx
cartilage,
ciliated
and
and
which
alveoli.
prevents
epithelium
protects
exchange
that
alveoli
the
includes
from
dust.
surface.
carbon
gases
two:
bronchioles
viruses
distance
to
give
to
the
in
Gaseous
dioxide
diffuse
that
across
of
the
occurs
the
cell
linings
of
to
big
space
the
in
for
steep
oxygen
and
diffusion
to
carbon
occur
concentration
relax
the
in
part
and
thorax
oxygen
the
(chest)
contract
gradients
and
carbon
that
Air
pull
there
moves
down
intercostal
is
a
down
the
muscles
ribcage.
of
muscles
the
the
the
ribcage
the
brain.
increases,
altitude
and
relax
and
diaphragm
atmosphere
by
so
to
external
decreases,
blood
drugs,
of
atmosphere.
and
diaphragm
central
the
thorax
the
muscles
raise
than
of
of
alveoli.
than
controlled
some
a
diaphragm
the
the
is
diffusion
concentrations
enlarging
lungs
the
for
maintain
the
Diaphragm
of
total
series
from
falls
air
under
air
is
during
mass
contents
the
the
in
force
the
forced
increases
e.g.
body
the
into
pressure
and
It
up
if
of
lungs
out.
the
carbon
exercise.
all
influence
the
dioxide
mitochondria
efficient
in
air
is
movement
breathed
fully
reactions
energy
that
cilia,
occurs
and
currency
cells,
out
after
breathing
inflated.
glucose
respiration
inside
of
is
are
mainly
the
from
occur
that
lungs
chemical
energy
that
requires
and
where
that
of
the
to
all
such
synthesis
of
as
of
the
the
inside
cells
to
fat.
cells.
It
is
energy-
active
proteins
transport
and
membranes.
respiration
carbon
of
triphosphate)
membranes,
Aerobic
so
macronutrients,
processes
of
volume
possible
transferring
manufacture
are
Inspired
blood
muscles
the
as
(adenosine
consuming
●
is
air
energy
involved
across
lungs.
diffuses
breathing.
release
●
by
and
The
the
dioxide
by
higher
anxiety,
throat
epithelium
oxygen
that
the
push
is
lined
blood
when
breathing
capacity
as
so
concentration
Smoking,
rate
it
open
This
area
contract
volume
so
of
is
short
and
carbon
happens
The
divided
bronchi,
gaseous
of
with
dome
ribs
held
of
out.
are
bacteria,
maintained
Intercostal
gravity.
The
a
air
inside
abdomen
thorax.
●
is
gradient.
fibrous
tract
out
continually
surfaces:
achieved
pressure
between
of
is
diffuses
blood.
surface
are
and
capillaries.
and
pressure
central
●
the
well-ventilated
Inspiration
as
body’s
between
monoxide
the
the
is
cells.
diffusion
into
oxygen
nose/mouth,
tract
such
the
there
oxygen
are
air
so
trachea,
tract
The
well-supplied
for
lower
tract:
tract:
and
large
of
lungs
continually
exchange
thin
–
air
system
respiratory
air,
the
the
dioxide
●
the
form
is
alveoli
are
–
dioxide
respiratory
alveoli
Gaseous
–
the
mucus-secreting
between
●
in
respiratory
exchange
the
movement
air
collapsing.
particles
●
exchange)
respiratory
lower
airways
the
the
and
–
(gas
it
oxygen.
water.
most
releases
of
Many
the
the
The
of
ATP
energy
products
the
is
to
of
reactions
produced.
make
aerobic
occur
Aerobic
about
30
in
respiration
the
respiration
molecules
of
is
ATP
.
119
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HSB
Unit
B
Topic
2.indd
119
08/01/2015
16:05
Cell
The
respiration
●
Anaerobic
do
not
molecule
cells
respire
carbon
●
The
not
first
the
falling
The
a
●
●
When
in
scar
T
ar
tissue
also
not
the
●
are
Carbon
of
having
away
to
Bacteria
gives
of
the
and
stage
ATP
is
of
lactic
they
two
sure
that
each
muscle
require
breaking
acid
only
Cells
for
exercise,
that
breathing
is
the
but
down
(lactate).
molecules
of
ATP
checking
lungs.
the
airways
gently
to
see
These
but
if
the
stages
are
firmly
chest
should
is
be
unaided.
is
a
off
stimulant
addictive
tar
airways.
the
–
making
most
and
It
the
yet
carbon
claim
it
has
monoxide.
damages
airways
smokers
drugs.
mucus-secreting
blocks
available.
produced
system
the
cells
and
in
cilia
to
so
that
secrete
response
they
more
to
damage
and
cells
and
are
to
leading
form
many
to
tumours
vessels
through
takes
cancer-causing
airways
blood
spread
cancer
that
the
grow
blocking
combines
can
be
bread
lactic
used
of
that
to
for
or
the
and
body
years
to
chemicals.
mutation.
which
airways.
to
form
develop
the
is
birth
the
is
women
to
an
made
milk
to
human,
sewage
to
blood.
exploited
Y
oghurt
causes
in
in
pregnant
breakdown
and
haemoglobin
giving
yeasts
making.
acid
generators
so
birth
respiration
with
transported
especially
premature
are
lining
can
The
Cell
These
division
spread
cancer
secondary
sufficiently
cells
cancers
before
symptoms.
that
and
make
biogas
Lung
but
Anaerobic
making
●
a
it
the
carcinogens
cells
monoxide
smokers,
●
in
lungs
any
oxygen
of
stimulates
up
is
into
It
of
Instead
product
involves
third
gone
is
exchange)
respired.
breathes
one
burnt,
fills
controlled
elsewhere.
the
oxygen
ATP
strenuous
lots
efficient
(gas
forms.
DNA
break
there
it
is
stage
no
During
end
less
nicotine.
lining
contains
through
can
is
is
the
is
less
glucose.
glucose
has
person
It
the
which
damage
is
effect.
beating;
mucus,
air
from
breathing
mouth;
the
tobacco
of
there
much
producing
much
second
that
and
respired.
water
is
rescue
tobacco
damages
stop
●
until
drug
and
the
person’s
showing
calming
T
ar
of
is
energy
molecule
stage
repeated
●
per
when
rapidly,
the
respiration
obstructed;
into
that
very
all
dioxide
made
occurs
mitochondria
glucose
getting
Anaerobic
are
their
of
can
without
to
respiration
use
respiratory
reduce
This
who
is
are
at
underweight
commercially
by
go
the
bacteria
sour
plant
and
and
volume
serious
all
risk
of
baby.
in
brewing,
that
form
animal
for
greater
respire
wine
lactose
yoghurt.
wastes
in
works.
120
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HSB
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B
Topic
2.indd
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08/01/2015
16:05
The
respiratory
(gas
exchange)
system
Practice
8
Practice
Section
1
Which
carcinogenic
substance
is
found
in
Questions
cigarettes?
Questions
A
nicotine
B
tar
C
carbon
D
sulphur
A
Which
of
t he
following
statements
best
describes
vital
monoxide
dioxide
capacity?
9
A
The
maximum
volume
of
air
taken
in
During
inspiration,
air
travels
t hrough
t he
lar ynx
and
during
into
which
of
t he
following?
inhalation
B
C
The
maximum
The
maximum
af ter
D
The
a
deep
capacity
volume
of
of
air
air
in
t he
t hat
can
be
move
gas
volume
of
air
taken
in
t he
A
diffusion
B
active
C
osmosis
D
trachea
D
bronchiole
during
10
exchange,
from
bronchus
C
breat h
minimum
During
oesophagus
B
exhaled
inhalation
2
A
lungs
by
alveoli
which
to
t he
process
does
Which
of
oxygen
t he
Carbon
blood?
dioxide
A
Which
of
t he
following
is
not
needed
for
respiration
B
carbon
glucose
D
enzymes
Which
of
t he
following
1
Ribs
2
Volume
3
Diaphragm
4
External
raised
A
1,2,4
B
1,3
4
16
0.04
21
4
a
16
describes
b
Identify
c
Fill
inspiration?
in
the
t he
flowing
of
t horax
Air
decreases.
intercostal
t he
muscles
following
enters
t he
relax.
The
air
t hen
and
t hen
is
not
a
characteristics
of
t he
a
air
splits
sacs
is
blood
humans.
tract.
[1]
about
air
[5]
ows
tract
into
t hrough
called
into
The
two
air
t hrough
t he
t he
nasal
lar ynx
t he
cavity.
(voice
t he
smaller
t hen
tubes
passes
called
t hrough
called
even
which
called
at
t heir
have
ends.
Carl
was
in
a
car
An
accident
emergency
and
had
stopped
responder
t he
scene,
administered
ar tificial
who
was
first
resuscitation
to
supply
revive
Carl.
lining
dioxide
due
to
being
t he
B
almost
C
lower
D
greater
diffuses
t he
from
carbon
t he
dioxide
________________
same
blood
into
t he
concentration
t hat
in
t he
alveoli.
in
t he
ii)
alveoli.
four
Identify
t hat
as
t he
List
major
resuscitation.
t he
will
ar tificial
same
as
steps
in
administering
component
help
ar tificial
[4]
t he
victim
resuscitation
impor tance.
of
t he
who
and
exhaled
is
state
air
receiving
its
[2]
t han
2
a
i)
Name
do
t he
par t
of
t he
respirator y
tract
where
t han
gas
humans
respirator y
in
passage
ventilation
A
What
exchange
following
area
i)
blood
t he
tube
branches
help
Carbon
exchange
gas
on
Thin
t he
respirator y
moves
into
breat hing.
Rich
gaseous
surface?
surface
Good
terms
gaseous
for
and
d
Low
of
t hrough
contracts.
smaller
exchange
7
site
blanks
.
of
t he
[3]
upwards.
2,3,4
This
between
breat hing.
3,4
Which
79
B
Differentiate
small
6
79
79
which
D
(%)
21
79
box)
C
Nitrogen
(%)
dioxide
C
B
Oxygen
B
and
A
air?
C
Section
1
5
expired
to
place?
oxygen
D
about
transpor t
A
C
tr ue
breat hing
take
4
is
(%)
0.04
D
3
following
t he
reactions
of
anaerobic
respiration
in
ii)
produce?
A
carbon
dioxide
B
carbon
dioxide
C
lactic
D
et hanol
List
exchange
t hree
surface
iii)
and
lactic
acid
State
[1]
characteristics
found
t he
listed
occurs.
in
impor tance
above
in
a
of
humans.
ii)
of
t he
gas
exchange
[3]
each
characteristic
[3]
acid
and
carbon
dioxide
121
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Practice
b
The
Questions
The
diagram
exchange
in
below
shows
t he
site
of
gas
4
Anaerobic
respiration
microscopic
humans.
a
Define
respiratory
occurs
(gas
bot h
in
exchange)
humans
system
and
in
organisms.
anaerobic
respiration.
[2]
air
b
i)
Write
a
word
respiration
Low
in
to
humans.
show
anaerobic
[2]
concentration
ii)
Explain
t he
humans.
c
High
equation
i)
Write
impor tance
of
t his
reaction
in
[3]
an
equation
to
show
anaerobic
concentration
respiration
in
yeast.
[2]
X
ii)
Red
blood
5
X
and
ii)
Draw
arrows
direction
move.
iii)
State
in
Charlene
now.
t he
What
ii)
3
One
has
State
is
i)
State
in
on
move
during
process?
t he
Gas
X
gas
[1]
diagram
to
and
show
Gas
Y
name
of
in
exchange.
gas
she
Gas
smoking
was
one
sign
of
t he
and
Define
Explain
a
Y
t hat
The
Two
of
of
term
a
What
for
wit h
five
are
of
t he
Number
of
smoked
per
two
types
vital
you
below
capacity
would
[3]
effects
on
t he
healt h
and
[2]
expect
cigarettes
t he
for
10
vital
capacity
years
to
var y
of
from
[3]
shows
smoking
t he
relationships
lung
cigarettes
day
between
cancer.
Annual
death
cancer
per
rate
100
from
000
0
10
1-14
78
is
the
t his
[2]
ability
to
lung
men
15-24
127
≤25
250
respire.
characteristic
occur
in
Constr uct
bar
above.
graph
of
t he
data
in
t he
[3]
[1]
following
of
table
respiration
which
Describe
in
1
t he
trend
seen
in
t he
graph.
[2]
compares
humans.
Explain
Respiration
how
smoking
cigarettes
can
lead
to
[6]
d
Respiration
Give
t he
cancer.
names
of
[3]
two
ot her
diseases
t hat
smoking
2
can
mitochondria
a
humans.
lung
Factors
severe
State
bronchitis.
iii)
t he
have
[3]
respiration.
[1]
respiration
t hey?
Complete
anaerobic
t he
humans.
years
ii)
i)
to
organisms.
non-smoker.
table
b
by
explain
reaction
[2]
disease.
things
impor tance
types
can
smoking
cigarette
are
example,
t his
during
energy
how
table
i)
ii)
t he
person
t hat
will
of
smoking
b
t he
released
of
[2]
t his
living
Gas
cigarettes
diagnosed
of
organisms.
X
named
body.
a
c
bronchitis?
characteristic
a
will
which
been
Recently,
i)
Y
what
[2]
involved
c
Gas
by
t he
is
uses
Cigarette
of
exchange
Energy
t hree
X
Gas
a
impor tance
d
i)
Using
cells
lead
to
ot her
t han
cancer.
[2]
of
Location
Cytoplasm
of
cells
cells
6
______________,
Sue
an
Reactants
is
par ticipating
hour
before
t he
in
a
race
school
she
sprint
drinks
a
event.
spor ts
About
drink
half
to
glucose
provide
______________.
a
Carbon
energy
Suggest
t he
for
t he
main
respiration
nutrient
in
t hat
her
t he
muscles
spor ts
drink
dioxide,
______________,
supplies
______________,
and
explain
t he
advantage
of
taking
such
a
Products
drink
______________.
before
t he
race.
[4]
______________.
b
Number
of
Explain
during
molecules
t he
Sue
race
can
and
develop
how
she
an
oxygen
will
be
debt
able
to
repay
per
about
molecule
how
ATP
30
2
t his
debt.
[5]
of
c
glucose
At
home,
Amanda
ii)
For
Respiration
above,
explain
identified
produced
iii)
Describe
as
in
1
described
what
carbon
cells.
t he
role
in
happens
dioxide
t he
to
table
t he
when
it
product
Sue
is
and
her
fascinated
sister
how
the
bread
word
equation,
how
sister
with
was
Amanda
the
bread
made.
bread
is
share
and
Explain,
made
a
sandwich.
asked
using
using
her
the
yeast.
[6]
is
[3]
of
ATP
in
t he
cell.
[3]
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Unit
B
The
B.3
B.3.1
The
role
of
circulatory
blood
system
Learning
By
Why
have
a
circulatory
the
organisms
do
not
need
a
circulator y
system.
The
t he
surface
of
a
single-celled
organism
to
t he
centre
be
is
ver y
oxygen
can
reach
all
of
t he
mitochondria
in
t he
cell
by
diffusion
dioxide
can
pass
out
in
you
explain
why
t he
same
way.
Also
t here
is
enough
humans
need
a
system
and
●
carbon
topic
to:
small
circulatory
so
this
able
distance
●
between
of
system?
should
Single-celled
end
outcomes
state
the
composition
of
surface
blood
membrane
in
contact
wit h
t he
surroundings
to
obtain
enough
oxygen
and
●
to
lose
all
t he
carbon
dioxide
produced
in
list
the
substances
respiration.
transported
Many-celled
distances
animals
between
efcient
enough
increase
t he
rate
have
surface
to
of
much
and
deliver
more
centre
oxygen
diffusion
to
bulk
are
all
t hrough
t han
much
t he
an
single-cell
greater
cells
of
organism
and
t he
organisms.
diffusion
body.
decreases
As
is
The
●
describe
many-celled
surface
exposed
demonstrate
area
size
and
and
t he
in
ot her
Maths
The
an
area
surface
most
such
by
animals
as
Figure
by
blood
cells
blood
cells
ratio
It
they
is
do
and
several
three
but
as
wit h
sizes
t he
shows
exchanging
ammonia
relatively
ratio
t hat
oxygen
steeply.
and
little
wit h
an
red
●
describe
the
process
of
clotting.
body
exercise
between
and
of
white
distances
ver y
mat hematical
Calculating
different
for
bodies
simple
and
will
surface
increase
carbon
in
dioxide
urea.
ratio
volume
shows
of
t his.
A
blood
1
cylinders
system,
of
such
volume.
imagining
B.3.1.2
circulatory
wastes
because
compact
surface
volume
to
its
spheres,
principle
less
skills
and
area
organism
have
surroundings.
animals
relatively
excreting
Surface
t heir
impor tance
volume
comes
animals
to
the
roles
not
blood
Most
in
the
of
animal
is
calculated
quite
not
difcult
have
cubes.
A
regular
three
we
the
the
surface
surface
dimensional
can
area
area
of
of
shapes,
demonstrate
the
‘animals’.
‘animals’,
does
dividing
measure
However,
cube-shaped
these
by
to
A,
B
and
C.
Animal
C
has
a
not.
p
Figure
B.3.1.1
medical
from
Phlebotomists
specialists
people
for
who
take
laboratory
are
blood
analysis
A
B
C
1
mm
3
mm
5
p
Figure
1
Calculate
Figure
2
B.3.1.2
the
Three
cube-shaped
surface
area
and
area
to
‘animals’
the
of
mm
increasing
volumes
of
each
size
of
the
‘animals’
in
B.3.1.2.
Calculate
the
surface
volume
ratio
for
each
‘animal’.
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The
role
of
The
blood
3
Explain
Copy
your
q
why
T
able
‘animal’
B.3.1.1
C
(or
has
a
type
circulatory
into
a
system,
spreadsheet)
but
and
circulatory
‘animal’
add
the
A
system
does
results
not.
of
calculations.
T
able
B.3.1.1
3
Cube
of
Surface
Volume / mm
Surface
area:
2
side / mm
area / mm
volume
ratio
1
2
24
8
3.0:1
96
64
1.5:1
216
216
1.0:1
3
4
5
6
4
Use
ratio
the
5
Describe
6
Explain
7
Using
the
Humans
will
we
✔
tip
not
do
skin
circulatory
system
is
as
system.
the
It
is
comprising
organ
system
the
heart,
blood
red
of
t he
The
not
and
platelets
confuse
(gaseous
it
white
and
with
t hese
and
much
so
wit h
circulator y
most
surface
to
to
volume
t he
why
from
distances
obtain
carr y
of
humans.
the
surface
area:
1:1.
diffusion
animals,
system
area
axis).
area
explain
that
as
surface
graph.
graph,
to
of
horizontal
the
simple
surface
graph
your
less
adequately
body
As
on
a
the
measure
table
is
cells
cells
enough
a
to
your
of
curve
on
we
t he
are
enough
have
a
body
too
substances
large.
oxygen
special
to
surface
area
and
Also
even
if
for
from
our
gas
all
t he
blood
–
the
circulator y
a
tissue
t hat
system
is
consists
composed
of
of:
cells
suspended
in
a
liquid
which
is
blood
plasma.
the
exchange)
comprising
in
humans
draw
body.
human
mostly
cells,
and
the
difficult
trillions
have
of
to
volume
cardiovascular
an
●
vessels,
of
table
(put
also
cells
known
is
permeable.
exchange
The
it
figures
supply
was
your
shape
ratio
have
not
in
volume
the
why
volume
Exam
results
against
Do
respiratory
●
system
trachea,
water
lungs
blood
vessels
smallest
and
between
of
–
tubes
t hese
blood
t hat
tubes
and
carr y
are
t he
‘leaky’
respiring
blood
to
to
allow
all
par ts
exchange
of
of
t he
body.
The
substances
tissues
diaphragm.
●
t he
hear t
–
a
muscular
Functions
of
The
of
functions
amino
of
heat
acids,
blood
oxygen,
t hroughout
defence
against
reproduction,
page
the
t he
t he
t hat
pumps
blood
around
t he
body.
blood
include
carbon
disease
e.g.
organ
body
t he
for
t hrough
penis
transpor t
dioxide
is
and
temperature
t he
made
action
erect
of
substances,
antibodies,
of
by
t he
regulation
white
t he
use
(see
blood
of
e.g.
glucose,
distr ibution
page
cells
blood
197),
and
(see
244).
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The
circulatory
Blood
The
system
The
role
of
blood
structure
composition
of
human
blood
is
represented
as
a
char t
in
Figure
B.3.1.3.
blood
plasma
water
55%
blood
90%
dissolved
erythrocytes
substances
10%,
e.g.
amino
(red
blood
cells
45%
leucocytes
cells)
(white
blood
thrombocytes
cells)
(platelets)
glucose,
acids,
hormones,
antibodies,
proteins
salts,
(fibrinogen,
prothrombin)
p
Figure
Role
B.3.1.3
of
Plasma
is
Composition
t he
liquid
par t
in
Table
information
in
ot her
T
able
blood
t he
blood.
which
Its
also
functions
shows
you
in
transpor t
where
to
are
nd
more
Units.
B.3.1.2
transported
in
dioxide
hydrogen
of
B.3.1.2
Substances
Carbon
the
plasma
summarised
q
of
plasma
–
as
Site
of
into
the
absorption
respiring
carbonate
Site
of
delivery
Unit
plasma
and
page
number
tissues
lungs
Unit
B2
pages
98–101
ions
Nutrients
small
intestine
liver
and
all
other
Unit
B1
pages
80–81
organs
Water
small
and
large
kidney
intestine
Hormones
ductless
(endocrine)
specic
glands
Urea
and
all
other
Unit
B5
pages
179–183
organs
for
liver
target
each
organs
Units
hormone
B6
and
219–224
kidneys
Unit
B5
B7
and
pages
252–254
pages
175
and
179–183
Heat
muscles
and
liver
skin,
over
Alt hough
made
are
blood
from
described
Red
Red
numerous
numbers
are
worn
as
a
cells
uid,
have
notice
t hat
impor tant,
all
Unit
almost
but
B5
pages
187
and
197–202
half
specic,
of
it
(45%)
functions
is
which
cells
cells,
of
These
and
body
below.
blood
blood
behaves
cells.
lungs
the
or
our
ever y
out.
er yt hrocytes
blood
day
In
a
to
cells.
They
replace
healt hy
as
t he
t hey
are
also
made
cells
human
are
t hat
each
in
are
drop
known,
bone
are
marrow
destroyed
of
t he
blood
most
in
huge
because
contains
t hey
about
3
5
million
so
red
numerous
widest
blood
blood
t hat
if
cells.
t hey
This
is
equivalent
clumped
toget her
to
1
mm
t hey
of
blood.
would
block
They
all
but
are
t he
p
vessels.
Figure
B.3.1.4
micrograph
Red
blood
cells
do
not
contain
nuclei
or
any
organelles
such
t hat
t here
are
Instead
over
250
t he
cytoplasm
million
is
full
of
haemoglobin
haemoglobin.
molecules
in
In
this
blood
electron
you
can
see
red
as
blood
mitochondria.
of
It
each
is
estimated
red
blood
cells
biconcave
cells
with
disc
(yellow)
their
characteristic
shape,
and
white
platelets
blood
(pink)
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The
role
of
The
blood
cell.
our
8
Haemoglobin
blood,
Figure
from
B.3.1.6
our
enzyme
lungs
t hat
carbonate
ratio
can
for
pack
surface
shape.
gaseous
in
Large
more
No
to
allow
area
to
nucleus
haemoglobin.
membrane
through
surface
exchange.
Elastic
them
is
t he
pigment
which
makes
t hese
cells,
and
red.
to
shows,
to
t he
catalyses
ions
for
t he
cells
t he
role
of
of
our
haemoglobin
body.
conversion
transpor t
in
t he
Red
of
is
blood
carbon
plasma.
to
transpor t
cells
also
dioxide
This
into
enzyme
oxygen
contain
an
hydrogen
helps
t he
blood
to
volume
remove
so
plenty
of
carbon
dioxide
as
it
ows
t hrough
respiring
tissues.
cell
Our
squeeze
ability
to
transpor t
oxygen
is
affected
by:
capillaries.
●
Anaemia
page
●
–
t he
most
common
Carbon
can
2
Produced
in
the
µm
●
marrow
of
some
bones.
Live
be
monoxide
High
carried
and
17
spleen.
weeks
then
Usually
are
destroyed
between
4
to
6
is
a
lack
of
iron
in
t he
diet
(see
–
this
by
altitudes
–
red
gas
This
blood
t here
is
binds
permanently
binding
cells
less
reduces
and
oxygen
causes
in
t he
the
to
haemoglobin
volume
drowsiness
air
at
high
of
forming
oxygen
and
even
altitudes,
that
death.
but
for
people
approximately
cause
64).
carboxyhaemoglobin.
liver
molecule
system
µm
As
Biconcave
appear
circulatory
in
living
or
travelling
t here
acclimatise
by
forming
many
more
red
the
blood
million
cells.
3
per
mm
and
blood.
some
Function
carbon
is
to
transport
oxygen
dioxide.
q
p
Figure
B.3.1.5
lungs
(high
Red
oxygen
blood
T
able
B.3.1.3
Comparisons
concentration)
Feature
White
Nucleus
Yes
Mitochondria
Yes
Size / µm
8
Contains
haemoglobin
red
haemoglobin
oxygen
(HbO
to
).
blood
(Hb)
form
(Note
white
blood
cells
and
red
to
blood
cells
blood
Red
cells
blood
cells
No
No
20
8
No
Functions
haemoglobin
between
cells
Yes
Defence
against
•
phagocytosis
•
production
Transports
infections:
carbon
oxygen
and
dioxide
in
cell
combines
of
antibodies
with
oxyhaemoglobin
that
one
molecule
White
blood
cells
8
of
Hb
can
carry
four
oxygen
molecules)
White
oxyhaemoglobin
haemoglobin
‘picks
up’
and
and
some
takes
it
splits
oxygen
of
the
back
up
to
blood
the
dioxide
lungs
There
are
and
vacuoles.
t hat
(low
oxgen
several
in
B.3.1.6
transporting
The
also
1
mm
made
of
in
bone
blood
but
mar row.
t he
There
number
are
about
var ies
quite
10
a
00 0
lot.
different
types
of
white
blood
cell,
including
phagocytes
cells,
are
from
two
bone
pat hogens
types
of
marrow
and
cell
debris,
phagocytes.
to
organs,
and
digest
Monocytes
such
as
t he
are
lungs
t hem
wit hin
phagocytes
and
intestines,
concentration)
t hey
spread
Figure
are
in
engulf
There
move
where
p
cells
lymphocytes.
Phagocytes
tissues
cells
3
white
haemoglobin
carbon
to
blood
give
role
oxygen
of
of
remain
providing
pat hogens.
an
impor tant
Neutrophils
travel
in
line
t he
of
defence
blood
as
a
against
‘rapid
t he
reaction
haemoglobin
force’;
blood
during
searching
Lymphocytes
concentrated
system
and
invading
Lymph
Figure
an
are
in
spread
lymph
are
on
protein
pathogens.
pathogens
is
pat hogens
pour
and
widely
nodes
reproductive
nodes
process
for
t hey
out
of
t he
destroying
t hroughout
in
system
organ
which
t hem
t he
systems
are
bone
t he
marrow
by
body,
like
most
t he
phagocytosis.
but
t he
into
t hey
gut,
likely
tend
to
be
respirator y
to
be
infected
by
microorganisms.
B.3.3.8
special
infection
part
page
of
the
1
42.
molecules
Antibodies
together
known
as
in
lymphatic
Many
that
kill
of
them
protect
microbes
clumps
system
produce
against
directly
making
which
them
you
antibodies
bacteria,
or
help
easier
can
see
which
vir uses
and
phagocytes
to
engulf.
in
by
This
are
other
‘sticking’
clumping
agglutination.
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The
circulatory
system
The
Monocyte
Neutrophil
role
of
blood
Lymphocyte
nucleus
partially
permeable
membrane
8–10
20
µm
12
µm
µm
vesicles
containing
enzymes
p
Figure
B.3.1.7
The
different
types
of
white
blood
cell
bacteria
phagocyte
foreign
p
‘recognises’
Figure
Looking
this
at
phlebotomist
technician
microscope
through
a
1
Look
2
Use
the
collected
a
the
some
haematology
A
Figures
‘flowing’
it
digests
them
using
enzymes
and
B,
B.3.1.9
blood
from
laboratory
and
and
added
a
B.3.1.10
a
person
smeared
blue
are
stain
two
who
the
to
was
blood
in
good
across
make
the
photographs
health.
two
white
that
blood
he
took
microscope
carefully
at
Figures
drawings
in
B.3.1.9
Figure
and
B.3.1.7
p
Figure
B.3.1.9
Blood
p
Figure
B.3.1.10
smear
A
(x300)
B.3.1.10.
to
identify
the
cells
that
you
can
see
in
photographs.
3
Make
4
Use
drawings
the
you
of
each
magnifications
cell
type
given
to
from
the
calculate
photographs.
the
diameters
of
the
cells
that
draw.
Label
their
your
drawings
with
the
names
of
the
cells
and
add
notes
about
appearance.
Suggest
relative
of
in
light
by
cells
slides,
visible.
them
them
yourself
blood
A
cells
ingests
Phagocytosis
A
6
it
around
B.3.1.8
Tr y
5
the
bacteria
how
you
numbers
would
of
red
use
photographs
blood
cells
and
like
white
these
blood
to
calculate
cells
in
a
the
sample
blood.
Platelets
Key
Blood
smear
B
(x400)
term
!
Platelets
are
tiny
non-nucleated
cell
fragments
formed
in
t he
bone
Platelets
marrow.
In
a
healt hy
human,
t here
are
approximately
250
000
in
Small
fragments
of
cells
ever y
that
do
not
have
nuclei;
these
cell
3
mm
of
blood.
They
are
involved
in
blood
clotting,
a
vital
process
which
fragments
prevents
entr y
of
excessive
blood
pat hogens
loss
t hrough
from
damaged
damaged
blood
vessels
and
prevents
t he
start
the
release
blood
substances
clotting
to
process.
skin.
127
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The
role
of
The
blood
Figure
Key
is
terms
B.3.1.12
formed
shows
when
a
t he
mesh
major
of
stages
protein
in
bres
t he
clotting
traps
red
circulatory
process.
blood
cells
The
to
system
clot
make
itself
an
!
impenetrable
Prothrombin
dissolved
changes
in
An
the
into
inactive
plasma
thrombin
enzyme
blood
vessels
barrier
release
when
wounding
chemicals
t hat
occurs.
star t
t his
The
platelets
and
damaged
process.
which
during
Calcium
ions
platelets
to
have
several
roles
in
blood
clotting
including
stimulating
blood
release
substances
t hat
activate
an
enzyme
in
t he
plasma.
This
clotting.
Thrombin
The
plasma
converts
that
enzyme
in
enzyme
conver ts
anot her
enzyme
thrombin.
plasma
protein,
prothrombin,
into
t he
active
blood
brinogen
The
nal
step
in
t he
cascade
is
conversion
by
t hrombin
to
of
t he
plasma
protein
brinogen
into
brin
t hat
forms
a
mesh
to
trap
brin.
blood
Fibrinogen
protein
that
A
globular
changes
blood
from
A
brous
brinogen
clotting
to
prevents
T
able
protein
during
form
a
blood
Red
blood
mesh
of
Exam
entr y
of
pat hogens.
Summary
table
of
the
functions
of
blood
cells
cell
Functions
cell
1
Transports
oxygen
2
Transports
some
from
lungs
carbon
to
dioxide
tissues
from
blood
(cell
is
cell
fragment)
prepared
such
out
Protection
system
use
if
you
between
and
to
lungs
if
as
phagocytosis
2
producing
Protection
from
blood
brinogen.
someone
is
by:
1
It
by
antibodies
releasing
plasma
is
decient
used
in
factors
by
in
to
activate
removing
diagnostic
the
t he
blood
blood
tests,
such
clotting
process
clotting
as
t he
test
to
iron.
is
a
have
cells,
good
acts
to
on
tissues,
blood
organs
tissues
tip
circulatory
distinguish
B.3.1.4
blood
White
loss.
nd
to
and
that
protein
example
loss
formed
Ser um
The
blood
brin
Platelet
✔
stop
clots.
T
ype
Fibrin
and
plasma
into
q
when
cells
organ
systems.
Think
platelets
release
protein
the
prothrombin
of
a
list
blood
heart
starting
cells
and
and
with
red
ending
blood
and
with
white
enzyme
thrombokinase
the
vessels.
thrombin
acts
on
blood
calcium
protein
ions
fibrinogen
and
vitamin
also
K
needed
fibrin
fibrin
strands
cells.
These
a
p
Figure
B.3.1.12
scab
The
at
trap
dry
the
red
out
wound
stages
in
blood
and
form
site
blood
clotting
128
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16:07
The
circulatory
Case
system
Declan’s
Declan
is
about
t hat
will
of
he
but
is
right
not
small
not
be
do
blood
A,
and
B
B
D.
This
serious
operation.
of
blood
medical
Declan’s
doesn’t
and
t hat
may
require
t he
cell
ABO
D
is
and
during
t he
a
is
blood
are
of
will
Before
of
blood
group
always
A+,
take
impregnated
blood
type
cer tain
supply
nurse
t hat
major
wrong
he
a
are
operation.
order
t hinks
cards
two
doctors
t he
to
because
using
t he
him
His
have
mot her
it
identify
give
staff
matter
test
if
D
cell
Test
groups.
blood
and
If
t hey
t hat
a
wit h
did
could
B,
present
blood
of
t he
and
O.
blood
t hen
In
t he
ABO
are
Rhesus
blood
g roup
in
(so
blood
is
Rhesus
system;
types
(or
not
A
because
t here
positive
do
people.
g roup
called
system
known
which
most
blood
four
Rhesus
membrane
molecules
system
There
t he
is
surface
minor
transfusion
of
group
t he
cell
Rhesus
monkeys).
AB
t he
in
t heir
more
molecules
Rhesus
A,
on
ot her
in
are
just
D
it
two.
positive)
negative
(or
negative).
cards
drop
drop
surface
t hen
not
also
molecule
in
system:
is
molecules
are
consideration
surface
present
simply
have
There
discovered
t he
A
cells
and
are
t he
was
If
type.
blood
t hey
a
begin,
antibodies
t his,
usually
is
of
of
like
t he
water
blood
is
is
one
in
added
added
Figure
to
to
B.3.1.13
each
each
test
test
are
area
area
used
to
and
to
test
activate
mixed
Declan’s
t he
wit h
blood.
antibodies.
t he
liquid.
A
The
Anti-A
rst
t hree
t hat
in
t he
t he
areas
test
detect
card
four t h
is
A,
B
and
working
D.
The
properly.
four t h
The
area
blood
is
a
control
should
not
to
AB+.
If
they
shows
t he
results
for
Declan’s
positive
test
with
negative
all
three
with
all
test
of
areas,
them
-
Nome
blood.
the
the
person’s
blood
When
work
out
carr ying
that
out
there
are
operations
eight
t hat
different
type
blood
is
O−.
group
staff
almost
always
uses
may
blood
blood
require
of
t he
types
blood
same
You
-
Focha
de
can
ABO
stocks
are
low
it
may
be
possible
to
use
a
example
blood
of
type
O−
can
be
given
to
all
as
blood
ot her
Rhosus
t he
so
does
it
has
not
none
of
stimulate
t he
t he
t hree
cell
patient
surface
to
-
Fecha
Signature
-
2003-09-04
Firma
SA
Figure
B.3.1.13
Declan’s
A,
antibodies
The
results
blood
to
after
the
card
group,
blood
molecules,
produce
Data
patient.
find
out
B
or
t hat
his
blood
group.
Was
his
groups
mother
because
Anti-
altogether.
to
for
Dirección
transfusions,
type
different
Nacimianto
Pos.
adding
If
-
is
p
hospital
Adrress
BMJ
A
probably
control
coagulate
Born
tests
Anti-D/Anti-Rho
area.
B.3.1.13
blood
Anti-B
check
Name
Figure
If
blood
fatal.
Red
as
of
group
transfusions
cer tain.
of
blood
have
can
blood
sample
special
to
need
operation
t he
role
study
Find ing
t he
The
D
correct?
and
will
control
anti-A
anti-B
anti-D
Person
agglutinate
in
t he
emergencies
Immediately
t he
patient’s
blood
if
and
t here
before
blood
an
is
block
no
blood
time
to
operation,
wit h
t he
a
blood
vessels.
nd
out
nurse
Blood
t he
by
type
patient’s
repeats
supplied
of
t he
t he
test
blood
O−
blood
to
is
used
type.
cross
W
match
bank.
X
Figure
B.3.1.14
(W,
Y
X,
and
shows
Z).
results
Identify
t he
of
testing
blood
blood
groups
of
from
t he
four
four
people
people
tested.
Y
Sometimes
t he
t he
t hemselves.
patient
blood
t hat
is
This
used
in
transfusions
happens
in
cases
of
has
rare
been
donated
blood
groups
by
wit h
Z
uncommon
if
t he
types
patient
diseases.
In
is
of
molecules
worried
most
cases,
about
on
t he
t hough,
t he
surface
risks
blood
of
of
t he
infection
comes
from
blood
wit h
a
cells
and
blood-borne
blood
bank
and
is
p
Figure
tests
B.3.1.14
of
four
Results
of
blood
people
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The
role
of
The
blood
normally
as
HIV
People
and
to
q
t heir
Blood
is
kept
future
blood
groups
T
able
donated
volunteer
result
rarest
blood
as
blood
to
le
so
been
t he
r un
blood
t he
donations.
groups
in
donate
on
tested
will
staff
Blood
low.
Jamaican
for
major
vir uses,
such
of
rst
t he
banks
Table
have
t heir
blood
blood
bank
know
of ten
B.3.1.5
nd
shows
t hat
t he
tested
how
supplies
of
distribution
of
population.
B.3.1.5
group
Percentage
the
of
Blood
group
Percentage
population
the
23.0
A−
2.0
B+
20.0
B−
1.0
AB+
23.0
AB−
0.5
47.0
O−
3.5
Jamaican
National
Blood
Transfusion
Service:
of
population
A+
O+
Source:
has
system
hepatitis.
who
t his
label
t he
safe
and
circulatory
http://www.nbts.gov.jm/pages.
php?id=6
1
Choose
Table
and
draw
B.3.1.5
to
an
effective
teach
a
group
way
of
to
present
younger
t he
information
students
about
in
blood
groups.
2
Explain
being
3
why
it
is
admitted
Explain
why
impor tant
to
hospital
blood
is
cross
to
know
for
t he
blood
group
of
patients
operations.
matched
immediately
before
an
operation.
In
September
repor ted
getting
4
5
its
t he
stocks
Jamaican
of
O+
National
and
AB−
Blood
blood
Transfusion
were
low
and
A+
Ser vice
was
low.
Suggest
AB−
t hat
2014,
why
t he
Jamaican
blood
bank
had
low
stocks
of
O+,
A+
and
blood.
How
would
you
encourage
people
to
give
blood?
Questions
1
Why
2
State
3
Explain
4
Describe
the
role
5
Describe
the
process
6
Explain
7
State
8
How
high
9
do
single-celled
three
functions
why
the
three
does
organisms
oxygen
role
of
ways
the
of
of
is
body
need
a
circulatory
system?
blood.
not
included
in
T
able
B.3.1.2.
lymphocytes.
of
phagocytosis
platelets
in
not
which
a
in
the
red
acclimatise
using
bullet
points.
blood.
blood
to
the
cell
low
is
adapted
content
of
to
its
function.
oxygen
in
the
air
at
altitude?
Using
the
between
circulatory
cells,
system
tissues,
as
organs
an
and
example,
organ
explain
the
relationship
systems.
130
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The
circulatory
B.3.2
system
Heart
Heart
structure
and
function
Learning
By
Structure
of
the
the
end
hear t
is
a
muscular
organ
t hat
pumps
blood
t hrough
blood
t he
body.
Figure
B.3.2.1
shows
what
t he
human
hear t
be
from
t he
muscle
which
looks
of
describe
front.
The
tissue
t hat
makes
up
most
of
t he
hear t
is
is
shown
found
here
and
nowhere
else
in
t he
body.
Cardiac
in
are
relate
Figure
B.3.2.2.
connected.
Notice
Cardiac
t hat
muscle
t he
bres
bres
are
at
t he
bottom
branched
communicate
wit h
each
ot her
and
contract
like
of
right
right
coronary
the
explain
left
atrium
left
coronary
blood
explain
the
(b)
A
vein
cava
drawing
of
the
heart
aorta
and
the
major
blood
vessels
Figure
is
two
pumps
lying
side
by
side
(Figure
B.3.2.3).
Each
side
blood
from
into
ventricle
t he
from
t hat
ventricles.
There
to
is
veins
atrium
so
and
to
t he
of
walls
atrium
resistance
atria
ows
do
into
an
contraction
ventricle
Each
no
move,
which
whose
ventricle
atrium
t he
to
not
t he
are
of
walls
t he
each
a
at
side
as
from
into
prevent
t hick
low
blood
as
Blood
blood
t he
an
t he
atrium
ar ter y.
(a)
viewed
The
dark
An
external
from
red
the
view
front
structure
at
of
of
the
right
of
the
heart
is
the
left
the
atrium
ows
Valves
backow
of
hear tbeat.
not
blood
ow
have
on
during
atria
pumps
atrium.
forces
B.3.2.1
heart
receives
top
Notice
pulse.
ventricle
body.
blood
pressure
ventricle
the
between
heart
explain
artery
p
a
‘lubb–dupp’
the
artery
B.3.2.1
hear t
the
of
atrium
descending
The
within
functions
cava
vena
Figure
their
arch
cardiac
p
structures
to
toget her.
left
right
and
heart
so
●
vena
structure
the
t he
t his
●
aortic
the
of
heart
sound
t hey
you
muscle
●
photograph
topic
to:
cardiac
the
tissue
this
like
●
is
outcomes
able
function
viewed
function
vessels
●
around
and
heart
should
The
structure
and
t hick
as
t he
pressure
as
t he
t he
walls
into
blood
of
t he
t he
ventricles.
does
not
have
far
ventricles.
Did
you
know?
?
The
walls
muscle
pumps
of
t he
of
to
t he
pump
blood
body.
t herefore
ventricles
to
t he
t he
The
t he
blood
lungs
lungs
blood
are
are
t hicker
against
and
t he
sof t,
pressure
in
a
because
greater
lef t
have
resistance.
ventricle
spongy
t he
t hey
organs
The
pumps
because
pulmonar y
ar ter y
much
right
blood
t hey
does
more
to
are
not
cardiac
ventricle
t he
full
rest
of
have
air;
to
be
Cardiac
type
of
fatigue.
of
high
as
lungs
do
not
give
much
resistance
to
t he
ow
of
is
a
much
circulation
and
lef t
give
a
higher
ventricle
t han
t he
greater
because
has
right
t he
resistance
organs
resistance
to
create
a
to
are
t he
high
to
t he
not
ow
like
blood.
pressure
of
t he
To
blood
lungs;
overcome
and
in
t he
t hey
rest
are
t his
t herefore
of
t he
much
denser
resistance,
has
–
–
is
the
that
other
two
smooth
become
only
does
not
types
and
fatigued
if
blood.
they
There
The
muscle
skeletal
ver y
muscle
muscle
a
t hicker
t he
wall
work
muscle
body
is
is
like
for
in
long.
tubular
the
attached
Unit
too
gut;
to
the
Smooth
organs
skeletal
in
the
muscle
skeleton
(see
B.4).
ventricle.
131
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Heart
structure
and
The
function
circulatory
system
T
o get an idea of pressure and resistance, think about turning on a tap attached
to a hose pipe. If you turn on the tap a little way, no water comes out of the
other end of the hose pipe because the pressure is too low. Now gradually turn
the tap further to give a higher pressure and you nd that water will overcome
the resistance of the hose pipe and emerge from the far end.
carotid
superior
vena
artery
cava
pulmonary
vein
pulmonary
aorta
artery
left
right
p
Figure
B.3.2.2
Cardiac
muscle
tissue
atrium
atrium
from
a
taken
has
ventricle.
with
had
fibres
an
This
photograph
electron
colour
(brown,
added
pink
was
microscope
to
and
show
and
semilunar
inferior
vena
muscle
purple),
a
bicuspid
tricuspid
capillary
fibres
the
(orange)
that
and
transmit
ventricles
modified
impulses
(green)
(mitral)
though
cords
(x750).
p
(valve
Figure
=
deoxygenated
=
oxygenated
B.3.2.3
showing
the
blood
blood
Structure
pathway
ventricle
of
taken
the
by
heart
and
associated
blood
vessels
blood
bicuspid
B.3.2.4
Human
heart
tendons)
ventricle
left
Figure
valve
valve
muscle
right
p
valve
cava
valve
dissected
semilunar
to
show
the
the
heart
Y
ou
can
at
left
the
see
side
top
the
with
of
very
the
the
top
thick
wall
of
the
tricuspid
left
its
ventricle,
tendons.
B.3.2.3
and
the
bicuspid
Compare
valves
of
photograph.
valve
with
valve
and
Figures
B.3.2.5
X
Y
p
Figure
of
the
Figure
B.3.2.5
viewed
X
Y
is
is
B.3.2.5
from
t he
t he
A
drawing
made
of
a
cross
section
of
the
heart
at
the
level
valves
shows
above.
valve
valve
at
at
t he
t he
a
section
The
base
base
across
valves
of
of
t he
t he
t he
labelled
aor ta
hear t
X
and
where
pulmonar y
it
to
Y
show
t he
four
valves
are
t he
semi-lunar
joins
t he
lef t
ar ter y
where
it
valves.
ventricle.
joins
t he
right
132
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The
circulatory
ventricle.
t he
When
ar teries,
you
t he
can
system
see
t he
blood
in
t he
Heart
pressure
ows
in
back
drawing
t he
ventricles
towards
so
closing
t he
t he
is
less
t han
ventricles,
valve
lls
t he
t he
preventing
pressure
t hat
Study
✔
tip
hear t.
It
The
heart’s
is
and
blue
conventional
The
hear t
people
t here
beats
have
is
a
at
about
hear t
special
rates
tissue
pacemaker.
Muscle
impulses
regular
in
72
beats
higher
and
known
t he
per
t he
minute,
lower
t han
sino-atrial
sino-atrial
alt hough
node
t his.
node
In
perfectly
t he
which
contracts
and
right
is
t he
emits
healt hy
atrium
does
hear t’s
inter vals.
These
impulses
spread
across
t he
not
colour
own
electrical
t he
t he
rest
of
t he
cardiac
muscle
to
contract,
rst
t he
blue.
can
increase
along
speed
also
that
blue
to
lungs.
in
and
blue.
blood
red
as
Blood
This
changes
it
is
Deoxygenated
goes
red,
atria
red
and
oxygenated
blood
blood
is
is
and
red.
These
colours
are
not
ventricles.
very
brain
the
red
hear t
bright
t hen
show
in
blood
mean
from
through
dark
stimulating
blood
deoxygenated
never
at
to
pacemaker
oxygenated
to
function
into
Red
We
and
in
‘pockets’
backow
structure
up
speeds
and
ner ves
t he
up
decrease
t hat
hear t
t he
end
rate
t he
on
and
hear t
t he
to
rate
by
sino-atrial
slow
it
sending
node.
down.
The
impulses
We
send
from
out
hormones
t he
to
use
that
impulses
different
is
blue
the
contain
adrenaline
people
hear t.
muscle
closed
bicuspid
diagrams
colour
of
with
because
veins
deoxygenated
decided
that
blood
light-coloured
in
skin.
semilunar
closed
tricuspid
in
someone
sphincter
semilunar
valves
so
valves
bicuspid
and
tricuspid
valves
open
and
valves
closed
open
deoxygenated
oxygenated
a
Diastole
(between
blood
blood
beats)
b
p
Figure
Blood
The
B.3.2.6
ow
The
through
contraction
state,
when
contractions
t he
of
a
the
chamber
cardiac
of
heart
during
systole
one
(atria
heart
contract)
c
Ventricular
on
each
side
of
t he
hear t
is
t he
hear t
not
is
called
contracting,
systole.
is
called
The
diastole.
Study
✔
resting
contract
and
relax
at
t he
same
time.
The
The
same
and
relax
time
as
involves
Stage
from
(a):
t he
venae
backow
Stage
each
of
(b):
t hem
stage,
so
and
t he
t hat
atria
systole
two
next
a
different
complete
time
hear t
from
beat
is
t he
atria
called
a
but
at
cardiac
section
t he
cycle
the
on
blood
understand
an
heart
is
if
have
animation
you
or
a
much
ow
easier
access
YouTube
to
to
clip.
stages.
and
ventricles
pulmonar y
t he
tricuspid
is
–
relax
veins.
pulmonar y
bot h
volume
Blood
muscles
blood
One
and
from
t heir
increases.
bicuspid
–
at
tip
and
blood
Semilunar
ar ter y
and
enters
valves
aor ta
into
t he
hear t
prevent
t he
any
ventricles
(a)).
Atrial
consequence,
ot her.
cavae
blood
B.3.2.6
contract
following
Diastole
t he
(Figure
and
contract)
two
through
ventricles
(ventricles
beat
The
atria
systole
heart
of
muscle
the
Atrial
at
will
valves
one
higher
into
t he
contract
decrease
slightly
around
forced
atria
t he
so
into
t he
t hat
ventricles
t he
veins
same
t he
pressure
pulmonar y
way
at
blood
ows
As
B.3.2.6
venae
a
pressure
t hrough
(Figure
and
time.
wit hin
t he
(b)).
cavae
At
t his
constrict
ventricles.
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Heart
structure
and
The
function
Stage
(c):
Ventricular
contracted.
decreases
t he
The
so
t hat
ventricles
valves
are
higher
blood
is
t he
t han
t hat
into
in
Use
happens
what
you
t han
As
t he
t he
–
bot h
relax.
pressure
shut.
Written
What
now
greater
pushed
ows
systole
atria
in
t he
t hem
t hat
t he
ventricles
As
in
increases.
t he
pressure
ar teries,
t he
pulmonar y
contract
ventricles
atria,
in
t he
and
af ter
contract,
t he
so
t he
valves
aor ta
t he
bicuspid
also
are
(Figure
system
atria
t heir
Eventually
ventricles
semilunar
ar ter y
circulatory
have
volume
pressure
and
in
tricuspid
becomes
pushed
open
and
B.3.2.6(c)).
Activity
during
have
one
just
heart
read
and
beat
the
diagrams
of
the
heart
to
answer
these
questions.
1
What
happens
during
to
a
ventricular
2
What
are
3
What
is
4
Suggest
the
the
a
roles
role
role
photographs
of
of
for
and
the
volume
systole
the
the
the
Explain
why
the
left
6
Explain
why
the
walls
the
bicuspid
semilunar
valve
diagrams
5
and
when
the
pressure
in
the
ventricles
contract?
tricuspid
valves?
valves?
the
is
the
and
tendons
of
ventricle
of
b
ventricles
that
thicker
atria
you
can
see
in
the
heart.
are
than
much
the
right
thinner
ventricle.
than
those
of
the
ventricles.
7
Using
take
8
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Figure
in
What
B.3.2.3,
getting
type
of
from
blood
describe
the
right
vessel
is
the
pathway
atrium
a
the
to
the
aorta;
that
a
red
blood
cell
would
aorta.
b
the
vena
cava?
2.0
time / s
Figure
B.3.2.7
is
a
timeline
of
changes
that
occur
as
the
heart
beats
three
times.
diastole
Use
p
Figure
Figure
B.3.2.7
to
answer
these
questions.
B.3.2.7
9
Calculate
10
List
11
At
the
12
At
q
T
able
a
what
and
b
heart
sequence
what
valves
the
stages
open,
in
rate
of
stages
in
B.3.2.1
the
cardiac
The
parts
of
the
Function
cavae
these
atrium
ventricle
Pulmonary
arteries
Pulmonary
veins
ventricle
Aorta
one
heart
cycle
do
the
tricuspid
and
cycle
do
the
semilunar
beat.
bicuspid
valves
a
open,
heart,
blood
its
associated
ows
from
the
blood
body
to
vessels
the
right
and
their
atrium
functions
through
deoxygenated
blood
from
the
body
and
pumps
it
into
the
ventricle
Pumps
deoxygenated
Deoxygenated
Oxygenated
Receives
left
Left
during
veins
Receives
right
atrium
occurs
close?
Deoxygenated
Left
minute.
close?
Venae
Right
per
that
cardiac
b
Structure
Right
beats
events
the
and
in
blood
blood
blood
ows
ows
oxygenated
into
from
from
blood
the
the
the
pulmonary
heart
lungs
from
the
to
to
the
the
artery
lungs
left
pulmonary
through
atrium
veins
these
through
and
arteries
these
pumps
it
veins
into
the
ventricle
Pumps
oxygenated
Oxygenated
through
this
blood
artery
blood
ows
(the
into
from
largest
the
the
in
aorta
left
the
ventricle
to
the
rest
of
the
body
body)
134
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16:07
The
circulatory
Heart
lungs
Figure
●
If
are
‘lubb’
●
–
search
for
sounds
The
as
t he
of
to
t he
body
closure
of
bicuspid
t he
can
borrow
makes
and
a
t hat
such
as
t he
blood
in
ar teries
from
hear t
be
action
pumped
is
t he
pulmonar y
of
in
normal
be
t he
sounds
hear t.
valves
(sof ter
stet hoscope
from
(see
These
hear t
and
by
par ticular
(louder
sound)
hear
t hem
sounds
t he
for
online.
number
of
yourself
If
you
different
problems.
t he
aor ta
are
t he
of
and
tissue.
builds
up
t he
blood
t he
high
ar ter y
ventricles
and
pressure
system.
The
t hat
enables
contraction
of
t he
pressure.
pulmonar y
As
stretched
a
circulator y
expand.
remain
contract,
As
t he
relatively
t he
aor ta
ventricles
constant
and
relax,
t hese
p
t he
recoil
As
The
its
t he
as
person’s
ar ter y.
ow.
The
As
a
cuff
cuff
is
to
are
a
t he
is
This
to
is
t he
blood
of
blood
gradually
t he
bit
t he
not
an
kilopascals
t he
SI
for
unit
unit
(kPa).
so
and
a
fall
to
t he
t he
stop
rst
t he
systolic
band
for
t he
hears
80
in
Figure
B.3.2.8
stethoscope
of
along
stretches
his
to
A
doctor
listen
to
uses
the
a
heart
beat
patient
in
ar ter y
of
blood
sound
and
diastole.
pressure.
of
t his
ar ter y
up
and
owing.
systole
at
largely
an
goes
resistance
mmHg
in
ow
t he
pressure.
depends
example
t he
(millimetres
so
blood
ow
diastolic
pressure,
owing
between
brachial
blood
and
in
vessel
blood
t he
reducing
of
The
blood
ventricular
mmHg
for
in
impor tant
blood
friction
blood
keep
nurse
t he
narrower,
to
pressure
pressure
mmHg
use
or
during
t he
causes
pressure
deated
pressure
to
ver y
band.
system,
a
is
ventricle.
resistance
inated
doctor
more,
systolic
120
is
keep
lef t
becomes
t he
recoil
elastic
t hrough
increases
cuff
an
t he
vessels
ows
vessel
t he
of
and
circulator y
disease,
The
wit h
blood
pressure
take
profession
pressure.
mmHg
a
t his
t he
This
pressure
diastole
blood
happens
pressure
medical
of
result
deates
pressures
blood
If
may
corresponding
t he
model
t hrough
walls
diameter.
blood
during
B.3.2.9).
t his
t he
can
blood
staff
Figure
original
which
diameter.
Medical
(see
You
recoils
wit h
narrowing
t he
t heir
travels
and
ease
to
maintain
and
blood
blood
on
to
ar teries.
systole
function
sound).
hear t
sur prised
indicate
hear t
source
elastic
ar ter y
t he
around
main
contain
helping
and
valves.
tricuspid
valves
of
may
of
sounds
t he
semilunar
you
sounds,
movement
‘lubb–dupp’
t he
sounds’
hear t
pressures
vessels
structure
pressure
to
t hey
listen
demonstrations
‘hear t
ventricles
The
of
you
some
pumping
blood
if
t he
by
closure
t he
Blood
and
see
to
to
breat hing,
closure
possible,
listen
used
caused
–
‘dupp’
or
are
during
B.3.2.8)
sounds
Heart
sounds
Stet hoscopes
t he
system
for
in
to
of
blood
t hen,
The
as
two
normal
diastolic.
we
arm
t he
blood
These
mercur y)
book
t he
in
for
will
The
blood
conver t
p
Figure
B.3.2.9
Measuring
blood
pressure
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Heart
structure
and
The
function
q
T
able
the
Part
B.3.2.2
Shows
circulatory
of
the
blood
pressures
circulatory
Maximum
pressure
atrium
Left
ventricle
artery
(in
Figure
cuff
B.3.2.10
records
The
blood
blood
pressure
pressure,
heart
Femoral
to
it
blood
the
is
the
flow
patient’s
displayed.
data
systolic
to
diastolic
kPa)
per
and
phone
person’s
pressure
(12.7
transmits
smartphone
The
the
kPa),
beats
and
is
the
is
pressure
the
leg)
blood
(kPa)
0
10.7
16.0
10.7
16.0
10.7
4.7
2.0
1.3
0.7
0.4
0
vein
cava
data
send
mmHg
heart
Minimum
Right
atrium
1.1
0
Right
ventricle
3.3
0
where
can
doctor.
147
pressure
the
of
rate
Vena
and
parts
16.0
Capillary
p
blood
(kPa)
1.1
Aorta
Femoral
different
system
system.
system
Left
in
circulatory
95
rate
His
Pulmonary
artery
3.3
1.1
Pulmonary
vein
1.1
0.8
(19.6
mmHg
is
77
minute
Many
doctor s
blood
pressure.
pressure
and
and
clinics
Figure
use
a ppa ra tus
Th e re
t he
to
t he
da t a
allow
are
n ow
t h ey
shown
ma ny
co lle ct
do c tor s
to
in
Fig u re
dig it al
c an
be
mon itor
B.3. 2. 9
meter s
stored
t h eir
for
and
to
me asur ing
sen t
patie n ts
measure
to
b lood
su rger ies
remotely
(se e
B.3.2.10).
Pulse
The
ar ter ies
relax
over
feel
is
t he
wr ist
is
we
centre
decrease
t he
hear t
t he
and
adrenal
where
Several
it
factors
yourself
affect
ar ter y
72
alter
rate
t he
glands
in
increases
affect
opposite),
hear t
rate.
of
to
for
t he
t hick
t he
pass
movement
pulse
wr ist
when
near
t hat
to
muscle)
rate.
An
be
and
bones).
area
stimulate
t he
Hormones,
The
stress.
hear t
pulse
and
over
required.
times
over
recoil
t hey
to
t he
you
felt
on
The
skin
can
are
t he
in
t he
inside
usual
pulse
rate
t he
pulse
This
places
and
ar ter ies
minute.
impulses
as
t he
t he
diet
per
contract
where
bone.
passes
pulse
alter
ner ve
hear t
or
felt
passes
beats
the
be
common
ar ter y
ner ves
sends
t he
ventr icles
to
muscle
most
carotid
earlier,
pacemaker
by
like
The
(where
which
saw
cardiac
or
t he
r m
t he
swelling
approximately
Factors
As
when
slight
pulse.
(where
t he
rate
a
somet hing
neck
of
expand
causing
hormone
It
travels
in
t he
brain
pacemaker
too,
stimulate
adrenaline
in
t he
is
called
to
t he
increase
t he
produced
bloodstream
to
t he
rate.
rate,
stress,
for
example
which
of ten
exercise
leads
to
(see
t he
Tr y
t his
secretion
of
adrenaline.
136
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The
circulatory
Tr y
The
system
this
effect
of
Heart
structure
and
function
yourself
exercise
on
pulse
rate
Requirements
●
Timer
●
Graph
A
good
and
a
Start
to
how
heart
this
determine
long
person
is,
wrist
your
own
as
rate
monitor
five
someone’s
takes
by
shown
pulse,
After
it
the
activity
your
1
electronic
paper
way
see
tter
or
to
return
quicker
their
nding
your
in
then
Figure
sit
minutes
heart
beat
pulse
quietly
your
is
normal
to
pulse
a
returns
set
to
ve
for
you
their
resting
amount
its
counting
When
for
measure
after
and
B.3.2.11.
down
count
tness
to
it.
are
of
resting
Place
heart
exercise.
rate
The
value.
two
condent
ngers
about
over
taking
minutes.
30
seconds
and
multiply
p
the
Figure
pulse.
answer
by
2
to
give
your
pulse
rate
in
beats
per
at
2
Wait
30
seconds
and
repeat
step
1.
Repeat
again
and
calculate
the
Y
ou
A
to
should
good
to
to
down
4
After
5
30
an
or
the
seconds
your
Wait
30
your
pulse
flight
10
pulse
for
that
of
activity
is
to
if
you
see
are
how
in
long
good
it
your
heart
Repeat
8
Plot
9
a
Find
of
step
6
graph
raise
five
your
times,
heart
rate,
running
such
on
the
as
out
from
30
the
task,
seconds
then,
exercise
for
your
heart
your
wrist
thumb
for
two
Repeat
this
again,
and
heart
rate
graph
your
heart
investigation
good
subjects.
level
of
Y
ou
might
activity
neck.
Do
here
not
when
taking
the
use
pulse
measure
and
your
multiplying
measure
multiplying
your
by
heart
by
heart
rate
by
2.
rate
by
1
40
counting
1
00
80
60
40
20
2.
0
rate
against
has
returned
to
its
resting
return
how
to
long
normal
it
takes
(see
from
Figure
1
2
with
Make
other
sure
people.
first
that
it
Friends
is
safe
and
for
and
like
to
their
see
if
there
recovery
is
a
correlation
4
the
to
5
6
7
8
9
10
Time/ min
before
during
after
task
task
task
end
B.3.2.12).
family
them
3
value.
time.
approximately
rate
to
p
Figure
B.3.2.12
heart
A
rate
graph
showing
might
be
what
before
a
and
members
do
between
a
period
of
exercise.
Notice
how
the
the
exercise.
the
120
after
make
on
160
person’s
10
or
walking
spot
down.
of
seconds
until
of
own
either
rate
0
7
felt
health.
takes
ups.
sit
end
for
and
30
will
stairs
press
the
seconds
this
fitness
exercise
after
your
be
exercise.
activity
doing
doing
counting
after
a
with
your
nim rep staeb /etar t raeH
on
up
can
rest.
continue
Decide
and
at
assess
normal
minutes
6
rate
only
way
return
3
pulse
T
aking
pulse
your
your
mean
B.3.2.11
The
minute.
their
heart
case
rate.
rate
about
recover
takes
five
after
and
the
some
a
half
exercise
time,
in
this
minutes,
has
to
stopped
Questions
1
What
2
Where
3
What
4
Which
5
What
6
Explain
the
7
In
terms
is
is
the
of
the
used
heart’s
blood
part
is
are
for
a
pacemaker?
pressure?
the
contraction
heart
What
How
does
produces
b
relaxation
does
it
‘120/80’
the
highest
of
heart
control
(cardiac)
the
heart
muscle?
rate?
mean?
pressure?
pulse?
why
the
blood
pressure
does
not
decrease
along
the
length
of
arteries.
which
part
of
the
blood
system
does
the
greatest
fall
in
pressure
occur?
137
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The
circulatory
Learning
By
the
end
The
system
B.3.3
outcomes
of
this
topic
The
be
able
define
the
term
circulatory
all
the
structure
of
the
circulatory
hear t
the
to
their
have
of
a
t he
double
body,
a
circulation
red
blood
(Figure
cell
will
B.3.3.1).
pass
This
t hrough
To
understand
t his,
look
at
Figure
B.3.3.1.
Imagine
a
red
in
to
t he
lungs.
return
to
its
Look
at
how
original
many
times
it
goes
t hrough
t he
hear t
position.
veins
and
B.3.3.1
shows
t he
two
circuits
taken
by
t he
blood:
t he
pulmonar y
of
systemic
circulations.
Pulmonar y
circulation
is
t he
circulation
of
blood
capillaries
from
t he
hear t
to
t he
lungs
and
back.
Systemic
circulation
is
t he
circulation
functions
of
●
circuit
system
structure
and
arteries,
humans
each
twice.
cell
order
Figure
relate
for
human
in
●
mammals,
t hat
and
blood
function
system
system
t he
describe
circulatory
double
means
●
system
to:
Like
●
system
you
Double
should
circulatory
circulatory
describe
the
structure
blood
t he
function
of
the
from
t he
hear t
to
t he
rest
of
t he
body
(not
t he
lungs)
and
back
to
and
hear t.
lymphatic
system
The advantages of a double
●
describe
how
tissue
fluid
circulation are
LUNGS
and
lymph
are
oxygenated
formed.
Low
blood (red on diagrams) and
O
PULMONARY
2
High
CO
deoxygenated blood
CIRCUIT
2
(blue)
are kept separate and the left
Key
terms
ventricle pumps blood at a much
!
higher pressure into the systemic
Double
circulation
Blood
travels
circulation than the right ventricle
through
the
heart
twice
in
one
High
pumps blood to the lungs.
O
2
complete
circulation
of
the
body.
Low
CO
2
Oxygenated
almost
fully
blood
Blood
saturated
with
that
Figure B.3.3.2 shows a more
is
detailed version of the circulatory
oxygen;
SYSTEMIC
it
carries
its
maximum
volume
system. You will recognise some of
of
CIRCUIT
oxygen
and
less
carbon
dioxide
than
the names of the blood vessels from
BODY
deoxygenated
blood.
Deoxygenated
has
about
oxygen
carbon
it
70%
can
of
the
carry
dioxide
earlier Units and you will learn
blood
that
p
Figure
B.3.3.1
u
Figure
B.3.3.2
human
double
Double
about others in Units to come.
circulation
maximum
and
than
Blood
is
The
details
of
the
HEAD
more
circulatory
ARMS
in
pulmonary
oxygenated
&
system
artery
pulmonary
vein
blood.
superior
vena
LUNGS
cava
aorta
Heart
hepatic
vein
hepatic
artery
LIVER
hepatic
portal
inferior
vena
vein
STOMACH
cava
&
INTESTINES
renal
vein
renal
artery
KIDNEYS
t
Figure
body.
B.3.3.3
This
The
virtual
computer
LOWER
generated
image
shows
circulatory
system
upper
of
part
the
in
the
&
BODY
LEGS
the
body
Deoxygenated
blood
Oxygenated
blood
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The
circulatory
system
The
circulatory
system
Artery
This
artery
small
ver y
muscular
wall
wit h
lumen
many
t he
elastic
ar ter y
to
bres
allows
wit hstand
endothelium
and
maintain
a
high
blood
collagen
pressure.
fibres
elastic
and
fibres
smooth
muscle
×10
Vein
Veins
have
much
t hinner
vein
walls
elastic
fibres
t han
pressure
is
t he
much
muscle
lower.
large
as
and
blood
smooth
ar teries
lumen
easily
blood
collagen
fibres
They
if
t he
can
increases
during
exercise.
semilunar
expand
volume
as
of
happens
Veins
valves
to
have
prevent
endothelium
backow.
×120
Capillary
The lining of capillaries is
capillary
made from one layer of very
thin
endothelium
thin cells. There are tiny holes
(one
cell
thick)
between the cells which make
capillaries ‘leaky’. This is ideal
for the exchange of substances
(e.g. glucose) between the
blood and tissue uid. As the
cells are thin there is a very
short distance for diffusion of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
×4000
p
Figure
B.3.3.4
The
structure
of
arteries,
veins
and
capillaries
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The
circulatory
The
system
●
In
Unit
t he
B.1
delivering
●
In
Unit
circuit
In
B.2
Unit
and
q
saw
you
B.5
to
and
t he
t he
one
followed
t he
t he
t hat
system
blood
from
t hrough
●
you
digestive
hear t
in
will
taking
t he
t he
pulmonar y
you
hepatic
liver.
por tal
Note
it
t hat
vein
t he
circulatory
transpor ts
liver
has
blood
two
system
from
blood
vessels
away.
pat hway
of
pulmonar y
blood
t hrough
ar ter y
to
t he
t he
pulmonar y
lungs
and
back
vein.
follow
t he
circulation
from
t he
hear t
to
t he
kidneys
back.
T
able
B.3.3.1
Summary
table
showing
the
differences
between
arteries,
veins
and
capillaries
Artery
Thick,
Vein
elastic
wall
Capillary
Thinner
wall
with
less
elastic
Very
tissue
No
valves
Valves
Blood
under
Blood
ows
Normally
high
in
pressure
spurts
carries
oxygenated
How
Veins
so
●
blood
low
●
A
capillary
ows
low
pressure
smoothly
is
not
carries
Skeletal
muscle
t he
from
legs.
Valves
t he
–
vein
Par tial
As
t he
–
t hese
deoxygenated
veins
back
vacuum
t he
in
one
cell
valves
Blood
under
ows
Oxygen
heart
low
and
carbon
exchanged
Connects
pressure
smoothly
an
dioxide
here
artery
to
a
vein
to
push
the
the
blood
helping
if
we
are
contract
hear t.
The
all
blood
the
to
standing
by
get
or
skeletal
t hey
pressure
way
back
back
to
sitting
muscle,
squeeze
in
the
to
the
veins
the
hear t.
upright.
par ticularly
t he
veins,
pushing
t he
muscle
contain.
t he
B.3.3.5).
to
the
surrounded
muscles
t hey
i.e.
heart
in
region
are
to
back
to
essential
prevent
(Figure
the
pressure
head
t hese
blood
to
blood
sufcient
are
wall,
Blood
are
Carries
low
following
direction
B.3.3.6
it
heart
at
–
t he
Figure
under
Blood
returns
blood
that
The
against
p
the
Gravity
in
●
from
blood
carr y
hear t.
●
Blood
blood
Carries
is
No
Normally
blood
thin
thick
backow
As
a
result,
of
blood
t he
when
blood
must
ow
in
squeezes
one
hear t.
chest
–
during
inspiration
t he
pressure
in
t he
chest
network
cavity
decreases
atmospheric
move
along
a)
air
t he
muscle
(see
to
page
be
103).
drawn
major
veins
This
into
and
relaxed
par tial
our
into
b)
vacuum
lungs,
t he
muscle
but
it
not
also
only
causes
causes
blood
to
hear t.
contracted
blood
pushed
vein
through
open
valve
valves
closed
valve
prevents
back
flow
p
Figure
B.3.3.5
The
action
of
semilunar
valves
in
veins
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The
circulatory
Tissue
If
blood
cells
system
never
t he
lef t
t he
can
t hrough
of
back
one
walls
to
layer
t he
blood
nutrients
t hrough
Refer
of
of
ver y
need.
ar teries
t he
Figure
vessels,
t hey
t hin
B.3.3.4
t hin
and
walls
to
cells
it
would
Oxygen
veins
of
see
substances
capillaries
because
be
able
to
nutrients
t hey
are
supply
cannot
too
body
leave
t hick,
but
t hey
t he
pores
lining
of
between
t he
capillar y
t hem.
This
consists
to
and
be
exchanged
bat he
t he
body
by
diffusion.
cells
form
t he
The
small
makes
tissue
molecules
it
easy
t hat
term
!
leave
uid
Tissue
uid
surrounds
Figure
B.3.3.6
shows
a
dense
capillar y
network
under
t he
epit helium
in
Figure
close
to
Note
t hat,
●
a
t here
B.3.3.7
is
in
a
t hrough
●
red
t he
are
which
t he
●
at
surrounded
gaining
far
end
of
t he
blood
and
t he
blood
pressure
pressure
t he
of
t he
t he
of
each
cell
in
a
tissue
is
It
is
that
of
blood
formed
by
plasma.
ver y
by
leaves
the
ar teriole
ions
end
from
t he
of
t he
blood
wit h
and
near
a
so
and
to
ions)
fatty
taken
in
t he
much
nutrients
acids,
and
(e.g.
t hey
t he
capillar y
exchange
passing
out
t he
loss
t he
vessel
pressure
of
inside
t heir
products
wastes
t he
venule
acids,
by
and
venule,
blood
t he
stay
which
ot her
t he
result,
t hat
leads
proteins,
glucose,
cells
t hen
molecules
wall
now
tissue
and
vitamins
is
of
less
uid
into
waste
(e.g.
is
from
causes
t han
t he
reabsorbed
veins.
products
carbon
metabolites,
given
dioxide,
excess
out
by
cells
unwanted
ions)
the
capillaries
at
end
capillary
the
t he
and
nutrients
between
As
uid
and
fluid
uid
dioxide
fall.
t hat
e.g.
and
capillar y
tissue
at
molecules
tissue
oxygen
to
uid:
pressure
molecules,
amino
of
how
uid
capillar y
friction
capillaries
tissue
small
t he
oxygen
tissue
showing
blood
carbon
t he
into
of
large
hormones),
t he
high
forces
lining
cells,
substances,
(e.g.
diagram
formation
relatively
blood
cells
a
The
cells.
capillar y.
capillaries
●
is
the
t he
ltration
colon;
system
capillaries.
t hat
wit h
not
and
Key
for
circulatory
uid
wit h
pass
The
venule
arteriole
network
some
back
tissue
into
fluid
the
passes
capillaries
arteriole
the
rest
enters
of
the
the
tissue
lymph
fluid
capillaries
Key
term
!
Lymph
system.
into
p
Figure
B.3.3.7
Formation
of
tissue
fluid
and
The
It
uid
drains
lymph
in
the
from
lymphatic
tissue
uid
vessels.
lymph
141
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B
Topic
3.indd
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16:07
The
circulatory
The
system
Lymphatic
right
into
lymphatic
the
right
duct
empties
subclavian
left
vein
subclavian
Not
all
of
the
lymph
These
veins
uid
by
in
ows
in
in
small
vessels
by
muscles
nodes
t he
t he
The
lymphatic
When
a
of
to
larger
ensure
The
it
body
these
is
uid
the
inside
moved
that
slowly
squeeze
of ten;
more
energy
a
colourless
many
uid,
white
rich
the
blood
in
cells.
contain
valves;
vessels
are
(see
page
like
t he
t he
lymph
is
have
in
in
t he
system
t hrough
Figure
blood
lengt h,
These
groin,
lymph
veins
are
neck
accumulate
immune
Eventually,
of
t heir
nodes.
t he
Lymphocytes
339).
(see
Along
lymph
common
surrounding
movement
legs).
impor tant
blood
t he
of
here
response
returns
in
t he
to
neck
B.3.3.8).
exercise
person
more
star ts
the
to
exercise,
muscles
which
is
do
their
much
provided
by
muscles
more
work.
respiration.
star t
This
The
contracting
means
that
respirator y
harder
they
rate
and
need
increases
tip
because
need
an
organ
we
muscles
more
so
far.
It
is
(see
other
pages
organs,
105
and
such
1
12).
as
the
The
diaphragm
breathing
and
rate
hear t,
and
depth
of
both
increase
and
the
cardiac
output
of
the
hear t
also
increases
to
situated
supply
the
ATP
and
have
breathing
mentioned
of
the
and
into
of
B.3.3.7
.
thin-walled
valves
contraction
of
armpits.
region
system
Effects
is
(rat her
veins
and
t he
side
like
Some
Figure
intestine
and
the
of
in
drain
are
direction.
contains
par ticularly
to
system.
shown
lymph
Lymph
and
lymph
not
into
blind-ended
villi
in
is
one
is
into
vessels
lacteals
moved
spleen
are
which
movements
Lymph
of
The
lymph
semi-lunar
vessels
lipids
from
Study
reabsorbed
duct
lymphatic
✔
is
drains
capillaries
vessels
vessels.
B.3.3.8
uid
Some
the
lymph
with
these
Figure
tissue
capillaries
lymph
p
system
capillaries.
capillaries
lymph
system
vein
the
thoracic
circulatory
stomach
the
body
with
the
increased
oxygen
needed
for
aerobic
respiration.
and,
3
like
It
is
the
liver,
also
cells
led
and
people
is
with
–
to
you
with
white
lymphatic
have
removed
lled
their
live
Some
spleens
without
cardiac
each
blood
tissue.
have
can
The
blood.
output
minute.
hear t
beats
volume
of
This
per
is
is
the
achieved
minute
blood
volume
by
of
out
of
in
increasing
increases),
pumped
blood
and
the
dm
the
increasing
hear t
with
pumped
hear t
the
each
rate
out
(the
stroke
beat
of
the
hear t
number
volume
of
(the
increases).
it.
cardiac
output
(volume
hear t
rate
stroke
volume
3
of
blood
from
The
in
hear t
extra
blood
dm
per
is
=
minute)
volume
t hat
(volume
of
3
pumped
of
stored
t he
per
×
minute)
blood
in
(beats
coming
liver
and
into
blood
of
t he
spleen
in
hear t
dm
per
circulation
when
at
pumped
out
beat)
during
exercise
is
rest.
142
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The
circulatory
system
The
Practical
The
beep
This
is
a
circulatory
system
Activity
test
popular
oxygen
to
names:
beep
way
support
test,
to
test
aerobic
bleep
the
efciency
respiration
test,
shuttle
of
during
runs,
the
heart
and
exercise.
multi-stage
It
lungs
has
a
tness
in
providing
variety
of
test.
Requirements
●
T
ape
●
two
●
CD
measure
markers
player,
20
test
with
Y
ou
apart.
1
Find
a
2
Warm
only
flat
up
with
20
beep
metres
test
apart
app,
continuously
runs,
beeps
laptop
surface
5
to
10
are
with
and
between
sometimes
that
continue
for
set
a
running
These
pre-recorded
should
rule
running
a
program
with
beeps
involves
metres
metre
person
phone
pre-recorded
This
or
per
played
this
mark
at
activity
two
minutes
called
by
if
points
doing
set
two
points
shuttle
intervals
you
that
are
are
some
in
that
runs,
of
are
exactly
kept
in
time
time.
good
exactly
jogging
are
health.
20
and
metres
apart.
stretching
exercises.
3
Start
one
the
foot
beep
on
test
or
software.
just
over
the
At
each
line.
The
beep,
beeps
you
are
need
set
to
so
have
you
at
will
least
start
to
−1
move
until
4
at
8.5
you
After
a
km
hear
while,
.
h
the
If
you
are
too
fast
you
will
have
to
wait
at
the
line
beep.
there
will
be
a
double
beep
which
indicates
the
speed
is
−1
5
increasing
by
rest
test.
of
When
read
the
you
your
before
miss
your
km
the
fitness
failing
oxygen
0.5
to
h
beep
score
keep
body
.
on
from
up
can
This
is
will
two
the
your
absorb
now
happen
consecutive
program
score.
during
or
This
at
regular
occasions,
app.
The
score
exercise.
It
is
is
intervals
stop
highest
the
the
test
level
maximum
known
as
the
for
the
and
you
reach
volume
VO
of
max
2
3
and
6
is
Warm
Try
the
measured
down
test
by
and
Bleep
in
cm
doing
compare
3
oxygen
some
your
per
kilogram
stretching
level
of
per
minute
(cm
−1
kg
−1
min
).
exercises.
tness
with
others.
Test
54.5
3
Fitness:
Next
cm
beep:
2
sec
Speed:
-1
kg
-1
min
13.5
km/h
20
p
Figure
B.3.3.9
measure
their
These
aerobic
two
students
are
doing
shuttle
m
runs
to
fitness
143
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The
circulatory
The
system
Written
The
output
of
of
a
student
measurements
q
T
able
heart
were
while
system
Activity
the
Measurements
circulatory
at
made
resting
are
in
rest
of
the
and
T
able
and
during
heart
during
rate
some
exercise
and
the
cardiac
strenuous
output
exercise.
The
B.3.3.2.
B.3.3.2
At
rest
During
strenuous
exercise
−1
Heart
rate
/
beats
min
3
Cardiac
During
output
and
cardiac
output
strenuous
T
able
5
25
min
there
organ
160
−1
dm
exercise
organs
q
/
72
are
changes
systems.
that
ows
T
able
through
in
the
distribution
B.3.3.3
the
shows
organs
of
the
the
of
blood
to
body
at
rest
of
Percentage
at
of
cardiac
Percentage
rest
Brain
output
Skin
of
the
digestive
system
Kidneys
of
during
15
6
3
26
2
4
20
80
5
5
Bones
4
1
Others
4
2
muscles
Cardiac
muscle
1
data
Calculate
in
in
the
heart
T
ables
the
B.3.3.2
student’s
and
stroke
B.3.3.3
volume
cardiac
exercise
3
20
Skeletal
the
during
B.3.3.3
output
Use
the
and
exercise.
Organ
Organs
different
percentage
to
(i)
answer
at
rest,
the
and
following
(ii)
during
questions
strenuous
exercise.
2
Summarise
when
the
someone
significant
does
changes
strenuous
in
the
distribution
Calculate
the
a
4
the
organs
rate
listed
of
a
blood
at
rest,
flow
and
blood
that
occur
exercise.
3
3
of
in
b
dm
−1
min
during
that
flows
exercise.
through
Present
your
each
of
answers
in
table.
Draw
at
a
rest
Figure
bar
and
graph
to
during
B.3.3.10
compare
exercise.
as
this
a
the
rate
Consider
good
way
to
of
blood
drawing
show
flow
the
data
through
bars
like
the
organs
horizontally
as
in
this.
Skin
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
3
Rate
p
5
Suggest
T
able
examples
Figure
of
the
of
blood
flow/dm
0.7
0.8
–1
min
B.3.3.10
organs
included
in
the
category
‘others’
in
B.3.3.2.
144
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The
circulatory
system
Heart
disease
Questions
1
Describe
goes
2
from
Make
3
a
pathway
lungs
table
to
that
shows
that
supply
Explain
why
the
the
left
vena
side
4
Explain
5
a
in
why
Describe
the
must
be
the
blood
in
and
organs
each
exactly
in
the
back
the
organ
to
the
body
and
flowing
the
circulation
into
same
the
as
it
it
the
names
of
the
away.
right
the
when
lungs.
and
take
system
side
volume
of
the
heart
entering
the
vein.
have
structure
blood
muscle
to
of
pulmonary
arteries
by
the
blood
volume
cava
the
taken
cardiac
vessels
in
6
the
thicker
of
walls
capillaries.
than
b
veins.
Explain
the
role
of
capillaries
in
body.
State
four
ways
in
which
blood
returns
to
the
heart
from
the
systemic
circulation.
7
Explain
8
Name
B.3.4
how
an
artery
Heart
Cardiovascular
Caribbean
the
lymph
heart
as
that
all
formed.
contains
deoxygenated
blood.
disease
diseases
in
and
is
are
other
the
parts
circulator y
Learning
most
of
the
system.
important
world.
Included
cause
These
in
this
are
of
death
all
the
categor y
in
diseases
of
By
the
of
disease
the
heart
disease
(CHD),
heart
failure,
heart
valve
disease
be
of
and
define
the
explain
disease
●
explain
effects
Coronar y
hear t
disease
angina
–
pain
you
hypertension
in
the
of
atherosclerosis
arteries
causes
heart
and
attacks
includes:
●
●
term
how
develops
heart
topic
to:
strokes.
●
Coronary
this
able
are
●
coronary
end
should
outcomes
across
t he
chest,
lef t
arm
and
shoulder
caused
describe
the
role
of
artificial
by
pacemakers.
insufcient
●
coronar y
some
blood
getting
t hrombosis
cardiac
muscle
–
is
a
to
t he
hear t
blockage
star ved
of
muscle
occurs
blood
in
and
a
coronar y
dies
–t his
ar ter y
is
a
so
hear t
t hat
attack.
Key
terms
!
Figure
3.4.1
muscle
The
in
shows
t he
blockage
cardiac
lef t
t he
ventricle
stops
muscle.
coronar y
t he
This
and
blood
tissue
ar teries
a
place
owing
dies
and
supplying
(C)
into
t his
where
an
a
in
of
blockage
capillaries
results
area
a
cardiac
has
supplying
hear t
occurred.
a
region
of
Coronary
condition
one
attack.
or
more
Atheroma
arch
material
of
heart
caused
on
disease
by
a
coronary
A
deposit
the
lining
A
blockage
in
arteries.
of
of
a
an
fatty
artery.
aorta
right
coronary
artery
left
coronary
artery
A
t
Figure
B.3.4.1
The
heart
showing
coronary
B
arteries.
C
is
A
blocked
blood
branch
at
C
leading
cardiac
so
to
of
the
left
coronary
interrupting
the
death
of
flow
artery
of
surrounding
muscle
145
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Topic
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16:07
Heart
The
disease
circulatory
system
Atherosclerosis
Key
term
!
One
of
t he
most
atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis
The
process
fatty
material
is
deposited
lining
of
of
blockages
material,
in
coronar y
par ticularly
ar teries
cholesterol,
t he
inner
wall
of
t he
coronar y
ar teries
(Figure
B.3.4.2).
These
artery
with
fatty
endothelium
streak
develops
wall
of
on
the
plaque
the
and
artery
develops
narrows
space
for
plaque
the
blood
p
Figure
Tiny
B.3.4.2
par ticles
ar teries
become
widt h
and
(see
of
less
able
pressure.
disturb
partially
The
blocked
artery
cardiac
lies
on
muscle
section
coronary
the
which
is
of
blue.
outer
deposit
a
large
very
wall
of
part
little
of
the
plaque
of
the
space
artery
(orange)
artery.
the
clot.
clot
A
in
flow
to
flow
for
through
(red)
is
blood
to
cardiac
to
in
of
3.4.3).
reduce
in
roughen
ow
tears
t he
or
phagocytes
t he
properly
plaques
by
and
Wit h
t he
plaques.
t he
lining
to
it
cholesterol
breaks
form
forms
time,
space
and
of
in
for
‘foam
blood
t he
cells’.
to
become
t he
in
of
This
t he
walls
increase
of
t he
ow.
less
to
coronar y
cells
lining
plaques
recoiling
increasing
to
t he
plaques
t he
Ar teries
stretching
blood
to
artery
artery
distribute
enter
at heroma
and
begin
deposited
blood
clots
the
elastic
maintain
ar teries
chance
t hat
and
blood
and
blood
will
clot
is
coronar y
called
ar ter y
a
t hrombus
t hat
reduces
and
or
coronar y
stops
t he
t hrombosis
ow
of
blood
is
to
a
blood
an
area
of
muscle.
is
The
cardiac
fatty
acids)
muscle
and
it
does
does
not
not
receive
have
its
any
oxygen
carbon
and
dioxide
nutrients
carried
(glucose
away.
and
The
muscle
Cardiac
muscle
(bright
the
muscle
is
B.3.4.2
coronary
may
engulfed
and
smoot h
blood
a
star ts
to
respire
anaerobically
and
produce
lactic
acid.
capillaries
cannot
supplying
The
t he
a
off
rough
a
blocking
There
blood
be
in
is
Inside
tissue
red)
wall
in
Some
material
function
t he
cardiac
the
are
of
artery.
surface
fatty
may
to
body.
Figures
t he
Calcium
cross
travel
t he
ar teries
A
t hat
t hroughout
accumulated
B.3.4.3
Atherosclerosis
breaks
lining
block
a
deposits
arteries.
Healthy
Figure
is
deposited
atheromas
smooth
p
is
in
called
the
causes
fatty
by
in
which
common
where
function
correctly
under
t hese
circumstances
and
may
die.
This
(×7)
coronar y
When
such
●
someone
in
t he
discomfor t
●
sweating
●
t herefore
hear t
likely
attack
t hey
to
cause
usually
a
hear t
have
a
attack.
variety
of
symptoms,
and
of
under
t he
breastbone
(clavicle)
and
down
t he
lef t
arm
nausea
vomiting
breat h
and
anxiety
weakness.
Some
hear t
attacks
increases
t he
have
hear t
lives.
to
had
To
do
reduce
Risk
t he
is
hear t
a
are
chances
t hey
risk
of
but
have
have
from
recovered
received
having
heart
ot her
are
a
not.
hear t
and
hear t
Prompt
attack.
gone
treatment
anot her
component
Among
many
sur vival
coronary
genetic
attack.
of
fatal,
of
attacks
t his
factors
There
a
a
chest,
and
shor tness
●
has
is
as:
pain
●
t hrombosis
on
and
medical
Many
to
lead
have
attention
people
long
who
and
changed
active
t heir
lives
attack.
disease
t hat
makes
factors
t hat
some
people
contribute
to
more
likely
coronar y
to
suffer
hear t
146
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16:07
The
circulatory
disease
t he
are
risk
which
lack
they
a
regular
blood
have
are
it
t hat
t he
is
high
risk
and
no
of
and
they
saturated
high
fatty
fats,
blood
deposits
they
smoking
know
symptoms
when
in
and
smoking,
pressure,
which
high
developing
in
increases
blood
t he
disease
pressure,
ar teries
and
a
exercise.
pressure
smoke
there
diet
Heart
at herosclerosis
increases
of
High
of
system
of
have
they
high
their
are
can,
blood
blood
two
serious
with
risk
factors.
willpower,
pressure
pressure
and
taken
give
most
(see
it
People
up.
However,
people
Figure
know
discover
they
B.3.2.9).
Hypertension
If
blood
pressure
The
normal
and
10.7
13.3
kPa
kPa
above
for
consistently
pressure
diastolic
increases
pressure
below
is
blood
gures
in
risk
kPa
is
of
high,
a
(120/80
t he
17
.3
for
t hen
young
in
a
mmHg).
A
to
be
is
has
about
diastolic
cardiovascular
considered
person
adult
kPa
pressure
problems,
ver y
hyper tension.
16.0
and
serious
a
(see
systolic
✔
Study
Very
diastolic
t he
case
Treatment
Hear t
●
disease
Balloon
small
heart
is
how
vessel
vessel
so
Hear t
from
–
Some
to
operations
t he
t his
in
During
t he
are
in
suffering
t he
The
of
at heroma
from
The
out.
a
and
stroke
carried
to
a
ow
out
is
is
by-pass
or
of
each
putting
or
increases
hear t
t he
blood
pressure
have
and
had
last
year.
You
hypertension
you
taken
their
may
to
learn
within
have
them;
this
if
topic
to
the
explain
so,
this
really
will
well.
t he
attack.
t he
a
of
ow
piece
blocked
such
body.
it
t he
of
t he
of
section
used.
ver y
t he
par tially
t he
par t
diseased
blood.
blood
by-passes
of
in
(‘hear t-lung’
Large
(a
be
into
reaches
stretching
pump
t he
t hrough
rate
may
cat heter
around
cat heter
taking
more
surger y
a
balloon
t he
mechanical
t hrough
cases
pushed
increases
two
a
inated,
involves
one,
surger y,
wit h
por tion
This
severe
involves
balloon
body
need
In
cat heter
balloon
blood
dr ugs.
diameter
procedure
people
make
or
procedure
vessel.
opens
elsewhere
operation.
●
it
development
various
mm
blocked.
t hat
bypass
ar ter y.
used
until
by
t his
1
coronar y
nearly
is
–
about
t hat
t he
angina
treated
closed
many
about
friends
disease
ination
tube)
diseased
●
stimulates
developing
of
know
Ask
family
help
of
people
mmHg).
excessive alcohol, take little exercise, or eat a high fat and/or high salt diet.
chances
few
hypertension.
study
High blood pressure is more likely in people who smoke, are overweight, drink
Hyper tension
tip
above
vessel
coronar y
one
machine)
numbers
of
is
t hese
year.
Heart transplant – in ver y serious cases a heart transplant may be carried
out, but the number of these is limited by the availability of donor hearts.
Articial
Some
pacemakers
people
pacemakers.
under
Each
t he
t he
demand
is
skin
atrium
impulses
or
problems
made
patient’s
right
electrical
hear t
operation
takes
need
to
be
tted
approximately
an
wit h
ar ticial
hour
and
is
performed
anaest hetic.
pacemaker
under
into
local
wit h
The
when
up
of
and
and
t he
ar ticially
t he
hear t
a
batter y-powered
two
electrodes
right
and
misses
ventricle.
conducts
a
beat.
pulse
which
The
t hem
are
generator
placed
pacemaker
to
t he
implanted
t hrough
veins
generates
cardiac
muscle
on
p
Figure
B.3.4.4
inserted
into
a
An
artificial
person’s
pacemaker
chest
147
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Heart
The
disease
Maths
T
able
the
q
B.3.4.1
shows
Americas
T
able
skills
in
circulatory
system
2
deaths
from
cardiovascular
disease
in
ten
countries
in
2010.
B.3.4.1
Country
Population
Deaths
T
otal
from
cardiovascular
of
diseases
all
number
deaths
from
1995
causes
Barbados
283 000
504
1800
Belize
324 000
325
1300
Cayman
Costa
Islands
50 000
43
270
4 805 000
6 300
21 000
11 271 000
34 710
89 000
72 000
183
572
795 000
2 079
6 300
109 000
311
700
1 337 000
4 160
13 000
318 000 000
823 360
2 656 000
Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Guyana
St.
Vincent
and
the
Grenadines
2010
Trinidad
and
Non-communicable
T
obago
(2008)
diseases
USA
Communicable
diseases
These
Injuries
and
much
Ill-defined
p
Figure
B
changes
3.4.5
in
2010
of
Pie
charts
percentages
in
death
the
in
cannot
be
compared
easily
as
the
populations
differ
so
size.
causes
to
of
show
four
the
1
Calculate
between
1995
for
each
country
listed
in
T
able
B.3.4.1,
main
a
causes
gures
accidents
the
crude
the
population
death
the
deaths
rate,
which
is
the
number
of
deaths
per
100 000
of
and
of
each
country;
Caribbean
b
2
Display
the
countries
The
number
countries
3
How
this
4
5
results
are
of
as
from
easy
cases
they
would
of
your
to
see
of
you
use
calculations
at
a
coronary
become
disease
more
as
so
a
percentage
comparisons
of
total
between
deaths.
the
ten
glance.
heart
disease
is
said
to
increase
in
developed.
statistics
of
deaths
in
different
countries
to
test
statement?
Suggest
how
you
would
organisations
to
and
heart
List
cardiovascular
coronary
the
factors,
developing
Case
find
out
use
data
whether
from
there
national
is
a
and
international
correlation
between
smoking
disease.
other
coronary
than
heart
smoking,
that
increase
the
chances
of
disease.
study
Hypertension
The
✔
Study
tip
Non-communicable
all
by
the
diseases
organisms
viruses.
There
that
such
is
Unit
D.1
and
diseases
are
as
not
t he
Americas,
t he
ten
Organization
cause
mor tality
almost
from
maintains
two
t hirds
diseases
t hat
of
linked
all
to
non-communicable
deat hs
worldwide.
hyper tension
is
In
leading
causes
of
deat h
in
men
and
one
of
women.
caused
more
diseases
D.2.
Healt h
currently
are
bacteria
much
non-communicable
World
diseases
and
about
in
Hypertension is a persistent raised blood pressure. The WHO denition of
hypertension is a systolic blood pressure that is always equal to or above
1
40 mmHg (≥ 1
40 mmHg / 18.7 kPa) and/or a diastolic blood pressure that
is always equal to or above 90 mmHg (≥ 90 mmHg / 12.0 kPa).
148
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The
circulatory
system
Hyper tension
is
a
Heart
risk
factor
of
disease
t hat
affects
bot h
men
and
✔
women.
High
children
and
blood
pressures
teenagers
in
have
t he
even
been
found
in
sur veys
many
different
tip
Caribbean.
as
of
Exam
of
You
Samples
disease
populations
across
t he
world
suggest
should
they
know
may
be
all
these
used
in
symbols
exam
t hat
questions:
up
to
30%
140/90
have
of
t he
mmHg.
t he
One
condition.
hyper tension
140/90
adult
wit h
population
t hird
One
of
in
dr ugs,
suffers
people
t hree
fail
to
from
sampled
people
keep
do
who
t heir
blood
not
are
blood
pressure
know
being
above
t hat
treated
pressure
>
greater
than
≥
greater
than
<
less
than
≤
less
than
t hey
high
blood
cer tain
pressure
of
Afr ica,
of
to
do
diet
to
so
have
of
decreasing
blood
of
t he
t hese
decreases,
and
volume
of
work
do.
to
falls.
salt
blood
does
t he
and
again
Beta-bloc kers
These
t he
blood
a
t hat
–
is
If
ow
to
of
If
or
equal
to
called
ur ine.
pressure
t hird
type
t he
falls
of
hear t
by
dr ug
rate
about
use
them
especially
BMI
and
in
your
when
writing
hypertension.
in
treated
r isk
t hey
style
and
of
to
can
c hanges
dr ugs.
resist ance
hard
and
t he
decreases
t he
wit h
ar ter ioles
increase
hear t
t he
so
to
t he
volume
t he
has
prescr ibed
and
are
c hanges
t he
so
This
as
also
Americas,
t he
t hen
life
As
diuretics,
t heir
be
prescr ibe
blood
a
can
answers,
remain
reduce
ar ter ies
blood.
pump
t he
65
common
countr ies
smoke,
can
of
while
groups.
could
t hese
t hat,
age
In
t hem
pressure
t he
of
it.
more
many
t hey
in
t he
et hnic
cases
doctors
in
reduce
from
it
in
blood
reveals
from
most
t hese
t hen
lose
are
dr ugs
suffer
ot her
muscles
dr ugs,
people
men,
difcult.
need
USA ,
signicantly
active.
to
not
Ot her
t hat
of
t heir
effect,
relax
t he
adults
would
of ten
resist ance
hear t
hyper tension.
hear t ’s
desired
t he
t he
many
more
is
of
in
pressure
lower
t hat
in
men
t han
cent
whic h
can
dr ugs
pressure
water
per
in
discovered
blood
becoming
alt hough
t han
have
t hough
people
and
quit
not
Some
40
medications,
Some
common
descent
high
even
including
women
t han
have
undiagnosed,
tr y
of
more
African
more
estimated
low-cost
is
hyper tension
populations
t heir
countries,
propor tion
sur veys
deat h.
to
below
You
from
In
equal
mmHg.
Data
higher
or
for
less
reduce
power
of
t he
contractions.
Even though people with high blood pressure take dr ugs, they may still
have hypertension. It is far better to not to smoke, take plenty of exercise,
eat healthily and drink alcohol in moderation or not at all. This reduces
1
in
3
adults
suffer
1
in
3
adults
with
from
hypertension
the chances of developing hypertension.
1
Questions
know
1
Dene
2
Explain
3
What
4
t he
term
why
are
Explain
many
t he
how
people
dangers
of
do
not
know
t hat
t hey
have
3
hyper tension?
hyper tension
can
be
reduce
ways
t he
in
Figure
which
number
of
governments
cases
of
do
not
disease
1
in
3
adults
cannot
teating
keep
it
their
hypertension
under
140/90
and
medical
aut horities
B.3.4.6
the
This
isotope
significance
of
diagram
hypertension.
can
Isotope
diagrams
present
data
are
often
used
to
hyper tension.
way
6
this
treated.
shows
Suggest
hypertension
have
hyper tension.
p
5
they
hypertension.
and
are
on
health
in
commonly
a
very
used
in
visual
official
Design a health education poster to show the importance hypertension.
reports,
posters
and
web
sites
149
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Heart
The
disease
circulatory
system
Questions
Talk
about
?
Caribbean
countries
successfully
diseases
of
cases
illness
reduced
diseases
malnutrition.
diseases
controlled
and
of
But
remain
and
early
1
Define
the
if
2
Explain
how
plaque
is
3
Explain
how
a
attack
4
Explain
the
5
A
the
the
due
to
or
a
major
number
cause
of
group
their
of
try
to
friends
this
and
wall
of
an
artery.
heart
may
occur.
role
of
an
artificial
pacemaker.
of
with
people
aerobic
of
fitness.
different
both
genders
Explain
exercise
how
who
you
regimes
are
not
could
as
physically
use
ways
to
this
fit
group
improve
wish
of
to
improve
people
aerobic
to
fitness.
cardiovascular
and
your
the
reduce
this
be
left
up
Summary
families?
The
Discuss
in
should
to
should
individuals
formed
to
death.
do
prevalence
disease
disease.
cardiovascular
anything,
governments
cardiovascular
infectious
compare
What,
term
have
your
circulatory
system
family,
teachers.
●
Diffusion
small
●
Very
is
a
small
means
since
their
there
Large
and
is
●
too
Blood
are
need
great
is
a
from
small
the
cells
produced
humans,
not
released
suitable
surface
acts
for
as
for
area:
their
oxygen
have
large
the
a
small
enough
in
liquid
as
transport
within
a
very
gas
to
volume
ratio
exchange
enter
and
which
surface
diffuse
to
surface
provide
area:
enough
volume
oxygen
ratio
for
the
to
blood
liver
are
and
blood
to
are
shape
many
to
and
cells
acids,
whole
is
from
in
distances
cells
and
from
the
throughout
white
glycerol,
solution
body.
as
is
heat.
in
in
gas
the
blood
amino
the
is
the
Urea
the
endocrine
in
Oxygen
transported
transported
body
cells
that
is
blood
glands
acids,
blood
plasma.
a
to
plasma
transported
waste
the
where
in
Water
red
is
substances
kidneys.
they
are
organs.
adapted
are
blood
fatty
body
a
for
transporting
relatively
molecules
and
red
fat,
dioxide
with
form
cells
bacteria
of
the
transported
cells
the
respiring
transported
the
target
because
the
diffuse.
glucose,
carbon
their
haemoglobin
to
to
plasma.
intestine
the
are
system
lungs
composed
throughout
biconcave
nucleus
in
minerals
and
Hormones
engulf
large
surface
oxygen
in
such
and
White
a
surface
transport
tissue
distributed
●
a
for
vitamins
a
is
surface
Nutrients,
Red
only
body.
like
suspended
blood
●
is
body.
exchange
●
the
surface
Humans
are
that
have
body
enough
animals,
the
whole
●
process
organisms
that
throughout
●
slow
organism.
of
large
oxygen
surface
haemoglobin.
for
as
they
have
diffusion,
Oxygen
no
combines
with
oxyhaemoglobin.
part
digest
of
the
them
body’s
inside
defence
system:
vacuoles;
phagocytes
lymphocytes
secrete
antibodies.
●
●
The
heart
is
a
muscular
The
heart
is
a
double
circulation
to
the
lungs
circulation
to
the
rest
Humans
in
one
have
a
complete
organ
pump
and
of
double
the
made
as
the
one
other
entirely
pumps
pumps
of
blood
blood
cardiac
muscle.
into
pulmonary
into
the
systemic
body.
circulation
circulation
almost
side
of
the
as
blood
flows
through
the
heart
twice
body.
150
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The
●
circulatory
system
The
heart
thin
walled
has
ventricles.
and
the
needed
lungs,
the
●
left
The
this
thick
are
for
●
blood
allow
tissue
fluid
into
one
a
prevent
active
fibrin
that
by
forms
which
are
no
have
The
a
Tissue
blood
is
a
is
in
much
the
heart’s
the
is
The
than
are
the
the
lungs
pressure
to
thicker
the
wall
pacemaker.
heart
fitted
in
than
to
This
contract.
under
the
If
skin
to
When
the
into
the
elastic
arteries.
heart
These
contracts
fibres
recoil
have
arteries
and
push
pressure.
and
tricuspid
ventricles
right
but
close
when
oxygen
to
cells.
pass
when
the
into
between
prevent
easily
atria
valves
at
the
contract
relax
to
ventricles.
have
from
dioxide
the
backflow
ventricles
ventricles
the
These
Carbon
to
Semilunar
open
arteries
vessels.
valves)
contract
direction.
artery
the
blood
than
is
arteries
have
stop
the
blood
into
the
lining
of
the
very
the
and
thin
walls
blood
wastes
into
pass
back
that
red
is
(not
thickens
hypertension
so
withstand
that
cells
the
to
and
veins)
many
help
is
start
of
dries
blood
to
is
the
clotting
have
form
to
a
ions
and
of
scab.
the
fatty
no
into
molecules
lining
material
the
process
atherosclerosis.
people
wound,
small
calcium
This
atheroma
the
are
converted
The
damage
material.
lining
seal
are
protein.
causes
fatty
the
to
Platelets
chemicals
with
This
of
to
ensure
prothrombin
fibrous
blood
pressure.
arteries
a
have
to
immediately
of
enzyme
which
not
pathogens.
release
deposition
and
of
do
valves
heart.
clots
entry
This
traps
blood
they
molecules
fibrin
that
to
blood
the
process,
as
semilunar
back
broken
thrombin.
of
the
all
pressure
fibres.
the
from
They
deposited
and
clot
a
or
heart
fluid
of
areas
increases
attack
surrounds
are
by
may
all
some
fluid.
small
are
full
risk
idea
There
that
they
of
in
blood
in
a
in
the
walls
of
clotting
coronary
arteries
within
artery
reduces
these
vessels.
supplying
If
cardiac
occur.
the
cells
flows
lymph
such
body,
blood.
the
thin
Lymph
concentrated
as
the
much
capillaries
through
the
swellings
of
tissue
occurs
into
pathogens,
nodes
fatty
enters
This
back
of
the
thrombosis
system
that
attack
in
journey
high
the
is
colourless
Lymph
to
body.
greater
atria
into
condition.
lymphatic
to
blood
the
a
The
distance
capillaries.
and
mesh
capillaries,
nodes
and
promoting
it
flow
muscle
●
its
this
development
blood
has
stimulate
relaxes,
arteries,
walls
loss
symptoms
the
blood
a
on
enzyme
arteries,
is
high
pulmonary
back
in
vessel
cells
Hypertension
of
of
much
pacemaker
(bicuspid
smallest
fibrinogen
forms
that
blood
when
the
the
thinner
way
its
travels
pressures.
of
atrium
elastic
surrounds
During
converts
it
blood
blood
process.
the
ventricles.
short
rest
is
ventricle
under
heart
valves
nutrients
blood
fragments
and
and
the
the
have
When
the
body
artificial
heart
close
into
that
blood
right
an
the
flowing
are
which
flows
●
aorta
blood
Capillaries
Veins
left
two
a
deoxygenated
to
the
impulses
maintaining
ensuring
the
allow
high
●
when
ventricles
blood
easily
●
muscle
the
of
the
the
the
atrioventricular
prevent
●
of
and
to
●
of
stretched;
base
pumps
blood
and
blood
heart.
out
along
in
reason
The
of
why
atria
pump
around
electrical
the
walls
node
any
flows
blood
pumps
blood
explains
regular
fails
Blood
ventricle
ventricle
two
to
disease
ventricle.
stimulate
●
contract
right
sino-atrial
emits
chambers:
they
pump
which
right
four
as
The
to
Heart
in
which
of
form
walled
flows
and
secrete
it
drains
lymph
of
into
which
vessels
through
regions
respiratory
lymphocytes
to
of
the
lymph
the
digestive
body
prone
system.
antibodies.
151
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Practice
The
Questions
9
Practice
Which
substances
are
dissolved
in
circulatory
human
system
blood
Questions
plasma?
Section
1
What
does
t he
term
A
The
relaxation
B
The
closure
C
The
contraction
of
systole
of
a
a
refer
2
The
What
A
carbon
B
glucose,
opening
does
t he
chamber
valve
of
of
a
a
in
t he
of
hormones
C
sucrose,
oxygen
D
brin,
t he
valve
in
blood
t he
vein
from
Deoxygenated
C
Oxygenated
D
Deoxygenated
t he
of
t he
Which
carbon
occurs
A
t hrombin
Which
of
t he
A
small
B
t hick
C
presence
D
high
B
brinogen
C
red
D
platelets
blood
to
t he
rest
during
is
blood
blood
from
from
blood
following
elastic
of
blood
who
is
at
clotting?
to
is
conver ted
prot hrombin
cells
stick
to
brin
toget her
a
meshwork
t he
t he
hear t
lungs
to
to
t he
t he
from
t he
body
to
is
not
a
feature
of
B
lungs.
hear t.
t he
a
The
diagram
below
shows
t hree
types
of
cells
found
hear t.
t he
blood.
ar teries?
walls
valves
pressure
A
consumes
risk
coronar y
a
diet
rich
in
fats
and
does
B
ast hma
C
haemophilia
C
not
Name
t he
cells
labelled
A,
B
and
C.
[3]
from:
hear t
B
State
one
function
for
each
of
t he
cells
named
disease
b
Sarah
It
1
above.
pricked
star ted
[3]
her
nger
bleeding
for
a
wit h
a
needle
moment
and
while
t hen
sewing.
stopped.
diabetes
i)
ii)
Which
of
t he
following
is
a
characteristic
of
t he
What
cell
t hat
allows
it
to
carr y
out
its
function
A
B
No
round
Tissue
t he
uid
is
bleeding.
impor tant
to
stop
works
bleeding?
in
her
body
[1]
to
[4]
for
t he
transfer
of
nutrients
cells.
shape.
Identify
t he
name
of
t he
process
by
which
nucleus.
nutrients
Contains
many
molecules
of
Small
from
t he
tissue
uid
to
[1]
size.
ii)
is
move
haemoglobin.
cells.
t he
role
of
platelets
in
t he
ght
Explain
how
tissue
uid
is
formed.
[3]
blood?
2
to
her
process
oxygen?
i)
What
caused
t his
of
to
A
how
red
c
transpor ting
process
Explain
stop
blood
A
blood
conver ted
form
in
6
salts
of
i)
D
and
carr y?
hear t
ii)
C
proteins
lumen
person
exercise
5
and
dioxide
hear t.
in
D
glucose
hear t.
1
A
and
salts
body.
B
A
and
hear t.
Section
4
haemoglobin
hear t.
chamber
pulmonar y
Oxygenated
t he
3
dioxide,
to?
10
D
A
A
The
diagram
below
shows
t he
pat hway
of
blood
between
infections
t he
B
to
transpor t
C
to
reduce
D
to
help
carbon
blood
hear t,
lungs
and
ot her
body
organs.
dioxide
pressure
LUNGS
7
Which
of
in
blood
t he
clotting
following
is
tr ue
about
tissue
uid
B
and
C
lymph?
Tissue
A
Contains
B
Is
red
uid
blood
Lymph
cells
Contains
white
blood
cells
Valve
formed
blood
from
C
Has
high
D
Contains
a
Which
of
t he
ltration
of
arteries
Is
formed
in
the
lymph
nodes
pressure
water
dissolved
8
by
Has
and
a
low
Contains
pressure
white
blood
cells
A
nutrients
following
blood
vessels
have
t he
D
lowest
pressure?
A
ar teries
B
ar terioles
C
capillaries
D
veins
OTHER
BODY
ORGANS
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The
circulatory
a
i)
system
Name
and
b
Copy
two
and
types
t he
D.
Practice
blood
blood
t he
table
vessels
Structures
Presence
labelled
A,
B,
C
4
The
diagram
below
shows
t he
str ucture
of
t he
hear t.
[4]
complete
of
vessels
Questions
below
found
in
which
t he
compares
body.
Artery
[3]
Vein
or
F
absence
Blood
valves
pressure
Relative
of
of
High
thickness
wall
A
c
The
circulation
into
two
pat hs
of
–
blood
in
t he
pulmonar y
body
can
circulation
be
divided
and
systemic
E
B
circulation.
i)
Explain
blood
ii)
d
State
Andre
was
amount
i)
what
involves.
two
fried
Explain
pat h
by
foods
why
advice?
of
t he
circulation
of
[2]
substances
advised
of
each
his
he
you
transpor ted
doctor
was
to
by
reduce
blood.
[2]
t he
consuming.
t hink
t he
doctor
gave
t his
[2]
C
ii)
Suggest
T WO
ot her
changes
t hat
Andre
can
D
make
to
improve
system.
t he
healt h
of
his
circulator y
[2]
a
3
Blood
is
one
tissue
in
t he
body
associated
wit h
State
A
circulator y
i)
and
State
two
functions
of
blood.
Fill
in
t he
blanks
in
t he
following
State
t he
liquid
par t
contains
of
water
transpor t
mainly
cells
to
State
t he
blood
and
is
called
dissolved
d
substances
.
,
defend
t he
body
The
red
while
such
as
blood
Copy
and
t he
white
effect
blood
.
complete
and
t he
following
table
about
t he
type
of
blood
t hey
carr y.
of
blood
vessel
e
the
blood
lungs
atrium
to
through
of
from
the
atrium
ways
in
t he
pulmonar y
t he
aor ta.
uid.
t he
t he
t his
He
t he
four
chambers
diagram.
of
t he
hear t,
walls
of
hear t
has
on
t he
var y
t he
[4]
upper
in
and
lower
t hickness
pressure
of
and
blood
t he
for
[4]
born
loves
to
wit h
play
a
hole
but
in
gets
t he
tired
septum
easily
of
and
his
suffers
what
is
happening
symptoms
he
is
in
Sheldon’s
hear t
experiencing.
to
[3]
a
Explain
these
why
a
large
multicellular
organism
such
as
left
human,
needs
a
circulator y
system
unlike
small
veins
body
blood
to
through
the
these
ows
right
Identify
par t
c
of
organisms,
which
ar ter y
t he
blood
differs
from
carried
t he
ii)
in
of
which
substances
[2]
circulator y
such
as
ONE
tissue
an
capillaries
between
are
adapted
blood
and
system.
hospitalised
(coronar y
Explain
amoeba.
af ter
t hat
[3]
is
[2]
suffering
from
a
hear t
t hrombosis).
what
happens
attac k.
[3]
One
factor
r isk
explain
in
and
for
at herosclerosis.
[2]
ways
is
organ
veins
in
blood
ONE
t he
Sharon
i)
exchange
in
ows
the
Aorta
two
t he
was
t he
attack
State
valves
artery
Deoxygenated
d
of
on
t he
single-celled
two
t hese
fatigue.
cause
b
State
F
how
Sheldon
a
Pulmonary
of
[4]
5
from
c
labelled
blood
Description
Oxygenated
to
t hat
Explain
Name
names
C
circulation.
[5]
from
vessels
impor tance
chambers
cells
against
Explain
hear t.
b
valves
blood.
and
help
two
[2]
labelled
The
t he
paragraph
c
about
It
of
[2]
[2]
hear t.
ii)
names
B
system.
b
a
t he
t he
for
tissue
iii)
how
it
around
t he
Suggest
T WO
should
hear t
attack.
hear t
Descr ibe
affects
body.
make
a
hear t
attac k
t his
t he
a
is
process
transpor t
and
of
blood
[5]
lifestyle
to
dur ing
changes
reduce
her
t hat
chances
Sharon
of
anot her
[2]
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Unit
B
The
skeletal
system
B.4
Learning
By
the
end
B.4.1
outcomes
of
this
topic
Bones
be
able
identify
the
main
bones
the
and
their
uses
of
the
skeleton
can
see
from
Figure
B.4.1.2
how
impor tant
t he
skeleton
is
for
us.
The
of
skeleton
●
skeleton
to:
You
●
the
you
Functions
should
of
has
several
functions.
skeleton
relate
the
structure
of
the
Support
skeleton
to
its
functions
The
●
relate
the
structure
of
skeleton
organ
typical
bone
to
its
provides
t he
framework
for
t he
rest
of
t he
body.
All
t he
ot her
a
systems
wit h
t heir
sof t
tissues
are
suppor ted
by
t he
bones
of
t he
functions.
skeleton.
The
skeleton
also
gives
shape
to
t he
body
(see
Figure
B.4.1.2).
Movement
The
bones
ar ticulate
provide
wit h
a
each
solid
str ucture
ot her
to
for
provide
muscle
levers
to
attachment.
allow
Some
bones
movement.
Protection
The
e.g.
t he
hard
t he
bones
ribcage
cranium
protects
t he
of
provide
protection
protects
t he
spinal
t he
skull
hear t
protects
from
and
t he
physical
lungs,
brain
t he
and
damage
pelvis
t he
to
our
protects
ver tebral
sof t
t he
tissue,
uter us,
column
cord.
Breathing
Intercostal
muscles
movement
t he
t horax
of
t he
for
Manufacture
Stem
cells
form
blood
move
breat hing
of
blood
wit hin
cells
t he
ribcage
diaphragm,
t he
and
in
t his
and
up
and
increases
down.
and
Toget her
decreases
wit h
t he
volume
of
out.
cells
red
bone
marrow
t hat
is
inside
some
bones
divide
to
platelets.
Storage
Bone
tissue
ot her
blood
p
Figure
B.4.1.1
A
sports
t han
are
a
sporting
a
ner vous
in
blood
store
of
hardening
kept
in
calcium.
bones
constant
tissue
plasma
for
as
it
and
is
sending
plays
This
mineral
teet h.
needed
impulses
impor tant
roles
element
is
Concentrations
by
cells
from
in
for
one
blood
used
of
muscle
ner ve
to
for
functions
calcium
in
contraction
anot her.
t he
and
Calcium
clotting.
physiotherapist
Yellow
treats
is
bone
marrow
stores
fat.
injury
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The
skeletal
Figure
system
B.4.1.3
Bones
shows
t he
bones
of
t he
human
of
the
skeleton
and
their
uses
skeleton.
cranium
of
skull
orbit
mandible
cervical
clavicle
(collar
scapula
vertebrae
(first
two
atlas
and
are
bone)
(shoulder
axis)
blade)
sternum
(breast
rib
(articulates
thoracic
bone)
with
vertebra)
humerus
lumbar
vertebra
radius
p
Figure
B.4.1.2
The
virtual
body.
Not
ulna
only
does
functions,
our
it
skeleton
also
gives
do
all
shape
these
to
the
sacrum
body
carpals
coccyx
metacarpals
phalanges
acetabulum
forearm
bones
(socket
uncrossed
(palm
head
of
into
which
femur
fits)
forearm
bones
crossed
(palm
up)
down)
femur
patella
(knee
cap)
✔
Exam
tip
fibula
T
ake
care
when
writing
answers
tibia
about
the
nervous
the
system.
vertebral
column)
spinal
the
skeletal
with
Do
not
column
the
column
spinal
system
is
cord
(or
spinal
made
is
and
the
confuse
spinal
cord.
of
The
bone;
made
of
of
central
nervous
tarsals
tissue
and
is
part
the
metatarsals
nervous
system.
phalanges
p
Figure
B.4.1.3
The
human
skeleton
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Bones
of
the
skeleton
and
their
The
uses
suture
parietal
Major
bones
of
the
skeletal
system
skeleton
(right)
frontal
There
are
ve
different
areas
of
t he
human
skeleton.
temporal
1
The
skull,
comprising
t he
cranium
and
t he
mandible
(lower
jaw)
(FigureB.4.1.4).
orbit
2
The
ver tebral
3
The
ribs
4
The
girdles
and
column
sternum
(Figures
(Figure
B.4.1.5,
B.4.1.6
and
B.4.1.7).
B.4.1.8).
upper
jaw
–
t he
pectoral
girdle
(Figure
B.4.1.9a);
t he
pelvic
girdle
(FigureB.4.1.9b).
occipital
position
of
right
ear
5
mandible
(lower
The
The
jaw)
limbs
central
comprises
p
Figure
B.4.1.4
The
human
or
axis
t he
spine:
neural
spinal
of
t he
skull
(Figure
body
and
is
B.4.1.9).
suppor ted
ver tebral
by
column.
t he
The
axial
skeleton,
girdles
and
which
limbs
form
t he
skull
appendicular
neural
appendages
for
arch:
skeleton.
tendon
Axial
protects
skeleton
cord
Skull
neural
spinal
canal:
carries
cord
The
cranium
many
protects
individual
t he
bones
delicate
fused
tissues
toget her.
of
The
t he
brain.
joints
It
is
made
between
from
t hese
bones
can
transverse
process:
be
for
tendon
seen
as
anot her
suture
in
a
way
lines
t hat
in
Figure
makes
B.4.1.4.
t he
joint
The
bones
between
have
t hem
grown
ver y
into
rm.
The
one
at
attachment
bones
centrum:
body
of
of
t he
skull
continue
to
make
red
blood
cells
t hroughout
our
lives.
the
The
mandible
(lower
jaw)
ar ticulates
against
t he
cranium
and
allows
us
to
vertebra
feed
p
Figure
B.4.1.5
A
generalised
and
to
vertebra
Vertebral
atlas
axis
7
cervical
speak.
vertebra
The
column
ver tebral
column
gives
suppor t
to
t he
body,
provides
att ac hment
vertebra
(neck)
for
t he
bac k
muscles
and
protects
t he
delicate
tissues
of
t he
spinal
cord.
vertebrae
There
are
B.4.1.6).
12
ver tebrae
ver tebra
However,
ver tebrae
positions
along
B.4.1.1
thoracic
33
Eac h
and
t he
t he
in
a
has
have
human,
t he
slightly
spine.
differences
These
in
alt hough
general
some
str ucture
different
functions
functions
str ucture
of
are
are
fused
shown
in
according
summar ised
ver tebrae
(Figure
Figure
from
in
t he
B.4.1.5.
to
t heir
Table
nec k
vertebrae
(cer vical),
(connected
on
each
to
a
c hest
(t horacic)
and
small
of
t he
bac k
(lumbar)
are
shown
in
rib
Figure
side)
a
B.4.1.7.
cervical
A
b
A
thoracic
E
B
E
D
D
5
lumbar
(largest
vertebrae
B
and
C
strongest)
C
c
5
sacral
lumbar
A
vertebrae
E
(fused
together
forming
B
the
sacrum)
4
D
caudal
vertebrae
C
(fused
together
forming
the
coccyx)
p
Figure
B.4.1.6
The
human
vertebral
p
Figure
B.4.1.7
Cervical,
thoracic
and
lumbar
vertebrae
column
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The
q
skeletal
T
able
system
B.4.1.1
Bones
Summary
of
the
vertebral
column
and
its
of
the
skeleton
and
their
functions
thoracic
Vertebrae
Number
Cervical
Special
7
First
Thoracic
12
Lumbar
Sacral
Caudal
Ribs
(coccyx)
and
are
of
Articulate
5
Support
5
Fused
4
Greatly
vertebra
features
two
nodding
uses
the
the
(join)
the
atlas
and
axis
which
allow
rotation
and
head
with
upper
together
to
reduced
the
ribs
body
–
support
in
large,
the
humans;
to
withstand
pelvic
no
stress
girdle
special
function
sternum
rib
The
12
pairs
of
ribs,
toget her
wit h
t he
sternum
(breast
bone),
form
a
sternum
(breast
bone)
rib
protective
about
t he
cage
around
breat hing
t he
hear t
movements
and
lungs.
t hat
draw
They
fresh
are
air
also
into
vital
our
in
lungs
and
force
p
Figure
ribs,
stale
t he
of
air
out
of
centr um
ribs
are
our
of
a
joined
lungs
(page
t horacic
to
t he
104).
ver tebra
sternum
The
head
(Figure
by
of
each
B.4.1.8).
car tilage.
The
rib
The
ar ticulates
uppermost
lowest
two
pairs
B.4.1.8
sternum
not
joined;
for
t his
reason
t hey
are
called
“oating
of
and
limbs
connect
girdle
is
made
up
of
t he
scapula
(shoulder
blade)
and
(collar
bone)
B.4.1.9a
for
clavicles
be
used
on
each
side
of
t he
that
bone
to
the
girdle
shows
muscle
give
for
t hat
t he
scapula
attachment
suppor t
to
t he
manipulative
and
a
is
t here
socket
shoulders
the
Bones
leg
that
bones
to
the
body.
so
to
for
t hat
provide
t he
t he
a
broad,
humer us
forearms
to
are
t
column.
at
into.
free
and
The
can
tasks.
a
Pelvic
arm
t he
vertebral
surface
Bones
upper
column.
connects
Figure
girdle
the
girdle
pectoral
clavicle
terms
ribs”.
Pelvic
The
of
vertebrae
pairs
vertebral
Pectoral
arrangement
thoracic
ribs
Pectoral
Girdles
The
and
wit h
ten
Key
are
cartilage
bringing
Pectoral
girdle
and
forearm
b
Pelvic
girdle
and
leg
girdle
pelvis
The
pelvic
t hat
grow
girdle
is
formed
separately
in
a
by
t he
foetus.
fusion
They
of
fuse
six
not
bones
only
scapula
wit h
each
giving
a
ensures
ot her
girdle
t hat
but
t hat
t he
also
is
wit h
rigid
t hr ust
t he
ve
(Figure
developed
sacral
ver tebrae
B.4.1.9b).
by
our
This
leg
muscles
femur
humerus
passes
to
t he
rest
of
t he
body.
Limbs
The
ar ms
and
legs
are
built
on
t he
same
patter n,
ulna
patella
called
a
pentadactyl
limb.
This
is
because
t here
are
radius
ve
digits
on
t he
cor responding
end
bones
of
each
in
t he
limb.
front
In
and
Figure
hind
B.4.1.9,
limbs
are
fibula
carpals
shaded
in
t he
same
way.
Note
t hat
t he
radius
in
(8)
t he
tibia
metacarpals
forear m
is
whet her
t he
t he
one
palm
nearest
is
t he
tur ned
t humb
upwards
regardless
or
of
downwards.
tarsals
of
(7)
fingers
metatarsals
phalanges
of
p
Figure
B.4.1.9
Limbs
and
girdles
toes
compared
157
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Bones,
cartilage
and
The
joints
skeletal
system
Questions
1
a
State
to
fulfil
2
Name
3
What
4
The
Figure
4.1.10
A
physiotherapist
doctor
explain
the
this
patient
has
with
two
the
are
of
the
bones
the
able
to
Suggest
the
skeleton.
functions
that
common
of
of
move
one
allow
name
skull
you
are
of
over
have
the
the
not
each
how
the
skeleton
works
listed.
to
rotate
and
nod.
mandible?
by
other
of
Explain
head
fused
advantage
b
the
time
without
a
baby
is
damaging
born.
the
Instead,
baby’s
this.
problem
5
that
the
is
brain.
and
functions
three
bones
they
p
five
his
Use
the
A
E
information
in
Figure
B.4.1.5
to
name
the
structures
labelled
lower
to
in
Figure
B.4.1.7.
a,
b,
c
back
6
State
the
Learning
By
the
end
B.4.2
outcomes
of
this
topic
the
be
able
describe
the
skeletal
structure
of
tissues:
the
functions
vertebral
column
that
forms
cartilage
and
joints
of
bone
and
cartilage
skeleton
are
is
composed
bone
and
of
two
cartilage.
main
These
tissues
tissues
known
have
t he
as
skeletal
same
tissues.
basic
consist
of
cells
wit hin
an
extensive
matrix
of
tough
str ucture.
collagen
bres
and
bone
t he
the
structure
ways
bone
structure
matrix
in
t hat
t he
cells
produce.
to
and
the
which
consists
t his
is
of
bres
formed.
hardened
Spongy
by
bone
calcium
consists
salts.
of
There
str uts
of
are
bone
of
separated
long
material
cartilage
two
describe
ot her
of
In
bone
a
the
cartilage
compare
●
of
bone
and
●
region
the
They
and
the
you
These
two
to
to:
The
●
given
back.
Bones,
Structure
should
name
lower
relate
by
sof ter
bone
marrow.
Compact
bone
is
much
more
solid,
its
functions
consisting
of
tightly
blood
lymph
packed
cylinders,
each
wit h
a
central
space
lled
wit h
it
and
vessels.
You
can
see
t he
str ucture
and
distribution
of
performs
t hese
●
identify
joint
the
and
different
state
their
types
the
compare
car tilage,
the
ligaments
and
t he
There
section
of
t he
femur
in
Figure
B.4.2.4.
between
and
no
and
B.4.2.1
A
bone
also
transverse
showing
section
Long
systems.
photomicrograph
4.2.4
in
t he
t he
cells
external
is
not
ears,
as
t he
hard
end
and
of
is
t he
much
nose
bronchi.
These
are
all
places
where
and
exibility
it
the
bones
each
and
protects
ot her.
It
t he
discs
bones
is
so
between
t hey
smoot h
to
do
t he
not
provide
ver tebrae
wear
away
are
is
by
frictionless
made
constant
ar ticulation
blood
bringing
vessels
as
in
bone
glucose,
hormones
in
such
tissue
amino
as
providing
acids,
vitamin
D
t he
calcium
(see
Unit
cells
and
wit h
phosphate,
B.1.1).
There
are
car tilage.
shows
car tilage
vessels
such
t he
tissue.
It
microscopic
also
shows
str ucture
t heir
of
two
distribution
types
in
a
of
bone
limb
tissue
bone.
bones
B.4.2.2,
B.4.2.3
and
B.4.2.4
show
different
views
of
t he
humer us
this
drawing
in
from
have
(x100)
of
the
Compare
with
many
B.4.2.4
of
Figures
Haversian
and
Car tilage
nutrients,
blood
Figure
compact
is
bones.
are
oxygen,
ends
against
between
Figure
material
Car tilage
trachea
The
car tilage.
r ubbing
of
t he
tendons.
of
Figure
in
characteristics
required.
p
t he
exible.
suppor ts
of
tissue
body
more
●
of
locations
In
in
types
of
a
t he
upper
similar
joint
wit h
arm
shapes,
t he
marrow-lled
and
but
pelvic
cavity.
t he
t he
femur
femur
girdle.
This
from
has
These
gives
a
a
t he
upper
more
limb
Notice
pronounced
bones
str ucture
leg.
t hat
are
is
not
head
solid,
strong
t hat
yet
t hey
t hat
but
forms
contain
a
light.
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The
skeletal
The
system
features
of
t he
Bones,
femur
shown
in
Figure
B.4.2.4
are
summarised
A
rounded
pelvis.
head
This
t hat
allows
forms
t he
movement
ball
in
of
t he
t hree
ball
and
socket
joint
wit h
The
head
is
wit hstands
made
of
stresses
spongy
t hat
bone
operate
all
is
light
but
strong
as
made
it
directions.
T issue
of
The
long
shaf t
of
t he
bone
is
hollow;
t his
Cartilage
reduces
t he
chances
of
across
t he
whole
●
The
outer
par t
The
rounded
The
surfaces
of
t he
lower
shaf t
end
is
made
forms
t he
of
compact
knee
joint
bone
wit h
which
t he
tibia
is
ver y
and
hard.
found
ligaments,
t he
of
t he
such
femur
as
t he
provide
cr uciate
sites
of
attachment
ligaments
t hat
for
extend
t he
and
in
Any
there
of
femur
xed
to
that
the
a
humerus
ball
and
fits
socket
into
the
of
1
of
1
trachea
them
bone
bone;
and
open.
where
two
moveable
as
in
movement
T
ough
attaches
holds
spongy
made
muscles
bones
joints
a
the
brous
muscle
T
ough
skull,
occurs.
structure
to
a
brous
bone.
one
bone
to
structure
another.
bone:
up
of
fine
strands
epiphysis
(trabeculae)
(head)
found
the
mainly
ends
of
space
the
than
on
scapula
attachment
view
salts.
joint
process
front
are
joints,
no
T
endon
that
form
the
place
Ligament
to
tissue
rubbing
keep
meet;
where
tibia.
head
matrix
calcium
bula.
tendons
from
to
Joint
and
●
hard
bone.
bronchi
●
Softer
bone
a
and
breaks
also
occurring
with
protein
prevents
●
terms
planes.
which
in
joints
t he
Bone
●
and
below.
Key
●
cartilage
of
with
humerus
in
bone
filled
marrow
compact
fine
strands
bone
bone-secreting
shaft
of
the
cell
humerus
2
compact
bone
Haversian
2
system
bone
diaphysis
(shaft)
marrow:
produces
red
and
fine
some
white
blood
cell s
lamella
contains
calcium
canals
central
canal
phosphate
bone-secreting
in
there
is
forms
a
cartilage
hinge
over
joint
this
with
part
the
of
the
radius
humerus
and
small
pit
cell
(lacuna)
that
ulna
3
hyaline
cartilage
spongy
bone
p
Figure
from
B.4.2.2
the
upper
A
human
humerus
bone
arm
tough
fibres
(perichondrium)
epiphysis
spongy
bone
3
tough,
rubbery
cartilage-
matrix
of
secreting
chondrin
cartilage
compact
cell
in
pit
bone
yellow
marrow
p
Figure
are
B.4.2.4
seen
under
Longitudinal
the
light
section
of
the
femur
with
drawings
of
tissues
as
they
microscope
shaft
p
Figure
of
the
B.4.2.3
humerus
A
section
and
part
of
of
the
the
head
shaft
159
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Bones,
cartilage
and
Study
✔
The
term
and
to
The
joints
Tr y
tip
bone
refers
to
a
consists
matrix
of
cells
bones,
by
such
organs
of
as
the
they
yourself
salts.
by
a
bres
Individual
The
main
mineral
compound
of
substance
calcium
and
in
bones
is
phosphate
called
with
the
hydroxyapatite.
chemical
It
is
formula
a
complex
(PO
Ca
10
Vinegar
cleaner
humerus,
contain
bones
tissue
collagen
calcium
as
Bone
surrounded
composed
hardened
are
organs.
system
tissue
Bendy
many
this
skeletal
is
a
4– 8
per
contains
cent
the
acetic
alkali
acid
sodium
solution
hydroxide
with
and
a
pH
has
of
a
about
pH
of
2.5.
)
4
(OH)
6
.
2
Oven
10 –14.
bone
Requirements
tissue,
blood
surrounded
and
by
nerves
and
connective
are
tissue.
4
●
similar-sized
removed
●
3
●
vinegar,
[the
containers
cooked
upper
large
chicken
leg
bones
enough
to
bones
with
(femurs)
cover
all
are
the
muscle
good
chicken
for
and
this
bones
other
tissues
task]
in
liquid
3
a
10
per
cent
solution
of
oven
cleaner
(dissolve
10 cm
oven
3
cleaner
●
paper
●
cling
1
T
est
the
2
the
3–4
If
T
ake
Y
ou
alkali
there
for
is
2– 3
could
a
or
each
bone
of
of
by
each
tap
days,
dry
the
and
the
tap
water
bones
trying
of
the
water.
the
to
Keep
by
trying
scratch
three
to
your
of
with
the
bend
and
bones
cling
and
fingernail
containers
one
containers
no
the
wrap
add
twist
on
its
leave
in
test
surface.
vinegar,
somewhere
and
them;
diluted
dry.
a
safe
place
●
Are
smaller
●
Does
the
and
this
hardness
that
then
was
of
not
leave
of
after”
Wash
them
thoroughly
in
tap
the
bones
soaked
in
acid,
water
soaked.
the
photographs
investigation
of
bones
pH
bones.
bones
in
their
respective
solutions
days.
length
results?
the
towels.
and
bone
difference,
extend
the
remove
paper
flexibility
“before
the
carefully
with
with
more
some
Does
●
of
into
tops
and
Compare
6
water)
days.
3–4
water
and
of
bone
cleaner
After
5
flexibility
one
Cover
4
tap
wrap
the
oven
for
90 cm
hardness
Put
3
in
towels
time
the
affected
the
liquids
to
nd
bones
sooner
have
of
are
bones
answers
left
than
any
the
to
larger
effect
to
soak
on
and
the
record
your
following
have
any
results.
questions:
effect
on
bones?
the
results?
Joints
Joints
t hree
occur
Group
No
t he
wherever
1:
Immovable
movement
bones
Group
This
2:
of
bones
Group
3:
meet.
They
can
be
divided
into
joints
t hese
of
joints.
t he
Examples
are
t he
suture
lines
between
skull.
moveable
at
are
knee,
at
allows
adjacent
Freely
joints
the
xed
cranium
joint
bones
or
occurs
t he
between
between
These
of
Slightly
type
joints
hip,
two
groups.
t he
a
small
degree
ver tebrae
front
of
t he
of
of
t he
pelvic
movement.
ver tebral
Examples
column
and
are
t he
t he
joint
girdle.
moveable
also
the
called
synovial
knuckles
and
joints.
between
Examples
the
are
centr um
of
the
a
joints
thoracic
at
the
ver tebra
160
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The
skeletal
and
the
head
adapted
the
system
to
bones
of
a
allow
are
rib
(see
Figure
friction-free
would
adaptations
Bones,
r ub
against
visible
in
B.4.1.8,
page
movement.
each
Figure
other,
B.4.2.5
If
157).
Synovial
movement
causing
and
are
pain
was
and
joints
not
are
like
damage.
summarised
in
hinge
joint:
movement
this
this
in
allows
one
cartilage
freedom
plane
also
These
Table
in
and
joints
of
the
knee.
humerus
B.4.2.1.
ligament
frontal
Pivot
joint:
The
odontoid
peg
of
the
axis
fits
into
the
synovial
bone
atlas.
This
gives
rotation
of
head
and
atlas;
nodding
membrane
parietal
of
the
head
is
result
of
the
skull
moving
on
the
bone
atlas
–
a
hinge
joint.
atlas
articulating
canal
for
process
spinal
for
cord
skull
synovial
ball
and
fluid
ulna
cartilage
socket
joint:
suture
This
temporal
in
bone
any
axis
Immovable
joint:
Bones
skull
fused
freedom
plane.
Also
ligament:
of
movement
seen
in
the
hip
joint.
holds
of
articular
the
allows
bone
process
together.
odontoid
to
bone
peg
scapula
q
T
able
B.4.2.1
Summary
of
parts
Part
Function
Cartilage
Prevents
and
bone
Ligament
Holds
Synovial
membrane
Produces
bone
Synovial
uid
Lubricates
to
functions
from
rubbing
a
synovial
on
bone;
joint
acts
as
a
shock
absorber
bone
synovial
the
of
uid
joint;
nourishes
the
cartilage:
cartilage
prevents
bones
Synovial
joints
can
be
fur t her
classied
according
to
t he
range
rubbing
of
humerus
synovial
together
movement
t hey
allow.
A
joint
t hat
only
allows
movement
in
one
plane
is
membrane:
synovial
fluid:
produces
a
hinge
joint.
There
are
hinge
joints
at
t he
knee
and
elbow.
Ball
and
socket
lubricates
the
synovial
joints
and
allow
movement
in
all
t hree
planes
and
t hey
are
located
at
t he
fluid
joint
hip
shoulder.
ulna
Lever
Levers
action
are
Wherever
act
as
to
move
lever
Lever s
lever
t he
or
in
in
is
t he
is
move
t he
–
load
a
For
by
about
t he
which
lever
t he
can
and
t he
supplies
in
a
body
a
t here
of
a
wit h
t here
lever
is
load
is
pivots.
load,
a
most
lever
efciency.
action.
Muscles
which
is
Joints
provide
suppor ted
a
ligament
t he
by
carpals
muscle
In
joint
each
suppor t
t he
movement
it.
fulcr um
load.
and
points
movement
of
t he
moveable
t he
body
t he
t he
is
moved
ar rangement
to
achieving
levers.
whic h
joint
of
t here
fulcr ums
effor t
t he
ways
radius
what
is
means
ar m,
lot
weight
occur.
of
t he
of
held
t hat
to
body.
muscle
in
it
biceps
effor t
t he
The
hand
minimises
is
lif t
t he
The
between
a
ar m
provides
small
is
t he
t he
t he
load.
acts
t he
load.
effor t
ver y
a
The
needed
fulcr um
A
as
effor t,
metacarpals
and
small
gliding
movement
of
t he
end
lever.
biceps
produces
a
muc h
larger
movement
at
t he
hand
flat
This
of
t his
Large,
fast
movements
are
t he
result,
e.g.
a
25 mm
t he
end
of
of
t he
t he
biceps
results
in
a
movement
of
457
mm
of
The
two
therefore
gives
articulating
slide
flexibility
over
but
one
limited
surfaces
another
are
easily.
strength.
Also
in
movement
the
of
joint:
and
t he
hand
at
ankle.
those
Having
parts
are
limited
easily
strength
means
that
sprained.
lever.
p
Figure
B.4.2.5
human
skeleton
A
range
of
joints
in
the
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Bones,
cartilage
and
The
joints
The
E
F
elbow
E
biceps
L
forearm
held
still
joint
in
lever
or
is
action
in
moving
Figure
B.4.2.6
applies
if
t he
hand
is
skeletal
holding
system
somet hing
upwards.
muscle
and
weight
Ligaments
hand
Ligaments
are
connective
L
In
connective
suggests,
made
tissue
is
of
tissue,
t he
connective
Ligaments
attach
connective
made
from
matrix
tissue
bones
tissue.
cells
t hat
Like
contains
connects
toget her.
a
tough
tissues
They
bone
make
are
car tilage,
around
collagen
and
t he
and
matrix
organs
t hemselves.
bres.
As
its
name
toget her.
connective
tissue
t hat
F
connects
p
Figure
B.4.2.6
Lever
action
of
the
arm
They
var ying
to
hold
Exam
you
bones
that
together
muscles
confuse
to
ligaments
and
bones.
the
tendons
It
is
skull
easy
join
the
a
attachment
the
bone
the
muscle
end
of
The
muscle
move
of
to
Insertion
of
point
when
xed
when
insertion
muscle
to
your
allowing
on
t he
backbone
Tendons
hold
They
t herefore
are
to
t he
not
“stretchiness”
protein
t hem
gives
some
ligaments
at
is
slip
due
to
ligaments
movement.
t he
out
back
of
t he
place.
presence
t heir
You
your
of
can
head
ability
feel
t hat
t his
hold
and
allow
its
nodding
motion.
muscle
to
bone
and
need
to
be
ver y
strong
and
non-elastic.
transmit
attach
composed
t he
tension
muscle
to
of
collagen,
developed
bone
t hat
which
by
does
is
a
muscles
not
ver y
tough
directly
move.
This
to
protein
t he
end
of
bone.
t he
origin.
to
the
the
does
not
contract;
of
bone
muscle
moves
of
page
bres
a
ot her
end
is
t he
insertion
and
it
is
here
t hat
bone
movement
166).
does
tissue
so
transmit
at
bot h
tendon
inser tions
attachment
that
Collagen
bres
muscle.
point
the
that
(see
The
of
and
t hat
its
origins
each
force
ends
spread
of
t he
a
tendon
like
t he
muscles.
muscle
to
of
out
bre
They
ends
are
roots
anchored
of
also
on
a
a
plant
spread
collagen
ver y
into
out
bre
rmly.
t he
into
t he
and
The
bone
at
muscle
can
t herefore
bone.
contracts;
The
the
This
do
terms
The
muscle
elastin.
The
t hey
two.
occurs
move
ngers
bit.
t hat
T
endons
is
a
of
a
sure
to
Tendons
Origin
stretch
toget her,
your
making
join
able
Key
but
quantities
bones
put
joints,
tip
your
Remember
at
tough,
of
if
✔
are
bones
when
Achilles
tendon
t hat
attaches
a
leg
muscle
to
t he
ankle
is
t he
largest
the
tendon
contracts.
fairly
in
Summary
The
t he
body.
common
of
tissues
of
It
spor ts
the
is
prone
injur y
tissues
t he
of
skeletal
to
tearing
(Figure
the
skeletal
system
and
a
torn
Achilles
tendon
is
a
B.4.2.8).
are
system
summarised
in
Table
B.4.2.2.
3
q
T
able
types
B.4.2.2
of
Summary
skeletal
table
showing
the
structure
and
functions
of
the
different
tissues
1
Tissue
Structure
Bone
Hard
phosphate
tough
2
Properties
matrix
of
in
calcium
Hard
and
Function
rigid
Protection
Support
which
collagen
bres
Muscle
are
that
embedded
attachment
levers
are
so
formed
for
movement
Cartilage
T
ough,
but
exible
matrix
Cushioning
ends
T
endon
T
ough
matrix
collagen
containing
bres
of
T
ough
layer
at
bones
and
does
Prevents
bone
rubbing
on
bone
not
stretch
Connects
bone
to
muscle
transmit
to
force
of
contraction
Ligament
T
ough
but
matrix
containing
bres
Skeletal
muscle
Made
and
up
muscle
p
Figure
B.4.2.7
An
X-ray
of
a
knee
slightly
elastic
of
exible
stretch
a
little
Joins
bone
to
bone
Allows
movement
Allows
movement
at
a
joint
bres
many
bres
Can
collagen
containing
Can
contract
Maintains
posture
joint
contractile
proteins
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The
skeletal
Case
only
his
Bones,
cartilage
and
joints
study
Sanjay
Sanjay
system
has
was
able
injury
stand
so
Accident
an
playing
to
ankle
a
his
and
playing
football
wit h
friends
when
difculty
called
Emergency
for
football
he
fell
and
and
hur t
couldn’t
help
and
Depar tment
of
his
take
any
someone
t he
local
ankle.
to
He
weight
take
was
t hrough
him
to
t he
hospital.
The ankle is the area where the leg bones meet the foot. There are three
joints at the ankle, the main one being between the talus (the ankle
bone) and the tibia and bula. If you look at Figure B.4.1.9 on page 157
you can see the talus – it is the tarsal bone immediately underneath the
leg bones. This joint is a hinge joint, which allows you to move your foot
up and down. The side-to-side movement of the ankle occurs at the joint
between the talus and the tarsal bone below it. There are many ligaments
between the bones in the ankle, holding all of them together. You can
p
Figure
B.4.2.8
imaging
feel the Achilles tendon at the back of your ankle; this attaches a leg
(MRI)
A
magnetic
scan
of
a
resonance
torn
Achilles
tendon
muscle to the calcaneus, the heel bone that lies below and behind the
talus.
Ankles
are
fractures.
becomes
more
of
sprain
or
leg
doctor
and
br uised.
it
on
was
when
may
with
(see
to
metal
prevent
Cells
clot
t hat
from
produce
repair
is
the
he
had
may
a
a
his
his
t he
a
may
t hree
where
and
saw
ankle,
t he
ankle.
torn
is
when
sprains
and
break
well
area
one
involve
bones
talus
t he
in
at
jumping
t he
and
is
t he
a
ankle
from
forced
or
bot h
a
against
accident.
The
so
and
it
might
swollen
severe
tr ying
range
now
for
badly
elicited
when
reduced
him
was
doctor
and
doctor
sent
fracture
t hat
t he
ankle
dramatically
ankle
bad
or
car
ankle
of
of
happen
ankle
in
repaired
screws
and
and/or
then
Bone
connective
the
two
of
to
the
this
of
requires
is
a
a
cell
the
aid
of
to
X-ray.
need
an
move
movement
suspected
an
of
divide
the
have
types
to
that
and
t hat
This
operation
to
position
cast
can
and
by
a
in
splint
itself.
the
These
across
Later,
the
this
blood
cells
gap
temporar y
bone-forming
original
active
process
or
repair
cells.
bridge
bone
are
a
bone
form
its
in
healing
in
broken.
compact
bone
the
the
to
temporar y
that
bones
ankle
tissue
lining
mature,
returns
to
the
living
ends
form
two
xing
plates
tissue
bone
into
and
by
putting
broken
car tilage
par ts
remodelled
break
to
around
ot her
a
be
(osteocytes)
the
was
t he
movement.
new
between
bones
Any
are
fracture
Injur y
are
toget her.
pins,
the
t he
Sanjay ’s
broken
B.4.2.9)
between
likely
injuries
ligaments
ankle
region.
sprain.
happen
t here
to
have
fractures
Figure
twisting
t he
t hat
bones
a
t he
An
ankle
examination
compared
t he
Ankle
On
common
when
most
may
pressing
conrmed
pin
or
as
t he
and
is
and
painful.
examined
noted
Sanjay
in
This
falling
The
pain
occurs
fractures
bones
injur y
and
bones
fracture.
height,
t he
A
to
swollen
t he
fracture
may
prone
strength.
even
in
The
cells
repair
healthy,
p
undamaged
bone.
Osteoclasts
constantly
break
down
the
matrix
of
Figure
B.4.2.9
fractures
bone
like
and
osteocytes
Sanjay’s,
vigorously
these
and
in
constantly
cells
larger
are
secrete
doing
numbers
their
than
it.
During
normal
usual.
the
repair
functions
of
but
a
fracture,
more
An
X-ray
showing
the
and
the
screws
the
fibula.
into
plate
into
be
a
in
at
cast
A
the
the
ends
the
surgeon
tibia
fibula.
for
of
and
The
several
tibia
has
(right)
put
two
screwed
leg
will
a
now
weeks
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Bones,
cartilage
and
The
joints
Sanjay
is
now
take
had
in
a
about
to
stay
cast
6
in
and
weeks
hospital
all
to
his
to
have
friends
an
have
operation
signed
it!
on
The
his
skeletal
ankle.
doctors
system
His
say
it
leg
will
heal.
Questions
1
What
happens
when
t he
muscle
attached
to
t he
Achilles
tendon
contracts?
2
Explain
how
t he
str uctures
at
t he
ankle
provide
for
suppor t
and
movement.
3
Describe
t he
4
Describe
how
5
Explain why it is important to keep Sanjay’s leg in plaster for 6 weeks.
distribution
bone
tissue
of
car tilage
differs
in
from
t he
ankle
region.
car tilage.
Questions
1
a
List
the
functions
2
Make
3
Compare
4
Name
5
Make
in
6
a
Figure
3
Make
write
an
bone
body
where
cartilage
is
found.
b
State
the
compare
the
to
of
joint
compare
structure
and
and
the
of
bone
functions
state
one
structure
of
tissue
ligaments
example
and
and
of
and
each
functions
of
cartilage.
tendons.
type.
the
joints
shown
B.4.2.5.
shows
state
one
outline
with.
of
the
characteristics
B.4.2.8
the
the
to
types
table
and
of
label
the
three
in
cartilage.
table
Figure
and
7
a
places
of
Find
bones.
a
in
picture
of
your
the
positions
skeleton
X-ray
drawing
Label
found
their
an
function
the
of
the
of
an
knee.
upper
X-ray
Count
your
a
Name
the
parts
labelled
1,
2
each.
diagram
hand.
on
of
of
part
of
with
the
drawing.
a
of
the
hand
the
hand
and
names
number
Identify
of
draw
of
the
joints
the
that
the
do
the
of
types
hand
joint
not
position
different
in
types
in
you
and
found
in
hand.
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The
skeletal
B.4.3
system
Function
Function
of
skeletal
muscle
Learning
By
Different
types
of
the
are
t hree
types
of
muscle
tissue.
The
rst
is
smoot h
muscle,
in
t he
walls
of
t he
muscle
outcomes
gut
and
also
in
t he
walls
of
ar ter ies
and
be
of
this
able
topic
you
to:
which
●
is
skeletal
muscle
should
There
end
of
veins.
describe
the
role
of
skeletal
The
muscle
second
is
cardiac
muscle,
which
for ms
most
of
t he
hear t.
The
t hird
is
●
skeletal
muscle,
which
is
attached
to
t he
skeleton
and
br ings
explain
why
locomotion
is
about
important
to
humans
movement.
●
All
t hree
types
contain
contractile
proteins
t hat
use
ATP
to
provide
identify
the
muscles
energy
t hey
muscle
need
cells
and
to
it
move.
is
t his
The
movement
shor tening
t hat
of
we
t hese
call
proteins
muscle
shor tens
●
explain
a
muscle
muscle
cells
(fibre s )
is
ma de
up
of
a
large
nu mb e r
of
s e pa ra te d
by
con n ec tive
tissue.
tissue
fo r ms
t en do n s
t hat
a tt ac h
As
muscle
why
describe
only
contract
and
sh o r t en ;
t hey
c an n ot
e x t en d
we
h ave
seen
t he
eac h
next
cont ra c t io n .
Th ey
are
fou n d
in
p air s
to
bon es.
in
good
posture
work
to
bend
and
and
lift
discuss
factors
including
Mu scle s
t h emse lve s
t h at
are
pairs
t his
which
adversely
read y
affect
for
moves
muscles
ways
diseases
can
triceps
arm
c ylin d r ical
●
connective
muscle
antagonistic
tiss ue
and
upper
limb
proper
muscle
the
how
explain
●
Skelet al
of
contraction.
●
Skeletal
biceps
t he
the
skeletal
system.
against
ot her.
These
ot her
pairs
to
of
muscles
move
bones.
contraction
of
consciously
decide
are
antagonistic
Unlike
skeletal
smoot h
muscles
is
pairs
muscle
under
our
as
t hey
and
work
cardiac
conscious
against
muscle,
control.
muscle,
each
e.g.
t he
biceps
connective
tissue
We
bone
t his
wit h
The
str ucture
Figure
our
gut
when
and
and
to
our
contract
skeletal
muscle.
We
do
not
have
to
do
hear t.
appearance
of
skeletal
muscle
tissue
is
shown
in
B.4.3.1.
tendon
T
witch
bres
bundle
There
are
mainly
at
use
least
fatty
t wo
t ype s
a c ids
as
of
skelet al
t he ir
so urc e
mu scle
of
fibre.
en ergy
S low
and,
twit c h
sin c e
t h ey
of
have
of
lipid,
t heir
source
fati g ue
of
slowly.
en e rg y
an d,
Fast
tw it c h
b eca us e
fib res
t h ey
lac k
ma inly
an
u se
en ergy
gluc ose
store,
fibres
a
single
store
muscle
fib res
muscle
fibre
as
fatig ue
light
band
quic kly.
dark
It
has
in
been
at hletes
more
in
found
who
t hat
do
at hletes
slow
distance
who
do
twitch
muscle
r unning;
sprint
bres
while
t he
develop
fast
more
twitch
band
extensively
type
nuclei
develop
partially
training.
permeable
membrane
The
importance
of
locomotion
p
Figure
B.4.3.1
skeletal
Many
and
human
whic h
means
upr ight.
can
activities
swimming
be
hands.
muc h
Our
used
many
t hat
hind
for
Having
g reater
impor tant
are
we
our
involve
a
few
walk
limbs
many
of
two
used
activities,
free
over
our
locomotion:
examples.
on
are
hands
control
aspect
precise
just
suc h
to
our
hands
limbs
for
not
as
make
t he
have
four.
locomotion,
and
use
opposable
cycling
habit,
bipedal
allows
while
tools
t han
r unning,
a
This
manipulating
environment
is
walking,
Humans
our
allows
t humbs
to
front
objects
ot her
us
us
of
stand
our
have
animals.
whic h
structure
limbs
wit h
to
The
muscle
An
allow
movements.
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Function
of
skeletal
The
muscle
Movement
two
at
scapula
Figure
tendons
the
B.4.3.2
the
system
forearm
shows
t he
arrangement
of
bones,
muscles
and
tendons
t hat
origin,
move
hence
of
skeletal
t he
forearm.
The
humer us
is
t he
bone
of
t he
upper
arm;
t he
radius
biceps
and
of
three
ulna
hinge
biceps
are
t he
bones
antagonistic
joint
at
of
muscles
t he
t he
forearm.
t hat
move
The
t he
biceps
forearm
and
up
t he
and
triceps
down
are
about
a
pair
t he
elbow.
origins,
hence
The
biceps
has
two
points
of
origin
on
t he
scapula
and
one
point
of
triceps
humerus
inser tion
where
t he
tendon
joins
it
to
t he
radius.
The
triceps
has
t hree
triceps
points
of
origin:
two
on
t he
humer us
and
one
on
t he
scapula.
Its
point
of
radius
inser tion
tendon
is
on
Figure
B.4.3.2
biceps
muscle
t he
olecranon
shows
t he
process
forearm
at
of
t he
right
ulna.
angles
to
t he
upper
arm.
The
(insertion)
contracts
to
move
t he
forearm
upwards
(Figure
B.4.3.3a).
The
well
t he
olecranon
process
triceps
ulna
arm
p
Figure
of
the
B.4.3.2
Antagonistic
would
Muscles
each
The
Antagonistic
muscles
the
other.
other
muscles
that
“work
When
relaxes
movement
can
to
of
contracts
bring
a
The
pair
against”
one
across
A
contract
triceps
t he
t he
happens.
same
contract;
needs
an
If
t he
position
so
t hey
as
triceps
shown
cannot
antagonist.
pulling
relaxes
contracted
in
Figure
as
t hen
B.4.3.2.
it
is
on
t he
pulled
To
lengt hen
return
ulna
back
to
to
to
its
lower
its
t hemselves.
original
t he
forearm
original
This
is
position,
lengt h
(Figure
and
is
why
t he
B.4.3.3b).
now
ready
about
in
Exam
t he
pairs
antagonist
Af ter
condition
t he
if
t hroughout
work
triceps
relax,
they
is
of
triceps
t he
t he
against
t he
eit her
raising
Think
of
muscles,
or
is
t he
has
biceps
body.
biceps
and
t he
contracted
contracts
These
to
pairs
it
biceps
can
stretch
are
is
only
it.
t he
antagonist
return
Muscles
antagonistic
to
are
pairs
its
arranged
because
t he
joint.
tip
contract
again.
triceps.
original
t he
Muscles
only
contracts,
biceps
muscles
✔
in
t his
term
to
each
stay
muscle
triceps
of
while
muscles
arm
Key
relaxes
or
ot her
such
lowering
places
as
each
extensor
in
in
t he
ot her.
of
t he
t he
t he
The
biceps
forearm.
is
The
t he
exor
muscles
of
t he
have
forearm
opposite
and
effects
forearm.
body
were
t here
are
pairs
of
antagonistic
ngers.
do
a
not
‘tighten’
or
‘loosen’.
tendon
biceps
(contracted)
origin
radius
triceps
(relaxed)
humerus
insertion
ulna
b
tendon
biceps
(relaxed)
origin
triceps
radius
(contracted)
humerus
insertion
ulna
u
Figure
(b)
B.4.3.3
extension
of
(a)
Flexion
the
of
the
forearm,
forearm
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16:09
The
skeletal
Muscle
How
for
long
ver y
system
Function
you
long
can
hold
because
your
t he
arms
muscles
above
get
your
head?
fatigued.
You
Skeletal
cannot
muscles
hold
can
t hem
Exam
✔
because
ner ve
cells
r un
out
of
t he
chemical
messenger
t hey
t hemselves
stimulate
may
r un
muscles
out
of
(see
page
energy
and
217).
so
be
Alternatively,
unable
to
t he
muscles
respond
to
ner vous
opposite
as
The
of
skeletal
healt h
such
body
as
t he
weight,
bending
the
and
muscular
exercise,
and
muscular
posture
and
systems
and
how
is
we
skeletal
affected
carr y
by
out
is
will
just
one
in
meet
Hormones
effects
word
mean
affect
you
antagonistic.
the
that
contraction
where
antagonistic.
stimulation.
Factors
tip
wit h
topic
diet,
muscle
stop
Muscle
as
skeletal
fatigue
contracting
which
of
the
are
term
have
described
sure
correct
“working
that
also
Make
the
you
context
use
to
against”.
systems
factors,
daily
such
tasks
lif ting.
Diet
Protein
is
needed
to
make
t he
collagen
bres
in
t he
matrix
of
bone
tissue;
Study
✔
calcium
D
is
to
and
stimulate
deposition
in
phosphate
calcium
by
t he
are
uptake
osteocytes
and
required
vitamin
in
D
of
harden
calcium
bone.
are
to
from
People
putting
matrix.
t he
who
gut
have
t hemselves
The
and
a
at
of
t hat
of
is
Vitamin
its
decient
osteoporosis
in
D
because
the
acts
it
body
life
(see
below).
People
who
consume
more
energy
t han
t hey
fat.
This
adds
weight
to
t he
body
and
increases
t he
strain
on
to
joints.
People
developing
who
are
over weight
and
obese
are
increasing
another
cells
hormone
in
in
the
one
the
part
blood
intestine
of
and
and
in
the
bone.
See
Unit
B.6.4
to
muscles
see
and
a
from
require
cells
store
as
travels
stimulates
later
tip
vitamin
stimulate
diet
risk
role
t he
risk
the
features
of
hormones.
of
ar t hritis.
Exercise
There
to
are
many
muscles
especially
several
grow
benets
bones
more
tissue
exible
mineral
as
matter
is
of
e.g.
exercise,
more
extreme
benets,
new
more
and
forms.
more
If
a
but
to
and
become
secrete
become
larger,
more
also
some
happen
person
capillaries
t hey
to
likely
risks
when
exercises
develop
muscle
synovial
inside
tone
uid
because
people
regularly
muscles,
improves,
and
bone
damage
take
exercise,
t here
t he
joints
lays
are
muscles
become
down
more
stronger.
Key
No
muscle
are
always
is
ever
totally
relaxed.
Wit hin
ever y
muscle,
some
muscle
bres
Muscle
contracted
and
t his
low
level
state
of
contraction
gives
terms
tone
contraction
muscle
its
tone.
The
advantages
of
t his
are
t hat
muscles
are
maintained
permanently
active
state
and
so
are
capable
of
rapid
contraction
and
t he
body
is
kept
upright
and
t he
internal
organs
are
partial
muscle
that
helps
to
posture.
when
Posture
required
of
in
maintain
a
The
t he
kept
The
position
of
the
body,
in
e.g.
in
a
good
standing
posture
or
position.
a
slouching
posture.
Posture
Your
and
posture
bad
posture
knee
t he
joints
t his
to
maintain
●
posture
more
t he
to
in
of
Figure
balanced
balanced
your
on
on
straightened
t he
muscles
position
leads
energy
leading
is
is
are
position
positions
postures
head
column
In
Bad
the
standing
if
ver tebral
t he
is
of
of
its
You
B.4.3.4.
t he
top
point
and
t he
t he
body.
t he
body
We
of
of
see
have
t he
a
examples
good
ver tebral
attachment
feet
are
can
are
using
as
t he
on
little
good
standing
column,
to
squarely
of
t he
pelvic
t he
girdle,
ground.
energy
as
possible
body.
to:
being
fatigue
needed
and
by
t he
muscles
to
keep
t he
body
upright,
backache
167
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16:09
Function
of
skeletal
The
muscle
Good
●
Bad
t he
digestive
less
●
t he
breat hing
t he
main
bad
normal
type
The
of
of
p
Figure
B.4.3.4
Examples
of
are
bad
●
may
body
major
not
lead
to
sitting
t han
role
in
exibility,
t herefore
compressed
working
and
t herefore
carr ying
too
result
of
much
deformed
ver tebral
Sitting
upright
column
on
a
and
rm
at
chair
is
slouching.
posture.
an
When
suppor t
Poor
overstretched
t he
a
down.
t hey
positions.
being
and
posture
and
strain
on
or
bones
leads
causing
injur y
ligaments
t he
an
to
of
Back
accident
e.g.
by
pain
are
t heir
spine,
ligaments
pain.
ligaments,
maintain
t he
on
and
likely
wearing
keeping
one
to
side
neck
be
t he
t he
wrong
lifting
during
evolved
to
lif ting
discs
(poor
are
wit hstand
(tension).
follows
Keep
(see
lif ting
par ticularly
being
technique)
at
risk
squashed
from
can
damage
damage
(compression)
t he
back.
because
more
t hey
t han
To
prevent
damage,
a
good
lif ting
technique
being
can
prevent
should
t he
●
Keep
●
Use
t he
be
Always
People
Incorrect
ways
The
to
correct
lift
heavy
as
straight
as
you
to
stretching
lif ted
object
legs
bend
by
and
as
t he
hips
from
t he
close
to
you
as
possible
so
as
to
reduce
t he
object.
to
help
knees
suppor t
as
t his
t he
allows
lif ted
t he
weight.
legs
to
suppor t
t he
injuries
involved
in
spor ts
inevitably
r un
t he
risk
of
injuries,
most
of
which
lifting
position
B.4.3.5
column
weight.
Sports
lifting
B.4.3.5).
ver tebral
exer ted
your
lif ted
position
Figure
discs.
leverage
incorrect
a
and
putting
posture
t he
Figure
and
posture
●
p
working
good
as
Correct
t herefore
shoes.
stretched
and
t he
inter ver tebral
have
compressed
becoming
includes
correct
spine
Bending
Poor
play
t he
t hat
result
for
lengt h
in
your
pain
being
vessels
posture
also
better
Ligaments
of
system
blood
Posture
t hem
and
blood.
Prolonged
much
compressed
efciently
less
feet.
being
system
efciently
less
●
system
skeletal
and
objects
may
involve
Pulled
or
bones,
torn
hamstring
or
muscles,
muscles:
calf
t he
muscles.
tendons
muscle
To
treat
or
car tilage.
bres
t his
come
as
a
apar t.
rst
This
aider,
is
likely
follow
t he
in
t he
RICE
treatment:
Rest
à
Then
Ice
seek
Tendon
t he
will
Torn
t he
(see
help.
t his
to
of
in
will
Elevation
time
t he
most
re-join
t his
à
t he
tear
torn
and
t he
If
a
require
ends.
of
Paris
an
takes
treatment
happens
complete
two
plaster
muscle
t he
commonly
B.4.2.8).
immobilised
car tilage:
The
extent
Figure
needed
tendon
●
on
r upture:
heel
be
Compression
medical
depending
●
à
heal
will
to
t he
Achilles
r upture
has
occurred,
This
for
to
is
followed
about
operation
6
var y
given.
by
tendon
in
surger y
having
t he
weeks.
using
keyhole
surger y.
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The
●
skeletal
system
Tendonitis:
wit h
t he
of ten
cure
●
a
muscles
result
t hat
happens
to
t his
as
Dislocation:
forced
●
to
ligaments
and
in
or
limb
fracture
may
have
–
is
moving
bone
for
t he
–
a
person,
as
is
age.
chiey
results
tissue.
generally
There
women
is
Wearing
away
a
a
Rest
joint
difcult
more
are
and
is
tendons
rest.
This
needed
torn
t he
Treatment
bone
t he
back
weaker
may
of
bones
immediately
in
once
be
fracture.
ulna;
but
of
to
as
area
a
result
becomes
usually
involves
place.
t hey
at
see
joint
are
doctor
or
Dislocations
have
performed
a
a
to
been
p
shor ten
Figure
collar
t he
B.4.3.6
X-ray
of
a
fractured
bone
Fractures
tibia
and
are
most
bula).
likely
Fractures
to
are
t he
t he
overlying
bone
come
skin
surface
t hrough
t he
is
intact
overlying
common
wearing
case
Anot her
in
given
car tilage
in
pain,
ar t hritis
result
joints,
of
is
also
in
t he
in
a
bone.
caused
for
wait
all
ot her
in
t he
diet
t he
injuries,
e.g.
a
usually
and
heal
by
itself
immediately,
making
t he
not
person
ambulance.
diseases,
amount
a
a
lack
for
of
t he
An
t he
of
joints
body’s
in
diseases
and
of
t his
This
and
of
as
old
t he
protein
needed
to
matrix)
For
in
bone,
in
t he
absorb
and
t his
t he
reason,
synt hetic
HRT.
affect
t he
joints.
osteoar t hritis
type
leads
of
to
to
which
system
in
material
on
involving
or
inability
ar t hritis,
defence
pain
is
t hat
known
joint.
stress
women.
t herapy
is
organic
bone
treatment
example
hip
of
D
t he
post-menopausal
course
especially
of
deciency
(vitamin
needed
discomfor t
resulting
limb
for
people,
number
at
will
ambulance
bone
in
rheumatoid
t he
an
broken
replacement
a
This
including
older
people.
below).
of
to
car tilage
study
t he
D
follow
older
of
in
hormone
wit h
is
car tilage
to
of
phosphate
ot her
form
This
as
has
system
causes
oestrogen
t he
away
each
t he
of
t hey
reduction
several
and
t he
common
a
t he
sending
while
vitamin
name
of
in
skeletal
are
of
bone
lung
crack
from
choose
t he
a
inactivity
known
Ar t hritis
t he
or
t he
and
fractured
most
calcium
secretion
oestrogen,
cause.
t he
t hrough
t he
reduced
(see
t he
at
features:
involves
the
deciency
use
–
possible
Osteoporosis
against
called
immobilising
of
t he
on
even
recurrence.
ends
slight
fractures
comfor table
ver y
around
must
surger y
broken
broken
Diseases
is
is
penetrated
rested.
many
put
(radius
cer tain
fracture
fracture
a
one
become
fur t her
bone
to
–
if
and
put
surface
stress
diet,
is
hur t,
t hrowers.
accumulate.
person
cases,
bones
fracture
compound
bone
and
javelin
becomes
uid
will
ligaments
stop
according
open
It
and
ligaments
when
The
who
serious
broken
t he
closed
it
strain
muscle
injuries
First-aid
as
as
In
rib
●
occurs
recur
skin
used,
inamed
skeletal
joint.
position.
stretched.
cracked
●
t his
of
t he
tissue
t he
tend
Bone
●
out
of
paramedic
named
players
Movement
and
trained
occur
constantly
become
when
wrench.
blood
immobilisation
A
tennis
occurs
sudden
swollen
●
are
t hey
of
t his.
Sprain:
of
if
Function
ar t hritis
bones
move
has
a
and
is
r ubbing
ver y
much
different
mistakenly
attacking
stiffness.
169
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16:09
Function
of
skeletal
The
muscle
Between
the
car tilage
(known
may
be
causes
Foot
The
feet
bones
result
ver tebrae
pressing
of
on
A
the
in
the
slipped
backbone
disc
nearest
occurs
spinal
are
the
ner ve
discs
of
centre
(see
Unit
tough
of
a
disc
B.6).
This
pain.
of
t he
t he
of
feet
are
weight
of
ill-tting
linked
t he
to
body.
footwear,
car tilage
Many
bot h
in
to
form
problems
a
exible
arch,
associated
childhood
and
wit h
adult hood.
children
bones
permanently
shoes
●
hammer
a
babies
●
so
deal
suppor ts
children’s
can
●
great
adjacent
brocar tilage).
system
care
are
Young
As
a
of
as
displaced,
many
which
centra
skeletal
should
for
go
young
feet
should
will
spread
contain
damage
be
a
lot
t heir
barefoot
children
measured
of
exible
feet.
to
The
allow
should
when
car tilage,
r ules
rapid,
allow
t he
to
be
unrestrained
plenty
child
tightly
is
of
tting
followed
room
standing
foot
for
so
shoes
are:
growt h
feet
t hat
to
its
grow
weight
toe
T
eenagers
t he
and
feet
out.
adults
corns
A
number
by
poor
of
problems
posture
due
to
can
be
high
caused
heels,
by
ill-tting
which
t hrow
shoes.
t he
Backache
foot
for wards
is
in
caused
t he
bunion
shoe
r ub
t he
(see
base
heeled
p
Figure
B.4.3.7
ill-fitting
Problems
caused
by
above).
against
of
t he
t he
shoes.
is
when
it
to
t he
bend
big
toe
These
big
so
Corns
inside
toe
t hat
are
of
t he
by
cause
pushed
end
painful
shoes.
caused
can
is
hard,
t he
wearing
t he
bones
inwards
points
patches
Bunions
are
of
narrow,
to
and
skin
painful,
caused
pointed
become
cr ushes
toes
joints
shoes
deformed.
t he
when
swollen
or
at
high-
Hammer
adjacent
toe,
toe
causing
downwards
shoes
(see
Figure
Case
B.4.3.7).
study
Novlette ’s
Novlette
She
has
down
has
just
been
she
pain
regular
rest
t hat
several
and
she
and
has
(DDH)
and
always
t hought
not
The
she
for
consultant
wear
and
will
a
young
As
and
t his
t he
tear
is
from
of
The
a
t hat
t hese
in
hip
are
her
t hat
of
as
in
her
lef t
activity,
t,
but
sleep.
longer
pelvic
or t hopedic
wit h
to
is
She
working.
radiograph,
Novlette
surger y
was
is
consultant.
hip
r unning
such
now
was
r unning,
giving
a
t horough
consultant
hip
for
tells
dysplasia
shocked
only
as
also
using
Af ter
t he
developmental
replacement.
as
old
she
people,
mid-30s.
t hat
t he
her
does
car tilage
not
for
hip
socket
of
responsible
no
a
an
pain
keep
ability
known
femur
t he
to
replacement
t heir
tells
and
a
hip
to
star ted
week
her
inspection
condition
visit
pain
times
but
a
worsening
affecting
need
someone
was
femur.
knee.
painkillers,
examination
her
returned
her
does
at
hip
complaining
towards
which
her
new
t
her
snuggly
has
t he
joint
in
led
to
did
not
pelvis
into
is
t he
severe
form
too
properly
shallow
pelvis
t he
when
for
t he
constant
osteoar t hritis
in
t he
hip
pain.
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16:09
The
skeletal
Novlette
remove
side
of
is
told
t he
t he
socket
wit h
system
in
leg
t hat
existing
hip,
t he
special
t he
will
be
will
re-set
You
for
can
be
will
by
see
t he
par t
t he
equipment.
replacement
socket.
during
worn-out
upper
pelvis
polyet hylene)
hip
Function
operation
hip
of
head
A
false
t he
made
be
of
t he
in
on
and
hollowed
plastic
end
femur
(high
The
of
t he
t he
density
of
t he
femur.
into
t he
The
new
B.4.3.8.
Socket
out
A
hip
replacement
is
an
example
of
a
prost hesis
–
an
ar ticial
in
and
pelvis
plastic
as
replaces
in
Novlette’s
now
The
many
latest
arms
by
arm.
into
if
t he
a
t hat
real
prost hetic
a
in
failure
par ts
involve
t hem
to
t he
are
arms
to
Ot her
and
to
injur y,
develop
available
t hat
for
people
ner vous
muscles
able
arm.
by
giving
t heir
chest
control
People
was
by
damaged
prost hetic
muscles
ner ves
it
body
developments
muscles.
as
t he
condition,
different
into
The
chest
of
connecting
inser ted
just
par t
t he
operate
control
arm
t he
to
of
by
are
t he
are
prost hetic
to
about
inser ting
ner vous
2
t hese
it
sensors
system.
Stem
These
developments
gives
people
much
greater
control
and
of
and
Novelette’s
have
to
fur t her
and
hip
years,
hip
life
spend
6
3
if
it
to
is
no
out,
her
of
benets
alteration
in
in
t he
af ter
different.
may
a
her
All
They
new
one
surgeon.
far
t he
long
operation
term.
and
will
revision
She
outweigh
of
mechanical
put
The
and
usually
require
condition.
will
shor t-
r unning.
she
and
and
out
independence.
cr utches
going
removed
bot h
more
change,
on
are
wear
getting
long-term
temporar y
to
wit hout
does
and
much
mont hs
replacement
t he
going
replacements
but
weight
but
is
mont hs
under taking
on
t herefore
in,
is
t he
last
worried
consultant
She
t hen
devices
is
a
What
sor t
of
joint
is
a
wear,
t he
3
signicant
putting
t hat’s
inconvenience
of
tr ue,
t his
activity.
t he
hip
What
is
3
What
are
a
of
inserted
joint?
liner
2
part
will
where
about
says
hollow
femur
Head
1
replacement
into
15–20
surger y
which
hip
sensor y
inserted
awareness
place
prost hetic
t hinking
t he
into
or,
surger y.
connected
involve
to
There
Electrodes
are
limb
t hese
disease,
replacement
signals
developments
connecting
properly.
systems.
send
in
accident,
hollowed
liner
device
cemented
t hat
muscle
out
stem
t he
ball
skeletal
completely
removed
be
Figure
will
incision
girdle.
hollow
of
joint
an
will
pelvic
t he
head
hip
surgeon
will
femur
t he
into
new
ar ticial
t he
Through
femur
t he
into
inser ted
tting
an
t he
of
socket
cemented
be
joint.
of
in
femur
into
plastic
pelvis
prost hesis?
t he
long-term
benets
of
hip
replacement
surger y?
4
Questions
p
1
State
the
three
different
types
of
muscle
tissue
and
their
roles
in
the
Figure
B.4.3.8
A
hip
replacement
body.
operation
2
The
biceps
contracts
arm
the
of
3
when
triceps
other
the
biceps
muscle
and
the
triceps
the
a
What
type
b
What
waste
of
and
c
What
work
vice
contracts?
contracts?
is
muscles
relaxes
b
sort
antagonistically,
versa.
What
of
a
will
muscle
What
will
happen
is
the
i.e.
when
happen
to
the
triceps?
arm
d
one
to
the
when
What
sort
biceps?
respiration
product
begins
to
accumulates
be
in
used
during
muscles
strenuous
during
exercise?
strenuous
p
exercise?
c
Suggest
why
pain
(cramp)
is
associated
with
muscle
Figure
X-ray
d
What
type
of
muscle
does
not
B.4.3.9
A
radiologist
checks
an
fatigue.
of
a
hip
replacement.
With
more
fatigue?
people
are
living
longer
becoming
more
hip
replacements
common
171
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16:09
Function
of
skeletal
Talk
The
muscle
4
Explain
what
5
State
four
6
State
three
7
Explain
is
meant
by
muscle
skeletal
system
tone.
about
?
You
can
never
have
too
characteristics
of
good
posture.
many
problems
caused
by
ill-fitting
shoes.
shoes
Jazmyne
says
she
is
going
the
skeletal
buy
another
shoes.
Her
pair
physiotherapist
be
bad
putting
for
her
of
brother
her
says
back
health
How
at
would
is
they
that
her
be
that
bad
and
risk
you
she
diet
for
the
long-term
health
of
the
in
is
Summary
the
The
skeleton
performs
the
following
functions:
support,
movement,
convince
brother
consumerism
for
poor
a
is
can
breathing
and
production
of
blood
cells
in
the
bone
marrow.
right
●
and
a
will
protection,
Jazmyne
of
system.
high-heeled
who
●
future.
consequences
to
The
skeleton
provides
solid
structures
for
the
attachment
of
muscles
and
often
ligaments
health?
●
and
cells
secrete
that
cartilage
rubbing
that
are
A
long
filled
a
of
bone
ends
–
a
solid
as
in
ends
joints
covering
and
are
Ligaments
allow
is
a
e.g.
between
bone
of
of
bone
skeleton.
bone,
bone
is
of
The
struts
of
running
Both
matrix
preventing
much
consists
vessels
or
a
femur
end
that
of
less
that
has
fits
resists
compact
likely
a
harder
with
bones
as
many
closely
through
contain
secreted
it
spaces
packed
a
tiny
a
variety
of
structural
into
a
socket
allowing
free
to
stresses
bone
break
in
all
directions
surrounding
right
across
bone
marrow
compared
with
joints
synovial
the
of
so
two
bones
joints,
that
shoulder
of
the
forearm
and
lower
leg
at
these
allowing
fibres
bones
in
the
fibres
as
well
meet.
are
Hinge
allow
hold
in
as
No
cranium.
protect
them
joints,
in
between
movement
Some
the
bones
from
one
movement
by
at
the
occurs
is
ball
at
fixed
occurs
Most
movement
fluid
elbow
three
This
fibres.
synovial
plane;
in
stretching.
bones.
movement
backbone.
e.g.
together.
withstand
collagen
lubricated
movement
hip
to
that
movement
vertebrae
which
allow
bones
ligaments
collagen
joints.
and
of
movement.
bones;
elastic
synovial
joints
to
tough
little
bones
ends
between
moveable
as
the
knee)
both
where
between
known
or
friction-free
contain
place
the
at
at
upper
meet
muscles
stretch
ligaments
joints
are
that
composed
are
ends
consists
Compact
made
(elbow
attach
also
the
them.
planes
spongy
Both
occurs
bone
blood
of
functions:
the
shaft
T
endons
joints,
the
matrix
humerus
three
structures
cartilage
joint
on
tissues
surrounds
structures
wear
A
is
that
The
with
its
at
all
of
a
to
head
hollow
rounded
hinge
●
marrow.
relate
made
long
hollow
why
main
Spongy
tissue
such
that
rounded
–
–
other.
salts.
with
two
matrix
Cartilage
each
bony
movement
–
the
large
soft.
body.
canal.
features
–
is
the
are
a
calcium
cylinders
central
bone
against
contains
●
support
Cartilage
by
●
that
and
and
and
are
knee,
socket
planes.
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The
●
skeletal
system
Movement
triceps
The
origin
that
does
is
at
on
this
the
The
the
the
not
the
lengthens
insertion
is
triceps
are
the
of
of
of
the
antagonist
in
(e.g.
this
the
it)
two
triceps
contraction
humerus
biceps
(raising
the
is
on
the
on
pairs
as
as
an
they
contraction
triceps)
so
end
the
the
radius
ulna.
is
muscle
ready
to
muscle
arm.
it
it
pulls
relaxes.
and
When
contract
skeletal
muscle
and
contracts
the
of
biceps
the
triceps
while
one
the
upper
of
humerus
the
can
of
the
antagonistic
of
it
in
biceps
while
on
is
is
(straightened)
together
The
–
When
origin:
extended
work
found
the
by
the
scapula
occurs.
forearm
points
themselves.
its
on
about
alongside
insertion
the
forearm
muscles
lengthen
is
The
three
and
brought
lie
movement
flexing
The
is
which
biceps
move.
has
scapula.
biceps
forearm
that
radius,
Skeletal
not
of
triceps
The
the
muscles,
end
contracts
●
of
and
Function
one
the
biceps
pair
of
and
on
triceps
relaxes.
muscles.
shorten
(e.g.
but
biceps)
contract
when
required.
●
Muscle
This
●
is
tone
Humans
●
has
Various
lead
to
to
general
the
health
bipedal
objects
led
to
factors
–
the
low
of
level
walk
given
adversely
on
us
affect
being
contraction
tissue
two
the
ability
control
the
and
discomfort
feet
leading
especially
or
to
our
muscle.
by
hands
and
use
poor
exercise.
free
tools
diet
increases
strain
on
back.
and
skeletal
to
and
so
environment.
system:
the
bunions
by
promoted
make
the
obese
puts
in
is
Having
of
skeletal
posture
corns,
and
legs.
overweight
Bad
to
of
muscle
sophisticated
osteoarthritis.
pain
damage
we
has
our
osteoporosis;
developing
lead
the
for
are
manipulate
doing
is
good
may
the
ligaments
Poor
hammer
risks
and
footwear
of
may
may
toes.
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Practice
The
Questions
Practice
c
Describe
d
What
t he
is
a
joint
2
3
as
it
bone.
relates
to
[3]
t he
human
[1]
A
e
1
of
system
Questions
skeleton?
Section
str ucture
skeletal
Which
of
A
It
is
striped
B
It
is
also
C
It
tires
D
It
is
Which
t he
following
as
easily
t han
in
of
following
dislocation
B
sprain
C
bunions
D
tendonitis
of
t he
not
tr ue
tubular
following
types
like
caused
reflects
skeletal
t he
t he
muscle?
Feet
B
Knees
squarely
are
C
Head
D
Ver tebral
planted
slightly
balanced
bent
on
column
on
top
and
t he
bad
of
t he
by
of
t he
type
of
motion
joint
shown
possible.
below
and
describe
[3]
muscle.
large
intestine.
ill-fitting
shoes?
posture?
The
diagram
shows
a
joint.
ground.
instead
pelvic
of
microscope.
2
A
t he
type
muscle.
ot her
organs
is
of
under
voluntar y
found
t he
is
appearance
known
more
A
Which
in
Identify
of
a
Identify
b
Describe
t he
str uctures
labelled
P
and
Q.
[2]
straight.
ver tebral
girdle
t he
functions
of
P
and
Q.
[3]
column.
aligned.
P
Section
1
The
B
human
made
up
of
a
Identify
b
State
body
contains
bones
t he
four
and
bones
a
skeletal
system
which
is
joints.
labelled
functions
of
t he
W,
X,
Y
skeleton
and
Z.
system.
[4]
[4]
Q
c
i)
Name
t he
diagram
ii)
Explain
move
W
d
Identify
how
t he
t hree
ligaments.
muscles
below.
t he
lower
labelled
A
and
B
in
t he
[2]
muscles
arm.
differences
you
have
labelled
[5]
between
tendons
and
[3]
X
A
B
Y
Z
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Unit
B
Homeostasis
B.5
B.5.1
Many
Excretion
chemical
potentially
discussed
reactions
harmful
in
Learning
Unit
go
on
inside
substances,
B.1.3.
Our
such
cells
your
as
body.
Some
hydrogen
contain
the
of
these
peroxide,
enzyme
which
catalase
By
produce
that
the
should
we
hydrogen
peroxide
produced
by
our
metabolism
into
water
be
and
it
has
any
chance
to
do
harm.
Ammonia
is
another
ver y
this
topic
you
to:
state
the
names
of
the
oxygen
waste
before
of
able
conver ts
●
any
end
outcomes
products
of
human
harmful,
metabolism
or
toxic,
substance
that
we
produce
and
this
also
needs
to
be
conver ted
●
into
something
less
harmful
as
soon
as
it
is
produced.
We
conver t
it
explain
the
excretion
urea,
but
unlike
oxygen
and
water
we
cannot
do
anything
with
urea
so
it
from
the
body
in
urine.
The
kidneys
are
the
main
excretor y
explain
the
body.
They
also
help
to
control
the
water
in
the
body
so
if
we
much
we
get
rid
of
it
in
the
urine
and
if
we
do
not
have
enough
then
can
retain
some.
The
other
excretor y
organs
are
the
lungs
involved
of
in
the
excretion
and
describe
the
urinary
describe
the
structure
system
the
●
kidneys
humans
roles
have
●
too
in
the
organs
organs
of
of
is
●
excreted
importance
into
of
the
the
kidney.
liver.
The
Major
The
skin
metabolic
is
poisonous)
The
of
Carbon
is
t he
ions
to
metabolic
substances
dened
excretor y
mineral
as
in
t he
waste
we
t he
substances
(see
Figure
B.5.1.2).
waste
produce
body
t hat
elimination
products
of
are
from
are
par t
from
t he
of
body
metabolism
t housands
our
of
toxic
and
of
metabolism.
(or
substances
in
products
are
carbon
dioxide,
urea,
bile
pigments,
salts.
dioxide
dioxide
produced
into
excretor y
requirements.
and
Carbon
best
some
reactions
substances,
human
water
of
waste
chemical
Excretion
excess
removes
sources
different
It
also
product
lungs
where
from
t he
when
breat he
of
aerobic
mitochondria
Carbon
diffusing
we
t he
inside
blood.
t he
is
dioxide
it
blood
out
is
and
t he
t he
it
t hen
transpor ted
conver ted
into
(see
is
respiration
back
alveoli.
comparison
diffuses
as
into
We
(see
Unit
from
hydrogen
carbon
excrete
between
B.2).
cells
carbonate
dioxide
carbon
inhaled
before
dioxide
and
exhaled
p
air
in
t he
practical
activity
on
page
Figure
B.5.1.1
carries
human
One
the
Urea
the
amino
reactions
toxic
of
operations
Excess
and
acids
known
it
are
as
would
broken
down
deamination.
be
fatal
if
we
in
We
let
A
hospital
technician
100).
it
t he
liver
cannot
into
ammonia
by
excrete
ammonia
as
circulate
in
t he
blood
before
body’s
organs
most
for
transplant.
common
involves
main
transplant
kidneys
excretory
that
are
organs
chemical
it
is
ver y
leaving
Key
terms
!
via
t he
cells,
kidneys.
Ammonia
decreasing
t he
would
activity
of
increases
enzymes
t he
(see
pH
page
in
t he
73).
To
cytoplasm
prevent
of
Metabolic
t his
chemical
happening,
liver
cells
react
ammonia
wit h
carbon
dioxide
to
make
carbon
which
blood
is
much
above
a
less
toxic,
cer tain
but
still
harmful
concentration.
if
allowed
to
accumulate
waste
reactions
Products
in
cells,
of
such
as
urea,
in
dioxide
and
urea.
t he
Excretion
the
body
waste
and
of
The
removal
toxic
products
substances
from
materials,
of
in
metabolism
excess
of
requirements.
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Homeostasis
Excretion
Bile
pigments
skin
excretes
urea
Bile
and
pigments
are
made
from
t he
haemoglobin
molecules
in
worn-out
salts
red
blood
cells
t hat
have
been
broken
down
in
t he
liver.
Most
of
t he
bile
lungs
pigments
excrete
are
excreted
in
bile,
which
passes
from
t he
gall
bladder
into
t he
carbon
small
dioxide
in
intestine
t he
skin,
(see
page
causing
it
to
79).
go
If
t hey
yellow
are
–
a
not
excreted
condition
t hen
known
t hey
as
accumulate
jaundice.
liver
processes
materials
makes
toxic
and
Water
them
harmless
Water
t hat
is
a
metabolic
occurs
in
product
almost
all
as
cells
it
of
is
a
t he
waste
body.
product
Water
of
aerobic
produced
respiration
from
respiration
kidneys
is
excrete
and
known
as
t heir
have
p
Figure
B.5.1.2
Human
excretory
as
diet
more
writing
on
an
answer
to
a
remember
dioxide
salts
Mineral
salts
or
ions
many
of
These
are
and
products
word
equation
question
are
water
and
ions
dioxide
kidneys
to
The
made
for
rely
need,
not
on
it
t he
apply
almost
excess
is
to
us
entirely
and
excreted.
if
we
Some
in
much
body
we
in
need
t he
we
in
lose
any
t he
in
lungs
t he
diet
We
some
urine
chemical
diet.
our
in
and
lost
(see
day,
in
control
so
any
in
Unit
reactions
cannot
each
is
sweat,
is
but
B.5.3).
t he
body.
exactly
excess
are
These
how
excreted.
to
show
is
as,
sodium,
removed
potassium,
t hrough
t he
phosphate
lungs
and
and
calcium
breat hed
out
in
ions.
remove
urea,
water,
salts
and
bile
pigments
in
exhaled
urine.
Sweat
by
ltering
t hat
t he
t he
blood
body
(see
does
B.5.5)
not
want,
and
so
inevitably
which
explains
contains
why
any
water,
salts
aerobic
where
urea
are
passed
out
of
t he
body
in
t his
way.
It
is
arguable
whet her
t his
they
really
excretion
because
you
cannot
rely
on
sweating
as
a
way
of
excreting
from.
their
the
in
whereas
Study
a
a
kidneys
table
sources,
this
book.
B.2,
the
need
is
process.
It
that
to
help
a
is
very
one
keep
environment
is
important
of
the
our
processes
so
to
Y
our
in
look
table
better
this
summarise
they
excretion
removal
release
of
the
are
information
produced,
mentioned
of
bile
carbon
from
in
and
this
dioxide
the
gall
about
how
excretory
we
chapter
from
bladder
excrete
are
the
and
substances,
them.
described
body
its
is
role
Many
described
in
of
elsewhere
in
digestion
Unit
at
function
about
things
this
B.1
these
and
sweat
pages
formation
when
is
compiling
described
your
in
Unit
B.5.5.
is
Y
ou
table.
that
could
have
the
following
headings,
but
you
may
think
of
ones.
cells
Source
Site
of
production
Method
of
efciently.
in
the
body
excretion
concept
Carbon
of
time.
life
internal
constant
can
more
“keeping
to
The
substance
There
t he
Activity
where
of
Excretory
body
all
tip
described
Excretion
work
table
methods
Unit
rest
we
does
include
Create
of
animals
This
are
Building
the
deser t
food.
t han
produced
t he
Written
in
how
not
such
air.
waste,
✔
body
evaporation
ions
Carbon
is
come
Some
dr y
that
and
respiration
by
enter
t hese
substances
the
t he
control
Mineral
is
excretory
in
ver y
tip
excretion,
carbon
lost
kidneys
salts
In
water.
of
organs
t he
Exam
consists
water
inevitably
✔
metabolic
urea
salts
constant”
in
dioxide
the
Unit.
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Homeostasis
The
Excretion
urinary
system
inferior
The
kidneys
are
paired
organs
which
form
par t
vena
cava
of
aorta:
carries
t he
urinar y
system.
Figure
B.5.1.3
shows
t he
oxygenated
blood
back
to
in
t he
urinar y
system
and
t heir
the
t he
relation
renal
vein:
kidneys,
ions
and
small
molecules,
such
blood
as
from
kidney
and
glucose,
are
removed
from
t he
it
of
t hese
leaves
t he
are
returned
kidneys.
to
t he
However,
blood
any
or
are
sur plus
to
t he
body’s
t he
urine.
bladder,
The
urine
where
it
is
passes
are
needs
from
stored.
t he
When
inferior
left
full,
t he
urine
is
passed
out
of
t he
kidney
kidney
not
carries
urine
become
kidneys
t he
to
kidney
to
bladder
bladder:
bladder
as
is
the
before
t hat
from
of
to
the
the
cava
ureter:
needed
par t
carries
the
blood.
vena
Most
to
from
carries
aorta
t he
water
artery:
kidneys.
blood
In
heart
heart
renal
to
blood
the
from
str uctures
carries
deoxygenated
ot her
body
it
expands
stores
urine
during
sphincter
muscle
contracts
to
urination.
urethra:
urine
urine
in
carries
keep
bladder
during
but
urination
Kidney
structure
relaxes
during
urination
You
This
can
takes
shape
kidney.
The
it
is
blood
pyramids
t he
from
shows
because
fewer
t he
shows
urine
B.5.1.5
a
see
also
a
t he
view
outer
full
of
a
a
kidney
which
kidney
of
a
region
t han
region
to
is
t he
at
cor tex,
cortex:
are
where
filtered
where
the
top
The
blood
of
are
which
Urine
t he
has
a
medulla
ows
ureter
B.5.1.3
The
human
urinary
system
dark
is
down
called
red
pink
small
t he
colour
because
tubes
it
in
has
t he
pelvis.
and
returned
it
Figure
molecules
blood
before
p
Figure
t hrough
inner
small
from
most
B.5.1.4.
“tube”t hat
bladder.
cor tex.
t he
Figure
t he
section
vessels.
t he
in
is
t he
ver tical
blood
vessels
into
of
ureter
leaves
to
kidney
p
Figure
ureter
renal
blood
vein:
medulla:
in
kidney
with
A
kidney
cut
a
to
vena
the
cava
helps
control
content
A
carrying
back
inferior
B.5.1.4
attached
of
of
water
renal
blood
artery
carrying
kidney
blood
from
into
aorta
p
Figure
B.5.1.5
vertically
outer
area)
pyramid:
part
in
urine
which
of
the
medulla
drains
into
pelvis:
a
region
at
to
area),
and
show
the
medulla
pelvis
cortex
(reddish
open
(brown
inner
(white)
white
the
top
ureter
the
p
of
pelvis
Figure
B.5.1.6
Compare
this
A
diagram
with
Figure
showing
a
the
ureter
vertical
section
carries
urine
kidney
to
through
a
from
bladder
kidney.
B.5.1.5
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Homeostasis
Excretion
Tr y
Kidney
this
yourself
dissection
Requirements
●
sheep
●
sharp
or
1
Examine
a
kidney
See
if
you
to
a
kidney
Make
a
your
kidney
3
Use
a
the
4
side
ridge
6
of
of
Keep
in
Make
a
the
and
a
what
vessels
them;
the
you
and
you
kidney
overall
similar
show
to
be
see
the
may
where
with
they
of
the
position
to
that
on
Figure
ureter
have
shape
to
still
to
are
kidney
B.5.1.4.
attached.
remove
some
attached
and
occupied
is
arrange
by
the
it
on
right
be.
shape
short,
and
use
Measure
external
dotted
the
lines
length
of
the
along
the
the
outer
edge
line
edge
of
the
you
of
kidney
drew
the
on
kidney.
on
the
Do
the
side
opposite
not
cut
all
to
see
white
each
which
the
into
tissue
side
partly
kidney
the
of
slit
visible.
the
slit
obscures
so
that
that
you
This
you
the
you
have
cut.
white
should
At
tissue
be
able
the
is
to
far
the
see
a
pelvis.
cut
it
into
two
halves
like
B.5.1.5.
drawing
that
the
very
drawing.
follow
the
show
are
would
your
cut
show
some
On
through
Figure
a
they
on
should
to
vessels
kidney.
be
tissue,
kidney
where
make
able
kidney.
the
blood
scale
This
the
should
of
and
the
hilum.
now
pink
areas
in
drawing
cutting
those
to
knife
the
of
the
drawing
through
there
pelvis
5
your
identify
part
ureter
include
the
should
is
blood
cutting
body.
the
sharp
and
Note
it
Compare
have
The
drawing
way
Y
ou
the
kidney.
still
find
that
and
of
towels
hilum.
If
opposite
side
for
paper
labelled
features.
on
board
●
may
so
in
●
them.
the
board
kidney
scalpel
can
find
called
or
whole
The
fat
2
goat
knife
to
are
show
the
brown,
shape
red
and
of
the
white.
two
cut
These
surfaces
are
the
and
cortex,
indicate
medulla
pelvis.
Questions
Talk
about
?
Y
ou
have
Why
do
when
you
you
Discuss
family
one
brain
have
can
this
and
two
live
with
your
and
1
State
five
2
State
the
3
Name
4
What
substances
that
are
excreted.
heart.
two
main
roles
of
the
kidney.
kidneys
with
your
one
only
one?
friends,
teachers.
the
5
Is
the
is
the
body
the
your
parts
of
role
where
removal
the
of
sphincter
there
of
human
are
faeces
urinary
system
muscles
sphincter
from
our
in
the
and
state
body?
the
function
Name
three
of
each.
places
in
muscles.
gut
an
example
of
excretion?
Explain
answer.
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Homeostasis
B.5.2
The
The
functions
of
the
kidney
Learning
By
Kidney
the
end
functions
of
t he
kidneys
are
summarised
in
Table
B.5.2.1.
Note
t hat
have
functions
ot her
t han
excretion.
You
only
need
to
be
be
t he
T
able
outcomes
of
this
rst
two
functions
B.5.2.1
Summary
of
How
the
Excretion
Urea
and
kidney
certain
alcohol,
wastes
relate
functions
are
other
drugs
removed
Osmoregulation
Surplus
water
Controls
Surplus
hydrogen
the
kidney
state
is
waste
and
substances
other
from
the
removed
toxins
blood
from
the
are
and
including
passed
blood
those
metabolised;
and
out
in
made
these
the
in
the
pH
incorporated
organ
Releases
bone
Kidney
Each
structures
to
their
where
in
kidney
is
in
B.5.2.1
incorporated
into
●
urine
a
into
ions
are
neutralised
or
removed
from
the
blood
and
urine
hormone
ultrafiltration
reabsorption
describe
the
of
that
increases
the
production
of
red
blood
cells
in
a
a
long
long
about
t hese
shows
tube,
loop,
wit h
t he
t he
one
million
nephrons
t he
two
loop
Bowman’s
glomer ulus.
t hat
microscopic
blood
is
tubules
ltered
and
called
urine
is
Did
str ucture
of
an
individual
nephron.
It
is
coiled
of
regions.
Henle.
One
In
end
between
of
t he
t he
two
nephron
a
capsule,
enclosing
a
knot
of
blood
The
ot her
end
leads
into
a
wider
tube,
length
is
which
passes
down
into
t he
of
an
about
adult
human
12 centimetres
par ts
about
the
size
of
a
computer
cup-like
capillaries
called
know?
composed
coiled
has
you
?
formed.
t he
The
human
kidneys
make
called
litres
of
ltrate
every
day
and
urine.
The
collecting
produce
duct,
composition
the
170
t he
and
urine.
mouse.
shape,
occur
selective
long,
is
nephron
selective
describe
kidney
of
the
and
reabsorption
urine
The
Figure
the
(nephrons)
contains
It
of
functions
marrow
tubules
nephrons.
a
body
excretory
●
the
blood
of
(nephron)
achieved
when
Endocrine
you
structure
tubule
ultrafiltration
of
topic
to:
described.
●
Function
able
describe
●
q
kidney
familiar
kidney
wit h
the
t he
●
kidneys
of
functions
should
The
functions
1
to
2
litres
of
pyramid.
rest
of
the
ltrate
is
reabsorbed.
glomerulus
branch
of
renal
artery
Bowman’s
capsule
distal
convoluted
tubule
branch
of
renal
vein
loop
proximal
convoluted
tubule
capillaries
filtration
collecting
duct
Did
you
know?
?
Y
ou
were
nephrons
p
Figure
B.5.2.1
A
single
kidney
tubule
we
you
examine
a
prepared
slide
of
microscope
you
will
not
see
t he
a
section
t hrough
a
kidney
The
reason
is
t hat
nephrons
a
million
kidney.
whole
of
one
nephron
as
are
t hree
dimensional
to
have
with
The
far
age,
more
of
but
them
under
clearly
we
str uctures
need
as
people
with
one
as
kidney
t his.
with
each
decreases
seem
than
a
in
(nephron)
number
If
born
live
a
healthy
life.
t hat
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The
functions
of
the
Homeostasis
kidney
medulla
cortex
have
regions
t hat
are
highly
coiled
so
t hey
never
lie
in
one
medulla
plane.
Imagine
taking
a
cross
section
of
a
bowl
of
spaghetti;
pelvis
how
renal
brings
to
would
the
blood
spaghetti
from
scientists
did
Figure
Figure
takes
away
blood
ver tical
wit h
t he
arrangement
of
one
piece
of
t he
sections?
kidney
to
Not
easy,
derive
but
t he
t his
is
diagram
what
you
see
B.5.2.1.
B.5.2.2
kidney.
shows
Remember
t he
position
when
you
of
look
t he
at
nephrons
Figure
inside
B.5.2.2
t hat
a
each
from
has
about
one
million
nephrons
inside
it.
kidney
ureter
collecting
out
vein:
kidney
the
work
kidney
in
renal
you
artery:
Figure B.5.2.3 is a photomicrograph of a section through
cortex
the cortex. You can clearly see cross sections through three
duct
one
kidney
glomeruli. Each glomerulus is surrounded by a Bowman’s
tubule
capsule, which is the thin white circular space that you can see.
p
Figure
B.5.2.2
Vertical
through
a
of
nephrons
three
kidney
section
showing
on
the
the
position
Two
main
processes
take
place
in
t he
nephrons.
left
●
Ultraltration
Bowman’s
●
Selective
of
blood
plasma
from
t he
glomer ulus
into
t he
capsule.
reabsorption
capillaries
around
t he
from
t he
ltrate
back
into
t he
blood
nephrons.
Ultraltration
Filtration
is
a
process
ultraltration
t hat
is
Figure
p
Figure
B.5.2.3
the
cortex
glomeruli
of
and
used
molecules
B.5.2.4
or
t hat
separates
when
t he
par ticles
par ticles
a
kidney
Bowman’s
high
capsules
shows
how
This
ultraltration
comes
about
glomer ulus
t he
glomer ulus,
or
has
Like
pores
a
larger
creating
all
in
a
internal
build-up
capillaries,
t he
high
cells
efferent
leaving
blood
the
glomerulus:
has
than
a
the
wider
membrane
pores
network
ions
pass
Figure
vessel
in
t he
t he
is
entering
leaving
glomer ular
lining
like
functions
t he
t hat
in
t he
a
have
sleeve,
like
a
glomer ular
are
t he
This
dark
small
cells
t he
is
sieve.
small
a
brous
The
capillaries
enough
lining
t he
membrane
movement
blue
of
(lumen)
Bowman’s
has
molecules
here
from
of
The
capsule :
and
blood
forces
to
go
t hrough
capillaries
into
and
Bowman’s
arrows
of
in
molecules
Figure
is
shown
B.5.2.4.
and
the
the
that
blood
easily
the
glomerulus
mixture
B.5.2.4
Ultrafiltration
in
are
t he
forced
Bowman’s
and
Bowman’s
substances
capsule
is
t hat
called
forms
t he
inside
ultraltrate.
in
main
constituents
of
t his
uid
are
water,
form
glucose,
ultrafiltrate
ions
(e.g.
sodium,
amino
acids
chloride
and
urea.
and
Red
blood
the
cells
glomerulus
of
small
ions
potassium),
p
t he
capillaries,
t hrough
capsule.
by
which
molecules
can
glomer ulus
vessel
of
capillaries
The
small
t he
vessel
capsule :
through
a
blood
diameter
efferent
Bowman’s
in
blood
because
inside
inner
term
small,
in
“leaky”
this
pores
t hen
up
t han
make
t hat
inside
substances
t he
builds
The
ver y
vessel
glomerulus
vessel
pressure
Blood
t he
pressure
t hat
t he
pressure
glomerulus
are
t hem.
membrane
the
occurs.
because
diameter
of
Around
blood
sizes.
ions.
pressure.
t he
holes
blood
different
separated
showing
capillaries.
afferent
of
being
Photomicrograph
under
of
is
and
large
molecules,
such
as
proteins,
remain
in
t he
blood
because
capsule
t hey
are
too
Selective
Look
back
Bowman’s
the
large
are
pass
t hrough
t he
pores
and
t he
brous
membrane.
reabsorption
at
Figure
capsule
collecting
most
to
B.5.2.1.
could
ducts
reabsorbed
leading
into
All
substances
eventually
to
the
blood
pass
that
right
pelvis.
This
capillaries
are
in
along
does
from
the
the
not
various
ultraltrate
nephron
in
and
the
into
happen
because
parts
the
of
nephron.
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Homeostasis
First
coiled
Figure
t he
The
shows
glomer ulus
how
forms
a
t he
efferent
second
blood
capillar y
vessel
network
taking
around
blood
t he
away
rst
Exam
✔
from
The
cells
lining
t his
par t
of
t he
tubule
absorb
substances
ultraltrate
and
pass
t hem
back
into
t he
bloodstream.
rst
Figure
the
from
by
ultraltrate
diffusion,
from
by
t he
propor tion
t he
but
in
active
ultraltrate.
osmosis.
of
Table
different
t his
way.
transpor t
Much
B.5.2.1
of
molecules
Some
is
t he
shows
t hat
substances
required
water
how
are
in
t he
to
t he
normally
pass
across
removal
all
of
ultraltrate
kidney
is
adapted
is
to
tip
coiled
tubule
proximal
is
also
convoluted
known
tubule
B.5.2.5
and
t he
kidney
from
as
shows
the
coiled
The
t he
of
tubule
B.5.2.1
tubule.
functions
the
second
coiled
tubule
is
reabsorbed
t he
t he
cells
glucose
known
as
the
distal
convoluted
tubule.
These
parts
of
are
coiled
to
reabsorbed
as
help
substances
t his
possible
pack
to
in
the
as
reabsorb
into
the
nephron
many
cells
wanted
blood.
reabsor ption.
q
T
able
B.5.2.2
How
the
kidneys
Feature
Each
are
adapted
Explanation
kidney
has
over
a
million
for
of
reabsorption.
how
this
helps
reabsorption
Increases
surface
area
for
reabsorption
Increases
surface
area
for
reabsorption
tubules
Tubules
are
long
Tubules
are
coiled
Cells
lining
microvilli
Cells
the
on
lining
their
the
mitochondria
Loop
of
Allows
tubule
inner
tubule
in
have
their
surface
have
tubules
Microvilli
cell
many
lining
the
be
reabsorption
long
the
tubule
Mitochondria
cytoplasm
to
increase
without
produce
by
but
surface
active
ATP
,
contained
area
of
increasing
which
is
within
the
a
a
small
membrane
its
overall
source
of
space
of
each
size
energy
for
transport
Henle
Bowman’s
The loop of Henle works to increase the salt
capsule
glomerulus
content of the tissues in the medulla. This
70%
helps in the reabsorption of water from the
of
the
water,
some
mineral
acids
are
all
salts
the
and
glucose,
amino
reabsorbed
ultraltrate in the second coiled tubules
and collecting ducts. You are not expected
to be familiar with the complex processes
involved.
Second
The
coiled
second
tubule
coiled
and
tubule
collecting
and
duct
collecting
microvilli:
duct
are
also
surrounded
by
a
network
of
increase
surface
membrane
capillaries.
The
cells
lining
t hese
par ts
of
increasing
tubule
and
can
pass
absorb
t hem
ions
into
t he
from
t he
blood
area
of
capillary
without
network
t he
size
of
cell
ultraltrate
capillaries.
Cells lining the second coiled tubule absorb
mitochondrion:
mineral salts from the ultraltrate and pass
ATP
for
provides
reabsorption
them back into the capillar y. However, the
major function of the second coiled tubule
and collecting duct is to reabsorb water.
surface
membrane
outside
of
on
tubule
The volume of water reabsorbed by the
second coiled tubules and collecting ducts
p
Figure
B.5.2.5
The
upper
part
of
a
single
nephron
with
a
high-power
depends on the how much water there is
view
of
the
cells
that
line
the
first
coiled
tubule
in the blood. If the blood is dilute, e.g. after
drinking large volumes of uids, less is reabsorbed from the ultraltrate
resulting in a greater quantity of dilute urine. If the blood is too concentrated,
e.g. after excessive sweating or eating large amounts of salty food, more water
is reabsorbed, resulting in a smaller volume of more concentrated urine.
181
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The
functions
of
the
Homeostasis
kidney
Figure
a
B.5.2.6
shows
a
summar y
of
reabsor ption
along
t he
whole
lengt h
of
nephron.
Ultrafiltration:
salts,
from
urea,
the
small
molecules,
glucose,
blood
into
amino
e.g.
acids,
Bowman’s
water,
are
filtered
capsule
some
salts
water,
some
reabsorbed
from
to
renal
vein
renal
artery
some
water
reabsorbed
Selective
70%
glucose,
some
are
reabsorption
water,
all
of
some
amino
the
salts,
(under
the
control
of
ADH)
acids
reabsorbed
some
water
reabsorbed
urine:
salts;
mixture
moves
bladder,
p
Table
in
as
B.5.2.3
the
and
B.5.2.6
By
It
Look
Table
passes
Written
way
the
of
along
the
of
and
selective
summarising
composition
B.5.2.3
and
nephron,
each
of
you
substance
released
the
the
via
events
and
ureter
to
urethra
that
plasma,
about
should
in
water
pelvis,
reabsorption
blood
thinking
urea,
what
be
three
occur
ultraltrate
has
able
happened
to
explain
uids.
Activity
of
body
fluids
at
T
able
B.5.2.3.
carefully
ultrafiltration
another
concentrations
Composition
of
compares
studying
ultraltrate
different
Summary
illustrates
nephrons.
urine.
the
the
Figure
of
down
through
Read
the
the
kidneys
table
by
looking:
3
●
at
the
per
headings
●
down
the
list
of
●
down
the
list
for
●
across
as
know?
q
in
is
to
T
able
substances
each
this
each
blood
occurs
you
columns
2– 4
that
give
the
units
as
g
per
dm
(grams
litre)
diagrams
Did
for
chapter
row
to
filtered
form
B.5.2.3
fluid:
see
to
to
in
see
how
form
the
left
plasma,
where
the
hand
column
ultrafiltrate
they
concentration
ultrafiltrate
and
and
are
in
of
then
urine
the
(look
at
the
nephron)
each
substance
selective
varies
reabsorption
urine.
The
concentration
of
important
substances
in
plasma,
?
ultrafiltrate
The
yellow
colour
of
urine
is
and
urine
due
3
Approximate
to
urochrome,
which
is
Substance
from
bile
pigments.
Usually
passed
morning
over
is
night
dark
the
reabsorbing
prevent
rst
thing
yellow
kidneys
lots
of
in
g
per
dm
in
Ultraltrate
Urine
0.03
0.03
3.00
96.00
the
because
have
water
Plasma
the
Urea
urine
concentration
formed
been
Water
91.00
99.00
Glucose
1.0
1.0
0.00
Mineral
0.40
0.70
1.20
8.00
0.00
0.00
(variable)
to
salts
(variable)
dehydration.
Protein
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Homeostasis
1
Kidneys
Describe
from
2
changes
plasma
Explain
3
the
to
in
concentration
of
urea,
glucose
and
mineral
and
health
salts
urine.
why:
a
protein
is
not
b
glucose
c
the
concentration
d
the
figures
is
in
is
the
the
for
Reabsorption
glucose
in
ultrafiltrate
ultrafiltrate
of
urea
water
does
not
reabsorbed
and
and
not
by
in
mineral
mineral
occur
if
but
the
salts
salts
in
diffusion
diffusion
is
not
urine
is
the
highest
urine
alone.
in
may
Explain
the
urine
vary.
how
all
the
responsible.
Questions
1
a
State
b
Explain
part
2
State
3
five
of
substances
why
the
five
red
are
cells
filtered
and
into
blood
the
Bowman’s
proteins
will
not
capsule.
normally
be
ultrafiltrate.
features
of
the
ultrafiltration
efficient.
Where
nephron
in
that
blood
the
is
glomerulus
a
glucose
and
Bowman’s
reabsorbed,
and
capsule
b
most
that
make
water
reabsorbed?
4
State
5
Explain
the
the
role
why
of
the
the
loop
of
Henle.
concentration
of
urea
is
much
higher
in
the
urine
than
in
ultrafiltrate.
6
State
five
7
Using
parts
components
Figures
of
the
production
B.5.1.6
urinary
in
the
of
urine.
and
B.5.1.3,
system
list
through
in
their
which
correct
urine
sequence
passes
the
following
its
nephron.
Learning
B.5.3
Kidneys
and
By
Kidney
failure
kidneys
quite
a
lot
can
of
fail
blood.
if
a
person
They
also
is
fail
involved
in
in
people
an
accident
who
are
in
and
has
intensive
lost
blood
bur ns.
and
If
care,
who
for
some
taken
of
reason
able
outcome
one
most
become
cases
of
ser iously
kidney
dehydrated
failure
are
or
linked
have
to
had
severe
to
to
correct
and
t hree
t he
control
it
will
nephrons
t he
or
cease
volume
or
compensate
happen
fairly
to
function
composition
for
t he
quickly.
properly,
of
t he
malfunction,
Kidney
a
person
blood.
deat h
failure
can
If
is
be
is
steps
t he
be
describe
explain
a
“kidney
machine”
t hat
replaces
t he
of
t he
Peritoneal
over
t he
A
you
renal)
for
treated
in
know?
Acute
kidney
happens
failure
is
the
suddenly
treatment
type
and
may
with
be
essential
Chronic,
or
long-term,
kidneys.
dialysis
function
kidney
kidneys
(or
necessary
Did
in
of
which
t he
t he
body’s
own
abdominal
membranes
take
with
transplant
from
a
compatible
failure
other
need
is
associated
diseases,
hypertension
kidney.
may
3
the
kidney
?
kidney
2
is
problems
with
why
you
are
likely
cured.
functions
health
people.
that
using
topic
to:
no
ways.
haemodialysis
this
some
appropriate
1
of
able
dialysis
hyper tension
diabetes.
longer
not
poisoning,
However,
end
associated
●
have
the
should
●
The
outcomes
health
and
such
as
diabetes
life-long
and
dialysis.
donor.
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Kidneys
and
Homeostasis
health
Dialysis
Figure
B.5.3.1
between
dialysis
used,
t hose
t he
ar ter y
provides
drawn
shows
forearm
machine
but
Before
an
his
rst
to
an
into
a
a
and
in
patient
and
t hen
t he
of
t he
or
site
dialysis
a
leg
dialysis
forming
accessible
on
kidney
machine.
returns
neck
course
vein
t he
an
to
a
may
a
vein.
also
surgical
external
t hrough
machine
machine.
Blood
Veins
be
p
Figure
B.5.3.1
dialysis
A
treatment
patient
at
a
vein
in
t he
procedure
or
t he
t hat
ows
arm
tubes
into
are
is
r un
t he
usually
performed
ar teriovenous
individual’s
returned
when
dialysis
blood
Notice
a
used.
shunt
which
and
from
it
blood
has
to
join
stula.
been
can
This
be
ltered.
machine
pump
having
special
clinic
arm
used
Did
you
dialysis
know?
?
fluid
vein
Kidneys
may
be
damaged
when
artery
people
such
have
as
diabetes
pressure.
after
a
chronic
If
the
serious
diseases
and
high
kidneys
blood
fail,
accident,
e.g.
fistula
death
fresh
may
happen
in
dialysis
minutes.
fluid
p
Figure
The
diversion
vein
so
blood
is
ow
may
may
small
t he
of
diagram
high
for
to
be
t he
of
to
make
a
to
what
blood
t he
happens
into
even
as
a
a
t hat
and
t heir
veins
are
dialysis
strengt hens
need
t hen
lifetime.
kidney
to
back
Some
not
be
into
t he
wall
inser ted
t he
people
suitable.
of
for
body.
cannot
t he
t he
The
have
Instead
a
blood
place.
(an
anticoagulant)
prevent
blood
clots
may
be
from
put
into
forming
t he
and
stula
obstr ucting
shunt.
dialysis
the
fluid
same
in
salt
concentration
(approximately
and
as
glucose
the
Figure
a
B.5.3.3
kidney
represents
machine.
The
t he
inside
blood
from
of
a
blood)
patient
It
blood
during
vein
cannulas
machine
years,
stula
in
heparin
procedures
take
kidney
many
graf ted
showing
pressure
able
into
last
dose
between
A
better
operation
vessel
A
it
to
stula
an
B.5.3.2
from
is
is
in
t he
separated
par tially
centre
from
t he
permeable
of
t he
diagram.
dialysis
uid
membranes.
by
This
patient
uid
has
blood
to
same
concentration
components
Because
blood
t he
t he
par tially
blood
as
is
permeable
“normal”
of
blood.
surrounded
by
membranes:
patient
●
blood
will
dialysis
proteins
not
leave
and
t he
red
blood
patient’s
cells
blood
fluid
out
●
partially
(allows
permeable
urea
to
membrane
diffuse
down
there will be no net movement of
soluble substances such as glucose
a
because their concentration in the
concentration
to
dialysis
gradient
from
blood
fluid)
blood is the same as in the dialysis
uid
p
Figure
B.5.3.3
A
simple
representation
of
the
inside
of
a
kidney
dialysis
machine
184
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Homeostasis
●
any
Kidneys
excess
dialysis
soluble
uid
by
substance
diffusion
in
and
t he
so
be
blood,
e.g.
removed
urea,
from
will
t he
pass
into
and
health
t he
blood.
Did
you
know?
?
Kidney
transplants
We
can
kidney.
A
transplant
involves
removing
a
healt hy
kidney
from
one
person
and
surgically
inser ting
it
into
t he
abdomen
of
a
person
whose
do
not
work
(t he
recipient).
For
skilled
surgeons
t his
is
a
problem
arises,
t he
rejection.
If
t he
donor
t he
and
action
sterile
d ay
Alvin
unit
I
of
in
a
main
of
hospital
be
blood
and
white
t hem,
reduced
cells
attack
cells
by
t he
for
recipient,
several
life
large
up
areas
of
his
of
can
job
enable
d i alysis
as
a
they
not
t he
people
t he
to
t he
of
tissue
nurses
nurse
is
nursing
in
t he
dialysis
patients
to
manage
disease
treatment
dialysis
water
who
have
just
from
died.
operation
of
types
of
suppress
to
in
prevent
working.
suffering
kidney
failure
in
a
to
renal
and
as
including
clinic
well
t heir
as
for
families.
administer
t he
t he
providing
My
dialysis
t he
receive
from
treatment
and
star t
to
t hat
super vise
patients
t heir
nish.
for
administering
machine,
which
uid
ushes
Figure
from
takes
t he
on
kidneys.
t he
job
of
The
t he
B.5.3.4
for
monitoring
a
kidney
kidney.
patient’s
is
always
rst
ver y
time,
for
any
signs
of
patient
for
kidney
dialysis
hard
when
especially
we
when
meet
it’s
a
a
new
child
patient
or
for
a
young
the
whole
machine
I
They
vital
are
of ten
ver y
frightened
of
am
signs
and
we
have
to
put
them
at
ease.
Some
and
patients
monitor
a
and
experience
responsible
Preparing
injections,
toxins
person.
essentially
also
match.
taken
t he
recipient
the
I
good
consultant.
responsible
excess
a
are
tissue
cells
which
It
a
called
failure
t he
dr ugs
t he
is
p
am
have
kidneys
nurse
dialysis
treatment
peritoneal
t he
kidney
a
nephrology
dialysis
and
for
dialysis
via
a
hospital.
suppor t
Dialysis
I
if
transplant
recipient
attack
in
keeping
af ter
is
t he
This
matching
or
days
system
in
it.
will
resulting
immunosuppressant
immune
transplants
responsibility
clinics
a
lives.
the
all
patients
home
destroy
can
cells
body ’s
white
tissue
recipient’s
injecting
white
in
cer tain
foreign
and
rejection
t he
describes
in
cover
kidneys
study
setting
wit h
t he
kidney
normal
Case
A
Tissue
if
as
t he
kidney
recipient,
while
Successful
kidney
unchecked,
conditions
infection
lead
however,
new
transplanted
transplant.
their
needs
operation.
people
recognise
donate
relative
Other
A
one
some
relatively
and
straightfor ward
just
that
own
close
kidneys
with
means
(t he
people
donor)
survive
This
can
get
ver y
bored
while
they
are
in
the
unit,
infection.
so
par t
In our clinic we see mainly people with chronic
to
do
kidney disease, that’s people who are on renal dialysis
to.
all the time and who come for treatment about
spread
of
or
our
they
Some
of
job
are
our
them
is
making
near
someone
patients
around
sure
to
are
they
who
ver y
keep
have
they
funny
ever yone
something
can
and
talk
we
tr y
to
cheerful.
three times a week. Therefore you see a lot of the
We
have
to
job
I
most.
be
good
at
teaching.
It’s
t he
par t
of
t he
same patients from week to week. It is ver y much
like
Some
of
our
patients
manage
t heir
about routine, rather like an assembly line. I hope
condition
at
home
eit her
wit h
a
haemodialyser
or
by
that doesn’t sound bad, because we like many of our
using
peritoneal
dialysis
(PD).
We
teach
t he
patients
patients and it is good to see them and help them keep
how
to
perform
t heir
own
treatments
at
home
and
in good health.
185
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Kidneys
give
and
Homeostasis
health
t hem
t he
knowledge
complications
occur
to
during
know
t heir
what
to
do
if
There
any
are
needles
treatment.
many
we
use
“shar ps”,
to
stick
especially
into
stulas
t he
and
15-gauge
graf ts.
PD is not the same as the haemodialysis, which you
There is a lot to learn. Dialysis nurses must have a
can see in the photo. PD is different because it’s the
comprehensive knowledge of kidney disease and be
patient’s own membranes that do the dialysis. The
able to apply this knowledge every day at work. We
peritoneum is the lining of the abdominal cavity, a
need to have quite sophisticated technical skills to
kind of bag that holds the organs in our abdomen.
operate the complex machinery and to work with the
Dialysis uid from a bag is run into the body with tubes
many types of intravenous lines required. It’s denitely
running into the space around the body organs – the
a specialty that has its own demands. As lead nurse I
peritoneal space. Substances are exchanged across the
have to be good at communicating with our consultant,
blood vessels in the peritoneum and after a while the
our engineer, technicians and other specialists, such as
used solution is run out again by placing the bag on
dieticians. Sometimes we are called on to give treatment
the oor. PD gives patients much more independence
to patients with acute kidney failure from another area
as they can do the procedure at home and get on with
of the hospital. That is always quite exciting and very
their lives instead of travelling to our clinic. I enjoy
different from our day-to-day job.
visits to my patients who are on PD; I am always treated
Questions
as part of the family.
There
not
are
so
give
downsides
easy
t hem
t heir
to
to
manage
and
instr uctions
weight,
you
nd
t his
to
job.
Some
however
look
t hey
af ter
have
patients
many
t heir
times
diet
completely
1
What
you
2
Explain
and
That
can
get
fr ustrating.
You
get
used
meant
by
t he
term
intravenous?
how
peritoneal
dialysis
differs
from
haemodialysis.
ignored
3
you.
is
are
to
Why
do
dialysis
patients
need
advice
from
a
seeing
dietician?
t hem
so
t hem
if
risks
staff
to
of ten
t here
your
and
t hat
is
if
you
can
somet hing
own
healt h
patients.
There
wrong.
and
is
soon
a
t he
lot
tell
by
There
healt h
of
risk
looking
are
of
of
also
at
4
t he
ot hers
Explain
failure
–
blood,
more
so
t han
in
general
difference
chronic
between
kidney
acute
kidney
failure.
exposure
5
to
t he
and
hospital
Suggest
how
t he
risks
of
infection
in
t he
renal
unit
nursing.
are
kept
as
low
as
possible.
Questions
Talk
about
?
1
There
is
a
shortage
of
Suggest
to
for
transplant
operations.
people
Do
you
people
to
think
Discuss
friends
have
donate
this
and
this
with
paid
their
is
person
who
depends
on
dialysis
should
not
be
allowed
eat
salted
of
potato
dialysis
chips
or
drink
cola
other
than
during
the
first
two
treatment.
poor
kidneys.
2
right?
your
a
Some
hours
wealthy
why
kidneys
family,
Explain
carried
the
out
3
What
are
4
Discuss
ways
by
the
a
in
which
kidney
dialysis
is
similar
to
the
functions
kidney.
advantages
of
a
haemodialysis,
and
b
kidney
transplants?
teachers.
which
the
factors
people
donated
after
have
their
for
to
and
opt
against
out
if
a
they
system
do
not
used
wish
in
to
some
have
countries
their
in
organs
death.
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Homeostasis
B.5.4
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
wit hin
t he
is
t he
body.
It
(osmoregulation),
Learning
maintenance
includes
of
a
control
constant
of
t he
internal
water
blood
glucose
concentration,
carbon
dioxide
in
balance
body
By
environment
of
t he
blood
temperature
and
of
t he
define
is
necessar y
so
t hat
our
cells
and
t he
enzymes
in
t he
are
specic
mechanisms
to
this
topic
you
to:
the
term
maintain
t he
levels
of
t hese
factors.
the
homeostasis
concept
of
homeostasis
body
explain
efciently.
of
There
of
able
explain
●
function
be
blood.
●
Homeostasis
end
t he
●
concentration
the
should
outcomes
the
importance
negative
feedback
All
mechanisms
t hese
mechanisms
of
homeostasis
share
common
features:
●
●
A
specic
sensor
t hat
detects
t he
value
of
t he
factor
being
describe
monitored.
Any
deviation
from
t hat
t he
is
t he
desired
value
( norm
or
set
point)
is
corrected
more
or
less
The
corrective
mechanism
explain
involves
negative
feedback
various
mechanisms
we
the
have
for
homeostasis
ensure
water
t hat
our
and
constantly
necessar y
function
wit h
t hat
temperature
t he
efciently.
oxygen
carbon
of
t he
and
dioxide
cells
and
It
is
and
t he
impor tant
nutrients
ot her
pH
of
t hat
t hat
t hey
wastes
t heir
are
t hey
are
need.
It
regulation
the
blood
describe
the
regulation
dioxide
in
the
of
blood.
supplied
is
removed.
surroundings
in
cells
carbon
sur vive
blood
(osmoregulation)
●
The
of
regulated
maintained.
of
●
is
so
●
norm
the
concentration
glucose
●
how
also
The
need
to
be
Key
terms
!
kept
(see
constant
Unit
so
t hat
t he
enzymes
in
our
cells
can
function
efciently
B.1.3).
Homeostasis
(near)
Negative
the
feedback
constant
best
way
to
understand
negative
feedback
is
to
t hink
about
our
The
Our
body
temperature
uctuates
a
little
over
t he
course
day,
tending
to
fall
at
night
and
rise
in
t he
morning.
It
increases
in
the
temperature
take
exercise
and
af ter
eating
a
meal.
Some
women
notice
t hat
temperature
rises
when
t hey
ovulate.
Figure
B.5.4.1
shows
wit hin
occurring
about
half
a
over
degree
a
of
period
37°C,
of
we
time.
have
To
keep
t he
mechanisms
body
to
in
if
it
falls
and
decrease
t he
temperature
if
it
for
37°C.
mechanism
the
temperature
increase
condition,
body
such
temperature,
that
A
returns
to
as
its
body
normal
value.
t he
Negative
temperature
is
t hese
a
uctuations
a
norm
t heir
process
body
for
The
when
Corrective
we
value
body.
of
body
a
normal
body
condition
temperature.
of
inside
body.
Norm
The
Maintenance
conditions
feedback
A
system
in
rises.
which
state
control
a
is
change
from
detected
corrective
the
and
actions
to
normal
triggers
restore
the
centre
normal
body
temperature
heat
state,
norm
or
set
point.
loss
rises
body
temperature
erutarepmet
towards
set
set
falls
point
point
✔
body
=
Exam
tip
37˚C
temperature
rises
body
again
towards
ydoB
falls
Conditions
in
the
body
never
temperature
below
set
set
point
stay
exactly
constant
they
uctuate
all
the
time;
point
heat
heat
control
in
a
little
above
and
conservation
production
below
the
to
that
say
desired
level.
homeostasis
It
is
is
better
the
centre
brain
maintenance
of
conditions
keeping
or
near
constant
conditions
Time
within
p
Figure
below
B.5.4.1
the
set
This
point
graph
of
shows
the
fluctuations
in
body
temperature
above
narrow
limits.
and
37°C
187
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Negative
Study
✔
norm
tip
be
Of
it
all
is
the
conditions
temperature
the
narrowest
in
that
limits
our
is
bodies
kept
and
is
of
within
a
reset.
t he
rose
to
negative
feedback
use
to
air
because
conditioning
diagram
in
same
type
ovens
of
a
control
corrective
Figure
shows
set
B.5.4.2,
what
point
mechanism
action,
or
or
which
would
norm
in
which
actions,
represents
happen
value.
if
The
a
change
which
t he
allow
from
t he
homeostasis.
internal
corrective
The
factor
action
t he
norm
in
top
to
half
question
taken
cause
t he
opposite
(i.e.
negative)
effect
to
what
was
by
t he
happening.
a
result,
as
control
t he
factor
would
fall
back
to
and
norm
value.
The
bottom
par t
t he
diagram
shows
t hat
if
t he
factor
fell
below
its
norm
t he
corrective
the
examples
would
again
have
t he
opposite
(negative)
effect,
causing
it
to
rise
to
of
norm
value.
processes.
Blood
rise
its
we
its
the
its
would
action
thermostats
at
is
a
understand
of
use
off
good
As
can
Look
above
body
example
feedback
triggers
sugar
regulation
corrective
above
The
sugar
The
concentration
carried
in
t he
blood
is
glucose.
mechanism
norm
negative
feedback
closely
monitored
of
by
glucose
t he
in
t he
pancreas
blood
and
is
has
−3
a
norm
of
approximately
80–90 mg
100 cm
−3
blood
norm
The
norm
(or
0.8
to
regulation
pancreas
groups
and
of
0.9 g dm
of
t he
special
).
glucose
liver.
cells
Langerhans
(islets
cells
two
are
In
involves
t he
known
small
t he
pancreas
as
t he
are
islets
islands).
of
These
negative
secrete
hormones,
insulin
and
feedback
glucagon.
fall
below
corrective
norm
p
Figure
B.5.4.2
The
principle
mechanism
of
3
blood
negative
glucose
concentration
/
mg
per
100
cm
feedback
120
110
100
90
80
70
eating
exercise
time
p
Figure
meal
B.5.4.3
and
takes
The
changes
in
blood
glucose
concentration
as
the
boy
absorbs
a
exercise
If the blood glucose concentration increases, e.g. after a heavy meal, these
cells detect this and release more insulin and less glucagon. The insulin travels
to the liver in the blood and “tells” it to do a number of things, including
conver ting
As
a
result,
Figure
If
t he
blood
change
blood
glucose
glucagon.
glycogen
blood
These
t he
to
glycogen
glucose
and
storing
it
concentration
and
conver ting
decreases
as
you
glucose
can
see
to
fat.
in
B.5.4.3.
releases
t he
glucose
so
t hat
changes
concentration
This
to
glucose.
t he
are
hormone
The
decreases,
travels
glucose
concentration
shown
in
t he
in
char ts
pancreas
blood
diffuses
increases
ow
t he
t he
out
and
in
is
and
of
detects
“tells”
t he
liver
restored
Figure
to
t his
t he
cells
t he
and
liver
to
into
norm.
B.5.4.4.
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis
blood
glucose
concentration
at
the
3
norm
large
meal
followed
of
80–90
mg
per
100
cm
by
muscle
absorption
of
glucose
contraction
strenuous
small
blood
during
from
exercise
intestine
glucose
concentration
blood
glucose
concentration
3
increases
above
change
90
in
concentration
of
blood
islets
of
per
in
the
Langerhans
insulin
insulin
and
“tells”
100
3
cm
decreases
of
islets
secretes
less
glucagon
glucose
to
liver
of
blood
glucose
mg
blood
per
in
and
100
cm
glucose
detected
the
by
islets
pancreas
Langerhans
insulin
secretes
more
glucagon
to
“tells”
the
liver
to
glycogen
convert
and/or
80
Langerhans
glucagon
convert
in
concentration
islets
pancreas
less
the
by
below
change
glucose
detected
Langerhans
more
mg
glycogen
to
glucose
fat
concentration
blood
glucose
decreases
concentration
increases
blood
glucose
concentration
returns
to
Key
mg
per
100
term
!
3
80–90
cm
Osmoregulation
p
Figure
B.5.4.4
hormones
insulin
concentration
Ot her
Negative
and
within
hormones,
feedback
glucagon
safe
e.g.
control
work
of
blood
together
to
glucose
keep
concentration.
changes
in
blood
The
glucose
limits
adrenaline,
also
affect
t he
blood
sugar
level.
At
the
water
the
body
stress
glands.
t he
or
during
This
cells
to
has
exercise,
t he
conver t
same
adrenaline
effect
glycogen
to
on
will
t he
be
liver
glucose
to
secreted
as
by
glucagon
increase
t he
t he
is
blood
has
norm,
the
The
of
the
dehydrated
less
water
kidneys
in
control
blood;
and
it
of
when
the
than
reabsorb
the
more
times
water
of
content
to
conserve
it
in
the
body
.
adrenal
stimulating
blood
glucose
Did
you
know?
?
concentration.
Paul
Langerhans
was
a
medical
Osmoregulation
student,
Osmoregulation
is
t he
ability
of
an
organism
to
regulate
discovered
t he
named
concentration
of
its
body
uids.
It
involves
t he
maintenance
concentration
of
t he
body
uids
by
controlling
t he
water
and
of
t he
blood.
We
are
only
going
to
deal
wit h
t he
control
of
content
of
t he
blood.
If
a
person
loses
water
from
t heir
lymph
by
excessive
sweating
dur ing
exercise,
t he
blood
him.
He
nodes!
discovered
nerve
he
that
are
thought
A
year
they
earlier
what
cells
in
he
the
thought
skin,
they
blood,
turned
e.g.
after
islets
t he
were
water
the
when
salt
he
content
21,
of
were
t he
aged
becomes
out
to
be
cells
that
help
to
more
defend
us
against
disease.
concentrated.
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis
a
hot
and
There
thirsty
t hat
brain
pituitary
t he
are
special
detect
receptors
changes
hypot halamus
in
t he
sends
in
t he
hypot halamus
concentration
ner ve
impulses
of
to
t he
t he
at
t he
base
blood.
If
pituitar y
it
of
t he
brain
increases,
gland,
t hen
stimulating
gland
it
to
release
anti-diuretic
hormone
(ADH).
secretes
ADH
ADH
line
concentrated
blood
by
ADH
released
into
travels
t he
in
t he
second
becoming
blood
coiled
more
to
t he
tubules
permeable
kidneys
and
to
t he
where
it
is
collecting
water
so
t hat
detected
ducts.
more
by
These
water
is
t he
cells
cells
t hat
respond
reabsorbed
blood
from
ADH
t he
urine
into
t he
blood.
As
a
result
less
urine
travels
down
to
t he
stimulates
bladder
and
it
is
more
concentrated
and
darker
in
colour.
These
changes
are
kidney
nephrons
to
summarised
in
Figures
B.5.4.5
and
B.5.4.6.
reabsorb
water
into
the
concentration
of
the
blood
blood
plasma
small
volume
concentrated
is
normal
of
urine
staying
running
on
a
ver y
hot
indoors
in
air-conditioned
so
body
temperature
drinking
plenty
of
many
soft
drinks
water
high
water
dilute
cold
room
rises
drinking
after
b
a
day
rate
is
of
lost
sweating
from
the
so
low
blood
water
is
rate
not
of
sweating
lost
from
the
so
blood
blood
concentration
no
ADH
in
of
blood
increases
concentration
of
blood
decreases
blood
and
little
detected
by
hypothalamus
and
is
detected
by
hypothalamus
water
reabsorbed
the
is
blood
into
by
kidney
pituitar y
gland
secretes
pituitar y
gland
stops
nephrons
ADH
into
collecting
respond
large
volume
to
the
ducts
ADH
p
Figure
the
B.5.4.5
pituitary
a
ADH
gland
in
is
the
are
dehydrated;
b
secreted
head
secreted
after
little
drinking
collecting
ducts
respond
by
in
kidney
becoming
to
water
impermeable
to
water
by
when
or
no
plenty
is
reabsorbed
from
water
is
not
reabsorbed
ADH
the
is
kidney
becoming
ADH
urine
water
we
in
by
secreting
of
permeable
dilute
blood
urine
into
the
blood
from
urine
into
the
blood
of
water
concentration
plasma
p
Figure
B.5.4.6
A
flow
chart
of
returns
the
to
showing
blood
normal
osmoregulation
190
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Homeostasis
Variations
Homeostasis
in
urine
composition
Key
The
A
composition
high
ur in e
due
int ake
ur in e.
cola,
protein
to
of
diet
wil l
changes
in cre as e
deam in a t io n
(in cluding
Some
urine
ADH
s uc h
as
re le a se
t he
t he
wa t e r-ba se d
dr ugs ,
depress
of
according
su r plus
a lc oh ol
a mino
will
an d
t he
cer tain
c on c en tratio n
dr in k s)
fro m
to
urea
a c ids.
result
c af feine
pit u it ar y
of
in
in
a
t ea,
gla n d
in
t he
E xcessive
mo re
Diabetes
water
c of fee
in
which
become
more
more
t his
loss,
a
person
water
concentrated
is
exercise
exercises
t he
reabsorbed
and
t here
is
in
less
more
t he
of
t hey
will
kidneys
so
sweat.
t hat
To
compensate
urine
becomes
weat her
more
less
people
sweat
is
produced,
so
t he
urine
is
more
dilute.
In
sweat
we
sleep
at
much
night
concentrated
is
reabsorbed
is
less
of
by
dioxide
more
so,
unless
t hey
drink
a
lot,
t he
happens
is
as
t he
we
we
do
lose
kidney
if
not
drink,
water
so
cannot
t he
muc h
This
bloodstream.
you
where
because
nor mal.
urine
so
gradually
t hrough
t he
sweating
blood
and
becomes
breat hing.
is
urine
becomes
more
concentrated
and
detected
People
secrete
body
less
prevents
insipidus
body
t here
the
receptors
blood
produces
ADH
t he
wit h
ADH
is
t his
large
secreted
kidneys
anymore?
condition
volumes
from
from
Diabetes
t he
of
at
r isk
dilute
of
water
into
must
not
be
confused
wit h
sent
breathing
the
ur ine.
hypot halamus
reabsorbing
are
insipidus
fails
to
regulate
t he
concentration
of
t he
t han
mellitus ,
centre
glucose
in
t he
blood
at
frequency
breathing
medulla
at
t he
the
can
see
aware
to
of
t his
t he
t he
to
base
of
t he
of
brain
t his
is
region
t he
in
respirator y
Figure
or
B.5.4.8.
breat hing
You
and
centre,
centre
but
it
controls
muscles
sends
out
and
t he
rate
of
diaphragm
regular
impulses
breat hing
by
depth
and
elsewhere
in
stretc h
breat he
t he
in.
body
receptors
The
to
in
centre
c hange
t he
lungs
responds
t he
rate
t hat
and
send
to
increase
sending
muscles.
to
t he
var ious
muscles
dept h
of
impulses
inputs
to
from
breat hing.
to
t he
centre
dioxide
t hat
we
This
breat he
has
t he
out.
effect
The
of
centre
stopping
also
t he
responds
impulses
to
to
t he
as
about
instr ument
dioxide
when
our
or
breat hing
go
swimming.
concentration
you
hold
when
your
of
t he
we
The
t alk,
sing,
decisions
medulla
blood,
exercise,
also
whic h
play
t hat
responds
increases
to
a
carbon
normal
Figure
in
we
B.5.4.7
increase
the
in
blood
the
The
carbon
on
effect
dioxide
breathing
breathing
centre
in
of
an
concentration
is
controlled
the
brain
wind
t he
dur ing
to
t he
muscles
by
make
of
returns
There
p
inate.
of
are
concentration
so
the
muscles
rate
position
intercostal
respirator y
lungs
higher
diaphragm
breathing
contract
sends
where
rate
You
impulses
in
brain
192).
Control
never
the
dehydration.
d i abetes
of
to
centre
t he
and
centre.
in
vessels
intercostal
page
Wit hin
by
Water
impulses
are
the
is
breathing
Diabetes
The
in
insipidus
condition
(see
of
increases
impulses
What
t he
rate
increases
it.
Diabetes
is
blood.
hot
chemical
This
the
the
it.
increase
more
a
of
in
concentrated.
When
is
glucose
for
blood
weat her,
disease
more
carbon
cold
of
A
control
ur ine
concentration
In
no
dilut e .
respiration
The
is
and
t he
during
to
mellitus
there
concentration
dilu te
cau sin g
term
!
factors.
carbon
exercise
or
breat h.
191
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Use
to
Figures
an
B.5.4.7
increase
in
and
B.5.4.8
breat hing
to
dept h
follow
and
t he
rate
sequence
during
of
events
t hat
leads
exercise.
brain
respiratory
(breathing)
centre
the
in
medulla
nerves
from
stretch
in
the
receptors
lungs
intercostal
muscles
u
Figure
B.5.4.8
medulla
in
the
The
position
brain,
which
of
the
controls
diaphragm
the
activity
muscles
of
and
the
the
intercostal
diaphragm
Diabetes
mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a disease where the concentration of glucose in the blood
Key
cannot be regulated properly. When this happens people are at risk of having
terms
!
such a high glucose concentration that they cannot reabsorb all of the glucose
T
ype
1
(juvenile
diabetes
This
onset)
form
of
in the kidneys. A sign of this condition is the presence of glucose in the urine.
diabetes
There
is
caused
by
Langerhans
the
to
failure
secrete
of
islets
are
two
forms
2
(late
diabetes
usually
to
This
to
form
by
a
of
diabetes
failure
of
is
cells
Type
of
1
20.
needed.
insulin.
human
Figure
t he
from
in
can
B.5.4.9).
t hat
control
Late-onset
t he
2
liver
and
insulin
controlled
B.5.4.9
A
dispenses
doses
of
insulin
girl
fixing
carefully
into
the
a
mini
to
people
a
people
side
us
to
administer
of
t he
insulin
diabetes
produce
on
age
are
was
at
synt hetic
t his
insulin
insulin
greater
under
of
effects.
infor mation
dose
much
glucose
to
enabled
to
in
injections
juvenile-onset
lead
more
r ight
found
daily
treat
can
have
For
t he
blood
see
for
just
t he
independence
page
t hem
r ight
and
305.
(see
times
more
concentration.
2)
d i abetes
produced
has
t his
and
mini-pump
delivers
elsewhere
by
used
but
1980s.
a
usually
to
be
taking
in
by
is
usually
t he
t he
body
produced
dr ugs
and
found
pancreas
to
no
get
is
longer
t he
keeping
to
in
over
adequate,
respond
same
a
people
of ten
to
effect;
low-sugar
it
it,
t he
but
age
of
cells
meaning
can
usually
in
t hat
be
diet.
pump
controlled
blood
t he
t heir
onset)
insulin
insulin
is
stops
engineer ing
giving
of
(type
(late
The
more
day,
insulin
cattle,
have
This
d i abetes
of
t he
or
since
now
careful
35.
past,
genetic
dur ing
Type
onset)
pigs
insulin
Diabetics
which
1)
production
In
Advances
Figure
(type
(juvenile
The
obtained
p
mellitus.
onset)
caused
respond
diabetes
insulin.
Juvenile-onset
T
ype
of
of
Mature-onset
weight
of ten
diabetes
improves
is
of ten
t his
associated
wit h
obesity.
Dieting
to
reduce
condition.
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Homeostasis
Case
study
Di abetes
The
is
diseases
diabetes
over
t he
suffered
type
lifestyle
t hat
in
of
2
by
and
per
ot her
of
cent
This
is
of
is
c hances
of
use
t he
not
a
in
of
t he
in
of
of
and
rates
of
world.
adults
It
has
15%.
170 000
between
Similar
world
t he
all
long-term
causes
Jamaicans
15
of
statistics
and
deat h
have
been
Caribbean
in
living
becoming
t he
excess
over
ot her
mor tality
12%
leading
t he
Car ibbean,
you
in
preventable.
and
par ts
highest
aged
disease
by
and
and
least
t hat
t he
diabetes
or
is
2012
of
t he
at
yout hs
deat hs.
in
easily
tobacco
in
one
all
“stressed”
t hat
t he
diet,
is
of
cases
Tobago
7000
countries
diabetes.
increase
It
among
diabetes
stated
many
prevalence
are
to
nearly
t hese
one
The
and
due
diabetes.
being
and
unhealt hy
Trinidad
hyper tension
t hroughout
Caribbean
Minister
13
diabetes,
rapidly
deat hs
25
for
wit h
exception.
t he
t hat
major ity
of
in
from
infected,
no
from
accounting
The
is
Healt h
age
repor ted
people
t hat
and
Jamaica’s
are
of
Caribbean
increasing
estimated
24
the
Caribbean
t hese
is
in
number
diseases
t he
Homeostasis
can
catc h
pover ty.
The
diabetic
har mful
four
are
use
as
elsewhere,
by
This
is
main
being
a
physical
of
disease
r isk
of
factors
inactivity,
p
Figure
blood
alcohol.
her
A
sur vey
of
of
schoolchildren
teenagers
admitting
Statistics
Data
leading
at
from
was
between
per
to
from
t here
were
an
one
2002
and
of
of
wit h
show
100
2006.
In
for
and
more
four
Margaret
of
deat h
Trinidad
t he
Bahamas
Princess
average
cause
100 000
least
t he
t he
in
over weight,
risk
t he
t he
of
consequences
Hospital
wit h
a
in
a
Bahamas,
ages
found
40%
all
t hat
A
nurse
checks
concentration
of
the
one
of
patients
17%
teenagers
factors.
amputations
all
Tobago
t han
B.5.4.10
glucose
Nassau
year
as
a
diabetes
rate
of
of
diabetes.
shows
result
is
t he
about
t hat
of
diabetes
f t h
30
deat hs
people.
Questions
1
What
is
t he
difference
between
being
2
What
is
t he
difference
between
type
3
What
is
meant
4
Explain
t he
diabetes
5
A
per
person
hungr y,
These
t he
6
Diabetes
A
to
has
7
A
to
repor t
nd
from
Caribbean
of
of
and
type
2
being
obese?
diabetes?
lifestyle”?
expressing
doctor
lot
and
of
t he
number
you
complaining
going
diabetes.
of
people
wit h
to
t he
What
of
being
toilet
tired,
more
simple
test
always
of ten
might
t han
usual.
suggest
t hat
diabetes?
is
conrmed
given
a
monitored
if
t he
t he
by
glucose
for
person
was
high-salt
t hink
t his
to
ban
foods
using
drink
t he
International
governments
energy-dense,
whet her
a
usually
patient
concentration
expect
t he
symptoms
is
disease
1
and
100 000.
goes
are
“a
advantage
drinking
person
test.
by
over weight
next
glucose
few
diabetic?
Diabetes
or
and
should
a
and
be
at
t heir
tolerance
blood
hours.
How
would
Federation
least
limit
beverages
to
glucose
What
t he
would
t hey
in
2012
or
you
treated?
urged
marketing
children.
implemented
be
of
Discuss
not?
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Homeostasis
Skin
Questions
1
a
State
the
opposite
3
Use
set
4
an
effect
effect
became
If
the
6
Copy
T
ype
in
the
of
Mature-onset
glucose
8
Insulin
is
9
a
in
is
a
By
the
end
of
this
topic
Explain
B.5.5
outcomes
be
able
have
the
are
have
high,
your
on
body
and
by
the
following
terms:
norm/
feedback.
b
cells
the
if
blood
a
the
plasma
plasma
concentration
answers.
decrease
and,
meant
dropped
too
low,
what
process
that
significantly?
using
your
notes,
fill
Cause
in
the
blanks.
Treatment
1)
2)
biochemical
test
you
could
use
to
show
the
presence
of
protein
and
so
cannot
be
taken
by
mouth.
Explain
why
this
insulin
injections
are
not
normally
given
to
people
with
diabetes.
why
diabetes
insipidus
can
be
a
life-threatening
disorder.
Skin
you
Skin
should
that
urine.
why
late-onset
Learning
hormones
so.
Explain
10
too
mellitus
(type
two
negative
concentration
below
(type
what
Explain
would
table
Name
action,
osmosis
glucose
diabetes
Describe
show
became
cells
b
insulin.
to
low?
Juvenile-onset
7
to
would
too
blood
occurs
insulin.
corrective
concentration
5
of
example
point,
What
role
structure
to:
The skin is the largest organ in the body and is an important organ in helping
●
describe
the
structure
of
the
us to resist infection (page 322), excrete and avoid dehydration. It also has a
skin
major part to play in controlling our body temperature. Figure B.5.5.1 shows
●
list
the
functions
of
the
skin
a section through the skin and illustrates its complex nature.
●
relate
the
structures
of
the
There
skin
●
their
are
t hree
distinguish
different
layers
wit hin
t he
skin,
t he
epidermis,
dermis
and
functions
subcutaneous
and
●
to
between
fat
heat
temperature
describe
the
regulation
of
sweat
pain
pore
receptor
touch
receptor
hair
temperature.
temperature
receptor
cornified
layer
epidermis
Malpighian
layer
sebaceous
sweat
gland
gland
venule
dermis
arteriole
to
pressure
brain
receptor
from
fat
brain
(adipose)
shunt
vessel
blood
capillary
hair
hair
erector
papilla
follicle
muscle
tissue
network
p
Figure
B.5.5.1
The
structure
of
human
skin
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Homeostasis
Skin
Epidermis
!
Key
Cornied
The
upper
dead
of
a
cells
cells
loss
and
from
layer
of
t he
extent
it
t he
t he
cont aining
protects
cer t ain
terms
layer
by
keratin,
t he
and
entr y
t hey
are
is
t he
whic h
underlying
puncture.
prevents
sur face
epider mis
is
tissues
It
is
of
also
cor nied
a
tough
against
a
by
This
brous
The
new
cells
by
layer
cells
is
made
protein.
damage
water proof
pat hogens.
replaced
layer.
are
This
fr iction
so
of
t he
layer
and,
reduces
layer
to
water
const antly
from
Skin
lost
below.
body
The
–
(germinal)
layer
largest
covers
composed
of
Epidermis
the
organ
the
many
Outer
in
body
the
and
is
tissues.
tissue
of
skin.
Dermis
which
Malpighian
it
such
as
tissue
Inner
is
layer
composed
nervous
and
of
the
of
tissue,
connective
skin,
many
tissues,
muscle
tissue.
This is a single layer of cells, which divide to produce replacement cells for
Subcutaneous
Tissue
those rubbed off the surface of the skin. These cells contain the dark pigment
immediately
below
the
dermis,
melanin, which protects underlying tissues against ultraviolet (UV) light.
which
forms
provides
an
food
insulating
layer
or
storage.
Dermis
Sweat
These
glands
absorb
sur round
pores
water,
t hem.
onto
t he
ions
The
and
uid
surface
of
urea
passes
t he
from
up
skin
t he
blood
sweat
where
it
in
t he
ducts
capillar ies
and
evaporates.
t hat
t hrough
If
sweat
Key
sweat
term
!
accumulates
Arteriole
on
t he
skin
it
is
not
properly
doing
its
job
of
removing
heat
from
t he
that
controls
capillaries.
Blood
Ar teries
deliver
blood
to
smaller
vessels
called
arterioles.
Blood
t hen
capillaries
not
blood
to
The
and
us
we
warm
do
These
from
page
vessel
blood
to
has
ring
arteriole
a
not
Ar terioles
–
and
t he
shunt
increasing
dermis.
vessels
it
to
lose
which
in
ot her
The
control
heat
and
its
thin
wall.
Arterioles
of
are
small
arteries.
capillaries
t he
ow
reducing
of
it
199).
raise
air:
have
Figure
t hroughout
in
muscles
to
trapped
a
t he
good
dense
hairs,
t hermal
body
hair
insulator.
and
have
to
mammals
This
use
is
not
gives
much
clot hes
a
use
instead
to
B.5.5.4).
glands
glands
secrete
cracking,
bacteria.
(see
erector
(see
tissues
capillaries
contract
of
t he
epidermis.
heat
Sebaceous
supply
t hese
hair
layer
as
keep
to
t he
muscles
dense
to
enter
t hrough
conser ve
Hairs
An
of
ows
not
do
blood
supply
vessels
muscle
into
Small
body.
an
helps
Overactive
to
oily
liquid
called
water proof
glands
can
t he
cause
sebum
skin
acne
and
(see
which
prevents
inhibits
Figure
t he
t he
skin
growt h
of
B.5.5.2).
Receptors
There
are
pressure.
receptors
They
t hat
send
detect
impulses
changes
to
t he
in
brain
temperature,
and
spinal
pain,
touch
and
cord.
p
Subcutaneous
fat
Figure
the
This
is
layer
formed
slows
of
down
adipose
heat
B.5.5.2
overactive
tissue
loss
or
which
heat
has
gain
cells
and
acts
full
as
of
triglycerides.
par t
of
our
This
energy
Acne
is
sebaceous
caused
glands
by
in
skin
fat
store.
195
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B
Topic
5.indd
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16:10
Homeostasis
Skin
Practical
T
o
investigate
the
Activity
density
of
touch
receptors
in
various
parts
of
the
skin
Requirements
●
two
cocktail
sandpaper
piece
of
Ask
someone
2
Blindfold
the
sticks
to
of
skin
the
3
Make
a
4
T
ouch
list
the
have
Calculate
6
If
subject
Repeat
finger
the
feels
stimuli
skin
Record
had
a
and
3–6
sole
to
on
of
be
of
number
you
ten
correct
success
mm
If
to
subject
1,
2,
of
1,
that
the
apart
mm
blunted
with
two.
needs
to
cocktail
Each
say
area
how
time.
1,
the
in
the
or
each
so
20 mm
activity.
use
stick
skin
back
this
response
1,
2,
hand
each
2,
1,
2,
1.
following
the
list
time.
responses.
rate,
the
decrease
success
the
rate
distance
was
less
between
than
100%
apart.
parts
points
The
sticks
about
graduated
for
one
e.g.
the
are
going
the
use,
on
forearm.
of
are
with
subject’s
repeat.
30
subject
times.
will
different
foot,
the
either
gently
the
rule,
●
touching
you
100%
mm
distance
the
of
Find
used
the
out
in
body,
which
the
test.
e.g.
the
areas
Y
ou
back
are
can
of
best
also
neck,
at
repeat
with
people.
Record
the
density
of
Heat
she
cocktail
ends
them
skin,
percentage
10
steps
detecting
8
to
tips,
different
the
to
stimulated
subject’s
the
sticks
increase
7
of
T
ell
their
or
made.
5
the
he
the
a
adjust
volunteer
be
by
into
clay;
subject.
will
points
the
to
stimulate
many
blunted
pushed
modelling
1
you
sticks
and
and
results
touch
in
a
suitable
receptors
in
table
and
different
explain
areas
of
them
in
terms
of
the
skin.
temperature
Heat is a form of energy that scientists measure in joules. Temperature is a
measure of the degree of hotness, measured in degrees Celsius (°C) although
often still given in weather forecasts as degrees Fahrenheit (°C). Heat is
thermal energy and how much there is present depends on the mass of
material. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in
a material, however much is present. All mammals have a temperature around
35°C to 40°C, but larger mammals have much more heat in their bodies than
small ones simply because of their larger mass. You may burn yourself with a
drop of boiling water, but the thermal energy in it will not cook an egg.
Practical
T
o
compare
the
Activity
energy
content
of
foods
Requirements
●
eye
●
thermometer
protection
●
mounted
●
balance,
needle
●
heat
●
stand
resistant
●
teaspoon
●
measuring
●
Bunsen
●
ruler
and
mat
clamp
3
(if
●
weighing
possible)
boiling
tube
to
0.1
g
(in
cylinder
(25
cm
)
burner
mm)
196
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HSB
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B
Topic
5.indd
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08/01/2015
16:10
Homeostasis
variety
●
as
Skin
of
anyone
should
while
in
a
foodstuffs,
mini-marshmallows,
(already
If
dry
popped),
has
not
the
a
be
food
investigation
very
is
e.g.
to
anyone
carried
room,
bread,
beans,
nuts,
potato,
hard
bacon,
dry
cheese.
snacks,
allergy,
or
pasta,
popcorn
potato
included
well-ventilated
such
nuts,
with
out.
although
then
an
The
if
it
is
either
allergy
the
investigation
too
foods
should
draughty
not
should
the
concerned
be
in
be
foods
the
lab
carried
will
not
out
burn
well.
3
1
Use
the
2
Clamp
measuring
the
tube
in
cylinder
the
to
retort
put
25
stand
at
cm
a
of
water
slight
into
angle
the
and
boiling
over
a
tube.
p
heat
Figure
air
resistant
is
Weigh
4
T
ake
5
Fix
6
food
the
mm
If
food
below
the
record
8
on
there
of
out,
is
food
of
of
quickly
stops
it
and
tube
a
burner,
it
burning,
mass.
Burning
very
efficient
foods
way
in
of
the
finding
and
above
If
the
instead
food
of
on
immediately
the
their
good
energy
content,
investigation
for
but
you
to
it
is
a
evaluate
it.
needle.
teaspoon
and
relight
the
record
mounted
on
Bunsen
boiling
record
water
the
put
a
and
the
end
then
using
the
food
the
re-weigh
the
heated
goes
When
piece
temperature
when
flame
7
small
the
Ignite
10
a
the
melt
a
mat.
out
3
B.5.5.3
not
heat
is
likely
the
hold
resistant
to
needle.
it
about
mat.
If
the
again.
stir
the
water
with
the
thermometer
and
temperature.
a
significant
this
and
amount
record
the
of
unburnt
mass
food
left
on
the
needle,
remaining.
3
9
Empty
the
the
and
investigation
10
Record
11
Calculate
a
tube
all
Use
your
the
this
food
to
refill
using
q
is
a
to
another
table
joules
(or
10
cm
of
cold
repeat
kilojoules)
the
heat
with
by
more
energy
the
heat
cm
the
temperature
C
an
=
m
×
energy
is
the
Divide
specific
example:
your
energy
12
Compare
you
may
Unit
you
13
your
q
B.1.6
official
where
energy
signicant
damaging
animals
to
keep
in
C
in
×
m
is
the
mass
(also
t heir
of
of
water
(4.2
J
g
water
heated
−1
deg
),
and
ΔT
is
=
the
used
4.2
×
16
1680 J
the
with
×
mass
water
the
in
of
official
they
this
foodstuff
joules
per
energy
came
from
information
burnt
gram
content
or
to
from
find
to
of
of
a
out
find
the
heat
food.
the
foods
website
how
which
(see
much
energy
day).
for
the
differences
between
your
answers
and
the
values.
regulation
variation
effects
each
ΔT
joules,
heat
25
packet
you
a
reasons
T
emperature
Any
the
=
by
by
results
on
consume
Suggest
answer
absorbed
find
from
increase.
q
b
steps:
water:
(25
is
these
transferred
−1
),
Repeat
foods.
following
3
Here
water.
food.
and
calculate
q
where
with
different
in
in
equation
the
a
results
energy
it
on
called
body
t he
in
internal,
body ’s
homoiot herms
temperature
or
core,
enzymes
or
fairly
(see
temperature
page
70).
warm-blooded
constant
despite
could
have
Endot hermic
animals)
changes
are
in
able
t he
197
835292
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Topic
5.indd
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08/01/2015
16:10
Homeostasis
Skin
temperature
exercising
endot herms
of
about
q
How
is
or
a
can
Ways
in
or
in
Table
heat
(see
internal
lost
and
from
be
252).
(core)
t he
and
gained
body
of
shown
and
e.g.
when
Humans
body
evaporation
B.5.5.1
can
uctuations,
page
are
temperature
in
four
ways
–
water.
in
Figure
B.5.5.4.
lost.
Explanation
Radiation
Transfer
of
heat
to
or
from
the
body
to
Conduction
Transfer
of
heat
to
or
from
the
body
by
body
via
as
the
Transfer
Evaporation
know?
constant
gained
which
internal
lost
Convection
you
be
a
or
ovulates
convection
explained
such
Did
female
maintain
Heat
are
B.5.5.1
heat
gained
environment
conduction,
terms
T
able
t he
when
and
37°C.
radiation,
These
of
and
The
loss
of
ground
heat
of
to
heat
or
or
a
objects
direct
via
contact
the
with
air
another
object,
chair
from
used
other
to
the
change
water
moving
from
a
air
liquid
to
a
vapour,
e.g.
when
?
water
Ectotherms
their
body
cannot
according
to
the
temperature
B.5.5.4
surroundings.
Reptiles
of
are
examples
of
shows
some
temperature.
adjustments
the
gas
exchange
system
of
We
t he
ways
have
in
which
various
we
respond
homeostatic
to
t he
two
mechanisms
so
t hat
t he
body
temperature
says
near
constant.
to
Our
and
behaviour
sh
or
of
make
their
surface
the
extremes
in
skin
which
Figure
changes
the
control
temperature,
uctuates
leaves
also
changes
when
we
are
in
t he
hot
or
in
t he
cold
to
keep
a
ectotherms.
constant
temperature.
evaporation
from
the
skin
evaporation
the
convection
to
the
from
lungs
air
radiation
to
conduction
to
heat
air
objects
ground
gained
from
and
through
nearby
hot
food
drinks
heat
generated
by
shivering
heat
by
generated
respiration
especially
the
in
liver
insulation
heat
in
(conserves
u
Figure
B.5.5.4
How
we
lose
heat,
keeps
the
body
heat)
radiant
heat
absorbed
fires
or
from
central
heating
conserve
heat
and
gain
heat
198
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Topic
5.indd
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16:10
Homeostasis
Responses
Skin
to
heat
gain
Key
If
we
also
are
gaining
reduce
t he
heat,
t hen
generation
we
of
do
our
heat
best
wit hin
to
lose
t he
it
from
body.
We
t he
have
body
term
!
and
various
Vasodilation
mechanisms
for
muscle
●
Sweating
water
–
heat
energy
evaporates
from
from
t he
t he
body
surface
of
is
absorbed
t he
skin
(see
by
t he
Figure
sweat
and
blood
t he
Muscles
in
t he
dermis
relax
so
t hat
hairs
lie
at
against
●
(see
Blood
B.5.5.6).
vessels
in
This
t he
is
skin
not
much
widen
to
use
to
allow
ow
in
to
arterioles
of
allows
capillaries.
B.5.5.5).
t he
surface
of
the
heat
in
the
cold
t he
sweat
skin
tissue
to
in
●
Relaxation
t his.
evaporates
no
sweat
us.
more
blood
to
ow
t hrough
t he
sweat
capillaries.
Heat
is
lost
by
radiation,
conduction
and
convection
to
t he
travels
up
surroundings.
The
widening
of
t he
ar terioles
in
order
to
let
more
sweat
blood
duct
t hrough
●
More
capillaries
blood
ows
is
vasod ilation
into
t he
(see
circulation
Figure
from
B.5.5.7).
stores
in
t he
liver
and
spleen.
shunt
This
supplies
more
t he
blood
needed
to
go
t hrough
t he
skin
t herefore
heat.
p
●
The
metabolic
rate
decreases.
This
is
a
long-term
effect
control
generated
●
of
from
Behavioural
clot hing
turning
t he
or
on
hormone
and
means
less
heat
to
Sweat
glands
the
heat
in
the
cold
is
changes
include
tting
air
taking
clot hing,
cold
drinks,
turning
off
wearing
t he
less
heating
and
conditioning.
muscle
Response
B.5.5.5
respiration.
loose
t he
t hyroxine
Figure
under
in
t he
vessel
losing
heat
loss
to
lower
relaxes
the
muscle
hair
raise
contracts
the
to
hair
If we are losing heat, then we do our best to conserve
p
Figure
B.5.5.6
Hairs
what we have in the body before using energy to
produce more. We have various mechanisms for this.
in
●
heat
Blood vessels in the skin constrict to reduce
the
lost
heat
by
in
radiation
little
heat
the
lost
cold
by
radiation
the blood ow through the skin capillaries.
Instead, the blood ows along
shunt vessels
from arterioles direct to venules. Less heat is lost
from the blood by radiation, conduction and
convection to the surroundings. The contraction
of the arterioles in order to let less blood through
capillaries is
●
Muscles
pulled
in
up
insulator.
value
in
vasoconstriction
t he
to
dermis
trap
This
heat
a
contract
layer
gives
us
of
air,
so
t hat
which
gooseesh
hairs
is
but
a
is
are
good
of
no
conser vation.
shunt
●
Sweat
lost
glands
by
stop
secreting
sweat,
so
no
heat
evaporation.
Key :
●
The
metabolic
heat.
This
can
adrenaline
rate
be
and
increases
stimulated
to
by
Muscles
This
●
contract
the
wall
of
a
blood
in
the
wall
of
a
a
vessel
t he
release
blood
contracted
vessel
relaxed
of
involuntarily
contraction
of
in
Figure
B.5.5.7
skin
control
to
Vasodilation
blood
flow
and
vasoconstriction
through
capillaries
in
in
the
the
dermis
shivering.
skeletal
muscle
heat.
Behavioural
turning
in
Muscle
t hyroxine.
spasmodic
generates
Muscle
generate
p
●
vessel
is
on
changes
t he
include
heating
and
taking
turning
hot
off
drinks,
t he
air
wearing
warm
clot hing,
conditioning.
199
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HSB
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Topic
5.indd
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16:10
Homeostasis
Skin
Written
Building
Create
a
of
the
of
better
a
Activity
table
table
skin.
to
Y
our
summarise
table
could
the
information
have
the
about
following
the
structure
headings,
but
in
the
skin
Description
How
the
carries
Key
terms
Role
The
Vasoconstriction
Contraction
blood
tissue
ow
in
into
arterioles
the
brain
hypot halamus
t he
hypot halamus
Hypothalamus
Part
that
thermostat.
the
as
the
body’
s
controls
many
other
vessel
does
to
not
a
Connects
venule
ow
so
an
early
through
narrow
an
that
also
from
brain
t hat
regulation
acts
detect
receives
as
our
changes
information
receptors
warning
hypot halamus
production
arteriole
t he
function
t hermostat.
in
blood
There
are
temperature.
receptors
The
in
t he
skin.
about
This
t he
temperature
information
of
from
t he
t he
skin
is
t hat
t he
blood
temperature
is
about
to
change.
The
It
functions
well.
Shunt
in
its
brain
like
is
temperature
hypot halamus
surroundings
also
in
structure
out
reduces
capillaries.
of
think
of
in
muscle
of
function
may
ones.
Structure
!
and
you
responds
and
heat
to
t hese
changes
conser vation
so
t he
and
coordinates
blood
heat
temperature
loss,
stays
heat
wit hin
limits.
blood
capillaries.
Tr y
this
yourself
hypothalamus
T
emperature
measures
receptors
in
the
skin
body
temperature
Requirements
temperature
normal
decrease
temperature
temperature
●
three
with
<37°C
containers
37°C
blood
action
water
at
room
just
●
thermometer
with
ice
cold
water,
container
2
temperature,
1
Put
bearable
when
container
you
put
3
with
your
hot
finger
water
into
at
a
it
the
forefinger
of
your
left
hand
into
the
container
of
ice
cold
water
dilate
and
hairs
the
Leave
skin
up
forefinger
them
for
of
your
about
a
other
hand
into
the
container
of
hot
water.
minute.
sweats
2
T
ake
out
your
container
them
shivering
3
What
in
B.5.5.8
negative
maintaining
This
flow
feedback
body
chart
is
shows
important
4
What
of
fingers
water,
and
immediately
putting
them
in,
put
taking
them
them
alternately
out
and
into
then
the
third
putting
again.
do
repeat
how
1
vessels
constrict
Figure
container
blood
no
vessels
p
water:
>37°C
temperature
stand
for
increase
you
the
does
feel?
Do
exercise
this
tell
not
and
you
tell
anyone,
compare
about
the
what
ask
another
you
receptors
family
member
to
felt.
in
your
skin?
in
temperature
200
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
5.indd
200
08/01/2015
16:10
Homeostasis
Case
Skin
study
Benzinger ’s
The
experiment
Amer ican
Research
Institute
exper iment
to
temperature
in
t he
In
this
that
the
Benzinger
Mar yland
out
changes
experiment,
was
the
taken
in
nd
T.H.
in
whet her
or
relied
t he
t he
worked
1940s.
at
He
t he
devised
hypot halamus
entirely
on
Naval
an
could
infor mation
Medical
ingenious
detect
from
receptors
skin.
kept
Readings
and
scientist,
were
rate
by
at
a
taken
of
naked
of
Do
a
volunteer
tr y
this
down
above
temperature,
The
the
temperature
temperature
not
lay
temperature
skin
sweating.
placing
eardr um.
a
constant
probe
into
yourself.
of
in
his
a
special
body
container
temperature.
hypothalamus
the
the
temperature
hypothalamus
outer
Periodically
ear
the
so
that
can
it
volunteer
be
touches
drank
a
p
Figure
The
quantity
of
iced
B.5.5.9
area
results
high
of
t he
external
experiment
are
in
Figure
B.5.5.10.
Initially,
wit h
a
is
a
very
controls
temperature:
of
the
small
many
temperature
●
●
●
t he
internal
t he
rate
t he
skin
On
●
●
of
t he
internal
The
rate
sent
of
The
t he
Note
t he
body.
indicates
was
the
was
t he
temperature
t he
of
the
brain
that
including
regulation
high
low.
decreased.
hypot halamus.
to
part
functions
This
high
sherbet,
sweating
t he
was
hypothalamus.
sweat
following
changes
happened.
decreased.
This
The
glands
was
caused
by
hypot halamus
causing
t hem
t he
cooled
“sensed”
to
reduce
blood
t his
t he
and
rate
of
production.
skin
rate
t hat
seemed
cold
body
impulses
sweat
temperature
sweating
The
reaching
●
body
temperature
drinking
virtual
red
sherbet.
position
The
The
coloured
temperature
of
t he
to
increased.
This
was
caused
by
t he
reduction
in
sweating.
temperature
play
little
experiment
par t
receptors
in
t his
(t hermoreceptors)
response
because
skin
in
t he
skin
temperature
in
increased.
38.0
7
iced
body
37.8
6
sherbet
temperature
37.6
5
4
rate
of
sweating
37.2
3
yrartibra/gnitaews
C°/erutarepmeT
37.4
stinu
drunk
(internal)
fo
37.0
skin
temperature
36.8
etaR
2
1
0
36.6
10
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time/min
p
Figure
B.5.5.10
responds
to
the
The
results
of
temperature
an
of
experiment
the
to
show
that
the
brain
blood
201
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16:10
Homeostasis
Skin
Questions
1
Where
in
2
Explain
t he
why
body
is
t he
Benzinger
hypot halamus?
took
t he
temperature
of
his
volunteer
at
t he
eardr um.
3
Suggest
why
volunteer
4
What
is
t he
took
t he
internal
t he
cold
advantage
body
temperature
decreased
af ter
t he
sherbet.
of
having
temperature
receptors
in
t he
hypot halamus?
5
How
good
is
t he
hypot halamus
as
a
t hermostat?
Hypothermia
Hypothermi a
temperature
most
likely
to
mechanisms
on
money
for
temperate
tops
fuel
The
principle
or
or
for
term
given
prolonged
ver y
fully
results
young
falling
babies
a
marked
cold
are
to
(t heir
people
into
mechanisms
heat-saving
to
exposure
developed),
af ter
of
in
reduced
surgeons
a
low
less
drop
in
temperature
and
effective
e.g.
body
temperatures.
exposed
water)
measures,
reduced
hypot hermia
temperature,
wit hstand
gives
in
not
of
to
or
proper
cold
people
t hey
roof
is
regulation
severe
old
It
(e.g.
(t heir
may
also
insulation
lack
in
countries).
deat h.
can
medical
regulation
and
blood
t he
result
occur
Hypot hermia
t he
a
are
mountain
temperature
is
as
t he
or
sufcient
is
metabolic
used
hear t
in
and
to
which
hear t–lung
brain
interr upted
time
rate,
need
blood
ow
can
lead
operations.
less
for
oxygen
shor t
to
By
and
coma
reducing
t herefore
periods.
This
operate.
Questions
1
List
2
State
3
Name
4
State
5
Describe
a
the
and
e
6
six
different
four
ways
the
part
one
role
of
shunt
Generally,
List
three
the
skin
f
skin.
body
that
can
than
the
the
controls
the
in
following
position
skin,
maintain
d
of
volume
the
in
core
constant
body
temperature.
temperature.
skin.
cold
hairs
of
a
conditions:
on
blood
the
in
skin,
the
c
arterioles
circulation,
shivering.
living
in
hot
those
climates
who
live
have
in
less
cold
adipose
climates.
tissue
Explain
the
this.
behavioural
temperature:
the
to
b
the
and
people
of
in
the
thermoreceptors
happens
rate,
of
brain
sweating,
their
advantage
7
of
which
the
vessels
metabolic
beneath
by
of
what
rate
functions
a
changes
becomes
very
that
hot;
occur
b
if
the
becomes
environmental
very
cold.
202
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Homeostasis
Skin
Summary
●
Excretion
and
these
e.g
if
the
removal
in
substances
there
osmosis
●
is
substances
is
too
and
Examples
of
of
excess
have
toxic
of
serious
much
materials,
waste
requirements.
water
effects
in
the
if
This
they
body,
are
cells
products
is
of
important
allowed
may
to
metabolism
because
accumulate,
absorb
water
by
burst.
metabolic
wastes
are
carbon
dioxide,
urea
and
bile
pigments.
●
The
excretory
blood,
organs
reabsorb
control
the
the
volume
(osmoregulation).
exchange
is
●
hot
The
and
knots
the
as
pressure.
amino
it
Ions
the
reabsorb
all
this
have
microvilli,
so
that
and
●
If
a
cells
dilute
the
into
pelvis
The
is
and
controlled
pituitary
need
●
on
The
to
be
is
a
of
active
in
the
the
are
the
to
filtered.
and
urine
of
so
aorta
kidney
is
the
result
from
gas
when
it
body.
by
the
supply
The
through
renal
tight
blood
the
to
water,
large
many
form
renal
but
be
small
urea
filtered.
and
lining
passes
this
and
cells
The
cells
(pores)
and
almost
osmosis.
surface
down
part
and
large
blood
blood
holes
ions
a
of
high
glucose,
transport
them
the
cells
to
at
in
ultrafiltrate.
capsule
The
Ultrafiltration
glomerulus
capillaries,
too
have
blood
most
the
area
all
of
of
the
The
and
the
the
tubule
water.
cells
means
large
filtrate
as
content
urine
passes
of
the
flows
tissues
down
through
the
the
in
the
medulla
collecting
second
coiled
tubule
duct.
is
formed
just
ducts
by
flows
cells
the
are
the
are
impermeable
time
straight
of
the
water
the
filtrate
through
permeable,
tissues
then
medulla.
in
the
into
This
water,
reaches
the
water
blood.
to
is
the
pelvis
and
on
reabsorbed
by
makes
Less
then
the
urine
urine
flows
more
into
the
ureter.
the
second
antidiuretic
when
salt
reabsorbed
conserves
of
conserve
other
in
filter
ions,
water
the
back
nephrons.
of
Bowman’s
gives
salty
into
by
for
collecting
the
and
gland
urine
many
the
that
permeability
they
nephron.
the
tubule
the
concentrated
●
be
loop
If
lost
the
flow
a
and
kidneys
and
body
as
from
blood
to
including
lining
as
increase
collecting
ureter.
are
of
The
reabsorbed.
can
urine
called
capillaries
in
the
glucose,
lining
cortex
capillaries
the
not
easy
which
the
salts
blood
where
the
dioxide
urea,
kidney
molecules,
diffusion,
be
coiled
osmosis
do
it
of
Henle
water
second
into
of
After
into
the
the
can
loops
ducts.
by
the
these
collects
the
do
The
of
tubule
They
quantities
small
makes
ultrafiltrate
the
skin.
glucose
from
carbon
outer
tubules,
through
proteins
coiled
of
as
substances
glomeruli
through
and
first
passed
oxygenated
the
and
such
cava.
pass
The
lungs
contains
these
through
called
is
excrete
Sweat
with
many
lining
which
that
lungs
medulla
flows
plasma
them,
●
has
acids,
making
the
kidneys,
substances,
sweating
flows
vena
kidney
occurs
●
are
the
water
alveoli.
capillaries
to
Each
of
The
supplied
through
veins
and
is
Blood
of
flows
the
we
kidney
artery.
●
in
are
useful
the
coiled
hormone
tubules
(ADH)
concentration
of
and
which
the
the
is
blood
collecting
secreted
increases
by
ducts
the
and
we
water.
solution
of
substances
urea
and
depending
excess
on
diet
salts
and
in
water.
what
It
drugs
may
we
contain
might
taking.
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Homeostasis
Skin
●
The
skin
dermis
in
is
a
and
sensory
an
is
the
these
is
layer
e.g.
composed
of
adipose
temperature,
protection
and
maintenance
conditions
of
are
of
the
blood,
glucose
water
of
the
blood.
The
content
set
Any
point
or
change
sensor.
in
This
the
which
always
The
is
the
condition
negative
in
the
a
37°C
of
to
the
is
set
set
to
of
any
point
inner
functions
touch,
conditions
for
of
body
is
the
the
blood
is
and
the
known
detected
This
body.
dioxide
as
temperature.
corrective
norm.
between
the
in
carbon
condition
conditions
or
has
temperature,
stimulate
point
difference
It
and
an
insulation.
constant
value
epidermis,
tissue.
pressure
body
these
centre
its
outer
concentration
the
of
an
(fat)
thermal
near
ideal
one
control
back
reduces
control
actual
by
a
actions
that
mechanism
value
and
the
set
feedback.
concentration
Cells
e.g.
value
triggers
return
point
norm,
of
pain,
core
concentration
its
●
of
that
underlying
control,
Homeostasis
Examples
●
organ
reception,
temperature
●
large
islets
of
of
glucose
in
the
Langerhans
blood
release
is
the
regulated
by
hormones
the
insulin
pancreas.
and
glucagon.
●
When
into
the
the
glucose
of
blood
blood.
to
glucose
●
the
and
liver
diffuses
to
norm.
The
the
●
If
the
skin.
It
also
as
heat,
then
diverting
activity
of
the
to
the
blood
sweat
so
body’s
is
of
the
as
glands
so
the
blood
of
into
can
be
of
lost
the
blood.
It
travels
of
glucose
receives
and
through
the
skin
and
also
methods
surface
increasing
methods
it
If
of
about
it.
stimulates
from
by
by
information
receptors
(shivering).
the
glucose
concentration
away
contract
convert
glucose,
flows
stimulates
to
to
It
heat
secreted
glycogen
skin
that
surface
heat
the
is
cells
concentration
blood
convert
hypothalamus
to
hypothalamus
towards
from
blood
production
muscle
the
thermostat.
the
the
secreted
to
insulin
stimulates
When
restoring
diverting
the
it
reduces
cells
surroundings
skeletal
the
norm.
the
increases,
where
This
glucagon
decreases,
such
liver
the
blood
the
stimulates
stimulating
increases,
it
stimulates
is
of
the
storage.
temperature
temperature
conserving
and
it
into
temperature
the
concentration
to
decreases,
hypothalamus
monitors
for
returns
where
which
the
travels
glycogen
concentration
to
glucose
It
of
of
the
metabolism
the
temperature
losing
heat
increasing
such
the
evaporation.
204
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16:10
Homeostasis
Practice
8
Practice
What
will
1
t he
blood
as
it
passes
t hrough
a
machine?
A
carbon
B
glucose
C
oxygen
D
urea
dioxide
is
removed
A
Which
into
to
Questions
dialysis
Section
happen
Questions
substance
t he
cannot
Bowman’s
pass
capsule
in
from
t he
t he
glomer ulus
kidney
of
a
healt hy
is
is
added
is
added
removed
person?
9
A
B
protein
C
salts
D
2
Which
Which
substances
are
usually
found
in
t he
urine
of
pelvis
B
proximal
C
glomer ulus
D
loop
kidney
has
t he
greatest
pressure?
convoluted
tubule
A
glucose
B
salts
and
amino
C
salts
and
water
D
water
Which
and
and
Which
of
loss
t he
following
from
t he
combinations
helps
to
prevent
body?
proteins
represents
Breat hing
B
Regulating
C
Removing
D
Urinating
acids
Sweat production
arterioles
A
Minimized
constricted
B
Minimized
in
an
example
of
dilated
C
Maximized
constricted
D
Maximized
dilated
homeostasis?
oxygen.
blood
glucose.
undigested
food
t hrough
t he
anus.
Section
to
empty
t he
section
of
t he
B
bladder.
1
t he
Henle
proteins
A
Which
of
person?
heat
of
t he
a
10
4
of
A
urea
healt hy
3
region
glucose
kidneys
control
t he
water
The
diagram
The
dialysis
shows
a
machine
used
for
kidney
dialysis.
content
membrane
is
a
par tially
permeable
blood?
membrane.
A
medulla
B
pelvis
blood
vessels
5
6
C
renal
D
cor tex
What
vein
will
happen
A
A
decrease
in
B
An
C
Narrowing
D
Raising
increase
t he
What
is
A
To
secrete
t he
B
To
excrete
C
To
secrete
D
To
protect
as
a
t he
in
of
t he
t he
hairs
main
result
of
a
rise
production
blood
blood
of
t he
of
flow
of
to
vessels
body
temperature?
sweat.
t he
in
skin.
t he
skin.
skin.
function
of
t he
sweat
blood
gland?
blood
urea
and
water
salts.
and
mineral
salts
on
to
t he
skin.
dialysis
7
Which
ar ter y
is
t he
present
t han
A
amino
B
glucose
C
urea
D
carbon
out
in
oils.
in
skin
at
t he
a
from
lower
renal
ultra
violet
concentration
vein?
in
t he
renal
a
Explain
i)
acids
out
dialysis
solution
in
how:
t he
is
ii)
dioxide
solution
light.
loss
of
plasma
prevented
while
proteins
blood
machine.
[2]
t he
concentration
glucose
constant
while
a
person
and
ows
is
of
red
blood
t hrough
t he
blood
having
cells
t he
is
kept
dialysis.
[3]
205
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16:10
Practice
b
Homeostasis
Questions
A
man
wit h
treatment
kidney
for
17
concentration
17
failure
days.
of
The
urea
in
received
graph
his
regular
shows
blood
e
dialysis
how
changed
t he
Explain
mains
over
t he
f
days.
State
nal
how
fairly
t he
t he
blood
constant
term
given
conditions
in
glucose
during
to
t he
concentration
t he
race.
maintaining
body.
re-
[3]
constant
inter-
[1]
3
md
3
a
The
skin
is
an
organ.
Explain
what
is
meant
by
t he
250
rep
term
gm/doolb
b
200
A
organ.
section
[2]
t hrough
t he
skin
is
shown
in
t he
diagram.
eht
hai r
150
ni
receptor
aeru
}
epidermis
100
fo
noitartnecnoc
hair
50
erector
muscle
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
swea t
17
neurone
duct
time/days
i)
State
how
many
times
t he
person
received
swea t
dialysis
treatment;
give
t he
evidence
from
t he
gland
graph
ii)
to
suppor t
Calculate
t he
your
answer.
decrease
in
t he
[2]
ar ter y
concentration
of
Use
t he
man’s
urea
in
t he
blood
from
t he
star t
t he
your
iii)
until
Describe
urea
17
iv)
t he
working.
t he
end
Explain
his
treatment.
changes
t hat
in
t he
occur
blood
in
t he
over
t he
Some
students
you
have
described.
[3]
a
act
as
a
act
as
an
give
iv)
t he
performance
of
an
The
marat hon
temperature
race.
and
sense
how
t he
following
str ucture
of
t he
skin
functions:
organ
excretor y
protection
They
monitored
t he
reduce
t he
glucose
water
Malpighian
dark
organ
against
disease-causing
loss.
layer
is
[10]
made
brown
of
cells
which
contain
pigment.
at hlete’s
i)
body
t he
at hlete
a
during
explain
organisms
changes
studied
to
perform
i)
[3]
t he
to
ii)
iii)
c
2
it
Show
[2]
concentration
days.
of
diagram
of
enables
dialysis
v ein
concentration
in
Name
t he
pigment.
[1]
t he
ii)
Explain
how
t he
pigment
protects
t he
blood.
body.
They
found
increased
whole
a
State
t he
Explain
name
how
temperature
remained
near
of
t he
37°C
at hlete
during
t he
4
a
Distinguish
between
b
Suggest
effects
of
t he
t he
par t
of
t he
brain
t hat
body
c
can
lose
heat
during
a
of
students
blood
temperature
negative
found
increased
control
feedback.
t hat
and
t he
Explain
t he
at hlete
is
i)
heat
during
t he
race,
of
below
t he
in
Name
and
temperature.
ver y
t he
Explain
content
of
prolonged
0°C.
core
on
a
temperature
weat her.
hormone
how
exposure
to
[3]
low
[2]
body
cold
dehydration.
an
ii)
concentration
how
maintained
long
[4]
glucose
decreased
in
two
temperatures
controls
[1]
d
why
example
t he
body
but
[4]
Explain
The
t he
temperature.
race.
c
t hat
little,
race.
body
b
a
[2]
t hat
is
[5]
prevents
[1]
t he
body
ver y
hot
regulates
day.
its
water
[4]
but
5
a
Define
b
State
t he
t he
c
State
t hree
term
excretion.
[3]
−3
never
d
fell
below
Suggest
a
what
concentration
happens
to
of
60
anyone
mg
who
100 cm
has
a
.
composition
of
urine.
[3]
blood
factors
t hat
may
affect
t he
composition
of
−3
glucose
concentration
of
less
t han
60
mg
100 cm
urine.
of
blood.
[3]
[2]
d
Explain
the
loss
how
of
the
useful
kidney
lters
substances
the
such
blood
as
and
glucose.
prevents
[6]
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Unit
B
Coordination
and
control
B.6
B.6.1
The
nervous
system
Learning
By
General
features
of
coordination
the
are
two
coordination
systems
in
t he
ner vous
endocrine
describe
systems
body
you
the
features
systems
of
describe
main
the
divisions
system.
work
in
different
ways
to
ensure
t hat
organs
work
toget her
efciently.
They
also
coordinate
the
nervous
system
t hroughout
●
t he
topic
to:
coordination
of
These
this
able
system
●
●
be
body:
●
●
of
systems
should
There
end
outcomes
our
responses
describe
the
functions
of
the
to
brain.
changes
Look
at
in
our
t he
at hlete
movements
endocrine
of
his
system
coordination
The
surroundings.
is
t hat
and
to
t he
B.6.1.2.
must
be
by
t he
in
specic
effector,
response
of
change
detect
t he
Figure
will
done
functioning
detectable
in
body
be
active
his
ner vous
is
a
ner ve
or
t his,
t he
muscular
Alt hough
adrenaline,
involves
internal
cells
muscle
like
most
of
his
t his
system.
systems
external
stimuli,
which
perform
coordinated.
releasing
ner vous
t he
To
nely
or
t hat
a
t he
connect
gland
stimulus
environment),
t hat
receptor
is
(t hat
is
receptor
to
stimulated
any
cells
effector
to
give
a
stimulus.
Receptor
changes
energy
impulse
travels
p
of
stimulus
into
energy
of
along
a
Figure
to
the
nerve
impulse
(sensory)
Stimulus
B.6.1.1
communicate
Central
nervous
receives
(brain
only),
receptor
Effector
(muscle
or
system
impulse,
neurones
(brain
may
coordinates
impulse
gland)
children
requires
a
good
neurone
knowledge
cord)
Helping
receptor
to
the
and
the
nervous
system
athlete
showing
spinal
decide
on
activity
and
effector
of
action
links
neurones
travels
Response
brings
about
a
along
response
an
(motor)
p
Figure
B.6.1.3
nervous
There
are
ner vous
The
showing
coordination
of
the
body’s
activities
by
the
system
two
divisions
system
peripheral
which
Flowchart
effector
neurone
are
(CNS)
of
ner vous
attached
to
t he
and
ner vous
t he
system
t he
system.
peripheral
can
brain,
be
and
It
consists
ner vous
fur t her
spinal
divided
ner ves
of
system
into
which
t he
central
( PNS).
cranial
are
ner ves,
attached
to
p
t he
spinal
Figure
B.6.1.2
coordination
Central
The
The
nervous
brain
✔
is
responsible
for
t he
control
of
many
actions.
Some
of
t hese
Study
t hat
we
decide
to
make,
while
ot hers
are
t hat
we
are
not
aware
of
most
of
t he
time,
if
at
tip
two
coordination
systems
involuntar y
are
actions
flexibility
are
These
actions
and
system
brain
voluntar y
An
cord.
examples
of
organ
systems.
all.
Remember
of
organs,
that
they
tissues
are
and
composed
cells.
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The
nervous
Coordination
system
Figure
B.6.1.6
summarises
scan
NERVOUS
t hat
shows
t heir
can
be
t he
main
functions.
used
when
regions
Figure
of
t he
B.6.1.7
diagnosing
human
shows
illnesses
brain
and
Table
photograph
of
t he
of
a
control
B.6.1.1
brain
brain.
SYSTEM
cranium:
fused
cerebrum
Nervous
made
together
of
to
bones
form
(cerebral
fixed
Peripheral
Central
a
and
hemispheres):
divided
joints.
Protective
into
Nervous
function
System
System
regions
dealing
with
(CNS)
(nerves
(brain
(PNS)
and
linking
the
specific
spinal
CNS
to
all
parts
folded
the
functions.
cerebro-spinal
Greatly
of
cord)
so
increasing
fluids
the
surrounding
body)
number
of
cells
the
present
brain
)
r
diagram
of
the
membranes
r
a
(
f
e
s
f
e
a
e
n
s
r
c
imagination
r
o
t
e
o
a
r
memory
around
y
system
e
m
nervous
a
Tree
o
B.6.1.4
t
Figure
o
p
brain
a
u
d
known
i
t
as
o
r
y
thought
meninges
a
r
e
a
intelligence
hypothalamus:
controls
t
water
h
g
i
s
balance
and
temperature
cerebellum:
controls
balance,
posture
learned
spinal
pituitary
activities
gland:
such
controls
as
water
cervical
numerous
balance
growth
master
(GH).
Sometimes
known
as
heart
Figure
their
q
B.6.1.6
Vertical
B.6.1.1
Figure
the
shows
brain
(cerebral
hemispheres)
the
B.6.1.5
The
virtual
body.
●
●
The
●
main
parts
system.
see
nerves
brain:
of
Look
the
(in
these
human
carefully
yellow)
are
the
nervous
and
you
attached
cranial
●
can
to
●
the
●
nerves
●
Cerebellum
●
●
●
Did
you
Hypothalamus
●
●
right
side
of
functions
Conscious
the
body
with
and
head
showing
parts
of
the
brain
and
the
different
parts
of
the
brain
shown
in
thought
Association
Learning
of
of
and
of
auditory
and
information
other
with
external
past
stimuli
experience
reasoning
Understanding
Control
visual,
incoming
of
language
speech
Coordination
of
voluntary
activities
Memory
Interpretation
Coordination
Muscle
of
of
incoming
balance,
information
posture
and
from
muscles
and
tendons
movement
coordination
Controls
core
Controls
osmoregulation
the
vice
body
temperature
by
controlling
release
of
ADH
(see
brain
left
side
gland)
of
●
the
of
Interpretation
pituitary
coordinates
human
know?
?
The
the
e.g
Functions
●
Figure
of
activities,
breathing
B.6.1.6
of
Cerebrum
p
section
rate,
functions
T
able
Region
controls
gland
autonomic
p
vertebra
oblongata
(medulla):
the
cord
(ADH)
medulla
and
and
skills
Controls
reproduction
from
pituitary
through
controlling
the
release
of
hormones
versa.
the
gland
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Coordination
q
T
able
Medulla
and
B.6.1.1
control
nervous
system
Continued
oblongata
Regulation
●
heart
●
autonomic
activities,
e.g.
pressure
breathing
●
rate
peristalsis
●
gland
of
rate
blood
●
Pituitary
The
Secretes
ADH
collecting
●
●
to
ducts
stimulate
of
Secretes
growth
Secretes
FSH
the
reabsorption
of
water
from
urine
in
the
kidney
hormone
and
LH
to
control
reproductive
organs
The cerebrospinal uid (CSF) circulates within the membranes known as
meninges that enclose the CNS. The CSF is also inside a canal within the CNS.
p
Spinal
cord
Figure
vertical
this
The
spinal
cord
r uns
from
t he
brain
to
t he
base
of
t he
lumbar
region
its
back
and
str ucture
(see
page
image
can
see
in
Some
of
t he
ner ves
glands
You
have
ver tebrae
cross-section
are
t hat
t he
(see
page
shown
in
156).
Along
Figure
its
scan
the
the
showing
brain.
drawing
a
Compare
lengt h,
and
identify
the
in
parts
Figure
of
the
brain
B.6.2.4
legs
is
and
t here
along
a
t he
central
complex
spinal
are
t heir
network
ner ves
large
ner vous
to
collections
lengt hs.
The
of
t he
t hem.
spinal
of
solar
system.
Cranial
cord.
spinal
You
At
ner ves.
plexus
near
t he
system
system
muscles
this
page
t here
to
t hese.
ner vous
and
attached
brain
swellings
of
met
(see
t hat
and
nervous
autonomic
heart
t he
of
system
to
arms
one
internal
the
by
t he
B.6.1.5
have
is
Autonomic
will
to
ner ves
attached
diaphragm
The
of
Figure
are
base
similar
nervous
consists
ner ves
t he
is
protected
with
MRI
212).
Peripheral
This
is
section
of
B.6.1.6
t he
B.6.1.7
earlier,
133)
and
is
that
e.g.
in
part
you
in
the
of
the
have
the
ner vous
little
or
speeding
control
of
no
up
system
that
conscious
and
breathing
slowing
(see
controls
control
page
down
over.
of
191).
Questions
1
Name
2
What
3
The
are
the
structures
parts
of
nervous
the
that
body
system
detect
bring
can
be
stimuli.
about
responses?
divided
into
two
different
parts.
What
they?
4
Suggest
a
5
Suggest
an
system
role
for
the
meninges
involuntary
other
than
the
activity
control
and
fluid
controlled
of
the
heart
in
the
by
CNS.
the
beat
autonomic
and
nervous
breathing.
p
Figure
B.6.1.8
horizontal
6
Suggest
what
sort
of
diseases
can
be
diagnosed
by
MRI
scans
of
the
MRI
section
scan
of
the
showing
brain
at
a
the
brain.
level
of
the
eyes
and
the
nose
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Nerves,
neurones
Learning
By
the
end
should
be
and
Coordination
reexes
B.6.2
outcomes
of
this
able
topic
you
The
to:
are
ner vous
describe
the
structure
of
system
specialised
Think
●
Nerves,
how
to
fast
neurones
is
a
ver y
transmit
your
fast
and
way
of
information
reactions
are
to
control
reexes
coordinating
over
cer tain
and
long
t he
body.
distances
stimuli.
The
Ner ve
ver y
rapid
cells
quickly.
responses
a
t hat
you
need
to
save
yourself
from
harm
and
danger
depend
on
t he
high
nerve
speed
●
describe
the
structure
of
transmission
of
ner ve
impulses.
a
neurone
●
distinguish
and
between
Structure
nerves
explain
the
functions
different
nerve
cells
(neurones)
and
cell
describe
the
mechanism
of
hundreds
are
transmits
of ten
confused.
impulses
along
A
its
neurone
lengt h.
is
an
individual
Ner ves
of
neurones
(Figure
B.6.2.1).
To
understand
are
t his,
made
t hink
up
of
a
a
telephone
reflex
neurones
t hat
neurones
of
●
and
of
ner ve
●
nerves
neurones
Ner ves
●
of
cable.
This
is
t he
equivalent
of
t he
ner ve.
The
individual
wires
arc
distinguish
voluntary
between
and
inside
t he
inside
a
cable
are
t he
equivalent
of
t he
neurones.
Each
of
t he
neurones
a
ner ve
transmits
impulses.
involuntary
action.
Nerves
Ner ves
may
Sensory
ner ves)
central
optic
t he
B.6.2.1
of
part
complete
a
A
transverse
nerve
showing
bundles
of
nerves
carefully
circles:
you
these
are
see
to
effectors.
If
many
Mixed
nerves
goes
and
spinal
in
pairs
are
t he
on
is
a
The
word
This
is
either
largest
the
name
is
pair
comes
which
side
pair
of
of
of
–
a
in
the
body
retina
effector
ner ves
of
t he
eye
to
is
t he
t he
to
carr y
of
to
as
ner ve
impulses
effector
ner ves
from
are
or
efferent
t he
some
central
of
t he
ner ves)
ner vous
cranial
brain).
bot h
t he
of
sensor y
spinal
t he
and
motor
neurones.
Most
ner ves
are
brain
ner ves.
down
The
t he
largest
neck
and
cranial
into
ner ve,
t he
which
t horax
and
ner ve.
(nerve
types
from
neurones
and
cells)
of
neurone,
receptors
which
relay
neurones
t he
t he
sensory
(receptor)
neurones
which
to
carr y
t he
central
impulses
ner vous
from
t he
system,
central
motor
ner vous
(connector)
neurones
which
carr y
impulses
system
from
to
motor
neurones
or
from
one
relay
neurone
to
anot her
brain).
nerves.
Alt hough
t hey
str ucture.
Figure
this
have
different
from
down
the
as
B.6.2.2
functions,
shows
t he
t hese
neurones
appearance
of
a
have
sensor y
a
similar
and
a
motor
nerve
brain
far
as
Note
t hat
bot h
neurones
have
long
cytoplasmic
extensions
from
all
main
cell
body
known
as
axons.
Axons
transmit
impulses
over
long
the
distances.
large
t he
ner ve
Latin
t heir
over
sensor y
wandering.
what
wanders
a
afferent
the
neurone.
does
from
of
or
receptors
cranial
vagus
from
means
exactly
referred
t hat
t he
all
mixed
t hree
effectors
(e.g.
nerves
e.g.
base
impulses
sensor y
The
example
from
nerves
to
CNS.
ner ves
know?
(effector)
are
impulses
Examples
from
contain
ner ves,
from
carr y
cranial
An
receptor
impulses
small
neurones
?
the
as
you
There
All
208).
to
carr y
section
Neurones
you
(sometimes
(leading
abdomen,
Did
(page
t hat
ner ves.
two
neurones.
can
mixed
referred
transmits
neurones
ner ves
mixed
look
or
neurones
system
which
contain
system
of
(sometimes
contain
ner vous
motor
brain.
only
Figure
sensor y,
nerves
only
nerve
Motor
p
be
The
functions
of
t he
ot her
str uctures
labelled
in
Figure
B.6.2.2
intestine.
are
shown
in
Table
B.6.2.1.
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Coordination
The
is
axons
an
in
and
in
t he
insulator
t he
home.
t hemselves
scientist
SENSORY
control
sensor y
and
and
rat her
Myelin
around
who
Nerves,
is
a
t he
axon.
cell
t he
fatty
discovered
NEURONE
motor
like
neurones
plastic
material
These
are
coating
made
cells
are
by
covered
around
by
specialised
called
myelin
electrical
cells
Schwann
✔
Study
af ter
t he
You
might
insulation
myelin
node
tip
wonder
around
gaps
in
it.
After
gaps
in
the
why
a
all
the
neurone
there
plastic
are
has
no
insulation
on
of
wires.
sheath
reexes
wrap
t hem.
body
and
which
wiring
t hat
cells
neurones
The
answer
is
in
B.6.3.
axon
Ranvier
nucleus
terminals
on
or
relay
motor
neurones
axon
sensory
dendrites
MOTOR
NEURONE
dendrites
myelin
node
sheath
Ranvier
of
axon
axon
terminals
on
effectors,
such
as
muscles
or
p
Figure
B.6.2.2
indicate
q
T
able
the
The
B.6.2.1
taken
Structure
Structure
Cell
structure
direction
of
by
and
The
the
functions
main
part
activity
Dendrites
Finely
branched
Made
of
their
the
of
Ranvier
Simple
the
of
of
gap
cell
motor
the
parts
containing
neurone
neurone
that
cells
that
neurones.
of
The
arrows
neurones
resulting
in
to
faster
all
the
impulses
receive
an
and
the
proteins
over
impulses
Schwann
form
impulse
adjacent
cytoplasm
makes
(called
membranes
between
and
transmits
endings
individual
surface
axon,
The
the
the
Part
sheath
of
of
Axon
Node
and
impulses
Function
body
Myelin
sensory
nerve
glands
cells)
long
from
with
insulation.
it
nucleus.
controls
distances
other
neurones
abundant
They
This
needs
wrap
fatty
material
themselves
in
around
conduction
Schwann
cells
where
the
myelin
sheath
is
absent
cell
reexes
body
receptor
axon
stimulus
Neurones
are
arranged
in
a
series
one
af ter
the
other
to
form
ner vous
sensory
pathways
from
between
bir th
receptor
and
receptors
they
always
are
results
and
xed,
in
the
effectors.
meaning
same
We
that
have
many
stimulating
response.
As
they
a
are
of
these
pathways
neurone
par ticular
present
at
bir th,
relay
neurone
we
do
and
not
of ten
need
to
involve
learn
them.
protective
These
actions
behaviour,
e.g.
are
called
removing
simple
the
reexes
hand
from
a
motor
shar p
object.
neurone
synapse
The
ner vous
pat h way
t h at
co nt ro ls
a
simp le
ref le x
is
called
a
effector,
(gap)
simp le
i.e.
refle x
arc
and
is
shown
dia g ra mmat ically
in
Figu re
B .6. 2. 3.
The
central
reex
or
arc
t hat
shown
controls
in
Figure
wit hdrawal
of
t he
hand
from
a
shar p
object,
e.g.
a
pin,
B.6.2.4.
contraction
response
to
t he
moves
is
p
pain
t he
stimulus
nger
and
away
ever y
from
time
it
t he
pin
–
happens
t his
t he
is
gland
(CNS)
Figure
B.6.2.3
representation
Muscle
muscle
nervous
system
Diagrammatic
of
a
simple
reflex
arc
t he
response
is
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Nerves,
neurones
and
Coordination
reexes
spinal
Key
white
pin
stimulates
pain
receptors
to
myelin
sheaths
in
relay
t he
matter:
fluid
due
The
neurone
skin.
grey
due
dorsal
2
Pain
receptors
send
impulses
to
control
canal:
contains
1
and
t he
matter:
to
cell
bodies
root
CNS
ganglion
along
t he
sensor y
neurone.
3
3
Impulses
reach
t he
end
of
t he
dorsal
sensor y
synapse
neurone
where
t hey
cross
a
synapse
to
root:
carries
sensory
a
neurones
relay
neurone
and
t hen
anot her
synapse
sensory
to
a
motor
neurone.
neurone
4
The
to
motor
t he
neurone
effector
–
a
transmits
muscle
in
impulses
t he
arm.
4
5
The
t he
muscle
motor
responds
neurone
to
by
impulses
from
contracting
motor
spinal
neurone
and
effector
nerve:
ventral
root:
a
mixed
carries
motor
it
carries
nerve
as
(muscle)
shor tening.
motor
5
neurones
and
sensory
2
neurones
Key
terms
!
derection
of
impulse
1
Simple
reex
(action)
of
behaviour
that
to
learn.
automatic
A
It
reex
is
arc
we
The
do
A
piece
not
and
need
pain
in
fast.
neurones
that
pin:
is
the
stimulus
of
pain
arrangement
p
of
receptors
skin
controls
a
Figure
B.6.2.4
A
simple
reflex
arc
simple
reex.
always
single
of
t he
t hese
The
cells
neurones.
of
in
t heir
It
par ts
t he
spinal
t he
carries
to
the
wit hdrawal
cord
in
neurone
body
motor
impulses
is
t he
t hese
Grey
not
t here
t he
white
axons
is
pat hway
in
matter
involving
several
and
t he
neurones.
are
only
a
hundreds
t he
by
inner
The
t he
white
cell
is
par t
Schwann
bodies
matter
par t
outer
surrounded
mainly
wit h
fact
hand.
of
surrounded
jerk
a
are
neurones
matter
comparison
are
shows
of
called
mainly
because
grey
B.6.2.4
neurone,
Knee
cell
neurone
spinal
is
myelin.
synapse
sensory
cause
colour
fatty
Figure
motor
which
appears
of
and
t hat
matter
white
wit h
t hese
par t
grey
appears
Alt hough
relay
pat hways
outer
called
same.
receptor,
of
because
myelin.
reex
of
neurone
Medical
staff
test
people’s
reexes
to
see
if
there
is
cord
anything
stretch
most
wrong
common
with
is
to
their
test
ner vous
the
knee
systems.
jerk
reex.
The
The
receptors
knee
motor
neurone
carries
knee
impulses
impulses
carried
CNS
immediately
and
triggers
impulses
to
jerk
to
the
muscle
the
motor
●
stimulus
impulse
stretching
the
muscle
causes
to
●
leg
of
●
The
be
divided
into:
a
blow
wit h
a
to
t he
special
tendon
reex
just
below
hammer
or
t he
t he
a
hand
–
t hat
stretch
extends
receptors
t he
in
leg
t he
t high
muscle
stimulated
sensor y
spinal
B.6.2.5
–
cap
receptor
are
tendons
Figure
can
contract
●
p
B.6.2.5)
neurone
edge
stimulus:
(Figure
in
knee
cap
reex
the
reflex
arc
that
controls
the
knee
jerk
reflex
motor
to
t he
tiny
●
●
neurone
cord
neurone
effector
gap
–
carries
ner ve
impulses
to
t he
(CNS)
–
carries
af ter
known
as
t he
a
t he
ner ve
impulse
impulse
passes
back
over
a
synapse
effector – this is a muscle in the leg which contracts
response
(There
is
no
–
t he
relay
lower
leg
neurone
extends.
in
t his
reex
arc.)
212
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Coordination
and
control
Wit hdrawal
of
examples
spinal
Reexes
pupil
of
t hat
reex
t he
hand
from
a
painful
object
and
t he
knee
jerk
neurones
and
reexes
are
reexes.
involve
when
Nerves,
ner ve
t he
iris
pat hways
changes
t hrough
its
size
t he
brain
according
to
include
t he
light
t he
intensity
Key
term
!
(see
page
example
231).
of
a
The
production
cranial
of
saliva
when
you
smell
food
is
anot her
Involuntary
reex.
that
These
simple
reex
actions
are
referred
to
as
involuntary
actions.
we
have
action
no
Behaviour
conscious
control
They
over.
are
not
controlled
by
conscious
Practical
The
knee
jerk
t hought.
activity
reflex
Requirements
●
a
stool
or
chair
a
●
reflex
any
●
willing
1
Ask
Hit
someone
It
only
kick.
(if
of
you
can
borrow
one),
but
not
hammer
to
sit
with
his
or
her
legs
crossed
so
that
one
leg
can
freely.
the
side
sort
volunteers
swing
2
hammer
other
leg
of
takes
T
oo
just
your
below
hand.
about
fast
for
50
you
the
Try
knee
this
on
cap
a
milliseconds
to
time
with
variety
the
of
between
hammer
people
the
tap
to
or,
if
test
and
not,
their
the
use
the
reflexes.
start
of
the
leg
it!
p
Practical
Measuring
your
Figure
B.6.2.6
The
knee
jerk
reflex
activity
reaction
time
experimenter’s
hand
Requirements
●
a
metre
●
a
measuring
Y
ou
need
ruler
to
work
experimenter
investigates
These
or
in
and
the
First
ask
2
Read
a
are
the
the
for
ruler
to
other
carry
is
the
to
fingers
a
blindfold
●
a
stool
this
faster
or
chair
investigation.
of
the
One
experiment.
reacting
–
eyesight
person
This
or
is
the
activity
touch?
experimenter.
draw
a
results.
and
●
subject
is
instructions
your
out
the
which
for
subject
table
move
pairs
question
through
devise
that
the
cm
(cm/mm)
the
instructions
1
50
tape
line
down
below
are
centre
carefully
Explain
thumb
the
to
the
mostly
with
of
your
subject
in
the
each
thumb.
subject
that
the
forearm.
and
muscles
There
are
mark
long
tendons
between
these
muscles
and
the
points
of
insertion
on
on
thumb
the
phalanges.
subject’s
rests
3
Ask
the
your
left
4
subject
subject
is
to
sit
right
sideways
handed,
at
start
a
bench
with
that
or
table
hand;
if
as
in
not
Figure
then
B.6.2.7.
start
with
on
forearm
bench
If
the
hand.
Hold
the
subject
must
ruler
vertically
should
be
not
opposite
be
the
between
touching
line
on
the
the
the
subject’s
ruler,
but
thumb
the
zero
and
forefinger.
mark
on
the
Y
our
ruler
thumb.
p
Figure
B.6.2.7
213
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Nerves,
neurones
and
Coordination
reexes
5
Ask
go
the
of
subject
the
ruler.
forefinger.
distance
6
Repeat
any
results.
7
Can
any
your
8
Blindfold
9
Use
the
travel
tips
10
Use
the
your
brain
of
the
any
grip
thumb
the
times.
and
the
result
at
the
reason
when
ruler
mark
Look
from
results
and
tape
eye
and
results
detecting
six
mark
is
in
the
why
the
your
If
the
ready
thumb
ruler
and
let
and
agree
the
table.
results
there
calculate
are
between
on
others.
you
control
and
so,
are
agree
these
any
mean.
are
such
Use
if
you
think
anomalous
results?
T
able
B.6.2.2
to
time.
measuring
the
must
the
different
subject
from
zero
Record
anomalous
the
(a)
to
or
think
reaction
the
subject
you.
five
you
at
where
significantly
Ignoring
find
at
between
5
look
The
Look
step
are
to
and
to
repeat
to
to
estimate
the
then
from
of
the
the
the
5
the
middle
calculate
stimulus
steps
of
to
7.
distance
the
brain
to
the
speed
at
which
falling
ruler
that
forearm
impulses
and
middle
with
the
the
(b)
of
take
from
the
and
to
finger
forearm.
impulses
eyes
the
take
then
when
with
the
fingers.
11
Suggest
the
muscles
in
Make
12
Evaluate
not
13
q
Key
sure
very
There
pathways
the
that
your
times
with
ruler
T
able
use
about
numerous
reaction
the
you
and
the
investigation
good
are
taken
forearm
to
by
(b)
the
correct
by
nerve
from
impulses
fingertips
terms
saying
to
from
what
(a)
from
muscles
the
eye
in
the
diagrams
is
good
about
that
allow
you
it
in
and
to
forearm.
this
Unit.
what
is
it.
web
visual
sites
and
stimuli.
Try
apps
them
to
see
how
to
the
test
your
results
agree
test.
B.6.2.2
Distance
Time
Distance
Time
Distance
Time
Distance
Time
/mm
/s
/mm
/s
/mm
/s
/mm
/s
10
0.045
110
0.150
210
0.207
310
0.252
20
0.064
120
0.156
220
0.212
320
0.256
30
0.078
130
0.163
230
0.217
330
0.260
40
0.090
140
0.169
240
0.221
340
0.263
50
0.101
150
0.175
250
0.226
350
0.267
60
0.111
160
0.181
260
0.230
360
0.271
70
0.120
170
0.186
270
0.235
370
0.275
80
0.128
180
0.192
280
0.239
380
0.278
90
0.136
190
0.197
290
0.243
390
0.282
100
0.143
200
0.202
300
0.247
400
0.286
term
!
Voluntary
behaviour
actions
that
are
Pieces
decided
Voluntary
actions
In
simple
of
by
contrast
to
reexes,
voluntary
actions
are
decided
by
t he
person
the
and
controlled
by
t he
brain.
They
involve
t he
cerebr um
of
t he
brain,
where
brain.
conscious
t hought
occurs
(see
Figure
B.1.6).
214
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Coordination
Unlike
t he
since
great
a
when
you
impulses
a
to
xed
to
t he
down
wish
t he
how
may
person
see
of
brain.
about
motor
to
nature
be
you
Copy
help
Y
ou
a
table
T
able
simple
you
The
reexes,
can
know,
brain
voluntar y
result
t he
t hen
from
receptor
a
is
processes
actions
single
t he
t he
are
which
and
reexes
complex
stimulus,
eye
neurones
e.g.
sends
information
and
makes
respond.
different
may
person
Written
Making
of
to
neurones
t he
Nerves,
responses
someone
response
see
control
variety
see
decision
This
and
to
depending
decide
t he
your
to
call
muscles
response
on
out;
how
t he
controlling
will
be
you
brain
feel.
will
speech.
If
you
send
If
you
wish
impulses
do
not
different.
activity
to
summarise
B.6.2.3
and
ll
in
information
the
blanks.
on
simple
The
rst
row
this
book
reflexes
has
been
done
to
you.
might
need.
Y
ou
need
can
to
use
also
other
carry
chapters
out
some
of
research
to
to
nd
gain
other
the
information
examples
of
you
simple
reexes.
q
T
able
B.6.2.3
Comparing
Reex
1
reflexes
Stimulus
W ithdrawal
of
Pin
Receptor
prick
Pain
hand
in
Response
receptors
Arm
skin
Purpose
muscles
Protection
contract
against
further
damage
2
Production
of
saliva
3
4
Blinking
of
eye
Narrowing
(constriction)
of
5
Relay
are
pupils
Knee
jerk
neurones
found
shows
a
are
entirely
relay
quite
different
wit hin
t he
from
CNS
and
sensor y
rarely
or
have
motor
neurones
myelin.
Figure
as
t hey
6.2.8
neurone.
dendrites
Questions
1
Use
Figures
B.6.2.1
and
B.6.2.8
to
explain
the
difference
between
a
cell
nerve
2
3
and
a
a
Name
b
Describe
Describe
a
simple
body
neurone.
the
the
two
the
functions
role
reflex
neurones
of
such
the
as
that
of
these
neurone
the
control
in
the
knee
jerk
reflex.
neurones.
Figure
removal
of
the
axon
B.6.2.8
hand
in
coordination
from
a
painful
or
of
hot
object.
4
Name
5
Give
6
List
three
an
other
example
three
simple
of
a
differences
reflex
actions.
voluntary
between
synaptic
action.
a
simple
reflex
and
a
voluntary
endings
action.
p
Figure
B.6.2.8
A
relay
neurone
215
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Topic
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How
neurones
send
Learning
By
the
end
Coordination
impulses
B.6.3
outcomes
of
this
topic
How
neurones
send
and
control
impulses
you
Coordination
should
be
able
to:
If
●
explain
how
an
you
have
conrmed
passes
down
a
explain
how
an
impulse
a
t he
passage
wire,
t his
as
by
once
it
of
occurs
activity
on
knew
impulses
over
tap
tapping
It
is
t he
Now
line
of
long
–
reaction
ner ve
along
axons
distances
people
‘reset’
A
Mexican
wit h
all
t here
in
can
wave
t heir
between
to
have
t he
times
impulses
in
B.6.2
travel
you
ver y
will
fast.
have
In
is
like
t he
ow
of
direct
some
current
in
a
t hin
circular
str ucture.
t he
table:
increase
You
are
t he
cannot
always
not
continuously.
star t
wit h
a
frequency
make
shor t
a
tap
at
and
You
a
tap
continuous
spaces
of
can
slow
model
frequency,
slightly
noise
silence
faster.
by
af ter
each
tap.
impulses.
do
a
a
of
your
Mexican
competition
fastest
star t
pulses
t he
members
ever yone
you
can.
ner ve
t he
shor t
on
Then,
you
nger;
need
get
as
in
nger
seconds.
your
you
travel
your
fast
same
and
gaps
B.6.3.1
5
as
Mexican
to
impulses
tapping
ever y
Then
Figure
t he
already
synapse.
However,
p
you
gets
a
across
what
neurone
ways
●
completed
impulse
wit hout
position.
(im)pulses
and
any
or
If
a
t he
group
you
nd
errors.
‘Resetting
in
class
wave.
can
out
To
star t
of
who
do
friends.
get
t he
two
can
is
a
a
ever yone
why
in
teams
transmit
wave,
position’
Stand
large
t here
has
are
neurones.
wave
How
Think
are
in
r un
a
of
t he
your
t he
your
neurone
lengt h
feet.
An
neurones
All
of
from
do
It
is
by
electrodes
‘giant’
into
motor
t here
its
study
cord
is
from
and
to
about
1
t he
distance
instead,
like
in
metres
mammals
So,
shor test
from
30
t hat
animals
are
The
millimetres
up
half
study.
as
ner ve
t hem.
t hey
are
mm
in
neurones
lengt h.
base
of
long
in
its
do
diameter
t he
in
your
body
longest
spinal
t here
cord
must
to
be
body.
in
use
not
The
and
covered
scientists
squids
This
transmission
troughs
When
to
shown
enough
is
of
t he
They
movements
is
of
detected
end.
boosters
neurone
are
to
into
ver y
were
acted
neurone.
A
to
t hem
to
recording
t hat
neurones
few
myelin
have
t hat
which
neurones
taken
myelin,
transmit
but
t hey
impulses
fast.
neurones
neurone
least
Inver tebrate
possible
putting
a
whale
at
t hat
neurones.
just
spinal
blue
extend
neurones
reasonably
some
are
your
difcult
squids.
have
of
long
t hem
of
They
adult
t hat
t hese
makes
lengt h
eyes.
works
in
in
scientists
ions
Figure
neurones
similar
electrical
t he
stimulated
t hese
uid
to
all
decided
across
current
t he
taken
seawater
stimulated
pulses
eventually
of
keep
a
one
t he
t hat
end
way
r unning
of
t hey
of
t he
squid
sticking
t hese
along
what
membranes
ow
from
and
t he
t he
were
neurones
lengt h
of
t he
B.6.3.3.
by
signals
a
chemical
t he
signal
neurone
will
sent
send
across
an
a
synapse.
If
impulse.
+
This
star ts
wit h
depolarises
along
t he
responds
p
Figure
B.6.3.2
A
squid
t he
way
t he
an
inow
membrane.
neurone,
by
but
t he
to
neurone
sodium
This
t his
depolarising
down
of
give
(Na
)
across
depolarisation
soon
just
ions
decays.
t he
like
The
impulse
a
star ts
next
a
Mexican
t he
membrane.
some
patch
‘boost’.
of
This
current
This
owing
membrane
continues
all
wave.
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16:12
Coordination
Af ter
can
each
help
table
and
control
patch
to
again
of
boost
or
How
membrane
t he
next
resetting
has
depolarised
impulse.
yourself
for
This
t he
is
like
next
it
has
to
raising
Mexican
be
repolarised,
your
nger
wave.
The
to
so
tap
neurones
send
impulses
it
t he
✔
Study
tip
neurone
+
does
t his
‘resetting’
by
allowing
potassium
ions
(K
)
to
ow
Your
out.
nerves
batteries.
If
this
constant
ow
of
sodium
ions
into
the
axon,
and
potassium
of
the
axon,
continues
too
long
the
neurone
cannot
send
any
move
pumping
proteins
ions
The
to
in
only
all
the
sodium
the
bring
neurone
fast
So,
ions
it
out
uses
and
membrane
ATP
from
potassium
pump
sodium
respiration
ions
ions
in
by
out
to
recharge
active
they
itself
transpor t.
pick
up
by
As
the
potassium
at
where
t he
conduction
sodium
and
use
ATP
potassium
to
maintain
gradients
is
why
for
much
consume
is
the
concentration
depolarisation.
of
the
used
energy
by
your
This
you
nervous
system.
in.
places
is
time,
rechargable
more
ions
impulses.
like
constantly
ions
to
out
are
They
t his
nodes
of
of
movement
Ranvier
of
(see
ions
Figure
occurs
in
B.6.2.2).
a
myelinated
This
results
in
a
ver y
impulses.
Synapses
As
can
212,
be
seen
impulses
adjacent
impulse
ner ve
transmitters
neurone.
1
An
cells.
also
If
end
known
we
B.6.2.3
able
to
Figure
t he
t he
also
impulse
t he
at
cause
This
Figure
be
cells.
ar r ives
transmitters,
muscle
from
must
get
and
B.6.3.4
of
as
a
at
consider
reaches
t he
t he
shows
neurone
it
B.6.2.4
gaps
how
t he
t he
end
of
t he
junctions
knee
of
jerk
t he
on
pages
(synapses)
t his
causes
neurotransmitters,
depolar isation
occurs
Figure
across
is
t he
on
achieved.
release
to
surface
between
21
1
its
of
When
an
chemical
target
cell.
membrane
motor
and
between
of
These
t he
neurones
next
and
reex.
sensor y
neurone
from
t he
tendon
in
repolarising
depolarised
section
section
knee.
potassium
2
The
arrival
of
t he
impulse
stimulates
t he
vesicles
containing
to
move
towards
t he
next
to
depolarised
ions
transmitter
sodium
substances
section
be
ions
membrane.
p
Figure
B.6.3.3
impulses.
direction
motor
The
Conduction
arrow
taken
by
of
indicates
impulses
nerve
the
along
this
neurone
nerve
synapse
p
Figure
B.6.3.4
3
The
vesicles
4
The
transmitter
5
The
transmitter
motor
6
If
is
to
t he
impulse
to
a
synapse
membrane
diffuse
substances
bind
and
t he
and
across
substances
sufcient
impulse
no
fuse
neurone
t here
an
Conduction
t his
a
to
muscle
response
t he
proteins
t heir
t hen
t here
might
is
on
t he
a
contents.
synaptic
t he
depolarisation
and
as
release
across
depolar isation,
leg
no
causes
and
of
membrane
t he
motor
if
you
of
t he
membrane.
neurone
response.
happen
gap.
If
not,
tap
t he
sends
t here
knee
is
too
gently.
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How
neurones
send
Coordination
impulses
7
Enzyme
molecules
transmitter.
t he
chemical
means
t hat
Drugs
dr ugs
of
chemical
t he
ot hers
more
Case
of
t he
by
t he
many
dr ug
in
interacts
wit h
t hey
proteins.
as
Once
system
Do
for
and
on
Nicotine
in
types
t he
t he
therapy:
the
getting
dangers
of
a
tar
replacement
nicotine
and
fix
without
t hese
at
synapses.
t he
of
again.
This
neurone.
time
Some
t hem
break
is
between
(see
t hem
block
t he
t he
case
stops
This
impulses
down.
action
study)
You
will
t he
t hat
t hem
and
read
t he
blood,
of
This
smoke
called
of
may
be
t hese
be
t hey
to
cells
to
in
is
also
hear t.
There
str ucture
means
are
of
t hat
is
ver y
nicotine
acetylcholine
called
binds
In
to
small
receptor
from
some
t he
receptor
detect
responsible
reaches
of
t he
stimuli,
receptor
autonomic
similar
ner vous
receptor
concentrations,
proteins.
t he
experience.
not
t he
The
adrenal
for
t he
results
gland
greater
Wit hin
t he
just
brain
of
smoking
a
such
few
on
a
to
so
ot her
is
of
for
ability
10
it
to
seconds
can
way
have
its
pat hways
up
in
to
to
t he
t he
so
gives
a
t he
in
smoke.
hours
t he
t he
at
blood
nicotine
lungs.
nishing
16
in
get
B.6.3.5).
tobacco
t hrough
transmitters
of
Figure
nicotine
t hroughout
par t
(see
inhaling
pass
absorbed
intake
t hese
of
quick
has
minutes
which
of
continuously
dr ug
being
repeated
effects
up
dangers
concentration
quite
t han
dopamine,
give
t he
worn
lower
Stimulation
also
nicotine
way
wit hin
has
It
adrenaline
say
because
continue
This
molecules
binds
t hose
system.
wit hout
can
rat her
molecular
proteins
receptor
It
t he
quickly.
one
are
is
of
smoke,
a
its
of
t he
released
acetylcholine.
shape.
bind
These
nicotine
glands.
activity
ver y
patch
usually
and
action
release
similar
wit h
ner vous
dr ug
t hat
especially
which
are
B.6.2.5.
t he
in
is
touch.
smokers
cigarette
a
synapses
B.6.2.4
Alt hough
has
at
substance
down
brain
t hat
substances
transmitter
Figures
synapses.
secretion
patches
pat hways.
it
This
slow
t he
adrenal
produces
to
in
t he
central
disappear
need
Tobacco
Nicotine
of
used
D.7
.
nicotine.
and
into
t he
blood,
nicotine
is
in
t hat
confuse
patches
system.
into
see
across
synapses
This
can
aler tness,
provide
smoking;
t he
space
mimic
transmitter
proteins
pain
t he
inhaling
time.
stimulating
shor t
t hat
Topic
acetylcholine,
concentrate
B.6.3.5
not
increased
increasing
Figure
t he
diffuse
increases
Some
some
acetylcholine.
you
nicotine
They
in
neurones
in
effects
a
molecules
be
system
enzymes
common
is
proteins
of
t he
synapses
absorbed
an
be
neurones
acetylcholine,
light,
proteins
are
wit h
tobacco
to
such
always
t he
to
synapses
most
different
when
constantly
down
ready
neurone.
actions
system
synapses
also
The
and
t he
released
are
wit h
break
recycled
control
study
ner vous
at
are
transmitters,
dr ug
Nicotine
One
synapse
nervous
interact
interact
about
will
next
the
Many
t he
transmitter
t he
and
at
products
t here
stimulating
p
The
and
into
skin
The
and
effects
cigarette,
a
t han
of
causing
day.
t he
called
people
brain.
One
reward
a
good
of
ner ve
feeling,
carbon
which
is
why
smokers
repor t
feelings
of
pleasure
when
t hey
smoke.
It
monoxide
should
t hat
be
are
noted
much
t hat
less
many
harmful
ot her
to
activities
activate
t he
reward
pat hway
healt h.
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Coordination
Nicotine
but
and
does
ot her
is
and
breaks
stay
for
in
t he
smoking
so
in
to
t he
have
receptor
t he
effect
monoamine
enzyme.
down
and
The
bind
called
an
longer
proteins
levels
not
substances
compound
suggests,
control
This
synapses
having
brain
is
a
oxidase
enzyme
dopamine.
proteins
of
This
is
means
effect.
presumably
(MAO),
found
continually
greater
dopamine
t he
levels
which,
in
t hat
as
molecules
desire
to
t heir
keep
t he
why
people
explain
why
there
brain
dopamine
receptor
high
reason
a
name
in
of
system
receptor,
of
its
synapses
stimulating
The
one
for
decreasing
endocrine
get
dopamine
addicted
to
quickly.
Questions
1
Use
Figures
synapse
2
What
3
Suggest
4
Explain
dr ug
in
are
B.6.2.4
the
t he
how
to
dangers
as
Explain
why
t here
6
Explain
why
smokers
resor ting
to
What
t he
are
banned
aids
reex
inhaling
increases
patches
are
two
in
smoke
people’s
are
enzymes
cannot
such
as
not
t hey
at
just
nicotine
advantages
because
to
and
the
into
hand
t he
only
one
reex.
lungs?
aler tness
as
is
withdrawal
effective
and
at
concentration.
delivering
t he
smoking.
5
7
of
nicotine
brain
B.6.2.5
jerk
nicotine
why
t he
and
knee
of
synapses.
give
electronic
encourage
up
t heir
habit
wit hout
patches.
some
cigarettes?
young
Should
people
to
t hey
be
smoke?
Questions
1
What
is
the
advantage
of
using
neurones
for
coordinating
responses
to
stimuli?
2
Which
two
3
State
4
Explain
5
State
6
How
7
What
the
B.6.4
role
why
the
is
ions
are
of
the
name
the
The
in
the
conduction
of
a
nerve
impulse?
myelin.
transmission
of
the
impulse
prevents
important
the
gaps
passed
of
a
nerve
between
over
continuous
endocrine
impulse
is
like
a
Mexican
wave.
neurones.
these
gaps?
stimulation
of
neurones
at
synapses?
system
Learning
By
Endocrine
the
end
ner vous
system
is
like
a
system
of
‘wires’,
each
of
which
goes
places.
Our
ot her
coordination
system
is
t he
endocrine
be
distinguish
is
more
blood
and
like
go
a
‘wireless’
system
ever ywhere.
The
in
cells
t hat
t hat
chemicals
respond
are
are
sent
t hose
out
wit h
‘receiver’;
ot her
cells
do
not
‘receive’
t he
of
‘messages’
which
we
sent
have
out
by
already
t he
endocrine
discussed.
system
Hormones
are
are
identify
They
are
produced
by
cells
in
systems
the
endocrine
glands
message.
hormones,
of ten
called
many
●
endocrine
glands
secrete
describe
the
hormones
different
roles
chemical
of
messengers.
the
endocrine
t he
that
The
you
into
●
appropriate
between
and
(hormone)
t he
topic
to:
system
nervous
which
this
able
between
●
specic
of
glands
should
The
outcomes
hormones.
and
219
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The
endocrine
Coordination
system
released
Key
into
inuence
terms
t he
only
blood
cer tain
to
travel
organs
ever ywhere
in
t he
body;
in
t he
ot hers
body.
affect
Some
many
and
control
hormones
cells
and
!
tissues
Hormone
secreted
that
the
A
by
travels
body
tissue
an
in
to
or
chemical
messenger
endocrine
the
blood
stimulate
stimulates
gland
all
its
t hroughout
t he
The
organs
in
produce
of
secretory
one
or
more
cells
organ
responds
to
a
Any
t hat
t hese
respond
target
The
organ
for
kidneys,
hormones.
specic
stimulates
t he
t he
hear t,
liver
lungs,
and
ADH
blood
to
liver
organs
specic
is
have
hormones
receptors,
are
called
glucagon’s
target
similar
organ
and
to
target
t hose
organs.
t he
described
ADH.
Adrenaline,
secreted
by
t he
adrenal
kidneys
glands
are
just
t he
long
inuences
distance
many
target
organs.
communication
The
location
by
Figure
B.6.4.1
shows
t he
t he
principle
hormones.
of
some
of
t he
major
endocrine
glands
is
summarised
in
B.6.4.2.
thyroid
a
target
above
pituitary
secretes
The
in
that
hormone.
Figure
Endocrine
vessels
that
of
T
arget
Adrenaline
stimulates
organ
organs
composed
glucagon
liver.
synapses.
An
e.g.
around
cells
gland
kidney.
body,
target
organ.
Endocrine
t he
and
t he
gland
gland
cell
molecules
hormone
into
of
parathyroid
gland
the
blood
Hormone
in
the
travels
pancreas
blood
adrenal
Hormone
of
the
to
a
passes
blood
target
to
gland
out
move
cell
testis
Hormone
receptor
target
interacts
on
cell
the
and
with
surface
delivers
ovaries
(male)
(female)
protein
of
the
its
‘message’
p
Figure
B.6.4.1
Long
distance
communication
using
p
hormones
Figure
the
glands
Pituitary
This
✔
Study
by
There
the
is
a
lot
of
endocrine
information
glands
and
about
gland
ner ves.
ADH
to
assimilate
so
it
is
idea
the
to
compile
the
information
written
as
a
table
in
the
the
The
body
main
endocrine
hormones
are
glands
secreted
described
in
the
by
and
these
text
about
in
From
has
t he
t he
B.5.4
a
size
brain
you
ver y
of
a
and
g reen
is
already
specic
pea.
It
connected
know
target
t hat
organ:
is
situated
to
it
t he
t he
by
below
blood
pituitar y
kidneys.
t he
vessels
gland
The
and
secretes
pituitar y
also
and
releases
is
a
known,
hor mone
not
t hat
inuences
sur pr isingly,
as
g rowt h
g rowt h
t hroughout
hor mone
(see
t he
t he
case
with
suggested
,
page
223).
in
The
activity.
roles
of
control.
a
study
all
is
whic h
body
good
their
positions
they
their
gland
hormones
and
The
that
gland
hypot halamus
tip
B.6.4.2
features
pituitar y
hormones
gland
t hat
stimulating
is
sometimes
inuence
hormone
ot her
(FSH)
known
glands.
and
as
t he
master
Hormones
luteinising
like
hormone
gland
t hese
(LH)
as
it
are
t hat
secretes
follicle
control
t he
220
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Topic
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16:12
Coordination
activities
of
and
t he
You
can
The
pituitar y
t he
read
t hyroid
rate
and
Thyroid
These
is
the
also
and
produce
t his
in
gametes:
t he
ovaries
and
t he
endocrine
system
testes.
B.7
.3.
secretes
its
a
release
parathyroid
the
released
B.5.5.5).
t hat
about
gland
glands
is
The
hormone
of
t hat
t hyroxine
inuences
which
t he
controls
activity
our
of
metabolic
development.
and
thyroxine
and
organs
more
gland
our
two
control
The
are
in
best
the
neck.
known.
under
of
It
is
The
gland
calcium
thyroid
responsible
instr uctions
parathyroid
concentration
glands
for
the
releases
ions
and
secretes
for
pituitar y
a
several
growth
gland
hormone
phosphate
and
that
ions
hormones,
when
helps
in
but
metabolism
the
it
to
is
cold
(see
regulate
blood.
Pancreas
The
pancreas
enzymes
Langerhans
pancreas.
(see
These
are
body.
It
hear t
to
These
are
The
is
our
beat
USA
into
organ
t he
tissue
islets
The
testes
as
‘male
and
small
and
secrete
an
organ
intestine.
t hey
are
insulin
t hat
The
scattered
and
secretes
islets
of
t hroughout
glucagon
into
t he
t he
blood
to
release
body’s
in
t he
needed
in
secrete
has
glucose,
in
blood
ability
t he
organs
air ways
all
to
This
over
widen,
t he
t he
pressure.
to
an
adrenaline.
target
respond
to
adrenaline
danger
r ush,
or
sometimes
stomach’.
adrenaline
some
and
t hat
experienced
t hat
ovar ies
are
The
hor mone’
hor mone’.
One
is
known
people
t he
case
as
carr y.
of
epinephrine.
These
severe
deliver
allergic
You
a
may
dose
of
reactions.
of
testes
and
In
t he
t hey
t he
fact,
t he
organs
are
secrete
ovar ies
bot h
effects
of
t hat
also
make
gametes
endocr ine
organs
testosterone,
secrete
males
and
testosterone
is
to
sexual
sometimes
oestrogen
females
for
secreting
known
secrete
increase
called
as
bot h
t he
t he
of
t hese
g rowt h
of
tissue.
across
secondar y
not
are
kidneys
increase
t he
has
However,
hormones
effects
an
t he
hormone
ovaries
and
hor mones.
muscle
and
pens
hor mones.
‘female
liver
Canada,
t hey
reproduction.
steroid
t he
‘butteries
‘epi’
if
and
above
increase
and
about
T
estes
stimulate
t he
whole
sexual
directly
t he
formation
body.
Bot h
characteristics
related
to
of
gametes,
hormones
during
reproduction
puber ty.
but
but
t hey
stimulate
which
t he
These
are
also
have
ot her
development
are
features
associated
wit h
t hat
t he
sexes.
Table
t he
t he
Ever yone
it
adrenaline
two
endocrine
travel
endocrine
in
just
faster
changes
t he
know
are
an
to
‘emergency ’
stimulates
describing
of
t he
cells
situated
excitement.
The
duct
glands
hormone
t he
bot h
a
B.5.4).
Adrenal
In
is
into
B.6.4.1
ovar y
lists
t hese
secretes
promoting
developments
progesterone
gestation
–
t he
t hat
which
period
of
begin
gets
time
its
at
puber ty.
name
when
from
women
In
its
are
addition,
role
in
pregnant.
221
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B
Topic
6.indd
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The
endocrine
Coordination
system
q
T
able
by
B.6.4.1
The
testosterone
Sex
secondary
and
The
●
Hair
●
●
●
●
endocrine
wit h
t he
around
as
t he
processes
need
if
to
keep
speed
is
a
not
There
are
target
organs.
q
T
able
shoulders
of
(wider
deepen
The
breasts
hair
vagina
a
reach
is
stimulated
It
of
Roles
of
slower
time
target
of
the
and
and
its
armpits
and
on
the
face
fuller
grow
outer
lips
(labia)
coordination
for
t he
are
are
t han
are
two
become
and
an
in
system
to
be
However,
not
t hose
using
more
pronounced
energy
endocrine
does
not
need
since
(see
efcient
working
Table
t hat
up’
compared
transpor ted
t his
ner ves,
‘charged
systems
listed
nervous
hormones
organs.
neurones
hormones
of
the
arms
‘cheaper’
t hese
and
hormones
system
in
hips)
longer
develop
the
takes
by
e.g.
grow
longer
,
under
t heir
body,
hips
much
much
examples
Some
the
to
to
grows
of
grows
is
begin
begins
the
than
to
necessar y,
B.6.4.2
parts
begins
complex
many
females
mass
voice
system.
It
in
The
controlled
instantaneously.
other
grow
to
and
enlarge
to
system
body
males
grow
begins
Hair
ner vous
t he
on
to
increase
W idening
●
begins
penis
The
●
of
characteristics
scrotum
The
Pubic
●
and
grows
Broad
●
The
hair
Muscles
●
Females
sexual
testes
Pubic
●
characteristics
control
oestrogen
Secondary
●
Males
sexual
and
to
t here
page
matter
happen
is
no
217).
So
alternative.
toget her
on
t he
same
B.6.4.2.
systems
in
controlling
some
body
activities
Body
Heart
activity
Nervous
rate
speeds
the
Skeletal
during
muscle
during
contraction
reex
heart
Endocrine
nervous
and
system
slows
knee
jerk
speeds
up
Adrenaline
stimulates
rate
stimulate
muscles
to
to
Impulses
contraction
(e.g.
system
Adrenaline
down
contract
muscle
a
up
Impulses
exercise
Skeletal
system
Autonomic
stimulate
muscles
to
open
No
arterioles
(vasodilation)
effect
(would
be
too
slow)
contract
reex)
✔
Exam
tip
Control
of
glucose
concentration
Adrenaline
is
the
‘ght
or
in
No
the
effect
Insulin
blood
store
stimulates
glucose
glucagon
ight’
convert
hormone.
answer,
You
but
can
put
always
this
explain
in
by
referring
to
preparing
for
cells
to
stimulates
glycogen
to
liver
to
glucose
it
Response
of
the
body
to
a
Impulses
situation
eyes,
travel
legs,
quickly
heart
to
to
prepare
Adrenaline
stimulates
e.g.
liver
lungs,
and
organs,
heart,
the
body
body
liver
glycogen;
an
what
dangerous
means
as
for
‘ight
or
to
ght’
prepare
for
‘ight
or
ght’
action.
responses
responses
Written
Completing
Use
to
the
make
The
table
information
a
table
headings
have
nd
a
better
more
activity
about
recording
for
ideas
your
for
endocrine
all
table
the
could
headings.
information.
Also,
organs
information
be
the
can
use
to
this
the
this
ones
Remember
you
and
in
hormones
book
below,
use
the
book
about
that
although
index
and
of
other
they
secrete
hormones.
you
the
might
book
resources
to
to
222
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6.indd
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Coordination
nd
not
out
at
what
all,
that
they
192
and
q
and
control
happens
and
also
should
ADH
T
able
B.6.4.2
Hormone
when
what
be.
on
The
There
page
the
hormones
happens
is
190
they
you
T
able
Effect
organ(s)
target
where
Hormones
T
arget
are
Transmission
Effects
can
effects
of
is
be
be
t he
he
(HGH),
To
was
which
be
is
wit h
Effects
many
and
of
Effect
of
excess
are
or
are
muscle
systems
system
is
by
is
impulses
by
receive
neurones
messages
rapid
always
is
nerve
transmitted
glands
by
Response
fast
boys
and
who
referred
to
Michael
at
was
not
localised
each
to
the
cells
neurone
always
short-lived,
e.g.
contraction
the
had
family
one
who
problems
to
and
a
d idn’t
wit h
t heir
grow
production
of
divided
into
did
and
a
to
wrong
be
human
gland,
t here
nurse
realised
wit h
growing.
growt h
him
Children
hormone
alt hough
Michael’s
was
took
t hat
in
normal
doses
who
quantities
of
HGH.
dose
rare
cases
and
is
of
0.3
usually
to
be
t hat
anyt hing
measurements,
parents
did
The
being
parents
unlikely
some
Michael’s
specialist,
weekly
smaller
seem
of
reassured
injections
total
not
pituitar y
later
t he
somet hing
well.
growt h
secreting
usual
t he
as
rates
years
was
deciency
doctor
different
char ts
t here
just
a
by
reasons
prescribed
t he
He
have
secreted
referred
specialist
mass;
t hree.
Some
some
was
realised
of ten
t he
grow
is
the
too
rst
ot her
about.
worr y
This
nervous
Transmission
e.g.
two
about
to
body
of
grow
children
The
Impulses
Muscles
growth
parents
may
he
blood
slow
grew
stor y
to
begin
t hat
188–189
hormone.
fail
t here
the
short-lasting;
who
Michael’s
who
or
quantities
study
enough
when
much,
deciency
and
stimulated
e.g.
fast
is
in
widespread,
may
pages
Effect
on
Communication
messages
relatively
boy
growt h
hormones
transported
The
This
endocrine
Nervous
receive
long-lasting,
Case
the
adrenaline
Response
are
of
system
organs
on
very
greater
organ
Comparison
by
far
hormones
T
arget
is
in
insulin
Endocrine
Communication
secreted
system
use.
gland
B.6.4.3
Endocrine
not
secreted
about
can
secreted
q
are
are
information
which
Comparing
if
endocrine
some
were
tests
right.
to
nd
HGH.
dosage
mg
per
injected
is
based
kg
on
body
under
mass.
t he
skin
p
Figure
B.6.4.3
Michael
and
his
parents
t hrough
t he
increased.
not
In
Justin’s
at
t hey
were
at
about
case
rst
it
was
An
be
is
size
t he
to
below
must
all.
he
his
pleased
bot h
somet hing
down
Michael
Alt hough
worried
were
week.
responded
slightly
at
how
average
wrong
Internet
t his
smaller
treatment
t han
most
of
and
his
his
growt h
friends,
he
is
all.
opposite
see
to
as
–
he
much
height.
his
search
grew
he
was
But
growt h
much.
growing
eventually
did
suggested
too
to
not
t hey
seem
t hem
Justin’s
parents
especially
to
t hat
be
he
as
realised
t hat
slowing
might
have
223
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16:12
The
endocrine
Coordination
system
a
growt h
much
coarse
t heir
problem.
and
had
facial
who
The
specialist
rare
tumour
treat
for
it
decided
wit h
people
HGH
died.
were
used
That
to
(see
available
companies
ageing
prepared
wit h
from
trading
and
use
is
scan
Af ter
tumour
people
t hat
t heir
same
son,
t hey
specialist
which
in
who
jutted
an
are
his
him
to
he
had
a
parents,
rat her
t he
ver y
Michael.
t hat
wit h
too
and
took
operation,
which
grew
out
as
revealed
discussion
on
pituitar y
was
t his
is
widely
It
is
as
ot her
as
t he
t han
options
available
to
claim
and
it
t hat
it
is
t he
order
t hough
a
serious
only
UK,
from
HGH
is
had
who
modied
However,
USA
who
people
developed
genetically
t he
even
people
some
children,
by
People
increasing,
of
t hat
available.
such
widely
Internet.
is
glands
discovered
source
countries,
t he
use
t he
it
manufactured
doctor.
its
for
t he
of
jaws
radiot herapy
from
and
some
a
see
brain
t he
from
HGH
306)
in
a
to
gland.
when
HGH
Now
page
effects
or
feet,
control
tumours.
stopped
legally
prescription
for
remove
t hese
be
was
disease.
bacteria
to
and
frightened
him
pituitar y
medicines
wit h
treated
brain
Ver y
Justin
his
descriptions
hands
referred
sent
in
found
large
features.
doctor
specialist
They
ver y
and
on
foreign
has
anti-
illegal.
Questions
1
Children
check
2
to
When
1
1
kg.
grow
nd
out
Michael
What
at
his
rates.
Michael
t he
growing
of
a
growt h
too
HGH
specialist
slowly?
injections
he
was
dose?
Suggest
4
Suggest the advantages of having a safe form of HGH widely available.
5
Suggest
cosmetic
dangers
reasons
can
was
would
programme
weekly
tumour
How
3
t he
a
t hat
star ted
was
how
different
of
such
be
taking
as
responsible
a
natural
for
Justin’s
hormone
condition.
like
HGH
for
anti-ageing.
Questions
1
State
2
a
the
Explain
organ
3
function
The
for
pancreas
enzymes
in
reach
4
Adrenaline
5
State
6
What
three
is
endocrine
meant
and
secretes
Name
which
will
is
glucagon
digestion.
way
what
of
the
the
the
for
two
digestive
the
a
term
c
and
‘fight
or
between
person’s
and
and
their
flight’
target
several
of
the
how
target
is
if
and
b
Name
organs
of
enzymes
enzymes.
this
the
target
adrenaline.
for
How
different
do
from
the
organs?
hormone.
nervous
reflexes
organ.
five
three
system
reach
target
List
hormones
hormones
differences
to
the
ADH.
hormones
called
happen
by
glands.
Suggest
hormonal
he/she
has
why
this
is
so.
coordination.
been
drinking
alcohol?
224
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Coordination
and
control
B.6.5
Types
of
Sense
organs
Types
receptor
Learning
By
the
end
should
A
stimulus
is
any
change
in
our
external
or
internal
environment.
to
stimuli
from
changes
in
our
surroundings
–
t hese
are
outcomes
of
–
and
changes
inside
t he
body
–
t hese
are
internal
discussed
some
of
t he
internal
stimuli
in
Unit
stimuli.
B.5,
such
We
blood
temperature
(see
pages
appreciate
as
t hat
B.6.5.1
t hey
shows
t he
list
different
sense
organs
in
t he
body
and
t he
stimuli
stimuli
sense
●
state
that
organs
the
they
and
the
names
detect
of
the
detect.
B.6.5.1
The
sense
organs
and
the
stimuli
that
they
describe
organ
in
the
the
eyes
role
of
detect
a
Sense
body
internal
197–200).
●
T
able
the
both
external
the
receptors
q
that
to
changes
stimuli
Table
you
have
●
in
topic
to:
external
and
already
this
able
responds
stimuli
receptor
We
●
respond
be
of
number
of
different
Stimulus
receptors.
●
Eye
●
Ear
●
●
●
Nose
●
T
ongue
●
Skin
●
●
●
Function
Sense
cells
Most
in
organs
conver t
eye
your
(brightness)
and
wavelength
(colour)
Gravity
Motion
Smell
T
aste
–
–
chemicals
chemicals
T
emperature
in
the
in
air
solution
changes
T
ouch
Pressure
Pain
receptor
only
respond
when
intensity
Sound
energy
cells
–
receptor
contain
will
eyes
a
t he
receptor
t he
on
of
Light
of
cells
to
pressure
are
t hat
stimulus
respond
to
t hey
t he
one
as
closed
detect
into
specic
well
to
stimuli.
t he
as
Just
t his.
do
of
stimulus,
light.
appreciate
To
energy
tr y
a
t his,
ner ve
receptor
impulse.
alt hough
pressing
Receptors
t he
cells
gently
only
send
p
Figure
B.6.5.1
responses
impulses
if
t hreshold
stimuli
to
t he
stimulus
level.
Table
which
is
above
B.6.5.2
each
is
a
cer tain
summarises
intensity.
t he
main
This
intensity
receptors
and
is
can
How
you
many
see
stimuli
and
here?
t he
shows
t he
sensitive.
Key
terms
!
q
T
able
B.6.5.2
Stimuli
detected
by
body
receptors
Receptor
Stimulus
Receptor
A
cell
specialised
to
Location
detect
a
specic
stimulus.
External
Stimulus
Sound
Sound-sensitive
cells
Inner
A
environment
Light
Rod
and
cone
cells
Retina
of
the
Smell
Chemoreceptors
Nose
T
aste
Chemoreceptors
Nose
T
emperature
Heat-sensitive
Dermis
Pressure
Pressure-sensitive
T
ouch
T
ouch-sensitive
Pain
Pain-sensitive
Gravity
Gravity-sensitive
cells
cells
cells
cells
and
of
is
in
the
detected
in
the
by
a
body.
tongue
the
skin
Dermis
of
the
skin
Dermis
of
the
skin
Dermis
of
the
skin
Inner
that
eye
receptor
cells
change
ear
ear
Internal
Blood
concentration
Osmoreceptors
Hypothalamus
Blood
temperature
T
emperature
Hypothalamus
T
ension
in
muscles
and
receptors
Proprioceptors
Muscles
and
tendons
tendons
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Types
of
Coordination
receptor
Written
Frightened
Make
a
sense
out
drawing
organs
T
ables
B.6.5.1
Figure
touch,
in
B.6.5.2
pain,
touch
your
skin!
to
that
annotate
and
control
activity
similar
and
Receptors
In
of
and
B.6.5.2
the
you
pressure
in
Figure
it
with
notes
to
help
you.
B.6.5.1
on
to
how
show
the
the
stimuli
location
are
of
the
detected.
Use
skin
can
see
and
receptors
in
t he
skin
t hat
are
sensitive
to
temperature.
temperature
receptor
receptor
epidermis
free
nerve
ending
–
pain
cold
receptor
dermis
pressure
receptor
p
Figure
B.6.5.2
Olfactory
Olfactor y
contain
lining
quite
to
cavity.
If
the
found
These
you
That
only
are
detect
is
chemicals
tongue
sensory
t hat
taste.
bland.
different
t he
receptors
cells
to
in
skin
receptors
t his
ability
Receptors
give
have
a
because
t hat
in
t he
chemicals
us
t he
give
respond
to
our
ver y
sense
bad
cavity
to
tastes
have
of
cold
receptors
avour
ve
nasal
which
smell
you
in
our
(see
(Figure
B.6.5.3).
dissolved
and
will
t he
also
know
nose
food,
in
t he
help
t hat
t he
wit h
food
respond
whereas
They
mucus
to
our
tastes
many
taste
buds
on
below).
neurones
brain
supporting
sensory
cell
cells
mucus
hairs
to
p
Figure
B.6.5.3
Olfactory
receptors
(sensitive
to
–
sensitive
chemicals
smells)
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Coordination
T
aste
Taste
and
control
Types
receptors
receptor
taste
cells
are
found
in
groups,
called
taste
buds,
in
the
of
receptor
pore
epidermis
taste
of
the
tongue
chemicals,
mouths.
(Figure
in
this
B.6.5.4).
case
Individual
those
taste
Like
that
olfactor y
are
receptor
receptors,
dissolved
cells
are
in
the
located
in
they
saliva
detect
lining
specic
of
hairs
saliva
dissolved
our
regions
of
sensory
cell
the
tongue
as
shown
in
Figure
B.6.5.5.
They
respond
to
only
one
of
epidermis
the
of
following
as
stimuli:
sweet,
sour,
salt,
bitter
and
savour y
(also
tongue
known
umami).
supporting
Practical
cell
Activity
sensory
Detecting
different
tastes:
a
blind
neurones
to
brain
B.6.5.4
A
taste
test
p
Figure
bud
Requirements
3
●
0.6%
sodium
chloride
●
4.0%
sucrose
●
0.4%
citric
●
0.5%
solution
solution
solution
●
250
cm
●
paper
●
100
●
paper
●
10
beakers
or
measuring
cups
cups
3
acid
solution
of
Angostura
bitters
cm
measuring
cylinders
towels
3
or
other
●
stirring
●
balance
In
this
bitter
rod
investigation
sour,
collect
your
Divide
the
●
salt
into
will
results.
four
0.1
bitter.
chloride
–
your
this
before
measuring
cylinders
or
0.6
g
as
swabs
for
four
different
instructions
should
bitter,
out
the
starting
group
and
weigh
thresholds
through
Each
salt
cotton
●
nd
Do
sour,
g)
Read
groups.
sweet,
Sodium
to
you
and
own
tastes
cm
syringes
(measuring
sweet,
1
substance
the
and
tastes:
make
a
table
to
activity.
make
up
solutions
of
one
of
follows.
and
place
in
a
beaker
and
add
3
100
cm
of
tap
water.
3
●
Sucrose
tap
–
weigh
out
4
g
and
place
in
a
beaker
and
add
100
cm
of
water.
3
●
Citric
acid
–
weigh
out
0.4
g
and
place
in
a
beaker
and
add
100
cm
3
of
tap
water
(alternatively
place
3
cm
of
vinegar
in
a
beaker
and
add
3
97
cm
of
tap
water
to
make
a
3%
solution).
3
●
Bitters
–
place
0.5
cm
of
Angostura
bitters
into
a
beaker
and
add
3
95.5
2
Stir
all
cm
the
tap
water.
solutions
and
then
dilute
them
as
follows.
3
●
Transfer
10
cm
of
the
solution
you
have
made
into
a
second
beaker
3
or
cup
than
and
the
add
90
original
cm
of
water
and
stir.
The
concentration
is
10x
less
solution.
3
●
Transfer
10
cm
of
this
second
solution
into
a
third
beaker
or
cup
and
3
add
90
original
●
Hand
B5,
your
etc.
the
4
10
are
your
five
The
this
less
and
a
to
than
solutions
solutions
now
own
water
doing
000x
labelling
Y
ou
of
stir.
The
concentration
is
100x
less
than
the
solution.
Continue
and
3
cm
secret
ready
results
to
a
that
do
do
the
not
two
more
concentrations
that
are
1000x
original.
responsible
labelled
so
to
and
make
the
‘1’
you
should
can
testing.
share
all
person
be
do
When
them
the
a
‘blind
you
until
to
label
lowest.
test’
taste
as
of
has
to
A5,
should
the
each
everyone
A1
They
B1
to
keep
solutions.
solution,
record
finished.
227
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HSB
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B
Topic
6.indd
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16:12
Types
of
Coordination
receptor
5
Rinse
your
paper
6
Dip
a
mouth
with
tap
water
and
wipe
your
tongue
dry
and
with
a
control
clean
towel.
clean
cotton
swab
into
the
lowest
concentration
of
one
of
the
four
bitter
sets
can
if
of
you
and
taste
put
ruos
ruos
beginning
7
Enter
all
lowest
8
starting
only
sweet
&
Figure
B.6.5.5
it
at
ticks,
the
the
your
tasting
your
with
a
to
results
results
one
idea
not
to
is
a
put
what
cross.
with
and
swab
sure
a
a
Rinse
clean
cross.
start
around
it
on
is,
out
cotton
If
you
the
your
put
a
your
have
in
If
you
of
you
table,
with
some
recognise
identified
set
If
your
mouth
swab.
next
tongue.
tick
the
solutions,
taste,
again
concentration.
on
a
of
class
each
with
to
data
taste
this
the
you
table
that
everyone
which
do
compare
cotton
not
put
A2
taste
lowest
the
good
way
if
the
are
else
are
activity
to
spreadsheet
could
and
most
by
thresholds
or
you
put
detect
the
and
and
find
the
identify.
solutions
in
order
sensitive.
testing
taste
the
solutions
is
to
calculate
how
to
do
‘blind’?
the
The
molarities
salt
of
p
is
fair
two
you
anything
try
what
Smear
but
concentration
Discuss
Why
A1.
taste
then
remember
sweet
e.g.
anything,
cannot
water
the
tubes,
taste
T
aste
regions
on
the
solutions.
Y
ou
may
be
able
to
research
this.
the
tongue
Tr y
this
Location
of
yourself
taste
receptors
on
the
tongue
Requirements
●
5%
●
0.5%
●
2%
●
0.5%
or
One
1
sucrose
citric
sodium
other
person
the
that
divide
3
Put
the
4
Choose
a
liquid
the
the
the
B.6.5.5.
tick
cross
a
Repeat
for
time
Choose
second
When
four
you
Figure
the
and
●
a
●
cotton
●
a
the
copies
regions.
cup
Do
beakers
the
four
to
contain
tastes
water
swabs
blindfold
other
of
of
or
of
is
the
Figure
not
subject.
B.6.5.5
include
including
the
names
the
of
lines
the
in
out
tastes
to
one
the
at
of
other
five
taste
with
the
which
taste
regions
the
of
subject
and
and
regions
appropriate
allowing
mouth
random
the
subject
identify
the
their
water.
subject.
repeat
not.
region
to
it
is.
the
tongue
the
cotton
tongue
The
Record
on
wash
a
the
taste
or
the
put
of
out
test,
outline
a
their
result
the
in
Figure
should
by
say
placing
a
drawing.
fresh
mouth
recording
into
shown
subject
the
using
swab
as
the
cotton
swab
between
results
tastings.
on
the
drawing.
completed
look
B.6.5.5.
the
tell
another
have
it
can
outline
tastes,
four
into
rinse
the
not
they
or
to
on
of
whether
each
tongue
apply
Do
make
and
cups
solutions
outlines.
blindfold
one
bitters
experimenter
subject
and
solution
Angostura
to
paper
the
substance
subject
on
Ask
6
is
Ask
2
of
bitter
4
●
solution
chloride
solution
tastes
5
solution
acid
at
your
Evaluate
tasting
result
the
and
the
see
ve
if
regions
they
investigation
and
of
the
conrm
discuss
tongue
the
the
with
information
the
in
results.
228
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
6.indd
228
08/01/2015
16:12
Coordination
and
control
The
eye
Questions
1
The
skin
2
Where
touch
is
in
List
six
4
Which
5
Impulses
part
What
and
of
the
from
you
are
body
the
different
expect
stimuli.
to
find
State
the
four
highest
of
these.
concentration
of
type
to
the
the
body
responds
to
receptors
of
b
gravity?
and
neurone
brain.
detects.
taste
that
Name
receptors
transmits
the
part
of
are
nerve
the
carried
impulses
brain
where
to
the
from
these
received.
is
given
changes
The
which
olfactory
Name
name
c
B.6.6
several
would
stimuli
receptors
impulses
6
body
internal
a
these
the
to
receptors?
3
brain.
sensitive
in
to
receptors
blood
that
detect
a
light,
b
cooking
odours,
concentration.
eye
Learning
By
The
the
end
eye
is
situated
in
a
bony
socket
of
t he
skull,
called
an
orbit,
and
number
of
muscles
attached
to
it
so
t hat
it
can
be
moved.
The
be
this
able
topic
you
to:
has
●
a
of
eyes
should
Each
outcomes
describe
the
structure
of
the
eyelids
eye
and
eyelashes
help
to
protect
t he
eye
from
damage
by
foreign
par ticles.
●
Tears
produced
by
tear
glands
wash
t he
surface
of
t he
eye
and
contain
t he
relate
of
enzyme
lysozyme
shows
horizontal
a
t hat
breaks
labelled
down
section
t he
cell
walls
t hrough
t he
of
bacteria.
eye.
Figure
the
the
internal
eye
to
their
structures
functions
B.6.6.1
●
explain
how
images
are
formed
scleroid
●
choroid
external
eye
suspensory
explain
the
role
of
the
retina.
muscle
ligaments
iris
retina
cornea
pupil
yellow
lens
spot
(fovea)
aqueous
humour
conjunctiva
ciliary
muscle
ciliary
body
in
blind
p
Figure
spot
p
vitreous
B.6.6.1
A
humour
horizontal
section
optic
through
the
human
nerve
Figure
section
B.6.6.2
through
A
photograph
the
human
of
a
eye
eye
229
835292
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HSB
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B
Topic
6.indd
229
08/01/2015
16:12
The
q
Coordination
eye
T
able
Part
of
B.6.6.1
the
T
able
eye
summarising
the
functions
of
parts
of
the
Description
Function
Thick
Protection
Choroid
Dark
layer
pigmented
layer
behind
the
retina
Prevents
Supplies
Retina
Layer
of
behind
Fovea
(yellow
spot)
nerve
Vitreous
Ciliary
humour
in
cells
nerve
the
sensory
Jelly-like
ciliary
in
of
(rods
and
cones)
Light
against
internal
the
light
proof
reection
retina
sensitive
damage;
cells
with
nutrients
and
oxygen
and
removes
waste
layer
tissue
retina
consisting
only
Cones
only
respond
in
bright
light
and
detect
colour
cones
Large
muscle
layer
Depression
of
Optic
receptor
a
control
eye
Scleroid
brous
and
Thin
nerve
Sensory
material
muscle
in
a
neurones
Maintains
‘hoop’
around
the
lens
the
transmit
shape
Contracts
to
allow
Holds
lens
of
impulses
the
lens
to
from
the
retina
to
the
brain
eye
get
‘fatter’
for
near
vision
body
Suspensory
ligaments
Strong
Iris
brous
Circular
pupil
and
in
tissue
pigmented
the
radial
diameter
centre;
muscle
of
Pupil
No
Cornea
Transparent
the
structure
–
structure
contains
bres
to
with
the
Controls
the
Crystalline
elastic
Aqueous
humour
Thin,
Study
✔
The
section
change
just
a
hole
in
the
in
iris
Allows
light
Greatest
structure
surrounded
by
an
the
fovea
and
are
in
same
the
the
as
B.6.6.1
it
blind
has
layer
will
conrm
if
you
do
into
for
the
amount
60%
of
the
focusing
eye
of
lens
refraction
(bending)
of
light
occurs
as
it
moves
into
the
focusing
focusing
Maintains
of
cells
is
light
onto
the
retina
to
give
sharp
images;
40%
of
focussing
Protects
this
the
the
shape
of
the
eye
cornea
yourself
a
They
plane
your
blind
spot
Requirements
as
●
you
entering
in
both
spot.
horizontal
Used
liquid
transparent
Tr y
Figure
light
involved
the
tissue
tip
section
of
is
pupil
Finding
horizontal
amount
and
membrane
Transparent
Conjunctiva
place
circular
cornea;
Lens
the
in
this
A
cross
and
a
dot
on
a
piece
of
card
–
they
should
look
like
this:
rst
activity.
+
When
you
(yellow
look
directly
at
an
object,
the
image
of
that
object
is
on
your
fovea
spot).
1
Hold
2
Close
be
•
the
card
your
able
to
left
see
eye
the
and
4
Repeat
with
the
other
5
Repeat
with
the
dot
6
Hold
7
What
do
card
closer
and
to
stare
at
right
the
of
the
cross
cross
with
the
at
arm’s
right
length.
eye.
Y
ou
should
your
face.
What
do
you
observe?
eye.
on
the
so
left
that
investigations
the
the
towards
vertically
these
spot
dot
dot.
Bring
the
card
the
3
blind
the
with
fovea?
of
the
tell
Look
the
dot
you
at
cross.
is
above
about
Figure
the
the
cross
relative
B.6.6.1
and
and
repeat.
positions
its
caption
of
for
the
a
hint.
230
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
6.indd
230
08/01/2015
16:12
Coordination
Control
and
of
control
light
The
entering
the
eye
Dim
light
Bright
eye
light
The iris gives us our ‘eye colour’. It contains involuntar y muscle arranged
1
in two layers: radial and circular. Like the pair of skeletal muscles in the arm
2
these muscles act as an antagonistic pair in each iris. They control the size
of
the pupil in response to the amount of light entering the eye (Figure B.6.6.3).
1
Circular
muscle
1
relaxed
2
Tr y
this
Radial
the
muscle
contracted
muscle
2
Radial
muscle
contracted
relaxed
Pupil
Pupil
yourself
dilated
(large)
Watching
Circular
pupil
constricted
(small)
reflex
p
Figure
eye
to
B.6.6.3
dim
and
Responses
bright
of
the
light
Requirements
a
●
It
is
1
small
best
If
2
to
you
right
mirror,
be
are
in
left
handed
Carefully
Label
your
B.6.6.1
4
to
Position
cover
5
handed
help
the
with
the
lamp
these
Cranial
or
front
make
in
of
a
try
torch
this.
front
your
a
of
your
left
drawing
right
eye.
If
you
are
eye.
to
show
the
eye
and
identify
so
that
both
lamp
or
into
torch.
to
to
the
structures
you
have
drawn
(use
Figure
is
hands.
to
hold
your
After
record
it
After
your
the
few
to
15
your
face.
seconds
Shut
remove
your
your
eyes
and
hands
and
eyes.
torch
eyes.
a
what
close
so
Look
that
into
seconds
happens
to
it
illuminates
the
turn
your
mirror
the
eyes
and
lamp
and
your
face
then
turn
off
again.
write
an
without
on
Make
explanation
reex
two
The
response
cord
mirror
in
and
you
or
observations.
The
reex.
eye
happens
directly
drawings
the
mirror
when
lamp
you).
mirror
Arrange
of
your
room
a
●
features.
what
the
paper
hold
the
drawing
them
and
darkened
hold
observe
shining
a
study
surrounding
3
pencil
reexes
In
of
t his
before
t hat
t he
case
going
you
iris
t he
to
learnt
to
dim
and
impulses
t he
about
on
pages
bright
are
sent
light
to
t he
212–13
is
an
were
spinal
example
brain
rat her
of
a
t han
reexes.
crani al
t he
✔
Light
effector.
to
The
stimulus
is
t he
light
Study
intensity.
Rods
and
cones
are
t he
receptors
in
be
is
considered
both
which
send
impulses
to
t he
brain
via
sensor y
neurones.
Radial
muscles
motor
neurones
light).
The
Image
Light
rays.
and
is
are
enter
of
iris
are
contract
in
t he
our
to
eyes.
(bent)
to
are
small
able
focused
sent
retina
and
change
made
refracted
are
t he
t he
effectors
(radial
diameter
in
of
which
dim
t he
light
pupil
is
receive
and
t he
impulses
circular
in
physicists
particles
and
to
be
waves.
called
You
from
rays
to
of
consider
light
that
what
enter
happens
the
to
eye.
bright
response.
formation
We
being
in
by
of
or
need
circular
made
t he
photons
retina
tip
spinal
t he
to
par ticles
see
objects
When
mainly
form
an
cerebr um
imperfect.
light
by
The
( photons)
if
t he
rays
t he
rays
from
cornea
image
of
light
on
t he
brain.
focusing
t hat
an
and
In
fact,
t he
a
straight
rebound
enter
lens.
As
turns
in
t hem,
object
t he
retina.
process
travel
strike
t he
This
result,
images
t hem
eye
leads
lines
off
t hey
to
ner vous
t hat
upside
called
t hem
t he
are
rays
impulses
form
down
on
t he
and
231
835292
CSEC
HSB
Unit
B
Topic
6.indd
231
08/01/2015
16:12
The
Coordination
eye
back-to-front
cerebr um
right
and
t he
inter prets
way
around
and
light
rays
from
light
on
rays
the
str ucture
t he
lling
refract
the
of
images,
in
t he
(bend)
aqueous
t he
retina
turning
as
‘holes’
they
humour
into
leaves
t hem
as
t he
best
‘holes’
right
it
can
in
way
and
t hem.
up
(Figure
control
The
and
t he
B.6.6.4).
pass
the
lens
focus
light
retina
reflects
person
all
the
light
rays
within
in
off
the
all
these
directions
two
enter
light
rays
(bend)
the
image
is
inverted
(upside
down)
and
p
4
interprets
Figure
the
image
B.6.6.4
the
right
Focusing
way
by
eye
refract
as
they
pass
from
air
into
the
the
brain
the
cornea
up
the
eye
c
m
Tr y
Inverted
pinhole
this
yourself
image
–
it’s
an
upside
down
world
Requirements
6
cm
●
a
piece
of
suitable
polystyrene
material)
cut
(or
to
other
a
●
the
piece
stuck
of
to
card
the
with
a
pinhole
polystyrene
block
or
m
c
3
dimensions
3
c
in
Figure
held
in
place
with
an
elastic
band
B.6.6.5.
m
1-2
cm
thick
1
Hold
the
face.
p
shown
Figure
apparatus
Now
point
close
the
to
one
apparatus
of
your
towards
eyes
with
the
somewhere
card
which
touching
is
your
brightly
lit
B.6.6.5
2
and
look
you
see.
Turn
the
3
of
until
a
Explain
pin-head
the
you
casting
about
the
apparatus
base
hole
is
the
at
a
around
block
see
to
your
get
so
against
the
shadow
little
through
pin
on
this
the
is
cheek
Y
ou
will
Describe
Describe
closest
bone.
silhouetted
eye.
effect.
pin-hole.
pin
your
head
your
the
to
you,
Look
against
have
and
to
not
record
the
through
the
hole.
move
record
and
the
what
what
card.
the
The
Hold
pin
pin
head
apparatus
you
see.
observations.
Accommodation
Alt hough
t hat
can
lens
is
taut
t he
most
of
change
t he
its
surrounded
elastic
ligaments
t hicker
are
is
by
an
pulled
slack,
shape.
bending
shape
Thick
elastic
and
t hen
of
light
allowing
lenses
is
to
done
focus
membrane.
t he
t he
us
lens
elastic
refract
has
a
If
by
t he
more
cornea,
and
shape.
recoils
t han
If
and
t hin
it
distant
suspensor y
t hinner
membrane
light
t he
near
is
t he
lens
objects.
The
ligaments
t he
t he
are
suspensor y
lens
has
a
lenses.
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Coordination
When
and
looking
control
at
a
The
near
object
t he
light
rays
are
diverging
when
t hey
the
enter
ciliary
muscle
t he
eye.
We
t herefore
need
a
t hicker
lens
to
refract
t he
light
to
give
a
shar p
distant
relaxes
object
the
focus
on
t he
retina.
The
ciliar y
muscle
shown
in
Figure
B.6.6.1
can
suspensory
contract
ligaments
reducing
wall
of
t he
directly
When
t he
eye
to
t he
tension
forms
t he
in
a
t he
suspensor y
‘hoop’
around
ligaments.
t he
lens.
The
Notice
ciliar y
t hat
it
muscle
is
not
in
pulled
t he
ciliar y
it
is
t he
t hin.
When
muscle
relaxes
suspensor y
This
t he
attached
t he
is
suitable
ciliar y
ligaments
pressure
inside
for
muscle
increasing
looking
contracts
at
far
t his
t he
t he
vitreous
objects
counters
tension
–
t he
t he
on
humour
eye
is
pressure
t he
far
lens
adapted.
inside
t he
reduces
t he
tension
in
t he
suspensor y
ligaments
so
t hey
become
side
view
of
elastic
near
membrane
objects
–
t he
eye
recoils
is
near
and
t he
lens
is
now
suitable
for
is
thin
eye
front
view
of
eye
eye
Figure
B.6.6.6
A
far
adapted
eye
slack.
(unaccommodated
The
lens
pulled
so
p
and
are
tight
lens.
the
stretches
eye
looking
for
distance
vision)
at
adapted.
the
near
by
ciliary
muscle
object
contracts
Figure
B.6.6.6
objects
are
B.6.6.7
shows
shows
focused
an
on
unaccommodated
t he
retina,
but
near
eye;
in
t his
objects
are
condition
out
of
distant
focus.
Figure
the
suspensory
ligaments
an
accommodated
eye
in
which
near
objects
are
focused
are
on
slackened
t he
retina,
but
distant
objects
are
out
of
focus.
the
Written
activity
lens
allowed
is
to
bulge
Completing
This
a
exercise
side
view
of
eye
p
Figure
front
is
designed
to
help
you
remember
what
happens
when
Use
the
T
able
q
your
of
eye
B.6.6.7
A
focus
from
information
in
a
far
object
Figures
to
B.6.6.6
a
near
and
object
B.6.6.7
or
to
vice
help
near
adapted
eye
you
(accommodated
change
view
table
for
close
vision)
versa.
you
to
complete
B.6.6.2.
T
able
B.6.6.2
Comparing
a
far
Feature
Distance
Ciliary
Far
of
focused
object
eye
adapted
with
a
near
eye
adapted
Near
eye
adapted
eye
far
muscle
Suspensory
Lens
adapted
contracts
ligaments
taut
shape
Focal
length
Retina
The
retina
sensitive
Rods
rods,
an
is
t he
cells
function
is
broken
impulse
conditions
(called
it
bright
light
Cones
only
down
by
dim
only
blue,
and
light.
par t
cones
t he
some
of
as
t he
brain.
time
even
in
When
before
t he
eye
shown
Rhodopsin,
(bleached)
to
t he
low
a
and
in
intensity
t hey
can
t hat
goes
see
light-
pigment
light,
from
clearly.
was
t he
B.6.6.8.
light-sensitive
person
rhodopsin
contains
Figure
fully
in
resulting
light
to
During
t his
bleached
in
dark
by
time
t he
resynt hesised.
function
It
to
dim
down
takes
is
colour.
colours,
rods
ad aptation),
light
is
in
passing
d ark
detecting
light-sensitive
called
than
light.
red
or
bright
They
thought
depending
in
rods.
that
green
on
light
Iodopsin,
are
found
there
are
light.
the
type
as
they
the
mainly
three
The
and
have
a
pigment
in
the
types
brain
ratio
of
higher
in
fovea
cone,
inter prets
of
the
threshold
cones,
and
each
the
cones
is
not
allow
us
being
impulses
that
are
for
broken
to
see
sensitive
as
different
stimulated.
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The
Coordination
eye
Figure
choroid
B.6.6.8
shows
a
number
of
interesting
features
of
t he
and
retina.
control
First,
pigmented
note
t hat
light
must
pass
t hrough
t he
neurones
before
it
stimulates
t he
rods
epithelium
and
cones.
receptor
Note
also
neurones.
t he
way
Several
in
rods
which
rods
synapse
and
wit h
a
cones
single
form
synapses
receptor
wit h
neurone.
receptor
This
makes
t he
retina
more
t hat
can
distinguished
sensitive
to
dim
light,
but
reduces
t he
detail
element
In
be
contrast,
each
cone
in
such
synapses
light.
wit h
a
single
receptor
neurone.
This
cone
mitochondria
rods
enables
down
The
t he
different
fovea
own
retina
image
from
plane
as
spot)
neurone
t he
distribution
distinguish
receptor
(yellow
sensor y
to
of
Figure
neurones
is
to
centre
rods
detail
of
and
from
composed
t he
brain.
our
t he
is
eld.
across
t he
clearly
as
different
entirely
This
visual
cones
more
of
why
par ts
cones.
we
Figure
retina
impulses
get
Each
t he
B.6.6.10
in
t he
of
sent
image.
cone
most
has
its
detailed
shows
same
are
t he
t he
horizontal
B.6.6.1.
synapse
Stereoscopic
cell
bipolar
body
vision
of
neurone
Because
single
we
eye.
have
More
two
eyes,
our
impor tantly,
eld
of
vision
because
t he
is
greater
elds
of
t han
vision
of
if
we
t he
had
two
a
eyes
synapse
overlap,
cell
body
nerve
nerve
light
p
rays
Figure
from
B.6.6.8
front
of
eyes
of
(Figure
what
we
see
B.6.6.9).
is
This
registered
is
known
at
as
a
slightly
different
stereoscopic
vision
angle
and
by
enables
cell
our
axon
direction
much
of
bot h
optic
brains
to
judge
dept h
of
eld
(3-D
effect).
of
impulses
eye
Section
through
the
retina
150°
150°
fi
e
ld
p
Figure
B.6.6.9
Tr y
Human
this
Peripheral
field
o
f
of
bin
o cu
ar
vi
io
s
n
stereoscopic
vision
yourself
vision
Requirements
●
a
set
When
the
of
you
fovea.
This
is
look
Hold
2
Look
a
straight
red
pencil
face.
the
your
image
eld
of
of
protractor
any
vision
object
falls
in
on
front
the
of
rest
you
of
falls
the
on
retina.
vision.
in
ahead
Keep
in
a
●
ahead
else
peripheral
straight
your
pencils
Everything
your
1
of
coloured
your
and
right
hand
move
looking
your
straight
at
arm’s
arm
length
very
ahead
just
slowly
while
you
behind
towards
do
this.
your
the
back.
front
Stop
234
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Coordination
moving
and
your
peripheral
3
Use
the
ahead
4
your
5
Try
you)
of
Repeat
hand
The
when
you
are
aware
of
the
colour
of
the
pencil
in
eye
your
vision.
protractor
of
aware
control
the
with
and
red
to
find
the
the
angle
position
of
between
your
hand
your
line
when
of
you
vision
first
(straight
became
colour.
other
colours,
e.g.
yellow,
green,
blue
and
purple.
Record
all
results.
this
investigation
between
colours?
the
results
the
retina.
using
with
Are
your
other
there
people.
any
Are
there
differences
knowledge
of
the
any
between
distribution
differences
people?
of
rods
Explain
and
cones
in
180 000
160 000
A
srotpecer
retemillim
140 000
120 000
100 000
60 000
rep
rebmun
erauqs
fo
80 000
40 000
20 000
0
B
distance
p
Figure
the
B.6.6.10
retina
in
the
The
distribution
same
plane
as
and
across
the
retina
abundance
Figure
of
receptor
cells
across
B.6.6.1
Questions
1
State
the
2
State
the
focus
on
3
State
the
4
Where
5
Describe
book
6
Explain
7
Look
A
the
muscles
name
of
the
muscle
near
two
the
in
the
eye
B.
b
c
on
you
at
of
in
sensory
does
detail
why
in
the
the
iris
that
eye
cause
which
the
pupil
contracts
to
when
dilate.
you
object.
types
focus
closely
and
arrows.
of
of
a
in
to
name
the
what
a
Figure
the
Describe
happens
at
see
in
the
of
in
the
the
far
and
the
the
retina.
amount
eye
end
colour
B.6.6.10
parts
how
in
greatest
person
cannot
Name
cell
in
of
a
of
when
the
very
B.6.6.1.
retina
peripheral
bending
a
you
look
light
up
occur?
from
a
room.
dimly
Name
indicated
retina
of
by
differs
lit
room.
the
receptor
the
red
from
the
and
cells
black
central
part
retina.
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Eye
Coordination
defects
Learning
By
the
end
B.6.7
outcomes
of
this
topic
Eye
be
able
describe
defects
of
the
eye
to:
The
●
control
you
Defects
should
and
the
causes
of
ability
of
t he
lens
to
focus
images
on
t he
retina
is
affected
by
t he
size
eye
of
t he
eyeball,
t he
shape
of
t he
lens
and
t he
ability
of
t he
lens
to
change
defects
shape.
●
list
●
some
discuss
defects
how
eye
of
the
eye
defects
clearly.
●
any
Two
of
of
t hese
t hese
factors
defects
change
are
long
adversely,
sight
and
t he
eye
shor t
will
not
focus
images
sight.
can
Long
be
If
sight
corrected
describe
cataract
the
and
conditions
Long
of
sight
enough.
glaucoma.
t he
retina,
t hey
be
are
is
focus
As
t he
sight
while
seen
corrected
lenses.
caused
Long
as
by
by
having
results
t hose
in
from
using
a
as
light
shows,
rays
eyeball,
from
objects
you
converging
B.6.7
.2b
diverging
shor t
near
out-of-focus
Figure
a
images
see
a
lens
lens,
in
is
behind
t he
onto
convex
focused
t he
This
light
t he
not
being
spectacles
refract
object
t hat
objects
B.6.7
.2a.
lens
will
near
a
focused
Figure
(convex)
t he
from
are
in
or
distant
retina,
defect
or
on
so
can
contact
sufciently
to
retina.
a
lens
curvature
enough
or
is
not
eyeball
great
too
short
near
objects
are
focused
b
behind
overcome
(convex)
by
converging
be
Figure
Short
p
Figure
are
B.6.7.1
used
by
T
est
frames
like
ophthalmologists
these
to
Shor t
correct
strength
of
the
lens
Long
sight
and
b)
its
and
on
far
objects
the
can
retina
correction
sight
is
caused
by
having
an
eyeball
t hat
is
too
long
or
a
lens
find
is
too
convex.
Shor t
sighted
people
are
able
to
focus
images
from
for
near
each
a)
near
focused
sight
whic h
the
B.6.7.2
retina
lenses
both
p
the
objects
on
t he
retina,
but
t hose
from
dist ant
objects
are
focused
eye
in
front
of
in
Figure
lens
focused
retina,
B.6.7.3a.
(concave)
t he
t he
lens
in
diverges
onto
t he
so
This
t hey
defect
spect acles
t he
light
are
seen
can
or
rays
be
as
cor rected
cont act
from
out-of-focus
a
lenses.
far
by
As
object
as
using
Figure
and
you
a
can
see
diverging
B.6.7.3b
allows
shows,
t hem
to
be
retina.
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Coordination
and
control
Eye
defects
a
lens
curvature
eyeball
too
is
too
great
or
long
far
objects
front
of
are
the
focused
in
retina
b
overcome
by
(concave)
lenses
diverging
both
be
p
Figure
q
T
able
T
ype
of
B.6.7.3
B.6.7.1
a)
Short
T
able
sight
Near
in
onto
Short
Far
are
t he
from
the
Older
in
of
a
people
bifocal
objects
the
can
retina
correction
and
short
sight
as
them
the
be
seen
cannot
be
Converging
clearly
diverging
lenses
(convex)
light
refracted
retina
cannot
focus
them
not
far
on
as
are
the
be
seen
parallel
refracted
focused
on
the
clearly
light
too
Diverging
in
lenses
(concave)
rays
much
so
retina
(presbyopia)
age
it
its
long
cannot
focus
objects
from
leaving
b)
and
Treatment
objects
sharp
Over
comparing
sharp
rays
sight
and
Cause
Long
Old
sight
near
focused
40,
t he
elasticity
more-or-less
generally
lenses
for
xed
use
of
t he
shape
spectacles
lens
is
gradually
suitable
t hat
only
have
a
for
single
lost,
eventually
distance
vision.
converging
lens
or
reading.
Astigmatism
Astigmatism
par t
focuses
enough.
be
tted
can
be
t he
to
Cataracts
Cataracts
if
light
Usually
t he
too
most
counteract
used
(Figure
occurs
to
correct
and
of
cornea
much,
t he
t his
or
lens
but
image
uneven
has
an
anot her
seen
is
uneven
par t
out
cur vature.
of
does
cur vature.
not
focus.
focus
Special
Spectacles
or
If
t he
so,
light
lenses
contact
one
must
lenses
astigmatism.
glaucoma
occur
B.6.7
.5),
when
t he
especially
lens
if
becomes
t here
has
opaque
been
a
lot
or
of
milky
wit h
exposure
age
to
ultraviolet
p
Figure
B.6.7.5
cataract
light.
Lef t
untreated,
people
will
go
blind.
It
is
an
easy
condition
to
in
their
This
person
right
has
a
eye
treat
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Eye
Coordination
defects
and
may
born
be
wit h
done
by
cataracts
replacing
in
one
or
wit h
bot h
an
ar ticial
eyes.
They
lens.
may
Some
also
and
children
need
control
are
replacement
lenses.
Glaucoma
Glaucoma
t he
blood
star t
to
t hose
not
is
die;
rst
from
drain
unaware
vision.
t he
of
is
of
a
Figure
B.6.7.4
A
ophthalmoscope
slit-lamp
supply
as
ver y
to
r un
is
peripher y
increases
a
It
t he
it
can
of
in
t he
because
develops
slow
eyeball
Neurones
be
t heir
eyes
treated
in
in
t heir
later
eye
are
do
of ten
peripheral
have
dr ugs
ner ve
t he
people
of ten
wit h
and
uids
and
deterioration
and
obstr ucts
optic
retina
t he
slowly
t hat
t he
to
a
cloudy
improve
eye.
in
families,
children
beam
to
t he
wit h
water y.
young
ne
t here
in
ner ve.
usually
born
t he
pressure
optic
pressure
are
from
t hat
t he
Glaucoma
are
opht halmologist
p
t hat
changes
tends
shines
increased
The
children
and
impor tant
B.6.7
.4
t hose
uids
glaucoma
of
supplying
fovea.
t he
Some
drainage
result
properly.
appearance
As
t he
vessels
of
explore
are
light
t he
and
tested
into
spot
is
t he
symptomless
for
it.
eye.
where
The
as
beam
develops,
instr ument
Magnifying
t he
it
falls
in
lenses
and
it
Figure
allow
an
t herefore
eye
examination
nd
out
if
Case
Train
t here
are
any
signs
of
early
disease.
study
of
hope
Khali
Bhai,
t hree
of
aged
t he
surgeons
10,
many
Sunita,
aged
t housands
working
on
t he
of
15,
and
Rojdi
patients
Lifeline
to
aged
have
over
been
90
are
treated
just
by
Express.
The Lifeline Express is a state-of-the-art hospital train that travels across
India providing health care for thousands of poor people. On board the
hospital train are volunteer surgeons who operate on people of all ages,
including many children who had polio when they were younger, have
cleft lips (see page 266) and have hearing difculties. The elderly are not
forgotten: many operations are carried out on people like Rojdi who have
p
Figure
B.6.7.6
Khali
Bhai,
disabled
ver y limited sight because of the cataracts they have in one, or both, eyes.
since
to
birth,
have
an
is
carried
operation
by
on
her
the
father
Lifeline
There
Express
parked
in
Biaro
in
14
Pradesh
in
central
are
many
cases
of
hearing
loss
in
India.
Children
younger
t han
Madhya
years
old
account
for
most
can
even
of
t hose
wit h
hearing
loss.
In
extreme
India
cases,
ear
people
ear
only
was
days
have
of
No
t he
her
one
is
in
her
proper
t here
t here
The
offers
possibility
poor
districts
Sunita’s
will
who
up
for
to
Sunita
life-t hreatening.
bat he
had
led
family
in.
to
took
even
if
a
This
can
damaged
her
t hey
to
a
had
loss
severe
ear
was
or
t he
is
t hat
chances
hearing
dr um
and
clinic
it
reason
increases
cause
hearing
The
as
t he
affected
hospital
unlikely
result
her
in
she
of
loss.
of
school
t he
early
would
treatment.
are
no
specialists
was
has
treatment
a
in
equipment
Express
of
would
lost
be
untreated,
This
and
Lifeline
operation
make
lef t
specialist
available.
t he
if
t hose.
infection
district,
nor
of
water
infection.
received
(ENT),
dir ty
which,
one
untreated
studies.
In
have
infections
Sunita
an
infections
not
modern
by
and
nose
t he
have
her
and
t hroat
hospital
up-to-date
surger y
ot her wise
success
ear,
in
to
to
hopes
surger y
one
were
equipment
people
access
fat her
if
in
remote
t hese
t hat
and
and
facilities.
at
school
she
time.
238
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B
Topic
6.indd
238
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16:12
Coordination
The
and
Lifeline
Express
more
t han
acute
scarcity
because
abroad
of
t his
China
600
100
000
of
Eye
has
completed
Indians,
facilities
000
have
means
it
who
and
surgeons
volunteered
project
and
control
medical
and
to
been
on
projects
live
in
copied
train
in
for
ot her
far,
beneting
areas
This
personnel
t he
so
r ural
specialists.
medical
work
has
many
mostly
and
has
from
defects
face
been
across
not hing.
possible
India
The
countries,
an
and
success
such
as
Zimbabwe.
Questions
p
1
What
is
a
Figure
B.6.7.7
operating
2
What
are
t he
benets
of
cataract
Express.
operations?
operate
3
What
are
t he
dangers
of
hearing
loss
for
poor
children
only
have
access
to
ver y
limited
healt h
care
table
lies
The
to
inside
on
surgeon
remove
the
an
is
his
Lifeline
about
to
cataracts
and
whose
insert
families
Rojdi
cataract?
facilities
in
plastic
lenses
t heir
region?
4
What
ot her
ot her
5
Polio
t han
has
been
operations
6
India
staff.
ways
using
has
for
t hose
t he
do
visited
India.
How
treatment
t here
effects
well
t hey
by
can
t he
it
to
from
of
to
Lifeline
solved
to
t he
like
healt h
t he
India.
care
to
Lifeline
Why
do
ver y
poor
people
Express?
children
need
polio?
equipped
want
be
available
deliver
trains
eradicated
many
Rarely
are
hospital
hospitals
work
in
Express.
so
t he
and
poor,
This
poor
well
qualied
remote
districts
problem
can
receive
is
not
medical
like
unique
proper
to
medical
rich?
Questions
Talk
about
?
1
Identify
three
2
Explain
the
eye
defects
and
state
how
eye
tests
for
each
one
is
corrected.
Inequalities
importance
of
young
The
case
Lifeline
great
Summary
Humans
have
endocrine
●
The
two
coordination
(hormonal)
nervous
system
systems:
the
nervous
system
and
the
to
divided
into
the
central
nervous
system
(CNS)
and
the
peripheral
nervous
system
(PNS).
The
brain
and
the
spinal
cord
rich
CNS;
the
no
●
cranial
in
are
nerves
cerebrum
main
●
cerebellum
medulla
blood
●
The
and
the
control
the
of
spinal
which
growth
nerves
form
and
which
over
the
PNS.
nervous
which
system
controls
higher
are
India
the
how
to
poor.
in
with
facilities
next
the
available
nothing
Discuss
countries
facilities
for
the
should
very
in
society.
have
Discuss
(ANS).
family
which
there
in
that
the
The
we
brain:
functions
this
and
with
your
friends,
teachers.
of
memory
controls
and
functions,
autonomic
the
many
aspects
of
homeostasis,
metabolism
controls
oblongata
body
hemispheres)
vision
which
control
for
out
movements,
controls
balance
breathing,
and
heart
posture
rate
and
pressure.
pituitary
secretes
form
(cerebral
hypothalamus
that
parts
hearing,
reproduction,
●
PNS
control,
four
thought,
●
the
conscious
There
●
cells
points
form
poorest
nerve
and
others
provide
the
provision
highlights
provision
available
with
the
study
Express
state-of-the-art
system.
is
health
inequalities
health
●
in
children.
gland
is
hormones,
the
testes
situated
such
and
as
immediately
ADH
ovaries,
to
and
below
control
growth
the
the
hypothalamus
kidney,
FSH
and
and
LH
to
hormones.
239
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Topic
6.indd
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16:12
Eye
Coordination
defects
●
●
A
neurone
is
impulses
from
the
Nerves
are
and
Neurones
There
the
the
thinking
pupil
the
brain,
●
eye
●
ear
●
bring
–
–
Each
–
–
the
sense
for
●
detect
the
centre
the
brain
The
by
eye
in
the
eye
of
of
of
a
to
are
are
Most
called
another
using
between
motor
up
reflex,
are
spinal
of
The
current
stimuli
touch,
the
to
pain
not
–
the
in
brain.
transmission
of
impulses
which
and
they
length
respond
hand
the
reflex
brain.
of
occurs.
muscles
the
The
through
to
along
A
is
diameter
cord
flow
body
as
goes
the
cord.
without
the
the
thinking
making
myelin.
internal.
reflexes
through
pathway
where
spinal
that
in
where
part
spinal
or
response.
changes
nerve
decision
action.
boost
the
the
any
automatically
same
and
the
so
and
neurones
external
the
cord,
attached
central
of
down
stimulus
centres
through
or
either
are
without
consists
sections
matter
The
in
spinal
the
nerves
nerves.
happens
results
Cross
grey
neurones
painful
jerk
spinal
which
impulses
because
the
as
of
Impulses
that
involves
the
neurone.
are:
pressure
fovea
that
light
gives
the
and
a
the
enters
sensitive
light.
are
of
cells
In
size
are
Each
not
and
send
cells
for
are
the
iris
for
do
has
in
a
to
the
light.
the
so
damaged.
In
dim
vision
the
fovea
neurone
vision
at
to
is
brain.
This
is
done
controls
circular
less
at
not
colour
diaphragm
light,
pupil
retina
Peripheral
focusing
The
the
and
cells
cone
neurone
bright
of
in
receptor
resolution.
(40%).
eye.
cells
intensity
responsible
the
same
structures
the
low
are
All
high
the
stimuli
Receptor
stimuli.
cones.
very
lens
detect
CNS.
sensitive
light
Cones
the
reduce
that
the
light
share
has
to
specific
blue
rods
air).
cells
detect
vision
that
to
of
are
and
of
many
solution)
the
colours.
field
(60%)
in
in
neurones
Rods
green
contract
movement
receptor
cells
organ
light
and
detection
eye.
the
an
the
has
between
so
is
iris
and
neurones
cord.
central
spinal
made
the
result
(chemicals
rod
red,
cornea
amount
sensory
nerves
neurones.
synapses
spinal
the
response
(chemicals
the
the
detailed
the
Most
neurone
also
where
into
(focusing)
the
the
the
to
knee
the
to
sensory
and
of
discriminate
less
one
are
environment,
through
the
and
organ
along
cells
back
and
not
gravity
taste
smell
specialised
Cone
glands.
contain
motor
between
from
matter
always
the
temperature,
sound,
impulses
●
The
reflexes
ions
only
neurones
neurones
light
–
nose
the
through
about
of
points
white
neurones
organs
tongue
●
●
to
sense
skin
●
and
are
motor
and
neurones.
and
sensory
motor
nerves.
There
pass
response
goes
actions
along
the
transmit
in
harm.
although
nerves
gaps
along
matter
is
that
cranial
movement
The
grey
stimulus
reflex,
are
Voluntary
the
the
impulses:
CNS;
muscles
sensory
gaps
through
accommodation
the
contract
is
fast
against
at
out
change
a
nerves
neurones
matter
pathway,
Blinking,
travel
a
is
and
withdrawal
or
made
myelin
is
action
protected
arc,
cord
–
motor
mixed
small
these
the
control
cells.
pass
grey
in
stimulus
reflex
cord
both
substances.
spinal
sensory
spinal
insulated
A
of
neurones
Around
cross
Sensory
are
The
to
effectors
contain
nerves,
muscle
pairs
how
motor
of
and
to
contain
cells.
Impulses
spinal
show
spinal
nerve
CNS
only
electrical
receptors
neurones.
they
transmitter
are
the
all
of
nerves
and
are
neurones
of
bundles
Motor
nerves
chemical
●
transmits
transmit
synapses.
●
that
sensory
cranial,
●
cell
from
mixed
●
nerve
impulses
neurones.
●
a
transmit
and
light
light
the
muscles
enters
the
to
radial
240
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HSB
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B
Topic
6.indd
240
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16:12
Coordination
and
muscles
the
●
eye
An
in
to
image
they
way
●
the
is
through
eyeball.
on
an
ciliary
too
all
or
the
fluids
to
●
are
main
to
the
to
is
the
are
The
being
light
more
light
refracted
rays
cross
this
image
interprets
eye.
taut
and
The
a
at
hoop
the
too
convex.
the
too
enters
(bent)
to
as
give
the
eye
the
an
right
sight
The
with
in
the
the
is
a
diverging
which
inside
to
the
which
the
head,
by
more.
that
The
an
This
slacken.
much
lens
retina.
rays
is
the
contracts.
light
or
caused
light
same
close
lens,
eye
by
pressure
the
short
the
thin
ligaments
behind
cornea
pulled
the
refracting
is
Short
corrected
with
of
around
so
that
adapted,
is
something
suspensory
converge
lenses.
far
lens
because
thicker,
the
When
looking
as
on
rays
is
lens
see.
ages
Left
and
are
is
not
problem
eyeball
converge
in
is
that
front
of
lenses.
is
uneven
way.
It
is
and
does
corrected
not
with
gland
can
of
FSH
and
growth
be
with
by
will
go
replacing
cataracts
to
in
pressure
for
The
one
or
the
so
making
blind.
with
both
It
an
is
it
an
artificial
eyes.
They
the
It
eye
because
causes
can
be
the
neurones
treated
with
in
drugs
eye.
system
ADH
for
controlling
hormone
in
pressure
blindness.
from
releases
LH
cloudy,
people
done
properly.
lead
endocrine
which
becomes
untreated,
increase
fluids
the
it
lenses.
away
which
of
an
and
may
born
by
draining
gland
parathyroid
adrenal
which
and
which
glands
to
blood
to
are:
controlling
gamete
stimulates
water
absorption
production
growth
in
in
in
ovaries
many
parts
of
and
which
the
ovaries
eggs
they
which
glucagon
testes
release
rate
to
it
that
phosphate
to
blood
controls
hormone
that
stimulates
widen
and
a
and
adrenaline
activity;
airways
heart
ions
that
growth
and
rate
in
the
stimulates
the
increase
pressure
controls
ions
liver
the
to
to
the
blood
different
release
uptake
increase
of
the
glucose;
oxygen;
supply
it
of
tissues
pancreas
and
for
thyroxine
metabolic
releases
calcium
which
the
the
which
of
prepare
the
releases
also
gland
stimulates
of
to
drainage
increases
●
that
body
organs
●
lens.
so
receptors.
waves
brain
eyeball
replacement
die
testes;
thyroid
it
the
treat
concentrations
●
pupil
the
lenses.
development
●
light
caused
kidney;
an
entering
as
glands
pituitary
and
●
of
distance.
getting
by
that
children
not
of
runs
problem
light
is
improve
the
●
the
light
and
far
pulling
by
The
a
need
retina
The
which
people
Glaucoma
the
by
The
which
problem
is
form
Some
also
a
adapted
lens
condition
lens.
may
a
made
for
at
converging
The
Cataracts
easy
focusing
caused
with
retina.
specially
●
is
long
difficult
is
pressure
Astigmatism
focus
●
cornea
retina.
near
enough.
corrected
●
the
responds
sight
convex
the
dilate
eye
the
object
muscle,
the
lens
Long
is
the
ligaments
When
reduces
●
on
in
to
stimulation
defects
up.
suspensory
The
contract
formed
Accommodation
the
Eye
sufficient
image
focusing
●
iris
give
pass
inverted
control
to
contains
regulate
release
and
also
of
releases
the
islets
the
secrete
Langerhans;
that
secondary
oestrogen
development
of
concentration
testosterone
development
which
the
of
progesterone
is
release
in
sperm
the
insulin
blood
production
characteristics
stimulates
secondary
which
these
glucose
stimulates
sexual
that
of
the
the
sexual
production
characteristics;
hormone
that
maintains
pregnancy.
241
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16:12
Practice
Coordination
Questions
9
Practice
Which
its
target
A
person
stands
stimulus.
relay
In
on
which
neurons
a
pin
and
order
become
do
receives
t he
a
painful
motor,
sensor y
Motor
neurone
Ò
sensor y
B
Motor
neurone
Ò
relay
neurone
neurone
C
Sensor y
neurone
Ò
motor
D
Sensor y
neurone
Ò
relay
Ò
relay
neurone
Ò
sensor y
neurone
neurone
Òrelay
Which
not
is
is
a
B
It
C
The
fast
has
a
feature
response
been
of
to
modified
neurone
central
does
a
a
neurone
Ò
motor
one
Which
are
in
A
Motor
B
Sensor y
C
Motor
D
Sensor y
Target
organ
pituitar y
C
liver
pancreas
pancreas
liver
glands
hear t
gland
kidney
Which
reflex
of
t he
following
results
from
increased
secretion
adrenaline?
A
Increased
supply
B
Increased
blood
of
glucose
C
Decreased
hear t
D
Decreased
breat hing
in
t he
blood.
action?
supply
to
t he
small
intestine.
past
rate.
experience.
always
passes
t hrough
rate.
t he
system.
involve
t he
production
neurone
any
dorsal
neurones
B
t hinking.
1
3
and
stimulus.
by
pat hway
ner vous
not
of
B
Section
It
insulin
adrenal
of
D
of
neurone
10
It
production
active?
A
A
of
A
and
D
2
site
organs?
A
Site
1
t he
control
Questions
of
Section
shows
and
roots
of
t he
spinal
The
diagram
shows
a
side
view
of
t he
human
brain.
ner ves?
only.
A
4
A
bright
Which
neurones
neurons
and
neurons
light
is
t he
is
only.
relay
and
shone
response
neurones.
motor
neurones.
suddenly
of
t he
into
eye
Iris
to
a
human
t his
eye.
stimulus?
Pupil
B
C
A
Circular
B
Radial
C
Circular
muscles
muscles
relax
Dilates
contract
Constricts
a
muscles
contract
Name
state
D
Radial
muscles
relax
Changes
by
Which
str ucture
in
t he
one
eye
controls
t he
amount
of
t he
aqueous
ciliar y
cornea
D
iris
Explain
t he
Which
of
light
t he
in
following
t he
human
prevents
t he
internal
iii)
reflection
how
t he
eye?
from
A,
B
and
C
and
[6]
of
t he
pupil
are
controlled
change
to
B
conjunctiva
C
cornea
D
sclera
a
Explain
brightly
tissue
A
choroid
B
cornea
C
retina
D
sclerotic
in
a
t he
eye
has
light-sensitive
cells?
b
Describe
are
small
C
kidneys
D
pancreas
is
t he
t he
diameter
when
lit
area
someone
into
a
dark
in
t he
be
of
term
differ
pupil
ways
are
in
from
[2]
shor t-sightedness
are
t hese
and
explain
two
two
diseases
diseases
of
t he
and
eye.
how
[5]
impor tance
t he
t he
two
[5]
of
treated.
of
t he
of
State
actions
actions.
cataract
causes
by
diameter
actions.
cause
and
t he
meant
[2]
corrected.
t he
can
Outline
is
voluntar y
coordination
hormones
B
it
Glaucoma
t hey
liver
Changes
Explain
c
A
what
reflex
involuntar y
how
Where
coordinated
[5]
which
choroid
Which
is
involuntar y
2
8
diameter
pupil
cranial
7
labelled
humour
ii)
A
brain
each.
muscles
C
of
of
light
place.
6
t he
reflexes.
walks
B
of
enters?
of
A
in
cranial
i)
t hat
par ts
function
Dilates
b
5
t he
Constricts
of
body.
adrenaline
in
t he
[5]
destroyed?
intestine
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Unit
B
Reproduction
B.7
B.7.1
The
reproductive
systems
Learning
By
Types
of
the
end
reproduction
is
t he
formation
of
offspring
from
t he
of
male
and
female
gametes.
It
results
in
be
individuals
t hat
have
of
distinguish
genetic
information
from
t he
two
parent
to
reproduction
organism
form
a
new
is
grows
the
and
individual.
formation
then
it
Asexual
of
breaks
between
asexual
of
the
information
parent.
These
is
identical
offspring
into
two,
reproduction
genetically
to
from
or
one
par t
results
in
of
parent.
it
breaks
individuals
describe
the
organisms,
plants,
it
is
the
rare
The
in
B.7
.1.2
process
which
known
reproduce
ver y
Figure
are
including
off,
●
reproductive
system
describe
female
the
whose
that
●
describe
means
this
way,
dividing
by
two
disorders
in
systems.
Many
and
although
animals.
some
dividing
system
various
identical
clones.
ver tebrate
shows
of
male
in
as
bacteria
male
The
the
individuals
sexual
reproduction
reproductive
genetic
you
parents.
●
Asexual
topic
to:
a
and
mixture
this
able
joining
●
(fusion)
of
reproduction
should
Sexual
outcomes
bacteria
binar y
into
in
ssion,
two.
reproductive
system
Once
a
boy
reaches
puber ty,
he
star ts
p
to
produce
sperm
from
his
testes.
Figure
B.7.1.1
A
medical
technician
p
The
puts
a
sample
of
cervical
cells
in
Figure
two
str ucture
of
t he
male
is
shown
functions
Figure
of
t he
B.7
.1.3
in
Figure
B.7
.1.3.
str uctures
are
Front
genetically
Bacteria
divide
identical
cells.
to
form
This
is
reproductive
preservative
system
B.7.1.2
a
The
labelled
described
has
proved
women’s
on
number
below.
fluid.
successful
health
of
Cervical
by
cases
in
screening
form
of
a
clone
asexual
reproduction
to
give
protecting
reducing
of
a
cervical
of
cells
(×4000)
the
cancer
view
Side
view
ureter
bladder
vas
deferens
seminal
(sperm
duct)
vesicle
prostate
gland
urethra
penis
scrotum
epididymis
foreskin
testes
anus
p
Figure
from
B.7.1.3
the
front
The
and
male
the
reproductive
side.
Both
system
views
show
and
parts
associated
of
the
structures
urinary
as
viewed
system
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16:14
The
reproductive
Reproduction
systems
Vas
Key
deferens
The
terms
vas
deferens
intercourse.
is
the
Muscles
in
sperm
the
duct
wall
of
that
the
carries
tube
sperm
contract
to
by
the
urethra
peristalsis
during
to
move
!
the
Sexual
reproduction
Seminal
organisms
fusion
of
are
male
produced
and
by
female
vesicle
The
the
is
seminal
added
to
vesicle
provide
is
another
the
organ
sperm
with
that
adds
secretions
to
sperm.
Sugar
energy.
gametes
Prostate
(sex
sperm.
New
gland
This
organ
produces
secretions,
such
as
proteins
and
salts,
that
are
added
cells).
to
Asexual
reproduction
organism
grows
give
rise
to
The
that
separate
from
tube
urine.
passing
During
in
some
way.
There
is
of
from
the
ureter
intercourse
a
through
sphincter
the
penis
muscle
at
carries
the
top
semen,
of
the
as
well
urethra
to
stop
any
urine
leaving
the
bladder.
no
Penis
fusion
semen.
the
contracts
parent
make
new
as
individuals
to
The
Urethra
to
sperm
When
stimulated
the
penis
lls
force
out
with
blood
and
becomes
erect.
Muscles
in
gametes.
the
Scrotum
penis
The
testes
slightly
sperm
Epididymis
The
are
lower
The
cannot
foreskin
The
testes
hormone
female
Once
a
in
her
Front
is
Figure
is
a
in
reaches
shown
in
B.7.1.4
is
the
by
are
long
the
at
semen.
scrotum
than
core
37
coiled
testes
skin
having
the
and
puber ty,
system.
Figure
are
the
long
B.6.4
she
The
just
body
below
the
abdominal
temperature.
This
is
cavity
at
essential
a
as
°C.
tube
and
in
are
view
covers
their
that
See
for
which
carried
the
end
foreskin
produce
B.7.2
the
the
up
sperm
the
vas
are
stored
deferens
after
during
role
for
of
of
sperm
details
the
the
penis.
Some
men
are
removed.
of
testes
and
secrete
the
process
as
the
endocrine
of
male
sperm
organs.
system
star ts
to
release
str ucture
B.7.1.4.
descr ibed
that
had
organs
reproductive
reproductive
system
on
girl
survive
testosterone.
production
The
inside
the
intercourse.
circumcised
T
estes
held
produced
sexual
to
temperature
epididymis
being
Foreskin
contract
The
of
t he
functions
ova
(eggs)
female
of
t he
from
t he
ovar ies
reproductive
str uctures
labelled
below.
Side
view
oviduct
funnel
of
oviduct
ureter
ovary
bladder
uterus
cervix
pelvic
girdle
vagina
urethra
clitoris
anus
vulva
p
Figure
B.7.1.4
part
the
of
The
urinary
female
reproductive
system
as
viewed
from
the
front
and
side.
The
side
view
also
shows
system
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Reproduction
The
Oviducts
The
oviducts
lines
Ovaries
these
also
contract
ow
created
The
ovaries
female
sex
details
of
The
Cervix
The
It
cervix
or
is
clitoris
sexual
Various
in
that
eggs
also
order
organs
to
that
of
tubes.
from
and
eggs
the
helps.
reach
The
ciliated
ovary
Sperm
an
produce
oestrogen
production
womb,
the
blood
vagina
The
the
fallopian
to
have
to
epithelium
uterus.
swim
that
They
against
the
egg.
eggs
and
also
progesterone.
and
the
B.6.4
for
the
secrete
See
B.7.2
ovary’s
the
for
role
as
an
gland.
is
intercourse
Clitoris
peristalsis
cilia
as
moves
systems
is
a
pear-shaped
organ
in
which
a
foetus
develops
pregnancy.
allows
The
known
tubes
the
are
menstruation.
Vagina
also
hormones
uterus,
during
by
by
the
endocrine
Uterus
are
narrow
reproductive
It
the
of
muscle
from
allows
elastic
female
it
can
the
at
the
the
sperm
during
end
lining
muscular
stretches
intercourse
disorders
of
cells
also
an
and
is
ring
and
to
tube
become
of
the
near
to
the
out
vagina.
during
intercourse.
the
penis.
baby
When
aroused
reproductive
to
pass
accommodates
allow
sexually
uterus
uterus
after
that
to
the
the
enter
birth
equivalent
of
of
to
the
be
penis
stimulated
and
during
born.
during
stiffens.
systems
Cancer
Cancer
is
produces
t he
a
uncontrolled
lump
or
growt h
division
known
of
as
cells.
a
This
tumour.
abnormal
If
a
cell
tumour
is
division
detected
early
Key
terms
!
it
can
If
a
be
removed
by
radiot herapy,
chemot herapy
or
by
surger y.
Cancer
tumour
par ts
to
of
is
t he
grow
not
detected
tumour
invasively.
break
It
is
early
off,
ver y
t hen
metastasis
migrate
serious
if
to
ot her
t his
can
occur.
par ts
happens
of
as
t he
it
This
is
body
can
be
and
hard
caused
by
t he
cells
have
migrated.
This
emphasises
t he
impor tance
disease
division
of
for
the
that
is
uncontrolled
star t
to
cells
by
mitosis.
The
nd
cells
where
Any
when
form
a
tumour
that
may
early
invade
other
tissues
in
the
body.
detection.
Follicle
Why
uncontrolled
explain.
Cancer
involved
are
genes
types
of
growt h
a
in
t hat
in
t he
bot h,
to
preventing
Cancers
detect
in
Ovarian
tumours
potential
of
Ovarian
The
t he
have
cancer
t he
can
egg
is
and
involved
cell
cell
diseases.
t he
are
type
division
The
same
t hese
are
1
and
proved
as
difcult
factors
in
anot her.
involved.
which
type
2
t hat
The
are
forms
A
structure
inside
the
development
of
that
ovary
the
for
egg
the
cell.
There
two
produces
which
to
a
produces
division.
are
t hese
Early
star t
cells
of ten
such
attributed
had
t hem.
of
always
mitosis
genes
for ms
many
has
faulty,
a
diseases
detection
tumour
and
and
will
genetic
diagnosis
for m.
tests
is
Some
are
impor t ant
in
from
in
t he
epit helial
early
cells
follicles
from
or
t he
surface
connective
of
tissue
t he
from
t he
ovar y.
symptoms,
of ten
t hese
is
not
are
slows
it
tumours
women
cancer
centre
by
form
cancer s.
Ovarian
ovar y,
–
are
t hat
to
stimulates
which
of
disease
growt h
body
faulty
occurs
cancer
which
inhibitor
or
one
of
control
inher it
available
not
form
promoter
eit her,
people
one
genes
growt h
If
is
division
to
as
not
detected
pain
ot her
in
t he
causes.
menopause.
It
until
t he
abdomen,
is
more
ovar y
has
bloating
common
in
greatly
and
enlarged.
back
females
pain,
over
are
50
who
p
Figure
B.7.1.5
training
on
Nurses
cervical
receiving
cancer
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The
reproductive
Reproduction
systems
Cervical
cancer
Cer vical
cancer
is
a
Cer vical
cancer
is
caused
is
a
sexually
cer vical
available
transmitted.
smear
to
test
provide
Breast
hand
to
X-ray)
in
t he
t he
at
Figure
B.7.1.6
screen
for
Mammography
a
is
used
t he
a
early
Since
to
be
any
t hose
50
on
2008,
cer vical
by
a
t he
womb.
(HPV)
giving
vaccine
which
females
has
been
cancer.
and
by
to
t hose
In
be
who
of
There
t he
are
some
positive
actress
can
for
t heir
one
of
t he
restricted
to
women;
It
(see
risk.
a
one
tests
had
a
are
of
t he
t hese
so
be
two
cancer
risk
genes
t hat
of
be
genes
women
have
t heir
af ter
taken
risk
of
testing
breast
t he
can
faulty
Some
lowering
noted
at
This
treatment,
reconstr uction
cancer.
by
(or
women
breast
of
mastectomy
also
breasts
B.7
.1.6).
of ten
way
for
of
removed
t he
radiograph
is
histor y
is
bot h
a
Figure
This
breast
should
men
checking
breast
of
or
Jolie
genes.
A
genetic
breasts
Angelina
taken
at
have
cases
one
by
addition,
breast
radiot herapy.
for
have
detected
lumps.
considered
Removal
time.
tested
for
can
are
mammogram
of
later
The
cancer
disease
it
is
much
rarer.
can
cancer
(womb)
menopause.
grows
in
t he
grow
causes
in
few
vaginal
seen
T
esticular
by
is
This
a
uter us
t he
is
more
lining
uterine
symptoms,
common
par ticularly
called
muscle
t he
older
women,
some
as
uterine
sufferers
par ticularly
condition
endometrium.
known
alt hough,
in
dangerous
t he
tumours
Uterine
experience
af ter
tumour
Occasionally,
sarcoma.
can
as
cancer
abnormal
a
in
males
doctor.
self-
Prostate
examination
cancer
bleeding.
Cancer
B.7.1.7
of
to
Uterine
Figure
test).
entrance
cancer
Uterine
p
t he
papillomavir us
detected
against
breasts
t here
responsible
have
not
cer vix,
human
be
smear
followed
alt hough
breast
if
age
positive
p
t he
decision
cancer.
is
can
families.
are
who
in
feel
possibly
t hat
t he
t he
protection
offered
t heir
done
It
(Pap
called
of ten
over
of
by
cancer
Tumours
is
cancer
The
enlarged
frequent
test
cancer
tumour
urination.
known
suggested
as
a
t hat
in
t his
Males
prostate
prostate
case
wit h
specic
cancer
can
t hese
is
block
t he
uret hra
symptoms
antigen
caused
(PSA)
by
a
should
test.
It
causing
slow,
t herefore
has
been
but
have
a
recently
vir us.
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Reproduction
Egg
and
sperm
production
Questions
1
Make
a
table
to
compare
the
features
of
the
reproductive
sexual
and
asexual
reproduction.
2
List
the
3
State
4
List
5
State
6
Distinguish
the
the
the
of
function
parts
the
of
male
of
the
function
three
of
female
of
between
three
the
the
parts
system.
you
reproductive
of
the
parts
functions
of
have
named.
system.
you
the
have
sperm
named.
duct,
the
epididymis
and
urethra.
7
Explain
8
List
why
three
may
9
parts
the
parts
vagina
of
the
and
cervix
female
contain
muscles.
reproductive
system
where
cancers
occur.
Explain
B.7.2
the
advantages
Egg
and
of
early
sperm
detection
of
cancers.
production
Learning
By
Production
of
the
end
t he
body
t here
are
stem
cells
t hat
continue
divide
to
Examples
to
of
●
produce
a
constant
supply
of
cells
to
replace
dead
cells.
be
t he
describe
Malpighian
layer
in
t he
skin
(see
Figure
B.5.5.1
on
page
194)
and
in
bone
marrow
t hat
produce
red
and
white
blood
same
stem
cells
number
divide
and
by
type
of
a
process
known
chromosomes
as
are
mitosis
in
t he
in
two
produced.
identical,
might
The
lead
cells
mitosis.
This
except
to
t hat
This
means
in
t he
t hat
rare
all
t he
cells
occasions
in
when
t he
a
body
which
t he
daughter
exact
cells
receive
●
and
about
are
mutation
t hat
t he
grow
is
a
and
divide
different
half
t he
t his
to
type
number
type
reason
one
become
of
nuclear
gametes
division
divide
in
by
which
meiosis,
t he
not
of
chromosomes
of
t he
parent
cell.
There
of
division
in
Unit
C,
so
all
you
need
to
know
for
does
same
t he
diploid
halved
of
in
number,
meiosis
not
occurring
double
wit h
each
number
number
adult
t he
is
testis
line
t he
is
from
is
to
ensure
generation
generation,
stays
constant
t he
of
par t
supply
of
a
In
daughter
of
to
t hat
t he
number
generation.
as
you
can
see
in
constant
at
species
is
humans
cells.
This
haploid
t he
t his
not
confuse
is
mitosis
easy
to
and
misspell
completely
contradict
them
the
of
Instead,
Figure
It
of
your
answers.
Mitosis
it
the
division
of
cells
in
growth,
B.7
.2.1.
and
replacement;
in
animals,
46.
number
is
tip
46.
number,
In
of
chromosomes
meiosis
which
is
t his
half
in
eggs
just
and
for
making
sex
cells:
sperm.
t he
number
t he
is
is
diploid
number.
sperm
formed
outer
of
cells.
called
Production
The
features
sperm.
here
the
nucleus
the
is
meiosis
The
the
and
Exam
✔
repair
humans
of
daughter
is
In
structure
t hat
meaning
t he
the
cancer.
chromosomes
remains
the
genetically
occurs,
and
is
of
sperm
compare
meiosis.
more
structure
testis
t hat
Do
cells
the
and
describe
eggs
are
you
cells.
egg
These
topic
to:
t he
●
cells
this
able
t hese
ovary
are
of
gametes
should
Throughout
outcomes
from
of
many
t hese
cells
coiled
tubules
t hat
seminiferous
where
develop
into
t hey
tubules.
divide
by
Stem
mitosis
cells
to
give
a
sperm.
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Egg
and
sperm
Reproduction
production
These
cells
divide
by
meiosis
and
as
t he
daughter
cells
move
towards
t he
first
46
46
generation
inside
into
t he
seen
of
of
in
t he
t he
tubules
mature
t he
t hey
sperm
diagram
–
mature,
you
t heir
can
role
change
see
is
in
to
t heir
Figure
appearance
B.7
.2.2.
nourish
and
Nurse
protect
and
cells
t he
develop
can
also
be
development
sperm.
gametes
nurse
cell
mature
second
92
sperm
92
generation
gametes
third
184
generation
dividing
p
Figure
B.7.2.1
If
human
giving
were
produced
by
cells
gametes
mitosis
the
number
rise
to
capillary
sperm
one
of
chromosomes
double
three
be
with
each
generations
184
in
our
cells
generation.
the
tubule
would
number
After
p
would
Figure
testis
B.7.2.2
showing
Section
how
through
sperm
are
part
of
a
produced
mammalian
inside
tubules
chromosomes
Figure
B.7
.2.3
tubule.
shows
p
You
t he
Figure
shows
can
cell
part
a
photograph
t he
tails
divisions
B.7.2.3
through
see
of
involved
Photomicrograph
of
seminiferous
of
a
mature
in
in
a
a
t hrough
in
producing
showing
tubule
section
sperm
t he
a
seminiferous
centre.
Figure
B.7
.2.4
sperm.
section
mammalian
testis
3
In
general,
it
is
said
t hat
men
may
release
between
2
and
5
cm
of
semen
3
each
to
time
300
t hey
million
ejaculate,
sperm
and
t hat
each
cm
may
contain
from
20
million
cells.
That means a fertile man may release between 40 million and 1800 million
sperm cells in total, though the majority produce between 40 and 60 million
3
sperm cells per cm
, giving an average total of 80 to 300 million sperm per
ejaculation.
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Reproduction
Egg
stems
and
sperm
production
in
testis
Key
terms
!
Mitosis
division
growth,
repair
of
two
tissues.
B.7.2.4
The
It
is
a
an
solve
good
with
this
family.
all
answer.
girl
t he
is
the
born
or
so,
but
taking
Y
ou
–
to
t he
you
will
with
will
he
your
of
1500
his
have
to
sperm
cells
develop
from
in
in
the
A
sex
cell
A
form
–
sperm
egg.
that
is
involved
egg
production.
a
stem
cell
is
half
of
in
The
in
that
nuclear
sperm
the
in
division
and
number
four
the
of
daughter
parent
cell.
in
you
sperm
a
to
make
else
some
or
the
in
have
a
How
many
made
assumptions.
group,
length
producing
with
second.
sperm
lifetime?
decide
started
answer
of
Mr
sperm
and
or
when
how
you
It
at
Average
and
show
even
is
therefore
home
Man’s
he
nished.
arrive
at
an
others.
eggs
a
full
complement
develop
age
in
someone
have
when
until
t he
produce
assumptions
wit h
development’
From
as
same
as
1
produce
this
Compare
potential
eggs.
do
life
Production
A
men
man
problem
to
reproductive
Record
skills
that
average
idea
the
occur
the
cells
sperm?
estimated
does
T
o
many
that
and
tubule
Maths
How
changes
cells
number
sperm
cells
seminiferous
is
in
cell.
chromosomes
a
The
of
and
Meiosis
Figure
nuclear
into
or
p
of
involved
daughter
Gamete
mature
is
replacement
of
parent
divide
develop
form
chromosomes
the
cells
A
that
a
of
into
tiny
number
puber ty
development
contraceptive
eggs.
of
an
of
egg
eggs
of
cells
They
go
t hem
her
star t
should
stops
in
into
be
when
a
ovaries
form
to
of
develop
released
women
t hat
have
‘arrested
into
ever y
are
mature
four
weeks
pregnant
or
are
pills.
Figure
B.7
.2.5
shows
diagrammatically
how
Figure
B.7
.2.6
shows
a
section
photograph
of
a
an
egg
is
produced
t hrough
a
in
an
ovar y.
mammalian
ovar y.
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Egg
and
sperm
Reproduction
production
●
Key
●
Ovulation
the
1
to
4
take
approximately
14
days.
Stages
5
to
7
take
approximately
14
days.
terms
!
from
Stages
The
release
of
an
Ovulation
egg
is
t he
release
of
t he
egg
into
t he
oviduct
(Fallopian
tube).
ovary.
5
The
is
4
Ovulation:
the
follicle
egg
caught
releasing
the
egg
3
The
up
follicle
with
waving
by
follicle
motion
of
the
leading
oviduct
to
the
and
egg
by
becomes
cells.
mitosis
The
fills
to
surrounded
follicle
increase
cells
The
follicle
form
cells
secrete
their
cells
the
which
left
corpus
secretes
behind
luteum
in
the
(yellow
progesterone.
by
divide
number.
7
These
this
fluid.
body)
The
enters
uterus.
ovary
follicle
cells
the
oviduct.
6
2
of
into
tube
the
a
breaks
funnel
open
surrounded
by
The
corpus
luteum
disintegrates
if
oestrogen.
the
egg
has
implanted
1
An
the
immature
influence
egg
of
begins
FSH
from
to
grow
the
not
into
been
the
fertilised
and
uterus.
under
pituitary
gland.
p
Figure
have
is
not
The
Eggs
and
which
a
cells
full
that
30
of
enzymes
small
differ
B.7
.4.2).
about
is
of
eggs
clockwise
to
in
the
help
ovary
you
see
of
a
the
mammal.
stages
in
The
various
sequence.
In
stages
real
life
this
case
sperm
and
is
egg
make
has
the
Production
arranged
differences
B.7
.2.8
the
B.7.2.5
been
between
greatly
The
times
energy
and
packet
cell
of
surround
egg
in
stores
is
the
the
membranes
egg
that
(see
and
and
shape
sperm
from
approximately
than
in
enzymes
the
size
cell
wider
eggs
head
form
af ter
digest
Figures
of
of
fat,
a
one
0.1
mm
sperm.
and
also
fer tilisation.
a
pathway
B.7
.2.5
and
cell
another
in
Figures
diameter,
The
cytoplasm
stored
The
(see
tip
through
of
proteins
of
the
the
to
sperm
follicle
B.7
.2.9).
divides
by
meiosis
p
Figure
B.7.2.6
Photomicrograph
egg
of
an
ovary
showing
one
p
follicle
surrounded
by
some
Figure
filled
Notice
cavity
in
the
the
egg
lager
and
B.7.2.7
The
development
of
an
immature
egg
follicles.
cell
maturing
the
from
a
diploid
cell.
Compare
what
fluid
happens
here
sperm
Figure
with
the
development
of
follicle
in
B.7.2.4
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Reproduction
Egg
and
sperm
production
electron
micrograph
Egg
cell
jelly-like
surface
coating
membrane
of
one
egg
of
23
chromosomes
nucleus
jelly-like
coating
of
one
of
egg
23
cytoplasm
chromosomes
follicle
cell
middle
nucleus
piece
p
large
numbers
Figure
of
mitochondria
B.7.2.9
An
of
human
sperm
x
500
to
head
supply
energy
tail
Sperm
p
Figure
much
B.7.2.8
larger
Human
than
a
egg
and
sperm.
These
drawings
are
not
to
scale;
an
egg
is
sperm
Written
activity
✔
Comparing
sperm
and
Exam
eggs
Egg
Use
all
the
features
of
information
you
sperm
those
with
have
of
read
eggs.
so
far
Set
to
out
make
your
a
table
table
like
comparing
the
this.
or
used
Feature
Sperm
Egg
chromosomes
23
23
(haploid)
can
include
produced.
you
A
can
add
woman
low
to
Do
to
your
whose
allow
structural
some
her
eggs
her
Ovulation
happens
enters
t he
one
action
peristaltic
of
events
called
of
t he
of
t he
level
to
to
a
of
develop
roughly
oviducts.
cilia,
of
in
can
t he
differences
sources
in
to
Here,
be
is
regular
t he
body
it
stimulating
of
structures
speaking
the
egg
is
different
in
biology.
human
is
the
best
term
to
use,
but
(haploid)
everyone
talks
everyone
will
size
see
and
what
the
you
about
know
write
eggs
what
and
you
mean
it.
numbers
other
features
moved
FSH
t he
t he
star t
as
a
a
(FSH)
fer tility
woman’s
slowly
beating
in
hormone
is
too
dr ug.
This
way.
between
muscles
from
given
normal
halfway
whose
woman’s
menstr ual
the
other
follicle
mature
contractions
in
t he
eggs
using
word
sorts
table.
own
stimulates
features,
research
The
all
(ovum)
when
Y
ou
mean
reproductive
ovum
of
ovum?
to
Strictly
Number
tip
towards
carries
t he
oviduct.
of
one
periods.
egg
The
period
t he
t he
egg
uter us
along,
regular
to
The
by
and
by
pattern
next
is
cycle.
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The
menstrual
Reproduction
cycle
Questions
1
Outline
2
Use
How
Learning
By
the
end
outcomes
be
of
this
able
topic
B.7.3
describe
explain
from
is
and
the
corpora
that
which
B.7.2.5
to
lutea
are
produced
describe
development
of
(singular:
how
in
the
the
testes.
development
of
sperm.
corpus
luteum)
are
produced
for
released?
seminiferous
The
sperm
tubules
menstrual
with
follicles.
cycle
you
menstrual
cycle
menstrual
cycle
is
a
series
of
changes
t hat
takes
place
in
t he
body
of
ovulation
a
●
B.7.2.4
in
to:
The
●
egg
Compare
The
should
differs
many
each
4
process
Figures
eggs
3
the
the
roles
woman
in
the
prepare
for
t he
possibility
of
pregnancy.
The
cycle
itself
lasts
of
about
hormones
to
a
mont h
(typically
between
25
and
32
days).
menstrual
cycle.
M
e
n
1
s
t
r
terms
!
26
3
Days
If
Menstrual
cycle
A
series
no
26
changes
that
occur
in
to
28
fertilisation,
4
25
corpus
of
u
Key
2
luteum
the
stops
secreting
5
24
reproductive
to
prepare
system
for
of
the
female
progesterone
Days
Lining
pregnancy.
Release
of
an
the
ovary
into
an
of
to
7
breaks
uterus
down
egg
Days
from
1
6
23
Ovulation
a
t
i
28
27
oviduct;
Corpus
18
to
luteum
25
secretes
22
it
occurs
half
way
through
7
the
progesterone
to
Menstrual
menstrual
maintain
cycle.
the
lining
of
Days
21
the
grows
20
19
Egg
the
18
is
12
to
to
released
ovary
(about
at
day
an
ready
to
9
embryo
10
from
11
14)
12
F
of
be
13
15
outline
11
uterus
ovulation
16
An
the
17
17
B.7.3.1
of
receive
Days
Figure
to
8
Lining
p
8
cycle
uterus
the
er
til e
14
p e rio
changes
that
d
occur
during
the
menstrual
cycle
The events of the menstrual cycle are summarised in Figure B.7
.3.1. Figure
B.7
.3.2. shows the changes throughout the cycle in the ovary, including
the development and release of the egg, concentrations of two hormones
from the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising
hormone (LH)), concentrations of two hormones from the ovary (oestrogen
and progesterone) and the lining of the uterus, which is known as the
endometrium
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Reproduction
The
cycle
secreted
is
by
The
coordinated
t he
by
pituitar y
hormones.
gland.
This
At
t he
star t
stimulates
of
t he
changes
cycle
in
FSH
t he
While
to
t he
t he
ovar y
hormone,
uter us
more
in
release
is
of
is
to
preparation
A
surge
egg.
producing
oestrogen,
FSH.
an
in
for
LH
an
t he
egg
FSH
in
t he
embr yo.
and
t he
follicle,
repair
and
Oestrogen
causes
it
releases
growt h
also
ovulation
of
stops
to
t he
as
release
t he
cor pus
hormone,
for
it
of
egg,
luteum
LH
nourish
It
does
t he
stimulates
(yellow
progesterone.
pregnancy.
will
t he
The
t his
body),
effect
by
t he
to
of
remains
remain
of
lining
release
of
and
of
stimulating
t he
wall
is
of
to
pituitar y
an
gland
egg
in
stimulates
a
follicle.
their
of
oestrogen
stimulation
the
known
by
by
the
the
ovaries
hormone
pituitar y
is
FSH
due
from
gland.
anot her
prepare
t he
the
produce
any
Production
follicle,
secrete
progesterone
by
to
t he
occur.
t he
ovar y
anot her
t he
to
Af ter
secreted
the
stimulate
cycle
ovar y
FSH
leading
menstrual
uter us
t he
to
body
grow
so
embr yo.
The
secretion
of
oestrogen
production
LH
inhibits
of
the
fur ther
FSH.
released;
yellow
body
forms
ovary
Oestrogen
stimulates
of
repair
uterine
and
growth
lining.
relative
concentration
luteinising
in
the
blood
hormone
(LH)
Ovulation
of
FSH
hormones
follicle
from
itself
and
a
hormone
the
pituitary
hormone
gland
is
triggered
sudden
by
surge
a
in
small
surge
in
luteinising
stimulating
(LH),
also
produced
by
the
the
rise
(FSH)
pituitar y
relative
gland.
progesterone
concentration
in
the
blood
This
of
surge
in
LH
oestrogen
hormones
is
triggered
some
10
days
by
or
so
in
after
from
menstruation.
the
ovary
Lining
shed
Oestrogen
(menstruation)
by
ovary;
uterus
Progesterone
released
lining
starts
yellow
of
body;
uterus
to
released
lining
continues
Lining
by
down
of
to
pregnancy
thicken
does
thicken
lining
breaks
if
not
After
occur
ovulation
LH
causes
the
remains
of
the
of
follicle
uterus
which
to
develop
continues
which
into
to
stimulates
days
7
days
14
days
21
days
28
corpus
produce
the
uterine
0
the
luteum
progesterone,
maintenance
of
the
lining.
days
time/days
If
p
Figure
B.7.3.2
The
menstrual
cycle:
changes
in
the
ovary,
the
concentrations
of
there
the
four
If
a
hormones
woman
control
becomes
progesterone,
fer tilised
that
and
t hus
t he
the
menstrual
pregnant,
preventing
embr yo
does
her
t he
not
cycle
cor pus
release
and
the
luteum
of
implant
changes
goes
anot her
into
t he
in
on
egg.
uterus
and
t he
of
egg
t he
progesterone
is
secreted
from
t he
ovar y,
t he
lining
of
less
and
FSH
is
secreted
again
from
t he
luteum
implantation
degenerates
progesterone
is
is
released.
not
t he
uter us
decrease
breaks
in
causes
the
progesterone
the
shed
down
successful
uter us,
This
less
no
corpus
secreting
If
lining
the
is
the
-
uterus
lining
concentration
to
be
menstruation.
pituitar y.
This seems complicated, but remember that the pituitary gland is coordinating
the ovary and the uterus, so that their activities are synchronised together. It
is important that the uterus is ready to receive the embryo just after it has been
p
Figure
the
B.7.3.3
menstrual
Hormonal
control
of
cycle
released at ovulation.
The
ow
char ts
hormones
in
Figures
interact
in
t he
B.7
.3.3
control
and
of
Figures
t he
B.7
.3.4
menstr ual
illustrate
how
t he
four
cycle.
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The
menstrual
Reproduction
cycle
Start
of
Stops
cycle
pituitary
making
FSH
FSH
made
Oestrogen
by
made
Ovum
ovary
inside
If
no
by
develops
pituitary
follicle
pregnancy,
progesterone
production
stops
menstruation
If
and
occurs
pregnant,
Progesterone
LH
Ovulation
progesterone
made
and
made
by
oestrogen
corpus
continue
be
by
luteum
pituitary
to
produced
p
Figure
B.7.3.4
Hormonal
Maths
Girls
This
are
bor n
number
T
able
q
T
able
skills
with
a
never
B.7.3.1
potential
in
very
the
the
of
the
menstrual
cycle
2
large
increases
shows
eggs
control
number
during
results
ovaries
of
a
during
of
their
potential
lifetime.
study
the
into
the
1
Draw
2
Calculate
Use
their
it
life
of
ovaries.
decreases.
changes
reproductive
Mean
number
of
potential
birth
3
in
fact,
in
numbers
human
of
females.
B.7.3.1
Age/years
birth
eggs
In
a
line
and
potential
000
7
468
635
14
402
067
21
175
700
28
166
231
35
89
145
42
39
874
49
9
956
56
3
450
graph
the
the
your
712
to
show
decrease
age
of
answer
eggs
to
over
in
the
the
figures
mean
in
T
able
number
eggs
per
female
B.7.3.1.
of
potential
eggs
between
56.
question
the
same
2
to
calculate
time
the
percentage
decrease
in
period.
Questions
1
State
b
2
What
is
in
What
when
4
role
oestrogen,
and
3
one
What
when
the
of
c
each
FSH,
role
of
of
d
the
the
LH,
e
following
hormones:
a
progesterone,
testosterone.
pituitary
gland
in
sexual
reproduction
in
males
females?
happens
the
lining
happens
the
lining
to
of
to
of
the
the
the
the
concentration
uterus
gets
of
thicker
concentrations
uterus
oestrogen
breaks
of
during
and
the
oestrogen
down
during
progesterone
menstrual
and
the
cycle?
progesterone
menstrual
cycle?
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Reproduction
B.7.4
Fertilisation
Fertilisation
and
implantation
Learning
By
the
end
and
implantation
outcomes
of
this
topic
you
Fertilisation
should
Fertilisation
is
t he
fusion
of
a
haploid
sperm
wit h
a
haploid
egg
to
diploid
zygote.
Fer tilisation
occurs
when
one
sperm
gets
t hrough
membrane
of
t he
egg
(see
Figure
B.7
.4.2).
When
t his
explain
happens,
t he
produce
a
number.
each
days
when
Sex
t he
fer tilised
The
days
Sex
of
sperm
egg
fer tilised
mont h
t hat
cell
when
fer tilisation
and
a
is
t he
has
is
46
called
newly
23
chromosomes
chromosomes
a
zygote.
released
possible
(see
in
There
egg
is
Figure
in
of
all,
are
an
t he
t he
only
egg
combine
usual
two
oviduct.
implantation.
describe
in
vitro
fertilisation.
to
diploid
or
t hree
These
are
t he
B.7
.4.1).
determination
is
determined
appearance
in
t he
by
two
of
t he
microscope
chromosomes,
(see
Figure
C.1.7
1
known
on
sperm
arrive
at
as
page
begin
X
and
Y
af ter
t heir
280).
to
egg
p
46
Figure
B.7.4.3
2
diploid
Fertilisation:
a
sperm
46
reaches
in
fertilisation
describe
23
●
chromosomes
to:
t he
●
outer
able
form
●
a
be
cell
diploid
ovary
in
cell
sperm
enter
try
an
egg
to
egg
testis
Key
terms
!
Fertilisation
and
The
fusion
of
an
egg
sperm.
Implantation
The
embedding
of
23
the
embryo
in
the
lining
of
the
uterus.
23
haploid
fertilisation
3
haploid
one
sperm
succeeds.
sperm
Its
nucleus
enters
the
egg
cytoplasm
and
the
46
of
moves
egg’s
the
egg
towards
nucleus
diploid
zygote
p
Figure
B.7.4.1
chromosomes
The
is
diploid
restored
number
at
of
p
fertilisation
Figure
an
B.7.4.2
Sperm
fertilising
egg
Implantation
Implantation
is
t he
process
by
which
an
embr yo
becomes
embedded
in
p
t he
lining
of
t he
uter us.
Figure
B.7.4.4
fertilised
nucleus
During
t he
six
days
or
so
af ter
fer tilisation,
t he
zygote
moves
slowly
oviduct,
dividing
rst
into
two
cells
(Figure
B.7
.4.5),
t hen
into
four
the
egg
t hen
lining
of
into
t he
a
ball
uter us,
of
a
cells.
Once
process
it
called
reaches
t he
uter us
implantation
u
Figure
after
(see
it
B.7.4.5
About
fertilisation,
mitosis
for
genetically
settles
Figure
the
the
first
sperm
can
and
see
the
of
a
the
about
to
start
the
first
nucleus
of
a
new
individual
(x
nuclear
300)
t he
B.7
.4.6).
twenty-four
embryo
time
identical
into
the
photograph
you
cells
division
and
from
this
egg
down
of
t he
In
human
to
cells
hours
divides
produce
by
two
(x300)
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Fertilisation
and
Reproduction
implantation
four
cell
stage
ball
of
cells
inner
the
two
cell
of
stage
embryo
occurs
By
unsuccessful
sperm
of
said
implants
5
now
ball
fertilised
lining
uterus
to
6
there
cells
to
are
is
start
in
days
the
uterus
after
lining
approximately
known
once
this
fertilisation.
as
an
100
embryo.
implantation
cells
and
the
Pregnancy
is
occurs
egg
(zygote)
oviduct
p
Figure
B.7.4.6
Case
In
In
vitro
outside
a
woman’s
help
be
healt hy
her
uter us,
egg
to
a
follow
●
The
she
woman
will
t hey
●
●
man
The
eggs
The
The
t he
●
and
is
be
There
implantation
unable
If
of
an
egg
was
are
to
t his
is
is
t hat
t he
by
This
why
could
are
t he
a
sperm
late
couple
and
has
happen
unable
couple
a
t he
normally
t hey
case
in
reasons
eggs
conceive.
so
fer tilised
developed
many
produces
damaged,
cycle
to
a
if
carr y
might
t he
decide
IVF.
follows.
given
at
t he
a
fer tility
dr ug
ovulation.
woman
normally
and
when
technique
woman
uter us.
produces
a
semen
be
under
increase
around
anaest hetic
t he
number
half
just
a
a
dozen
few
of
eggs
eggs
hours
are
before
ovulated.
sample
are
to
Usually
of
mixed
semen
by
toget her
masturbation.
in
a
small
Petri
dish
(not
a
tube).
fer tilised
incubator
●
as
from
would
The
test
t he
produce
removed
●
is
a
may
treatment
procedure
if
become
into
occurs
The
couples.
e.g.
she
have
fer tilised
(IVF)
body.
infer tile
infer tile,
oviducts
The
fertilisation
fertilisation
fertilisation
to
might
between
study
v itro
1970s
Events
at
medical
uter us
eggs
37°C
staff
in
t he
of ten
stored
If
procedure
t he
babies
are
in
are
for
lef t
two
choose
hope
liquid
is
to
to
develop
t hree
one
t hat
or
t hey
nitrogen
successful,
into
more
of
t he
implant.
as
young
embr yos
in
an
days.
‘frozen
nine
embr yos
Any
spare
to
transfer
embr yos
to
are
embr yos’.
mont hs
later
one
or
more
healt hy
born.
If a couple is unable to have children because of problems with the man’s
sperm, the woman may benet from articial insemination. Sperm from
a donor male are collected and then inserted into her uter us at ovulation.
p
Figure
B.7.4.7
A
technician
at
An alternative treatment is to take a nucleus from a sperm cell and insert
an
IVF
sperm
clinic
injects
an
egg
with
a
it into an egg as you can see happening in Figure B.7
.4.7
.
nucleus
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Reproduction
Some
t here
couples
is
a
risk
muscular
be
t hen
gene
t he
any
and
or
a
to
to
cells
t he
are
use
child
to
conceive
t heirs
an
egg
has
out
to
is
be
what
is
inser ted
embr yo.
Human
a
child
inheriting
carried
This
can
IVF
of
Af ter
test
not.
embr yo
returned
few
decide
of
dystrophy.
removed
faulty
a
Pregnancy
divided
see
if
into
genetic
a
few
t hat
happening
t he
in
Figure
can
The
t hey
disease,
times
embr yo
uter us.
embr yos
because
a
one
has
cell
develop
cell
If
it
role
of
the
placenta
as
can
t he
hasn’t,
cannot
normally
the
know
such
inherited
7
.4.8.
and
be
even
if
removed.
Questions
1
Describe
how
IVF
is
carried
p
out.
Figure
an
2
Explain
why
fer tility
dr ugs
are
used
in
IVF.
B.7.4.8
embryo
that
it
has
condition
3
Suggest
likely
reasons
for
a
couple
seeking
to
have
Explain
disease
t he
in
advantage
t he
of
IVF
for
a
couple
who
cell
not
that
is
inherited
runs
in
removed
by
IVF
a
to
from
check
genetic
the
family
of
one
IVF.
of
4
A
produced
have
an
the
parents
inherited
family.
Questions
1
What
are
2
Explain
3
Why
4
Describe
what
happens
at
fertilisation.
5
Describe
what
happens
to
a
is
gametes?
how
the
the
male
female
gamete
gamete
reaches
much
the
larger
zygote
female
than
during
the
the
gamete.
male
few
gamete?
days
after
fertilisation.
8
List,
in
the
passes,
9
Name
correct
from
the
order,
where
nuclear
it
is
the
structures
produced
division
that
to
gives
through
where
rise
it
to
which
meets
the
ball
a
the
of
sperm
cell
egg.
cells
after
fertilisation.
B.7.5
Once
ball
Pregnancy
implantation
of
cells
During
has
implanted
pregnancy,
the
happened
in
t he
and
t he
t he
lining
embr yo
of
role
of
woman
her
greatly
is
the
said
uter us
increases
is
to
placenta
be
called
in
size
pregnant.
an
and
Learning
The
By
embr yo.
main
stages
pregnancy
in
are
t he
development
summarised
as
into
a
baby
ready
to
be
be
of
this
able
born
at
t he
describe
the
end
●
of
end
topic
you
to:
complexity.
●
The
the
should
outcomes
follows.
the
development
of
embryo
describe
the
role
of
the
placenta
●
One
month
af ter
fer tilisation
(see
Figure
B.7
.5.1
and
B.7
.5.3)
a
human
●
embr yo
yet
●
is
are
●
have
Two
It
arms
months
now
a
bit
or
a
and
months
developing
like
legs,
af ter
called
formed
Three
are
looks
a
sh
but
it
embr yo
is
clear
fer tilisation
foetus.
t he
It
hear t
af ter
is
is
t he
about
(see
tadpole.
where
t hese
embr yo
45
mm
The
will
looks
in
embr yo
does
explain
the
mother
and
needs
of
the
not
foetus.
develop.
much
lengt h.
more
Most
of
human.
t he
organs
beating.
fer tilisation
rapidly
or
t he
Figure
ner ves
B.7
.5.3).
and
The
muscles
foetus
is
of
t he
about
foetus
90
mm
in
lengt h.
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Pregnancy
and
the
role
of
the
Reproduction
placenta
●
‘gills’:
these
develop
gills
of
in
a
have
much
fish
do
no
function
the
same
before
Five
but
way
that
the
t he
months
foetus
the
next
few
carries
and
180
mm
in
lengt h,
nger prints
hair.
Its
movements
may
have
been
felt
by
t he
mot her
for
and
t he
last
mont h.
Seven
The
cord:
oxygen
months
af ter
fer tilisation
development
is
almost
complete.
placenta
As
to
soon
removes
as
t he
embr yo
implants
into
t he
lining
of
t he
uter us,
some
of
and
t he
cells
of
t he
embr yo,
toget her
wit h
cells
from
t he
mot her,
form
t he
waste
products
from
placenta.
The
shown
Figure
bud:
which
from
an
of
substances
As
will
in
of
B.7
.5.2.
t he
placenta
between
There
t he
is
a
a
ver y
few
mont hs
mot her’s
large
blood
surface
into
and
t he
area
pregnancy
for
blood
of
t he
is
t he
exchange
foetus.
arm
this
develops
str ucture
it
arm
t he
embr yo
develops
it
secretes
a
hormone
called
human
chorionic
grow
into
gonadotrophin(HCG).
the
lower
the
backbone
part
of
leg
a
bud:
leg
from
will
Figure
B.7.5.1
Embryo
one
This
causes
t he
cor pus
luteum
to
continue
to
secrete
which
progesterone.
grow
pregnancy
p
about
ngernails,
nutrients
the embryo
‘tail’:
only
eyebrows,
eye
●
umbilical
alt hough
formed
weeks
mouth
developing
fer tilisation,
perfectly
disappearing
body
within
af ter
has
month
As
and
a
result,
t he
t he
lining
production
of
of
t he
FSH
by
uter us
t he
wall
is
pituitar y
maintained
gland
is
during
inhibited.
after
This
ensures
t hat
ovulation
does
not
occur
during
pregnancy.
Af ter
t hree
fertilisation
mont hs,
cor pus
1
deoxygenated
blood:
eventually
t he
placenta
luteum
in
t he
takes
ovar y
over
t he
role
of
secreting
the
and
mother’s
receives
mother’s
heart
food
hepatic
and
lungs
substances
portal
and
t he
returns
2
to
progesterone
degenerates.
to
be
from
oxygenated
blood:
from
the
mother;
oxygenated
also
rich
in
sugars,
and
antibodies
amino
acids,
vitamins
2
4
the
vein
1
lining
of
uterus
4
blood
blood.
capillary
network
of
but
3
vein
in
useful
umbilical
substances
cord:
such
carries
as
oxygenated
glucose
and
blood
amino
space
This
in
uterus:
comes
very
contains
close
to
the
the
mother's
foetus’
blood
placenta
does
not
actually
mix
with
it
and
acids
5
umbilical
cord:
connecting
the
foetus
to
6
from
the
special
Foetal
type
of
to
diffuse
the
is
haemoglobin.
from
cells
the
of
foetus.
haemoglobin
haemoglobin
normal
blood
placenta
better
As
a
mother's
the
Foetal
called
at
red
foetal
picking
result
blood
blood
a
the
5
3
placenta
haemoglobin.
up
oxygen
contains
oxygen
than
molecules
cells
to
the
6
red
artery
blood
foetus
in
and
foetus
to
umbilical
waste
the
cord:
products
carries
such
deoxygenated
as
urea
from
the
placenta
foetus
p
Figure
B.7.5.2
Structure
of
the
placenta
and
the
The
umbilical
blood
come
of
ver y
foetus
are
mot her
foetus
of ten
might
of
mot her
t he
Figure
28
at
B.7.5.3
days
left.
A
human
development,
Most
of
the
formed
and
the
already
beating
embryo
with
organ
the
after
in
vir us
in
if
t he
and
t he
t he
t hat
its
blood
study
t he
is
The
baby.
r ubella
blood
being
wit h
261.
kept
are
of
t hat
(German
lead,
foetus
When
of
Anot her
apar t
generally
is
its
measles),
cross
alt hough
t he
and
t his
is
any
to
vir uses,
as
well
t he
case,
of
t he
t he
There
is
of
blood
t he
more
disease-causing
pass
from
including
as
and
blood
t he
mot her.
t hat
t hey
mot her
t he
advantage
unable
some
can
mix,
because
t he
groups.
However,
and
actually
impor tant
blood
page
blood
monoxide
never
is
mixed
on
foetus
developing
causes
This
different
mot her’s
carbon
foetus
different.
to
case
and
ot her.
cer tain
t he
HIV
and
chemicals
placenta.
head
systems
embryonic
to
including
each
belong
die
t his
mot her
mot her
to
genetically
organisms
p
t he
close
about
t he
cord
heart
are
is
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Reproduction
The
The
is
mechanical
is
Cells
have
the
surrounded
secretes
uid
the
from
the
from
uid
The
e.g.
the
skin
foetus
the
lungs.
does
not
provide
of
are
transparent
This
the
blood
has
into
out
makes
a
the
some
mother
for
and
of
the
connective
foetus
sudden
pregnancy
present
to
provide
pregnancy
as
a
t he
in
also
of
t he
morning
12
pressure
oedema
on
of
t he
not
of
amnion
into
the
and
the
similar
when
to
placenta
the
movements
uid
and
This
plasma.
organs
taking
drinks
it.
The
not
physical
caused
t he
ankles),
is
which
and
t he
a
(most
visits
(due
is
nausea
a
to
demands
to
t he
be
t he
of
of
a
a
day.
It
put
toilet
a
her
pregnancy
number
healt h
and
of
t hat
concentrations
associated
What
in
wit h
a
tests
of
her
woman
will
t he
be
should
carried
developing
blood,
signs
of
go
out
regularly
during
foetus.
her
These
diabetes
and
to
an
seven-week-old
the
placenta
by
to
the
placenta
at
the
sac,
attached
umbilical
cord
right
The
on
to
drive,
skin
across
in
disorder)
may
t he
and
make.
antenatal
pregnancy
include
A
amniotic
to
Figure
the
During
its
can
due
sexual
baby
in
–
pronounced
liver
t hat
B.7.5.4
embryo
limited
sick.
stretching
Figure
(feeling
always
women
loss
are
on
changes
not
to
more
symptom
additional
demands
t hroughout
womb,
it
is
woman
backache
itchiness
be
a
frequent
experienced,
can
include
friends
Never t heless
hormonal
it
cause
enlarged
mental
Nausea
experience
always,
tiredness,
from
by
and
suppor t.
and
necessarily)
pregnancy),
and
emotional
family
p
her
the
foetus.
par tner,
pregnancy.
women
itching
feet,
money
do
but
breasts,
legs
and
sickness’
mont hs
some
where
soles
over
(but
bladder
(swollen
and
worries
Here
of
foetus
woman’s
practical
can,
during
abdomen;
palms
early
t he
considerable
may
and
her
if
‘morning
tender
kg
helps
bot h
changes
include
around
it
ver y
These
result
hormonal
t he
makes
mot her.
especially
to
role
any
p
During
sick)
the
tissue
against
movements.
composition
breathing
urinates
nutrients
layer
protects
mother
foetus
any
uid
and
shed
carries
The
the
thin,
when
into
needs
a
uid.
ltered
foetus’
developed
by
amniotic
damage,
formed
amnion
t he
and
amnion
foetus
that
Pregnancy
to
tests
preeclampsia
B.7.5.5
womb
just
A
full-term
before
foetus
in
birth
clinic.
check
on
iron
which
is
hyper tension.
happens
at
an
antenatal
clinic?
A woman can expect the following things to happen at her antenatal clinic.
●
She
will
be
asked
about
her
medical
record,
general
healt h
and
personal
circumstances.
●
Her
of
week
t he
as
lactation
blood
Too
high
cope
can
fatal,
she
her
cord,
can
in
bot h
t he
to
each
put
uter us,
t he
reser ves
visit.
on
pregnancy.
fat
will
extra
is
be
pressure
build
condition
expect
her
growing
and
t he
a
of
on
Af ter
between
This
is
may
rst
about
due
placenta,
t hat
t he
to
t hree
400 g
t he
up
to
500 g
increasing
amniotic
build
mont hs
in
uid
mass
and
anticipation
of
production).
blood
wit h
for
measured
pressure
a
result
This
be
result
(milk
Her
to
a
foetus,
umbilical
●
will
pregnancy,
per
of
weight
up
of
regularly
indicate
demands
known
mot her
taken
may
made
proteins
as
and
foetus
on
and
toxaemia
if
it
to
t hat
it
t he
waste
not
t hat
it
mot her’s
owing
which
is
check
to
t he
substances
can
be
is
not
body
too
is
high.
failing
pregnancy.
in
her
dangerous,
This
blood.
or
even
treated.
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Pregnancy
and
the
role
of
the
Reproduction
placenta
●
An
internal
t hat
she
smear
●
Blood
is
not
may
be
tests
will
to
p
Figure
B.7.5.6
showing
a
Ultrasound
healthy
foetus
scan
22
An
●
HIV
pregnancy.
can
you
How
many
Urine
be
also
measles
test
tests
check
taken
to
in
case
check
for
see
anaemia.
t hat
she
tests
t hat
cer vix
(a
early
needs
see
and
t hr ush
t he
These
she
to
vagina
as
stages
has
an
of
allow
made
cer vical
see
cer vical
cancer.
woman’s
blood
has
to
A
haemoglobin
t he
emergency
woman
be
condition).
enough
also
t he
will
fungal
and
blood
transfusion.
antibodies
to
(r ubella).
may
will
to
her
such
be
be
carried
taken
to
out.
indicate
t he
diabetes
see
if
t hat
glucose
can
or
proteins
develop
during
are
present.
Glucose
pregnancy.
structures
●
identify?
taken
noted,
will
of
infections
weeks
may
into
be
doctor
German
●
no
developing
group
A
examination
has
Ultrasound scans may be taken later in pregnancy. These allow the mother
and the person operating the ultrasound scan to see the developing foetus
(Figure B.7
.5.6). The foetus can be checked to see that its heart is beating
normally and that there are no physical abnormalities, including Down’s
syndrome. The sex of the baby can sometimes be identied, though some
parents prefer to nd this out only at the birth itself.
For
more
defects
information
(page
Checking
There
are
for
two
genetic
main
abnormalities
The
t he
rst
is
uter us
usually
cells
t hese
Secondly,
is
taken
two
or
This
is
in
genetic
t hese
a
age
days
to
can
social
in
t he
to
used
weeks
and
the
physical
causes
of
bir t h
foetus
foetus
t he
and
or
to
into
may
be
in
t he
culture
genetic
checked
for
genetic
a
The
of
t hree
t he
wall
uid.
Amniotic
for
sample
sample
cer tain
grows
t hrough
amniotic
uid
to
of
This
is
contains
four
weeks,
abnormalities.
(CVS),
presence
placenta
inser ted
of
pregnancy.
grown
pregnancy.
t he
is
sample
sampling
into
t he
needle
a
cer tain
villus
reveal
a
take
being
for
harmed
be
to
16
weeks
because
being
reasons,
where
35
serious
to
chorionic
8-10
which
where
Af ter
tested
identical
genetic
of
t he
from
from
can
genetic
cells
in
t he
be
placenta
tested
wit hin
abnormalities.
t he
embr yo,
so
is
foetus.
CVS,
of
a
help
t here
is
a
small
miscarriage
t he
foetus
if
risk
(about
resulting.
it
is
found
In
to
0.5
to
2%)
addition,
be
of
neit her
suffering
from
a
abnormality.
women
by
14
amniocentesis
foetus
technique
For
be
possible
bot h
t he
see
pregnancy.
amnion
foetus.
about
t hree
t he
about
can
genetically
In
in
in
amniocentesis,
t he
cells
t his
abnormalities
ways
early
and
done
from
on
266).
or
are
two
is
a
a
This
family
disorder,
more
techniques
signicant
abnormality.
because
genetic
women
t he
t here
likely
to
might
member
such
as
give
tend
chance
be
is
cystic
bir t h
to
only
t hat
to
because
already
brosis
offered
foetus
t he
sickle
wit h
to
to
may
mot her
known
or
children
be
t he
be
cell
is
pregnant
be
affected
over
t he
affected
anaemia.
Down’s
by
a
Older
syndrome.
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Reproduction
Case
Pregnancy
and
the
role
of
the
placenta
study
Rhesus
d isease
Rhesus
Y
mother
Y
negative
placenta
Y
Y
antibodies
cells
second
Y
blood
Y
Y
Y
blood
Y
foetus
with
Rhesus
+
Y
Rhesus
positive
+
red
Y
foetus
with
Y
against
positive
Y
first
Y
Rhesus
positive
Y
blood
Rh+
antigens
a
First
b
Between
pregnancy
p
Figure
c
pregnancies
B.7.5.7
antibodies
A
mother
against
foetal
who
red
has
pregnancy
Rhesus
blood
Second
cells
if
negative
it
has
blood
Rhesus
will
make
positive
blood
As part of antenatal screening, women are offered blood tests to determine
their blood group. You may remember from the case study about Declan
(see page 129) that blood groups are A+, B-, AB+, etc. The blood test for
pregnant women determines whether they are Rhesus positive or Rhesus
negative. Some people have red blood cells with a marker on the surface
that is known as D. People who have this marker have Rhesus positive
blood, those who do not have Rhesus negative blood. This is determined
by a gene in a similar way to the ABO blood group system.
The
Rhesus
blood
If
wit h
positive
Rhesus
foetal
cross
red
t he
blood
t he
as
so
pregnancy
blood
is
a
at
The
red
it
is
develops
bir t h
risk
The
blood
pregnancy
before
if
In
her
end
The
to
does
is
because
blood
cross
a
cases,
destroy
t he
harm
can
antibodies
some
and
foetal
her
t he
has
t he
a
child
against
red
cells
system
body,
placenta
t he
blood
immune
invade
cross
mot her’s
affected.
will
t he
positive.
produce
placenta
Rhesus
by
back
into
when
is
remain
baby’s
early
red
a
born,
in
If
t he
blood
t he
she
is
occurs
next
exposed
to
antibodies
disease
t he
baby
circulation
However,
stillbir t h
t he
during
blood,
cells.
Rhesus
body
antibodies
not
produce
t he
not
causing
wit h
impor tance
negative
organisms
into
is
foetus
so
ot her
will
blood
cells
t he
cells
jaundice.
disease
red
time,
great
antibodies
antibodies
may
born.
continuing
Rhesus
blood
of
Rhesus
mot her’s
pregnancy
second
immediately.
destroy
red
rst
she
foreign
These
its
is
has
happens
t he
when
destroy
of
t he
who
This
into
does
and
leakage
slowly,
Rh+
it
system
blood,
cells.
antibodies.
foetus
This
woman,
placenta
responds,
making
a
group
pregnancy.
in
in
t he
baby
but
is
baby’s
pregnancy,
unborn
dies
it
cells
t he
in
foetus.
t he
womb
anaemic
and
circulation
for
a
few
af ter
mont hs.
mot her.
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Pregnancy
and
the
role
of
the
Reproduction
placenta
A Rhesus negative woman, pregnant for the rst time, will be offered
injections of antibody against Rhesus positive blood cells (anti-D) during
her pregnancy, so any foetal blood cells that cross the placenta are
destroyed before her immune system realises they have arrived. She is not
exposed to the baby’s red blood cells and her body does not make any
antibodies.
Rhesus
Study
✔
tip
anti-D
You
can
nd
antibodies
odd
out
more
Unit
D.6.
about
work.
It
as
seems
a
mother
would
antibodies
against
her
but
in
that
in
remember
the
and
foetus
he
will
that
come
be
disease
injections
half
the
from
Rhesus
produce
own
foetus,
genes
the
father
is
now
t he
Doctors
well
as
t he
deliver y,
will
to
t he
specialises
in
previous
af ter
t he
t he
t he
is
caring
likely
for
to
If
If
a
be
an
is
prevented
woman
t hen
depend
on
how
to
a
t han
does
do
not
usual,
develop
severe
unit
using
developed
injections
closely
baby
transfusion
admitted
has
t hese
more
unborn
blood
newborn
it
a
pregnancy
will
foetus
because
anti-D.
pregnancy
deliver y.
treatment
give
child
in
a
called
monitor
baby
disease,
necessar y
uncommon
antibody
antibodies
Rhesus
be
of
it
is.
in
severe
in
a
It
may
cases.
hospital
Af ter
t hat
babies.
positive.
The
inheritance
of
t he
Rhesus
blood
groups
is
explained
on
page
289.
Questions
1
A
woman
who
is
who
Rhesus
pregnancy,
advice
are
so
has
Rhesus
positive.
medical
t hey
likely
Explain
how
a
child
3
Explain
why
a
Rhesus
red
4
blood
Explain
cells
how
developing
of
t he
t he
gives
not
have
staff
did
not
realise
give
wit h
her
blood
did
to
2
negative
She
her
in
Rhesus
negative
case
bir t h
blood
t his
she
disease
mot her
a
test
was
child
her
What
pregnant
anaemia
makes
a
likely.
becomes
has
to
during
and
antibodies
again?
jaundice.
against
t he
foetus.
treatment
for
Rhesus
disease
prevents
t he
foetus
disease.
Questions
1
State
the
role
2
State
three
of
the
amniotic
substances
that
fluid.
will
pass
from
mother
to
foetus
across
the
placenta.
3
State
four
things
that
a
woman
can
expect
to
happen
at
an
antenatal
clinic.
4
Describe
5
Explain
how
6
Explain
why
7
How
8
Explain
9
A
of
how
does
why
on
the
the
woman
a
umbilical
move
foetus
woman
her
should
placenta
oxygen
pregnant
this
a
is
foetus?
is
adapted
vein
from
and
its
found
take
care
for
carries
the
Suggest
be
its
are
health
the
during
pregnancy.
functions.
blood
blood.
into
genetically
anaemic.
how
her
oxygenated
mother’s
mother
to
of
What
woman
foetal
blood?
different.
are
will
the
the
be
likely
treated
effects
for
her
anaemia.
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Reproduction
B.7.6
Birth
Birth
Learning
By
the
end
outcomes
of
this
topic
you
Birth
should
By
t he
end
of
pregnancy
t he
baby
normally
lies
in
t he
womb
wit h
its
t he
mot her’s
vagina
(Figure
B.7
.6.1).
This
is
considered
t he
to
give
bir t h
position
to
enable
as
t he
bones
in
t he
baby ’s
head
are
in
t he
to:
describe
the
describe
some
birth
process
ideal
●
position
able
head
●
towards
be
possible
birth
correct
defects
it
to
squeeze
t hrough
t he
bir t h
canal.
●
explain
●
pubic
(front
some
post
births
natal
care.
bone
of
pelvic
placenta:
multiple
describe
girdle)
weighs
Study
✔
500 g
Look
at
the
tip
drawing
of
the
skull
in
vagina
Unit
umbilical
long
cord:
and
B.4.1.
of
thick
a
foetus
they
during
amnion:
B.7.6.1
Sometimes
baby’s
t he
bottom
is
The
t hat
of
to
any
First
stage
Labour
t he
of
ever y
20
as
late
During
of
head
rst
to
in
not
slide
fused
over
together
each
other
birth.
is
and
labour
a
neck
t he
t he
position
of
t he
lying
t hey
are
known
womb
across
include
mot her
Later,
caused
t he
as
‘breech’
instead
t he
of
neck
bir t h
called
begin
is
This
cer vix
to
to
an
pass
contractions
become
some
released.
can
wall
down
at
can
labour,
once
her
t he
of
be
for
where
head.
t he
t he
‘Breech
womb.
divided
reasons
t he
in
This
cer vix
t hey
into
a
which
frequent
labour
These
Eventually
come
and
hormone
stage
bir t h
is
uter us.
known
dilates
t he
contractions.
rst
more
of
is
rst
At
any
t he
gradually
t hrough.
of
point
This
happen
end
t he
vagina.
secretion
At
coming
t he
comes
by
feels
t he
t he
t hey
gland.
uid
baby
of
t hrough
pituitar y
labour
labour
of
baby
Toget her
out
B.7
.6.2).
as
be
t he
t he
when
are
amniotic
(Figure
stage
surround
minutes.
Contractions
t he
have
can
backbone
contractions
baby
mot her’s
skull
are
labour
begins
t he
the
mot her.
muscular
push
the
can
near
where
stages.
clear
of
first
baby
is
events
part
The
transverse’
number
of
intact
lower
Figure
bones
50 cm
2 cm
so
p
The
t hey
are
ver y
amnion
as
t he
of
labour,
will
approximately
oxytocin
t he
are
breaking
and
intense.
from
t he
breaks
of
t he
can
and
waters
even
occur
canal.
(becomes
has
wider).
dilated
typically
The
enough
wit hin
4–12
rst
for
stage
t he
hours
of
baby’s
t he
star ting.
Delivery
The
second
cer vix
a
into
stage
t he
continuous
along
and
of
labour
vagina.
bir t h
wit hin
The
canal.
10–60
begins
as
uter us,
Strong
minutes
t he
baby ’s
cer vix
and
contractions
t he
baby’s
head
vagina
is
pushed
toget her
continue
head
to
emerges
out
of
now
push
from
t he
t he
t he
form
baby
bir t h
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Reproduction
Birth
placenta
fetus
muscle
of
uterus
contracts
umbilical
cord
baby’s
passes
into
p
Figure
canal.
B.7.6.2
The
midwife
specialises
Babies
canal.
few
rest
(a
can
The
in
t he
umbilical
and
t he
get
of
separate
t he
stage
baby’s
who
quite
of
of
body
specialises
air,
for
cord
of ten
t he
is
shor t
white
red
presence
cord
second
the
the
cervix
vagina
labour
follows
in
wit hin
bir t hs)
or
minutes,
obstetrician
helped
(a
by
doctor
a
who
bir t hs).
skin
breat hs
to
of
nurse
sufciently
due
The
head
through
of
individuals
oxygen
may
as
blood
cells
t hey
look
accompanied
to
by
in
t hese
(Figure
two
places
clamps
pass
bluish
cries,
develop
oxyhaemoglobin.
clamped
between
of
babies
is
to
soon
t heir
Once
cut.
out
t hrough
immediately
prevent
Mot her
oxygenate
usual
t he
t he
baby
child
A
blood
colour
breat hing,
subsequent
and
bir t h.
t he
reddish
is
bir t h
af ter
t he
bleeding
are
now
two
B.7
.6.4).
Afterbirth
Contractions
and
t he
(Figure
of
t he
placenta
muscular
and
wall
umbilical
of
cord
t he
are
uter us
soon
continue
pushed
out
af ter
of
deliver y,
t he
vagina
B.7
.6.3).
clip
placenta
(afterbirth)
u
Figure
labour
B.7.6.3
is
when
The
the
third
stage
afterbirth
of
emerges
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Reproduction
Birth
Complications
Various
we
t hings
have
Breech
If
t he
baby’s
t he
might
may
If
occur
so
bottom
so
end
t hat
of
t he
pregnancy
bir t h
is
not
quite
as
straightfor ward
as
far.
or
detected
baby
take
be
the
birth
position.
turn
can
indicated
at
around
longer
used
or
a
feet
early
so
t han
emerge
enough,
t hat
it
usual.
Caesarean
is
rst
a
born
This
t he
head
could
section
baby
midwife
or
is
said
rst,
as
endanger
performed
to
be
obstetrician
to
normal.
t he
in
If
baby,
remove
t he
may
not,
so
t he
breech
be
able
to
labour
forceps
baby
from
t he
womb.
Forceps
Forceps
t he
delivery
can
uter us
risk
t hat
be
if
used
t he
t he
to
turn
mot her’s
baby’s
head
t he
baby
around
contractions
may
be
are
damaged
or
help
rat her
ease
weak.
during
a
t he
baby
There
forceps
is
a
out
of
slight
deliver y.
p
Alternatively,
a
suction
device,
a
ventouse,
may
be
used.
This
is
Figure
B.7.6.4
Mother
with
newborn
attached
baby
to
t he
same
baby’s
time
as
Caesarean
This
is
a
a
is
is
to
t he
t he
doctor
or
midwife
gently
pulls
t he
baby
at
t he
contracts.
wall
healt h
labour
when
anaest hetic
from
t he
procedure
abdominal
risky
prolonged
This
and
mot her
section
surgical
mot her’s
and
head
t he
t he
will
abdominal
and
of
are
need
which
It
can
get
stay
in
baby
can
mot her
offered
to
t he
uter us.
t he
baby
caesareans
and
in
be
and
tired,
to
t he
is
‘born’
used
baby.
causing
hospital
when
If
mot her.
t hrough
t he
its
longer
labour
mot her
hear t
The
rate
mot her
until
a
she
cut
is
too
has
to
is
has
in
t he
long
had
drop.
given
an
recovered
surger y.
Induction
Induction
t he
is
amnion
injection
baby
of
may
an
–
ar ticial
so
t he
be
hormone
induced
bir t h
is
Birth
defects
process
releasing
overdue
by
if
t he
oxytocin
t he
more
t hat
triggers
amniotic
healt h
t han
a
to
of
week
uid
induce
t he
or
labour,
–
or
by
(star t)
mot her,
or
eit her
giving
t he
by
cutting
t he
mot her
contractions.
baby,
is
at
risk
or
an
A
if
t he
two.
Approximately 97% of all babies are born strong and healthy. Sometimes,
though, this is not the case. Birth defects may have genetic or
environmental
causes or, in some cases, both
Genetic
There
are
as
causes
are
many
of
genetic
of
a
means
its
cells.
roundish
life
t hat
it
People
face.
expectancy.
wit h
defects
causes
of
bir t h
defects.
Some
of
t he
more
common
follows.
Down’s syndrome
This
birth
Down’s
is when the baby has an extra copy of chromosome 21.
has
47
wit h
They
The
chromosomes,
Down’s
generally
older
syndrome.
a
have
couple,
The
instead
syndrome
have
learning
t he
mot her’s
more
age
is
of
t he
usual
46,
almond-shaped
difculties
likely
more
t hey
and
are
to
signicant
a
in
each
eyes
and
reduced
have
t han
a
child
t he
fat her’s.
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Reproduction
Birth
Sickle
at
cell
anaemia
carr ying
have
a
is
oxygen.
characteristic
signicantly
a
disease
Under
in
t he
shape
which
a
person’s
microscope
(see
genetic
t he
blood
person’s
variation).
Life
is
less
red
efcient
blood
cells
expectancy
is
of ten
reduced.
Cystic brosis is a disease in which the person’s lungs produce a very sticky
mucus (see table on genes). Life expectancy is signicantly reduced though
medical advances have been made in recent years in the treatment of cystic
brosis.
Social
The
and
environment
exposure
Figure
palate
birth
B.7.6.5
–
an
A
child
with
environmentally
a
cleft
caused
to
of
listed
below.
Spina
bida
in
its
t he
t he
is
severity:
a
condition
out
of)
some
t he
birth
about
to
defects.
cer tain
environmentally
in
which
par t
ver tebral
people
defects
bir t h
exposure
common
independent
effects
lip
child
of
af ter
a
wit h
of
spina
bida
possible
caused
t he
column.
Two
metals
bir t h
spinal
The
are
suc h
cord
as
causes
are
aluminium.
defects
are
protr udes
condition
paralysed;
varies
ot hers
greatly
lead
lives.
smoking
bir t h
a
be
and
mot her
born
facial
To
herself
a
t hese
unborn
successful
same
operation
to
child
is
needed
higher
much
likely
t he
in
and
to
effect
baby
more
risk
be
is
of
t he
on
t he
foetus.
to
have
tract
from
during
a
signicantly
is
a
split
in
shows
t he
eit her
parent
a
cot
baby
less
If
a
same
signicantly
infections
during
its
deat h.
pregnancy,
Such
This
B.7
.6.6
condition.
likely
dying
B.7
.6.5.
Figure
respirator y
alcohol
to
Figure
correct
serious
t he
in
(palate).
syndrome.
t he
woman
of
seen
has
her
baby
may
characteristic
intelligent
t han
would
case.
extra
limit
woman
will
folic
medication
child),
a
suffer
bot h
pregnant
are
to
alcohol
been
t hat
have
a
(supplements
unnecessar y
The
and
have
be
mout h
mot her,
too
foetal
ensure
possible,
as
drinks
features
help
can
have
can
t he
operation
t he
weight,
to
wit h
ot her wise
of
successful
reduced
life
palate
roof
especially
If
B.7.6.6
clef t
t he
smokes,
early
Figure
a
and/or
Cigarette
a
br ing
and
of
defect
The
p
can
more
(sticks
normal,
causes
radiation
Some
t hrough
p
physical
be
acid
and
ot her
eat
get
can
be
enough
as
healt hy
well
may
cigarettes,
dr ugs
intake,
to
are
vitamins
avoid
medical
alcohol
foetus
encouraged
and
amounts),
(some
her
and
be
as
look
af ter
recommended
illegal
dr ugs
dangerous
exercise,
for
get
and
an
enough
after
correct
the
rest
and
sleep,
and
go
to
antenatal
classes.
condition
Multiple
Unlike
a
most
time.
time.
births
animals,
Multiple
Most
However,
children
multiple
triplets
may
(identical)
be
and
Monozygotic
Here
of
into
a
just
one
one
egg
two
or
are
bir t hs
normally
when
are
sometimes
born
two
twins,
occur
toget her.
dizygotic
or
when
and,
Two
only
more
two
even
sor ts
give
of
bir t h
babies
are
babies
more
twins
to
one
born
are
rarely,
occur:
offspring
at
born
four,
t he
at
same
toget her.
ve
or
six
monozygotic
(non-identical).
twins
zygote
one
separate
placenta
identical
by
humans
bir t hs
balls
may
which
is
involved.
sperm.
is
of
each
why
Identical
However,
cells
have
t hey
for
before
t heir
are
twins
some
it
implants.
own.
known
result
reason,
The
identical
t he
fer tilisation
embr yop
two
Monoz ygotic
as
from
t he
twins
twins
are
divides
may
share
genetically
twins.
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Reproduction
Birth
a
b
p
Figure
B.7.6.7
shortly
afterwards
formed
when
Dizygotic
Here
her
two
The
are
Women
to
help
1980s)
two
t he
is
known
who
t he
extremely
as
as
same
twins
are
formed
into
two
ver y
t hese
only
bir t h
bot h
when
groups
In
one
of
egg
cells.
be
t he
as
is
b)
fertilised
and
Dizygotic
sor ts
one
twins
are
skills
may
be
a
two
eggs
not
t his
from
different
relationship
are
For
given
as
many
dozen
were
sometimes
two
by
born
at
reason
between
t he
dizygotic
twins.
produced
and
dr ugs,
babies
or
at
as
t he
a
ve
could
eventually
weighing
high
as
little
or
as
1–2
from
and
eggs
The
to
kg.
did
improved,
beneting
six
tended
t hat
treatment
(1970s
result.
born
babies
have
hormonal
treatment
embr yos
techniques
fer tility
or
who
sexes.
such
extremely
of
siblings
of
a
releases
each
genetic
days
t hat
Nowadays
The
different
early
half
babies
mot her
fer tilised,
placentas.
ovulating
t he
The
are
between
can
sometimes
ill.
Maths
as
difculty
was
to
involved.
and
non-identical
many
t hat
receiving
q
t he
are
separate
under weight,
sometimes
Multiple
have
women
mor tality
Multiple
twins
divides
fertilised
time
conceive.
was
give
are
zygotes
have
t hem
t his
infant
eggs
Dizygotic
Consequently,
wit h
embryo
same
twins
twins
time.
twins
the
twins
at
dizygotic
same
Monozygotic
separate
ovar y
sperm.
a)
at
be
As
a
sur vive
so
t hat
IVF
once.
trouble
result
were
women
(page
256),
time.
3
births
births
T
able
are
B.7.3.2
births
shows
Year
when
data
T
otal
on
two
or
multiple
more
births
babies
in
the
numbers
are
USA
T
win
birth
T
wins
Triplets
Quadruplets
born.
in
1995,
2001
Triplet
birth
and
2007.
Quadruplet
and
higher
Quintuplets
rate
or
rate
per
birth
rate
More
per
100 000
1 000
total
total
births
per
100 000
total
births
births
1995
96
736
4
551
365
57
24.8
116.7
10.8
2001
121
246
6
885
501
85
30.1
171.0
14.6
2007
138
961
5
967
369
91
32.2
138.2
10.7
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Reproduction
Birth
1
Calculate
and
2
the
What
b
Calculate
were
percentage
Describe
4
Suggest
5
What
extra
rates
given
and
natal
ups
Breast
in
var ying
correct
B.7.6.8
Beast
feeding
in
in
of
the
USA
multiple
multiple
for
the
shown
last
births
in
of
2001
births
in
between
changes
in
three
advice
will
twins
between
1995
were
the
twins?
USA
in
2007
that
the
you
table
1995
have
was
and
2007.
described
used
to
in
question
calculate
the
3.
birth
columns?
on
or
use
t he
of
mot her
initial
damage
how
impor tance
t he
to
include
uter us
mot hers
t hat
and
t he
has
It
milk
are
to
of
to
wean
on
checks
t he
her
keeping
how
to
vagina,
baby
t he
to
for
t hat
bot h
t here
knowledge
onto
baby
care
ensure
and
no
about
semi-solid
warm
herself
is
and
t hen
clean,
regular
breast
feeding.
sterilisers.
is
of
so
also
by
ar ticial
it
t he
milk
is
of
over
a
to
t he
are
any
t he
must
of
note
time
met.
correct
t he
child
is
t hat
bottles,
t he
is
can
t hat
t hat
occur
even
to
contract?
of
fed,
milk
protection
or
of
her
milk
carbohydrate,
balance
addition,
of
so
fat,
breast
advantage
degree
infection
be
impor tance
protein,
t hat
a
In
major
cer tain
unclean
made
diet
on
balance
Anot her
gives
use
exact
child
prevents
t he
advice
interesting
changes
needs
given
mot her’s
t he
temperature.
feeding
Figure
the
t he
t he
antibodies,
p
in
not
advice
vitamins.
breast
caused
data
gives
and
means
nutritious
and
number
feeding
Expectant
This
births
percentage
change
This
from
food,
check
the
care
care
vaccinations,
solid
of
explanations
baby.
bleeding
the
the
natal
t he
in
triplets.
3
Post
change
2007.
a
Post
percentage
t he
so
is
t he
sterile
breast
when
unclean
constituents
t hat
against
is
minerals
milk
and
is
rich
diseases.
bottle
water,
at
t he
in
Breast
feeding
when
t he
up.
Questions
1
What
hormone
2
What
is
3
State
three
4
State
two
possible
genetic
5
State
two
possible
environmental
6
Where
7
Can
8
What
the
is
causes
possible
the
the
uterus
Where
is
it
secreted?
afterbirth?
complications
umbilical
monozygotic
is
the
cord
twins
chance
of
a
be
causes
at
of
pair
on
different
of
end
birth
causes
attached
of
the
pregnancy.
defects.
of
the
sex?
dizygotic
of
birth
defects.
foetus?
Explain
twins
your
being
of
answer.
the
same
sex?
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Reproduction
B.7.7
Family
Family
planning
Learning
By
Importance
of
family
the
end
planning
is
making
decisions
about
t he
number
and
timing
in
a
family.
It
is
ver y
impor tant
for
a
number
of
be
●
It
is
less
expensive
to
explain
have
a
smaller
family.
●
parents
may
wish
to
pursue
a
More
time
can
be
devoted
to
each
child
if
t he
family
is
People
may
higher
r isk
not
of
want
c hildren
having
babies
later
wit h
There
may
not
be
any
suitable
importance
the
of
advantages
disadvantages
of
birth
in
life
bir t h
as
older
defects,
parents
e.g.
housing
available
for
have
Down’s
a
methods
explain
the
principles
a
methods
syndrome.
●
●
the
small.
●
●
you
career.
control
●
topic
to:
planning
explain
and
Bot h
this
reasons.
family
●
of
able
of
●
children
outcomes
planning
should
Family
planning
discuss
biological
of
of
the
different
birth
the
control
issues
related
to
family.
abortion.
●
Women
a
●
can
plan
can
take
t heir
careers
and
make
decisions
when
to
star t
family.
Women
education
Several
is
not
advantage
organisations
globally
is
t he
Organisations
Association,
provide
International
in
of
interr upted
t he
star ting
advice
on
Planned
Caribbean,
provide
education
by
family
as
t he
about
and
t heir
family.
planning.
Parentood
such
information
oppor tunities
a
The
Federation
Jamaica
Family
contraception
and
best
known
(IPPF).
Planning
ser vices
for
sterilisation.
Methods
of
birth
Contraception
means
control
p
t he
prevention
of
pregnancy.
Exactly
Figure
says
when
Must
pregnancy
soon
later
(see
as
star ts
is
a
fer tilisation
when
page
t he
matter
occurs.
developing
255).
Many
of
opinion.
Most
embr yo
embr yos
do
Some
people
implants,
not
people
t hink
it
into
implant,
t hink
star ts
or
t he
it
about
uter ine
once
star ts
a
B.7.7.1
‘If
Y
ou
This
Want
Control
The
Chinese
to
poster
Prosper,
Y
ou
Population’
as
week
lining
implanted
do
not
Key
terms
!
develop.
t his
No-one
early
knows
what
propor tion
of
embr yos
do
not
develop
from
Contraception
stage.
prevents
The
following
are
t he
various
met hods
of
and
Birth
Abstention
t he
each
dur ing
have
The
not
rhyt hm
in
by
her
t he
met hod
taking
days
from
couples
for
use
wit hdrawal
contains
wit hdrawal
a
(see
t his
far
t he
t hat
more
work
B.7.7.2).
day
for
t he
has
he
can
t he
man
ejaculates.
sperm
t han
contraception
has
opposite
get
t he
ended
the
that
fusion
of
sperm.
control
Prevention
not
–
per iod
changes
in
intercourse
or
to
contraception
or
of
birth
abortion.
it.
fer tile
avoid
reason
once
ve
is
t he
only
days
fer tilisation.
decide
t he
best
pregnant.
man
subsequent
is
have
to
wit hdrawing
As
her
noticing
couple
ovulation
will
completing
when
and
per iod
of
not
out
The
woman
t he
or
temperature
woman’s
met hod
so
of
body
estimated
before
met hod
intercourse
woman
Figure
af ter
met hod
vagina
sexual
her
t he
intercourse
woman’s
‘spur t’
having
cer vix
ve
elapsed
Some
time
is
mont h
mucus
method
methods
by
For
–
contraception.
egg
Natural
Any
conception
ver y
his
penis
ejaculates,
spur ts.
from
t he
This
is
t he
rst
why
t he
effective.
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Family
Reproduction
planning
uterus
36.8
C°/erutarepmeT
vagina
36.7
36.6
NOITALUVO
36.5
36.4
36.3
36.2
36.1
36.0
rectum
10
cap
for
folded
cap
insertion
over
fitted
cervix
period
safe
for
time/days
intercourse
p
Figure
B.7.7.4
Diaphragm
or
Figure
Barrier
Barrier
The
B.7.7.2
t hat
it
Graph
met hods
before
vagina
showing
(see
is
a
t hin
Figure
provides
condoms
prevent
can
in
B.7
.7
.3).
are
t hat
it
pills
women
A
that
take
container
makes
their
pill
for
sure
every
and
in
An
to
Figure
are
additional
against
t he
A
hormonal
to
this
The
implant
will
femidom
implant
into
the
is
diaphragm
to
advised
over
t hey
of
t he
transmitted
spontaneity
t he
do
of
man’s
not
enter
condom
diseases
love
t he
is
(STIs).
making
and
3
Diagrams
t he
to
show
female
how
condom
to
put
on
which
a
condom
women
can
inser t
into
The
pill
t he
to
(cap)
is
cer vix
use
a
a
dome-shaped
and
prevents
spermicidal
piece
sperm
cream
to
of
r ubber
from
kill
which
reaching
t he
sperm
t he
(see
covers
egg.
t he
Women
Figure
B.7
.7
.4).
methods
contains
t he
hormones
oestrogen
and
progestogen
(an
ar ticial
woman’s
of
progesterone)
and
is
of ten
known
as
t he
combined
pill.
Oestrogen
release
inhibits
hormones
so
vagina.
form
arm.
rolled
advantage
sexually
interr upts
is
sperm,
contact.
split.
B.7.7.3
Chemical
fitted
into
5
entrance
been
coming
temperature
day
The
B.7.7.6
intercourse
birth
t he
just
body
2
The
has
for
that
p
Figure
safe
woman’s
which
trap
4
p
a
eggs
covering
order
protection
1
B.7.7.5
changes
sperm
latex
intercourse
Disadvantages
control
of
methods
condom
penis
Figure
start
period
cap
p
p
after
menstrual
FSH
production
from
t he
pituitar y
gland
so
t hat
no
eggs
mature
blood
(see
Figure
B.7
.7
.5).
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Reproduction
The
pill
works
(progestogen-only
par tly
t he
man’s
egg
from
also
by
making
sperm
pill)
t he
cannot
contains
woman’s
get
progestogen,
mucus
t hrough.
It
also
in
t he
works
but
cer vix
by
no
oestrogen.
t hicker,
preventing
so
a
It
fer tilised
vagina
applicator
uterus
contraceptives
be
supplied
planning
t hat
implanting.
Hormone
can
Family
as
a
do
not
have
long-term
to
be
taken
implant
in
which
t he
form
releases
of
t he
pills.
They
hormone
spermicide
rectum
into
t he
blood.
Spermicide
before
is
a
cream,
intercourse
anot her
met hod,
(see
Figure
The
intra-uterine
uter us
from
in
jelly
order
e.g.
a
or
to
foam
kill
which
sperm.
diaphragm,
as
is
It
on
placed
should
its
own
into
be
it
is
t he
used
not
vagina
toget her
ver y
p
Figure
B.7.7.7
p
Figure
B.7.7.8
Applying
a
spermicide
wit h
reliable
B.7
.7
.7).
and
device
prevents
implanting
Surgical
(IUD
sperm
(see
coil)
passing
Figures
is
a
small
t hrough
B.7
.7
.8
and
piece
and
of
plastic
prevents
a
t hat
ts
fer tilised
in
t he
egg
B.7
.7
.9).
methods
For male sterilisation a vasectomy (male sterilisation) is a simple surgical
procedure in which the two sperm ducts are cut and tied (see Figure B.7
.7
.10).
For female sterilisation a surgical procedure takes place in which the two
A
midwife
shows
one
oviducts are cut and tied (see Figure B.7
.7
.1
1).
of
Written
Birth
control
Collect
methods
some
family
patients
an
intra-uterine
device
Activity
leaets
–
and
the
pros
other
and
cons
information
about
birth
control
methods
one
and
her
planning.
Y
our
local
family
planning
clinic
or
local
library
type
of
IUD
may
uterus
be
able
to
provide
information,
but
governmental
Federation
you
use
with
the
some.
websites
organisations,
Y
ou
of
such
can
also
ofcial
as
the
search
online
organisations
International
or
for
further
well-known
Planned
non-
Parenthood
(IPPF).
p
Make
a
table
to
compare
the
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
the
Figure
B.7.7.9
intra-uterine
methods
of
Emergency
action
as
t he
is
birth
control
described
contraception
taken
quickly.
emergency
intercourse.
The
unprotected
pill.
is
One
This
second
also
must
this
chapter.
available
option
option
intercourse,
in
be
is
is
have
from
a
doctor
morning-af ter
taken
to
preferably
t he
wit hin
an
IUD
t hree
or
a
days
tted
pharmacist
pill,
also
of
wit hin
An
example
of
an
different
position
in
inserted
by
device,
the
a
showing
uterus
once
it
its
has
been
doctor
if
known
unprotected
ve
days
of
sooner.
Abortion
Abor tion
is
a
ver y
controversial
topic
in
t he
Caribbean,
as
it
is
in
many
Key
ot her
t he
par ts
of
removal
t he
or
world.
An
expulsion
abor tion
from
t he
is
t he
uter us
termination
of
an
embr yo
of
or
a
pregnancy
foetus,
by
resulting
Abortion
in
or
caused
by
its
deat h.
An
abor tion
can
occur
spontaneously
due
during
pregnancy
or
can
be
The
destruction
of
an
to
embryo
complications
term
!
or
foetus.
induced.
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Family
Reproduction
planning
Spontaneous
sperm
cut
tube
and
tied
Abor tions
occur
miscarriage.
t he
embr yo
t he
foetus
tube
not
has
has
from
Induced
p
Figure
B.7.7.10
implanted
developed
page
293
normally.
being
form
of
properly
into
cases
t he
for
t he
There
chromosome
bot h
abor tion
reasons
normally.
on
In
This
possible
is
t his.
uterine
may
be
a
has
could
lining
severe
mutations)
body
known
It
and
as
be
a
t hat
so
t hat
genetic
t he
prevented
foetus
has
abnormal
born.
abortions
can
hormones
top
is
(see
several
Vasectomy
Abor tions
oviduct
are
not
not
developed
babies
testis
spontaneously.
There
abnormality
sperm
abortions
ends
end
of
or
be
induced.
This
can
be
done
eit her
medically
using
surgically.
Medical
cut
oviduct
and
blocked
Medical
taking
abor tion
t he
involves
abor tion
hormones
cause
pill).
t he
t he
This
removal
taking
has
of
to
t he
of
be
hormones
(sometimes
performed
pregnancy
via
early
t he
in
known
as
pregnancy.
vagina.
There
The
are
ovary
two
hormones
t hat
may
be
used.
vagina
Misoprostol causes contractions of the uter us like those that happen during
uterus
labour and birth. In fact, this hormone is also used to induce births. It
is often used together with mifepristone (also known as RU-486) which
rectum
inhibits or blocks the action of progesterone that is needed to maintain
pregnancy. RU-486 is also taken as an emergency contraceptive after
p
Figure
(tubal
B.7.7.11
Female
sterilisation
intercourse. Medical abortions are effective up to nine weeks into pregnancy.
ligation)
Surgical
Surgical
(in
t he
early
Suction
6 –12
dr ug
her
is
abor tion
is
a
stages)
of
wit h
inser ted
t hen
to
dilated
to
foetus
t he
abor tion
of
A
In
countries
be
there
terminated,
or
mother’s
a
is
and
a
it
mental
existing
a
and
for
is
to
a
a
the
life
as
a
the
is
into
to
out
so
of
there
result
of
abor tion
mother,
of
t he
rst
taken
woman
called
a
cer vix
a
uter us
and
lies
t he
on
speculum
to
which
her
is
cannula
to
10 –15
be
scraped
during
5
is
suction
minutes.
out
Af ter
out
rst
from
of
t he
t he
t he
weeks
dilated
uter us.
procedure
uter us.
12 –15
A
usually
lasts
hours.
is
the
t he
t hrough
This
than
a
t he
administered
lasts
The
the
is
The
suction
advanced).
is
enough,
foetus
agree.
more
pain
t he
inser ted
period
is
eit her
recover.
may
and
more
or
wide
suctioning.
likelihood
impairments
children
is
carried
doctors
damaged;
open
usually
hours
placenta
nal
of
procedure.
hold
by
during
reduce
anaest hetic
knife
is
instr ument
placenta
is
to
inser ted
induced
two
strong
an
to
recover y
legal,
performed
cer vix
few
pregnancy
pregnancy
t he
procedure
lining,
where
is
and
t he
dr ug
local
loop-shaped
greatly
there
and
t he
procedure
possible
risk
be
The
foetus
t he
where
would
device
A
used
When
inser ted
wit h
circumstances
physical
long,
scrapes
minutes,
health
t he
A
is
require,
abor tion
may
10
when
suction
t he
before
stir r ups
vagina.
placenta.
suction
t hat
cannula
t he
of
procedure
taken
in
(if
period.
instr ument
women
surgical
cer vix
a
and
gestation.
also
feet
removal
scraping
abor tion
(widened).
t he
Instead
is
her
an
by
t he
gestation
open
Then,
connected
of
t he
misoprostol
cer vix.
or
surgical
weeks
back
This
involves
allowed
in
cer tain
circumstances
female’s
if
the
child
large
mental
pregnancy
being
risk
continuing
include
to
the
born
the
or
physical
was
with
health
not
severe
of
the
pregnancy.
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Reproduction
As
stated
ver y
earlier,
strong
of ten
Family
use
abor tion
opinions.
when
favour
intention
to
made
are
When
●
to
help
Many
illegal
medical
abor tion,
t here
t here
have
control
Since,
have
always
over
t hem
and
make
is
is
like
to
more
by
consider
been
people
it
under
ver y
t he
who
is
points
following
injured
not
now
The
will)
t he
The
difcult
have
facilities
easier
deat hs.
always
do
any
not
have.
seriously
appropriate
(and
a
having
people
cer tainly
people
repor ted
t hem
it
not,
many
countries,
fewer
does
people
which
may
t he
abor tions
wit h
people
out
have
and
topic
t hose
t hat
many
some
been
been
for
are
book
view
might
not
in
This
of
carried
do
below
beliefs
what
and
abor tions
safely.
point
you
died
and
controversial
topic.
rm
discuss
have
training
abor tions
eit her
abor tion
women
ver y
t his
disregard
you
discussing
having
●
it
a
statements
discussing
circumstances,
for
is
The
to
to
it
is
topic.
points.
from
a
carr y
have
argument
so
planning
is
better
out
an
t hat
to
have
safe.
The rights of the baby must be weighed against those of the mother. The
mother may be physically and/or psychologically harmed. She, therefore,
has the right to decide whether, or not, to have the child. Because no
method of contraception is 100% effective, abortion will be necessar y.
●
The
bir t h
of
intolerable
a
child
burden
wit h
on
physical
parents
or
mental
leading
to
impairments
t he
child
(and
can
t he
place
an
parents)
suffering.
●
Unwanted children – with physical or mental impairments or not – may be
neglected or abandoned. Problems will be created for society to deal with.
●
In
cer tain
abor tion
does
not
Some
●
●
t he
Some
only
bir t h
event
people
destroy
by
t he
give
traumatic
●
circumstances,
is
an
to
in
have
people
women
t he
who
use
an
her
embr yo,
or
rape
and
cases,
some
humane
unwanted
child
people
solution,
who
will
will
so
say
t hat
remind
a
t hat
woman
her
of
a
life.
rm
belief
foetus,
hold
abor tion
met hods.
Most
view
as
abor tion
t hat
af ter
t hese
contraception
religions
e.g.
practical
life
t his
begins
time
is
at
conception.
considered
to
be
To
murder
beliefs.
a
met hod
as
of
morally
bir t h
control
rat her
t han
use
wrong.
Talk
about
?
●
Techniques,
to
be
such
detected
whilst
the
as
with
foetus
is
chorionic
the
in
villus
possibility
the
sampling
of
remedial
(CVS),
allow
measures
to
abnormalities
be
undertaken,
womb.
Ask
two
you
know
or
abortion
●
Fewer
t han
ten
per
cent
of
abor tions
are
carried
out
for
reasons
of
Some
people
argue
t hat
t he
majority
are
performed
to
have
reasons
and
state
t hat
t his
is
t he
easy
way
out.
More,
t hey
will
●
be
done
to
improve
t he
quality
of
life
of
t he
be
child.
on
obvious
present
People
wit h
the
mental,
lives.
Any
or
physical,
abor ted
impairments
foetus
will
not
can
have
of ten
t his
lead
Abor tions
are
a
healt h
risk
to
t he
female
and
may
happy
abortion
to
years
later
scars.
when
Sometimes
women
feel
t hese
guilt
do
about
not
lead
become
having
the
should
others.
not
own
Y
ou
about
be
may
human
and
to
physical
had
evident
an
as
contraception
we
have
done
and
on
the
and
until
many
their
few
pages
and
ask
for
responses.
abor tion.
Y
ou
●
the
your
oppor tunity.
previous
psychological
for
means
information
abortion
●
facilitator
which
reproduction,
creative
on
discussion.
argue,
views
should
a
who
views
for
discussion
social
people
different
foetal
Y
ou
impairment.
three
hold
There is no method of contraception that is 100% effective. This means that
should
question
decide
for
your
even though they took precautions to prevent becoming pregnant, women
as
may get pregnant when they are unable to support a child. Abortion is a
everywhere?’.
‘Should
on
a
suitable
discussion,
abortion
be
such
legalised
way to ensure that an unwanted child is not brought into the world.
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Family
Reproduction
planning
Questions
1
State
five
2
Which
3
Identify
method
the
planning
4
methods
Using
the
Give
6
Discuss
7
Which
control.
effective
effectiveness
terms
types
rhythm,
5
most
birth
of
a
at
a
preventing
condom,
b
sexually
an
IUD
transmitted
and
c
the
infections?
pill
as
family
methods.
following
a
is
of
b
three
‘barrier’,
of
reasons
of
the
conception
‘surgical’
and
‘natural’,
classify
the
contraception:
vasectomy,
whether
‘hormonal’,
for
c
the
combined
women
abortions
methods
of
should
birth
(fertilisation),
seeking
but
be
to
d
condom
have
freely
control
before
pill,
and
e
a
cap.
abortions.
available
in
your
(contraception)
country
listed
or
not.
operate(s)
after
implantation?
Summary
●
Sexual
In
reproduction
humans
There
into
in
is
no
two
many
Sperm
and
a
cells
small
surface
a
before
The
the
it
implants
number
These
after
two
●
The
the
from
eggs
are
eggs
the
ovary
menstrual
cycle
over
about
hormones
FSH
and
the
secretes
LH
maintains
does
the
not
During
the
gland
and
of
the
lining
vas
the
penis
then
seminal
the
of
23
for
one
fertilisation.
are
cells
away
parent
eggs.
divide
as
happens
and
adapted
a
for
energy.
pathway
number
At
the
to
the
of
developing
front
egg
is
cell
chromosomes
chromosomes.
the
swimming
the
The
embryo
reproductive
dividing
meiosis
potential
at
birth
in
by
the
After
that
to
the
only
become
usually
ovaries.
activated
to
of
in
pituitary
and
the
the
secrete
an
the
and
ovary
coordinated
ovulation,
receive
concentration
to
chromosomes
occur
are
ovary
luteum
ready
the
The
are
ovulation.
changes
secreted
are
in
life.
reduce
numbers,
eggs
and
of
to
differentiate
smaller
number
at
by
they
much
of
the
throughout
changes
eggs
corpus
state
the
gland.
by
FSH
secretion
pituitary
of
gland
progesterone
embryo.
progesterone
If
and
the
which
fertilisation
decreases
and
down.
sperm
deferens
into
the
break
are
haploid
Then,
in
ovaries
halve
ovulation.
a
breaks
of
by
nuclei.
These
are
at
uterus.
number
series
occurs
gametes
instead
provide
digests
numbers
in
only
cells
contains
oviduct
month.
stimulate
ejaculation,
along
the
that
in
to
body
is
to
the
provide
develop
present
the
a
that
tubules
the
large
into
LH
uterus
happen,
uterus
a
stimulates
to
the
in
Eggs
to
that
female
clone.
Sperm
also
the
huge
development
LH
cell
of
divide
is
uterus
oestrogen.
in
a
contains
seminiferous
The
from
stimulates
●
sperm
the
mitochondria
stores
lining
swimming.
potential
released
the
month,
puberty.
egg
of
there
forming
cells.
the
reproduction,
parts
(acrosome)
chromosomes
for
a
egg
and
nucleus
each
inside
of
than
energy
in
produce
develop
or
of
or
gametes
and
asexual
identical
(‘tail’)
The
of
sperm
reproduction,
enzymes
contains
specialised
one
of
in
bacteria,
smaller
nucleus
testes
cells
are
flagellum
membrane.
The
in
asexual
fusion
are
gametes
genetically
packet
cytoplasm
●
of
In
the
gametes
happens
are
have
(23).
fusion
as
involves
male
plants.
offspring
●
the
pass
into
the
vesicles
vagina
from
the
urethra,
are
during
epididymides
where
added
to
where
secretions
make
they
from
semen.
the
This
are
stored,
prostate
passes
out
intercourse.
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Reproduction
●
Sperm
Family
cells
womb,
into
occurs
just
sperm
will
surround
of
●
the
After
to
the
●
meet
oxygen,
The
placenta
its
of
an
artery
takes
●
The
and
amniotic
in
mechanical
There
the
are
breaks
the
and
●
Ante-natal
and
of
●
their
drinking
feeding.
mother
followed
alcohol.
care
and
care
their
on
is
baby
urea
–
of
at
by
more
is
are
given
to
nuclei
oviduct
The
e.g.
lining
of
nutrients
urea.
sufficient
a
continue
the
with
materials
large
surface
circulation
minerals
into
the
for
fetal
circulation.
cord
and
which
and
a
contains
vein
that
advised
and
or
temperature.
the
first
second,
head
the
stage
the
passes
uterus
mothers.
about
about
mother
the
the
shocks
body
During
In
of
suspends
any
to
amnion
through
deliver
the
stage.
advice
mothers
core
baby’s
expectant
and
mothers
at
labour.
the
third
warned
of
or
that
against
contractions
to
are
tissue
intervals.
and
the
given
health
that
The
Divisions
give
and
the
cells
down
maternal
placenta
foetus
process
intensify
Mothers
continue
the
irregular
pregnancy
the
the
fuse.
waste,
maternal
the
environment
birth
They
to
that
embryo
to
the
zygote.
with
umbilical
connective
its
this
is
the
the
the
a
of
ovulation
implantation.
other
and
the
as
travels
adapted
into
by
through
embryo
vitamins
blood
protects
the
and
neck
If
foetus.
keeps
of
health.
Checks
Post-natal
and
is
acids,
foetus
layer
This
afterbirth
about
and
the
contract
(prenatal)
information
aspects
is
the
organ
is
the
chance
embryo.
provide
dioxide
a
gametes
known
stage
which
circulation
amino
the
contractions
This
as
to
to
thin
stages
the
vagina.
placenta
a
fluid.
begins
This
is
embryo
developing
deoxygenated
blood
is
the
foetal
to
is
two
is
oviducts.
pathway
two-celled
This
which
the
there
the
egg
a
uterus.
carbon
dioxide
a
of
multicellular
vessels
growth.
glucose,
damage
three
uterus
its
between
brings
sac
the
into
cervix,
into
then
digest
fertilised
This
supply
attached
amniotic
sperm
blood
away
to
the
swim
membranes
divides
of
to
intercourse
the
cells.
carbon
is
that
and
and
oxygenated
foetus
●
take
oxygen,
placenta
so,
lining
through
continue
cell
many
grows
exchange
circulation,
The
and
If
zygote
of
the
metabolism
for
diffusion
●
into
vagina
after
,
the
join
ball
contains
and
area
egg.
the
hollow
embeds
the
They
just
and
gametes
uterus
for
or
an
egg
fertilisation,
a
from
uterus.
before,
the
two
form
and
swim
the
planning
the
about
and
their
are
the
are
diet,
dangers
foetus
of
Health
other
smoking
carried
support,
given
and
importance
are
babies.
given
They
their
of
breast
out.
checks
e.g.
with
on
breast
feeding.
●
Birth
control
includes
abortion,
●
There
●
refers
to
any
contraceptive
the
are
natural
removal
four
main
method
methods
of
an
such
prevent
the
prevent
fertilisation
embryo
methods
methods,
to
that
of
as
or
foetus
birth
of
following
a
baby.
This
(conception)
and
fertilisation.
contraception:
the
rhythm
method
and
the
cervical
mucus
method
●
barrier
and
●
●
An
the
added
Abortion
surgical
and
is
prevent
methods:
a
of
such
sperm
and
eggs
meeting,
e.g.
the
condom
sexually
of
hormonal
using
the
the
for
birth
or
and
is
using
that
foetus.
tubal
that
infections,
control
embryo
men
condom
transmitted
of
methods
contraceptive
pills
creams
vasectomy
of
method
removal
as
spermicide
advantage
transmission
●
methods,
implants
surgical
that
diaphragm
chemical
or
●
methods
it
such
involves
It
is
a
ligation
reduces
as
HIV
either
topic
for
the
and
women.
chances
gonorrhoea.
medical
that
of
or
engenders
much
disagreement.
●
Family
many
planning
children
gives
they
people
will
the
opportunity
to
decide
when
and
how
have.
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Practice
Reproduction
Questions
9
Practice
Which
is
t he
tubular
organ
between
t he
testes
and
t he
Questions
uret hra?
Section
1
A
vas
B
epididymis
Which
hormone
stimulates
t he
repair
of
t he
uter us
af ter
menstr uation?
A
Luteinising
B
Follicle
hormone
C
seminal
D
ureter
stimulating
hormone
A
human
Progesterone
D
Oestrogen
of
Which
A
3
statement
Ejaculation
B
Fusing
C
Embedding
D
Release
Where
of
t he
of
does
of
best
semen
sperm
of
an
describes
t he
into
wit h
t he
embr yo
ovum
into
fer tilisation
in
vagina.
ovum.
into
t he
a
fer tilisation?
t he
t he
uterine
oviduct
human
t he
vagina
B
oviduct
C
cer vix
D
uter us
Which
B
×25
C
×250
D
×2500
tube).
Section
1
occur?
Data
a
contraception
diameter
is
most
of
25
of
mm.
0.1
mm.
What
is
A
t he
drawing
of
an
magnification
B
on
t he
effective
if
age
of
cancers
analysed
to
Explain
The
of
a
drawing?
×2.5
is
met hod
has
diameter
A
table
cancer,
4
a
lining.
(fallopian
being
has
different
A
egg
(FSH)
egg
C
vesicle
(LH)
10
2
deferens
A
people
is
find
what
shows
cer vical
out
is
who
collected
who
meant
data
on
cancer
is
by
diagnosed
healt h
at
most
t he
t hree
and
are
by
risk
term
of
in
t he
cancer
This
cancer.
cancer
cancers
testicular
wit h
aut horities.
[3]
USA:
breast
collected
used
between
2007
and
201
1.
The
table
shows
correctly?
●
A
rhyt hm
t he
number
and
B
of
new
cases
each
year
of
breast
met hod
cer vical
cancers
in
women
and
of
testicular
condom
cancer
C
t he
D
diaphragm
in
men
pill
●
t he
percentages
of
new
cases
in
different
age
groups.
5
Which
is
a
barrier
met hod
of
contraception?
Percentage
A
Age
B
intra-uterine
C
spermicide
device
with
group/
Which
is
tuberculosis
B
malaria
D
7
disease
A
C
newly
type
of
diagnosed
cancer
Breast
Cervical
T
esticular
cancer
cancer
cancer
condom
<
6
people
each
(IUD)
years
D
of
vasectomy
a
sexually
transmitted
infection
(STI)?
20
0.0
0.1
6.6
1.8
13.8
48.9
35–44
9.3
24.9
23.8
45–54
22.0
24.3
13.5
55–64
25.5
17.6
5.1
65–74
21.3
10.7
1.3
75–84
14.4
5.9
0.6
20–34
syphilis
influenza
The
placenta
exchange
of
provides
a
substances
large
surface
between
area
for
maternal
t he
blood
>
and
foetal
blood.
Which
is
transferred
from
foetus
85
5.7
2.7
0.2
T
otal
100
100
100
to
mot her?
A
carbon
B
oxygen
number
dioxide
new
per
C
amino
D
antibodies
of
What
occurs
A
growt h
B
release
b
Which
at
(women
5.6
only)
(men
only)
of
of
an
an
embedding
age
of
t he
groups
are
cancers
most
shown
at
in
risk
t he
of
developing
table?
[3]
ovulation?
egg
in
a
Use
t he
egg
of
accumulation
from
an
of
data
in
t he
table
to
explain
how
information
follicle
and
D
7.8
only)
acids
c
C
(women
100 000
each
8
124.6
cases
an
embr yo
fluid
advice
on
cancers
should
be
targeted.
[3]
ovar y
in
inside
t he
a
Healt h
aut horities
babies.
One
encourage
women
to
breastfeed
t heir
uter us
of
t he
advantages
of
breastfeeding
is
t hat
it
follicle
lowers
t he
risks
d
State
e
Describe
to
two
lower
table.
of
cancers
ot her
ot her
deat h
in
women.
advantages
steps
rates
t hat
from
of
breastfeeding.
healt h
t he
aut horities
t hree
cancers
[2]
can
in
take
t he
[4]
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16:15
Reproduction
2
a
Practice
Describe
t he
b
t he
process
sperm.
Two
met hods
met hods
i)
of
fer tilisation
of
t he
ovum
4
by
The
[3]
and
●
of
contraception
surgical
Explain
t he
are
hormonal
●
met hods.
biological
●
basis
of
each
of
placenta
about
50
all
t he
contraceptive
t he
met hods.
advantages
t hese
disadvantages
two
Describe
met hods
t hree
of
effects
contraception.
t hat
cigarette
have
on
t he
State
Explain
why
it
is
ever y
t hree
development
of
a
in
foetus.
3
a
State
one
in
should
function
reproductive
i)
t he
impor tant
have
Name
t hat
t he
c
The
of
iv)
ii)
t hat
umbilical
sufficient
in
t he
composition
ar ter y
and
t he
of
t he
umbilical
[3]
Explain
how
t he
each
of
placenta
t he
to
features
function
listed
above
efficiently
for
t he
pregnant
calcium
of
t he
foetus.
[6]
and
Describe
t he
process
of
bir t h.
[6]
[2]
each
t he
t he
par t
of
t he
t he
epididymis,
scrotum.
endocrine
control
testes.
diet.
umbilical
male
system.
testis,
gland,
b
t heir
t he
[3]
c
iron
microvilli
t hrough
minute.
differences
t he
development
women
in
flows
[4]
enables
ii)
blood
smoke
b
may
capillaries
covered
of
vein.
i)
features:
[3]
and
blood
c
of
cells
foetal
following
t hese
a
Discuss
t he
km
epit helial
ar ter y
ii)
has
Questions
gland
activity
of
t hat
t he
iii)
t he
prostate
[4]
secretes
ovaries
hormones
and
t he
[1]
diagram
shows
a
foetus
wit hin
t he
uter us.
foetus
umbilical
cord
B
placenta
mucus
plug
in
cervix
i)
ii)
d
Name
A
and
Describe
Explain
t he
pregnant
t he
B.
[2]
role
impor tance
women.
of
of
B.
[3]
antenatal
care
for
[5]
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16:15
Unit
C
Heredity
and
variation
C.1
Learning
By
the
end
outcomes
of
this
topic
C.1
Chromosomes
be
able
genes
define
the
terms
DNA
is
t he
is
passing
all
t he
of
features
differences
from
t hat
one
t here
generation
are
wit hin
to
t he
next.
individual
species
and
chromosomes
between
●
chromosomes
genes
Variation
and
and
to:
Heredity
●
genes
you
DNA,
should
and
explain
the
species.
Humans
differ
from
one
anot her
because
of
t he
difference
genes
between
different
diploid
and
t hey
inherit
and
t he
environment
t hat
t hey
live
in.
haploid
Cells
behave
t he
way
t hey
do
because
of
t he
enzymes
t hey
contain.
These
cells
enzymes
●
describe
how
determine
sex
define
term
instr uctions
specic
the
of
proteins.
Each
protein
in
a
cell
is
made
according
in
a
sequence.
gene
codes
Genes
are
for
assembling
made
of
DNA
amino
and
each
acids
gene
toget her
is
a
small
in
a
section
genotype
of
and
made
chromosomes
to
●
are
t he
DNA
in
a
chromosome.
Figure
C.1.3
shows
a
pair
of
chromosomes
phenotype
from
a
shows
23
human
all
pairs
t he
of
cell.
Chromosomes
chromosomes
chromosomes
from
in
each
are
one
found
wit hin
nucleus:
it
nuclei;
shows
Figure
t hat
we
C.1.2
have
nucleus.
haemoglobin
insulin
a
p
Figure
chromosomes
showing
that
Figure
C.1.1
worker
is
from
of
This
cultivating
amniotic
fluid
chromosomal
(number
laboratory
of
cells
for
p
Figure
22
taken
C.1.2
pairs
of
females
screening
in
abnormalities
total
human
karyotype.
chromosomes.
have
in
The
XX.
each
That
Males
makes
46
There
have
XY
of
are
a
and
occur
in
by
plasma
(see
genes
pairs.
haemoglobin,
human
chromosomes
cell
characteristics
controlled
that
protein
Homologous
(partner)
are
p
C.1.3
plasma
protein
Genes
insulin
are
on
chromosome
11
Figure
and
C.1.2)
chromosomes)
Diploid
Diploid
–
and
a
cell
chromosomes
Haploid
–
(written
as
The
23
a
genetic
t hey
Human
t hey
in
which
(written
cell
in
cells
t he
as
which
nucleus
contains
two
complete
sets
of
2n).
t he
nucleus
contains
one
set
of
chromosomes
n).
different
t hat
haploid
information
contain
egg
needed
chromosomes.
cells
contain
two
and
one
copies
sperm
copy
of
to
Human
of
body
each
cells
each
control
of
a
human
cells
t hese
(gametes)
body
diploid.
is
haploid.
totalling
carried
This
chromosomes,
are
chromosome,
are
This
in
means
totalling
means
46.
t hat
23.
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16:17
Heredity
and
variation
Homologous
str uctural
Chromosomes
chromosomes
features.
They
are
also
a
pair
have
of
t he
chromosomes
same
wit h
similar
cell
and
surface
genes
centromere
membrane
genes.
nuclear
To
understand
t his,
imagine
what
happens
during
sexual
reproduction
membrane
(Figure
C.1.5):
human
one
egg
cell,
chromosomes,
containing
fuses
wit h
a
one
sperm
copy
cell
of
t hat
each
also
of
t he
23
contains
(envelope)
one
chromosome
copy
of
each
has
two
t he
sperm
of
copies
t he
of
23
human
each
chromosomes.
chromosome,
one
The
from
fer tilised
t he
egg
cell
egg
and
cell
now
one
from
cell.
Diploid
Father
Mother
p
Parents
2n
2n
Haploid
cell
cell
Father
Mother
46
Figure
C.1.4
Diploid
and
haploid
cells
46
Meiosis
Meiosis
or
Types
of
n
n
23
23
gametes
Offspring
2n
46
(children)
p
Figure
During
C.1.5
development,
containing
obtains
egg
an
cell.
have
Diploid
Sex
Sex
millions
exact
Thus,
two
Figure
Maintenance
all
copies
is
t he
of
t his
of
copy
of
of
number
fer tilised
cells.
t he
body
each
represented
diploid
During
egg
cell
each
chromosomes
cells
in
a
divides
cell
present
human
to
form
division,
are
in
a
each
t he
foetus
of
t hese
original
genetically
cells
fer tilised
identical
and
chromosome.
as
2n
and
haploid
is
represented
as
n,
as
shown
in
C.1.5.
determination
determination
different
is
t he
chromosomes
determination
in
males
and
of
a
person’s
sex
based
on
t he
father
mother
females.
×
XY
Except
for
human
gametes
cells
and
red
blood
cells
(which
lack
a
nucleus),
XX
all
contain:
+
●
●
22
1
pairs
pair
of
of
chromosomes,
sex
which
are
known
as
X
gametes
autosomes
Y
X
chromosomes.
female
Female
humans
have
22
pairs
of
autosomes
and
two
X
gametes
chromosomes.
X
Male
humans
smaller
Y
have
22
pairs
of
autosomes,
one
X
chromosome
and
a
chromosome.
X
XX
Y
XY
We must use symbols to show whole chromosomes. We do not need
male
gametes
to show the autosomes, only the sex chromosomes are important.
Consequently, we represent a female as XX and a male as XY. Note
that males are the exception to the rule that homologous “partner”
chromosomes are identical (see Figure C.1.6).
children
XX
Ratio
Figure
males
C.1.6
born.
knows
why
shows
In
fact
t his
is
t hat
t here
t here
t he
are
case.
should
more
be
boys
equal
t han
numbers
girls
but
of
no
females
one
50%
XY
female
:
50
male
and
really
p
Figure
C.1.6
How
the
sex
of
an
embryo
is
determined
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Heredity
Mitosis
The
q
X
and
T
able
Y
chromosomes
C.1.1
Comparison
of
are
X
and
Feature
X
Length
Long
Genes
for
determining
compared
Y
in
Table
chromosomes
Y
chromosome
Short
not
contain
these
genes
Possesses
maleness
testes
sex
Genes
for
controlling
other
Possesses
characters
variation
C.1.1.
chromosome
Does
and
genes
to
hormones
Possess
many
controlling
control
other
genes
that
develop
a
to
few
and
be
produced
genes
features
cause
male
that
other
than
sex
characteristics
p
Figure
C.1.7
The
chromosomes
X
seen
and
Phenotype
and
genotype
The
physical
ot her
features
The
human
such
as
hair.
It
or
phenotype
facial
features,
×
20
an
organism
all
t he
height,
shape
of
are
known
characteristics
ears,
skin
as
t hat
colour
its
phenotype.
we
and
can
see,
colour
of
Y
under
an
also
includes
all
t he
internal
features
of
anatomy,
physiology
and
electron
biochemistr y
microscope
of
includes
t hat
we
cannot
see.
An
example
of
one
of
t hese
aspects
of
000
your
The
phenotype
phenotype
environment
for
all
t he
forms,
more
a,
so
or
is
in
genes
your
t hat
of
are
we
we
one
characteristics.
about
blood
inuenced
which
alleles,
genotypes
more
is
The
a
in
t he
The
It
is
small
alleles
usually
genotypes
by
live.
have.
or
group.
more
t hat
in
we
inherit
genotype
usual
number
are
given
genes
term
of
to
use
genes
represented
symbols
is
by
rat her
and
used
it
to
t hat
in
t he
a
wide
describe
control
symbols,
t han
t he
one
such
words.
sense
as
or
A
There
and
is
C.5.
Questions
1
What
are
2
What
is
chromosomes?
a
the
diploid,
and
b
the
haploid
number
in
the
cells
in
FigureC.1.4.
3
State
a
human
4
State
the
5
Describe
6
Explain
Learning
By
the
end
outcomes
of
this
topic
C.2
be
able
describe
explain
the
mitosis
a
a
your
is
between
determined
in
the
chromosome.
two
human
humans.
Y
ou
sex
chromosomes.
should
use
a
diagram
to
answer.
division
cell
full
can
set
divide
of
into
two,
chromosomes.
t he
nucleus
Wit hout
must
any
divide
so
chromosomes
t hat
a
each
cell
will
cell
give
any
importance
in
sur vive
reproduction
of
cells.
long
Also
and
any
cer tainly
cell
t hat
will
does
not
not
be
able
gain
a
to
full
divide
set
of
to
46
chromosomes
and
does
replacement
for
growth,
daughter
asexual
sex
“partner”
mitosis
not
of
differences
for
chromosomes.
you
gains
●
term
no
to:
Before
●
the
has
Mitosis
Nuclear
should
that
biological
how
illustrate
cell
not
sur vive
eit her.
Cell
division
occurs
when
t he
nucleus
divides
by
cells.
one
●
●
of
two
processes:
mitosis
meiosis.
280
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Heredity
Mitosis
and
is
variation
t he
type
chromosomes.
daughter
involves
t hat
cells
t he
each
identical
of
nuclear
t he
have
parent
diploid
movement
new
to
If
Mitosis
cell
t he
has
of
a
has
nuclei.
t he
full
original
division
cell
a
t hat
maintains
diploid
Mitosis
is
a
chromosomes.
number
(parent)
of
t he
number,
division
The
number
t hen
of
t he
t he
and
is
✔
nucleus
movements
chromosomes
of
two
make
Study
tip
and
sure
genetically
Before
in
the
mitosis
can
start,
chromosomes
that
each
two
molecules
is
chromosome
the
DNA
copied
so
consists
of
cell.
enough
DNA
of
for
DNA.
the
This
two
gives
new
cells.
Mitosis
Mitosis
is
a
produced
present
occurs
by
in
in
growt h
type
cell
mitosis
t he
t he
is
of
contain
parent
body
division
cell
cells,
a
t hat
copy
(Figure
produces
of
ever y
C.2.3).
par ticularly
cells.
chromosome
This
when
identical
type
cells
of
are
cell
to
was
division
replaced
or
follicles
growth
–
t hat
cells
when
occurring.
hair
airways
The
replace
of
–
for
hair
ciliated
epithelium
Malpighian
skin
cells
alimentary
replace
canal
–
–
to
in
the
–
to
produce
follicle
uterus
cells
In
the
one
and
It
is
We
cell
t here
stage
of
is
in
a
no
You
compare
it
t he
C.2.4
to
all
Figure
you
draw
four
of
t he
shows
see
to
over
the
body
t hat
what
stem
t hem
as
after
menstruation
ends
of
dividing
by
white
produce
repair
–
to
cells
to
all!
46
cells
of
a
can
happen
t his
divides
for
you
the
the
lining
long
growth
mitosis
in
to
So
into
function
see
a
in
cell
all
because
to
replace
instead,
it
While
body,
46
the
C.2.2.
divides
chromosomes
have
t he
cells.
the
Figure
when
t he
we
two
in
by
in
a
chromosomes
diagrams
of
each
chromosomes.
chromosomes
stages
cell
happens
like
t he
some
t he
a
specialised
divide,
diagram
to
see
all
when
changes
show
show
to
cells
become
ability
place
can
to
simple
easier
Figure
occurs.
shows
stem
to
–
and
and die
happens
the
cannot
mitosis
much
cells.
are
out
mitosis
retains
C.2.3
mitosis.
human
worn
differentiates
cell
Figure
There
get
body,
cell
other
C.2.1
that
–
red
cells
bones
cells
epidermis
marrow
blood
Figure
the
epithelium
replace
p
in
dead
to
bone
ovary
layer
replace
from
in
plant
t he
mitosis
tip
in
cells
of
t his
a
t han
root
it
is
where
photograph
in
animal
growt h
if
you
C.2.3.
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Heredity
Mitosis
2n
=
4
in
this
Non-dividing
and
cell
cell
chromosomes
a
invisible;
cell
variation
builds
up
an
line
stem
supply
and
the
mitochondria,
of
energy
organelles,
cells
e.g.
mitosis
replicate
nucleolus
Early
Stage
1
chromosomes
mitosis
developing
appear
due
to
coiling,
which
nuclear
makes
them
replicate
fatter,
and
envelope
red
blood
cells
centrioles
move
to
opposite
centromere
poles
centrioles
Late
Stage
1
mitosis
chromosomes
chromatid
become
shorter
chromatids
spindle
now
centrioles
visible
apparatus
has
at
a
pole
now
mature
developed
blood
Stage
2
chromosomes
arrange
themselves
on
cells
equator
the
equator
p
nuclear
envelope
Figure
One
other
retains
The
3
the
move
to
chromatids
the
the
poles
spindle
by
C.2.5
cells
reach
the
can
see
cell
–
poles
have
●
are
ability
shows
a
to
be
a
stem
human
st ained
wit h
t hrough
how
extensive
are
st ained
form
two
specialised
daughter
while
the
a
cell
cell
a
dividing
uorescent
laser
by
mitosis.
st ain
microscope.
and
Here
t hen
you
t he
spindle
g reen.
The
bres
are
wit hin
c hromosomes
t he
are
red.
is
impor tant
t he
diploid
genetically
cells
and
occurs
Growt h
such
diploid
to
as
it
makes
number
of
sure
t hat
all
t he
cells:
chromosomes
chromatids
●
envelope
the
were
t hey
Mitosis
Two
mitosis
becomes
fibre
●
The
by
and
contraction
Mitosis
4
divide
fibres
st ained
Stage
cells
differentiates
photog raphed
spindle
of
Stem
cell
disappears
Figure
Stage
C.2.2
cells.
as
identical.
during
happens
t he
end
growt h,
all
of
over
bones
repair
t he
and
body,
where
it
replacement.
but
is
t here
are
places
concentrated.
nuclear
nucleolus
●
When
wounds
heal,
new
cells
are
produced
by
mitosis
reappear
to
spindle
fibres
disappear
the
starts
to
●
cell
across
the
replace
Skin
cells
t hose
are
the
divides,
divides
off
damaged.
stem
cells
in
t he
t he
surface
Malpighian
divide
by
mitosis
layer
of
to
at
t he
form
t he
body;
base
of
t he
replacement
cells
nucleus
the
to
Figure
Red
blood
B.5.5.1
on
page
194).
two
●
daughter
(see
cytoplasm
form
genetically
cells
live
for
about
6
weeks
and
are
t hen
identical
cells
chromosomes
and
the
destroyed
Figure
in
t he
liver.
Stem
cells
in
t he
bone
marrow
uncoil
divide
p
r ubbed
were
divide
equator
epidermis
After
t hat
C.2.3
The
stages
of
mitosis
●
The
by
mitosis
lining
of
t he
menstr uation;
repair
lining
t he
produce
uter us
t he
lining
grows
to
stem
and
is
new
shed
cells
replace
in
red
ever y
t he
t hese
blood
cells.
mont h
uter us
cells
at
divide
when
to
t he
again.
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Heredity
and
Identical
by
twins
mitosis
Figure
variation
to
possible
on
twins.
to
formed
form
B.7
.6.7
identical
are
do
Mitosis
a
group
page
They
t his
from
of
267).
are
t he
cells
These
clones
process
same
t hat
grow
as
into
inside
t hey
ar ticially
fer tilised
splits
are
to
egg.
two
t he
uter us
genetically
produce
This
divides
groups
to
(see
identical.
clones
of
✔
Study
tip
become
It
animals
The
is
such
as
important
from
Figure
chromosome
cattle,
sheep
and
goats.
It
is
illegal
to
do
t his
wit h
reproduction
genetically
identical
by
Asexual
mitosis.
common
they
do
in
not
plants
use
involves
to
fungi.
mitosis
as
production
parent.
reproduction
and
Practical
Modelling
their
the
does
Note
they
This
do
is
not
that
not
of
individuals
because
happen
bacteria
have
is
has
to
take
that
two
each
identical
humans.
chromatids.
Asexual
point
C.2.3
the
in
cells
most
or
are
are
in
produced
animals,
reproduce
nuclei
that
but
asexually,
chromosomes
is
ours.
3
daughter
These
so
that
cells
information
Imagine
but
like
stage
in
this
separate
each
has
that
all
of
the
chromosome.
happening
chromosomes
in
the
genetic
your
for
all
stem
46
cells.
Activity
chromosomes
Requirements
●
A
suitable
of
coloured
●
A
material
knitting
circle
circle
wool
make
80
models
mm
in
of
chromosomes,
length
or
e.g.
pipecleaners
short
for
lengths
modelling
or
wire.
drawn
is
to
about
as
on
big
a
as
large
piece
possible.
It
of
paper,
e.g.
represents
the
A3
size.
Make
sure
this
cell.
p
Y
ou
need
at
least
eight
lengths
of
knitting
wool
or
eight
Figure
the
preferably
four
of
one
colour
(e.g.
blue)
and
four
of
C.2.4
another
colour
root
tip
The
instructions
will
assume
you
have
pipecleaners.
Y
ou
could
1
T
ake
two
of
the
red
on
2
the
Now
them
paper.
fix
a
appear
at
at
random
T
ake
second
a
and
the
in
of
two
start
the
or
to
model
blue
of
of
of
“double-stranded”
chromosomes
stage
1
sure
of
mitosis.
double-stranded
chromosomes.
Move
in
Make
your
stage
2
sequence
The
blue
two
mitosis
across
to
(see
your
the
are
the
Figure
of
a
as
centre
of
the
Y
ou
of
how
how
have
they
At
the
beginning
of
See
in
the
later
so
as
at
they
arrange
to
break
each
so
pulled
5
chromosome
apart
Complete
to
your
3
the
now
chromosomes
each
6
The
opposite
as
they
identify
the
part
you
this
of
have
red
stage.
appear
them
in
any
two
chromatids
in
each
chromosome
Figure
by
you
will
have
to
separate
the
two
arrange
poles
of
of
mitosis
appear
in
them
the
by
so
they
look
as
if
they
C.2.5
mitosis.
A
The
fluorescent
human
cell
cell
has
dividing
been
markers
so
stained
that
you
stands
are
see
chromosomes
in
red
and
the
being
spindle
fibres
in
green.
are
structures
The
blue
dots
cell.
arranging
stage
4
and
the
cell
full
of
catalase
“single-stranded”
then
draw
a
nucleus
around
group.
cell
now
stranded”
then
and
model
can
to
can
of
you
“cell”.
stage
apart,
if
stages
appear.
with
begin
from
C.2.3).
p
4
cells
drawn
double-stranded
“cell”
of
undergoing
the
chromosomes
identical
onion
sketches.
Figure
you
chromatids
can
is
(see
appear
are
two
as
This
that
model
they
and
known
pencil
mitosis
sketch
colours
C.2.3).
make
“cell”
your
chromosomes
strands
chromosomes
of
that
1
your
make
each
or
pipecleaners.
stage
centre
photograph
pipecleaner
your
make
two
3
stages
pipecleaners
chromosomes
Position
different
an
take
different
photographs
of
(e.g.
mitosis.
red).
Photograph
pipecleaners,
the
divides
into
chromosomes.
DNA
in
these
“double-stranded”
two
If
daughter
the
cells
daughter
chromosomes
chromosomes
is
each
cells
are
replicated
with
four
going
to
(copied)
“single-
divide
to
again
make
again.
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Heredity
Meiosis
Improve
your
model
chromosomes
each
Do
stage
not
and
forget
making
use
to
some
to
apart.
show
Y
ou
them
make
a
the
can
to
centrioles
make
make
record
of
a
a
and
model
to
the
spindle
show
how
and
bres
the
variation
that
cell
pull
the
appears
at
poster.
your
model
by
taking
photographs
or
drawings.
Questions
1
Mitosis
occurs
happening
p
Figure
make
C.2.6
good
Modelling
material
for
pipecleaners
showing
2
Explain
why.
Mitosis
is
of
A
it
Learning
end
be
outcomes
of
this
able
topic
you
C.3
●
describe
explain
the
of
sperm
female
cells
in
gametes
replacement
of
cells
the
in
in
testes,
the
the
girl
in
body
but
it
Figure
and
the
is
not
C.2.1.
Name
four
places
in
the
body
where
this
occurs
and
repair
explain
meiosis
the
meiosis
necessary.
cell
divides
happened
to
to
the
form
DNA
two
in
new
the
diploid
original
cells.
cell
Suggest
before
it
can
what
start
must
mitosis.
Meiosis
Meiosis
cells
produced
chromosomes
in
meiosis
present
in
t he
contain
parent
only
cell
one
(see
copy
Figures
of
each
C.1.4
pair
and
of
C.3.1).
importance
The
of
in
of
to:
The
●
is
diploid
have
the
formation
mitosis
3
should
the
formation
involved
tissues.
why
By
in
the
the
of
stages
in
in
reason
why
we
need
to
have
meiosis
is
clear
from
Figure
C.3.1.
sexual
reproduction.
cell
46
in
cell
46
ovary
in
testis
meiosis
23
23
egg
23
sperm
23
fertilisation
46
✔
Study
tip
p
Figure
C.3.1
number
Meiosis
is
important
reproduction
as
chromosome
it
in
The
one
role
of
meiosis
generation
to
in
the
maintaining
next
in
the
sexual
chromosome
reproduction
sexual
halves
number
from
zygote
Meiosis
the
and
it
causes
parent
actually
involves
two
divisions
of
t he
nucleus
and
cytoplasm
of
t he
cell:
variation.
●
rst
division
(meiosis
chromosomes
●
second
division
chromosome
Random
Apar t
of
–
separates
(meiosis
II)
t he
members
of
each
pair
of
chromosomes)
–
separates
t he
two
copies
of
each
individual
(chromatids).
assortment
from
feature
I)
(homologous
t he
halving
meiosis
chromosomes
is
from
in
t hat
one
number
it
of
chromosomes,
introduces
generation
to
variation.
t he
next
t he
ot her
Effectively
when
it
impor tant
“shufes”
organisms
t he
reproduce
sexually.
Inside
all
inherited
t he
cells
from
of
your
your
body
fat her
and
t here
are
copies
of
copies
of
t he
chromosomes
chromosomes
you
you
inherited
from
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Heredity
and
variation
Meiosis
Meiosis
the
diploid
cell
is
(2n)
number
of
is
two
divisions.
Division
1
separates
partner
Division
2
separates
chromatids
chromosomes
Early
this
Stage
1:
chromosomes
4
Start
Non-dividing
of
Division
appear
1
cell:
chromosomes
invisible;
nucleolus
cell
builds
supply
e.g.
up
and
an
the
energy
organelles,
mitochondria,
replicate
Mid
Stage
centrioles
move
Late
Stage
to
partner
chromatids
their
chromosomes
the
pair
with
and
poles
has
where
exchange
opposite
1:
crossing-over
occurred
1:
replicate
break
up
and
genetic
chromatids
material
become
visible
partners
Chiasma:
crossing
position
over
where
spindle
occurs
apparatus
is
now
visible
Stage
the
2:
partner
align
Stage
chromosomes
themselves
on
equator
nuclear
envelope
Two
and
opposite
poles
move
by
to
contraction
and
spindle
fibres
disappear
haploid
cells
Stage
Start
chromosomes
themselves
the
chromosomes
separate
of
nucleolus
3:
partner
the
of
Division
4:
the
cell
the
equator
now
divides
across
2
align
chromosomes
along
move
equator
to
opposite
contraction
of
the
poles
by
spindle
fibres
the
cells
along
divide
the
equator
parental
combination
These
will
p
Figure
C.3.2
be
cells
are
the
produced.
parental
recombinants
gametes
Note
also,
and
that
are
haploid.
variation
On
has
fertilisation
occurred
due
the
to
diploid
crossing
combination
state
over.
Meiosis
285
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16:17
Heredity
Meiosis
your
✔
Study
ever
tip
mot her.
since
When
Look
at
the
human
karyotype
They
t hey
meiosis
C.1.2
on
page
278.
occurs
that
the
in
pairs
maternal
paternal
in
in
–
gamete
at
for
many
generations
of
cells
fer tilisation.
are
shufed
so
formation,
t hat
each
t hese
gamete
paternal
has
a
and
mixture.
maternal
So,
may
have
M1,
P2,
M3,
M4,
M5,
P6,
etc.
where
M
=
e.g,
a
maternal,
chromosomes
P
are
in
unchanged
toget her
This
gamete
shows
remained
came
variation
in
chromosomes
Figure
have
rst
and
one
origin
origin.
of
each
and
the
pair
=
paternal
and
t he
number
represents
t he
number
given
to
t he
is
other
is
chromosome.
(X
and
an
X
Y)
and
in
or
meiosis
a
pairs
division.
maternal
and
haploid
Figure
in
cell
C.3.3
A
An
and
par ts
called
Unit
up
randomly
effect
of
cells.
to
Some
t he
sex
gametes
is
on
t he
t hat
as
equator
t he
you
of
gametes
chromosomes
receive
can
see
t he
cell
in
Figure
haploid
as
at
B.
you
the
arrangement
Their
can
random
see
in
of
the
two
arrangement
the
haploid
cells
pairs
gives
after
of
cell
receive
cell
of
event
DNA
over
Figure
t hat
can
between
and
C.3.4
is
shows
The
of
diagram
meiosis
paternal
maternal
chromosome
chromosome
C.3.4
Crossing
occur
in
during
par tner
an
chromosomes.
Figure
t his
chromosomes
homologous
p
sperm
happens
A
Look
in
crossing
C.4).
what
eit her
a
the
rst
of
B
cells
different
two
t he
C.3.3.
homologous
two
in
mixture
chromosomes
combinations
divisions
of
of
meiosis
over
impor tant
small
is
cells
chromosomes
Crossing
produce
line
The
paternal
cell
p
to
example
Y.
Chromosome
meiotic
Anot her
impor tant
t he
Figure
meiosis
(homologous)
result
C.3.7
source
of
t his
does
of
is
t he
genetic
process
not
exchanging
chromosomes.
show
in
variation
a
any
single
of
This
pair
crossing
is
(see
of
over.
over
286
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Heredity
and
variation
Meiosis
Practical
Modelling
activity
chromosomes
Requirements
●
A
suitable
of
coloured
●
A
material
knitting
circle
circle
Label
wool
as
your
Do
not
make
1
a
piece
forget
T
ake
the
of
of
to
Now
(see
of
fix
wool
sticky
tape
pipe
you
a
appear
they
second
of
the
so
your
paper,
pipe
e.g.
of
e.g.
cleaners
short
for
lengths
modelling
or
A3
size.
Make
sure
this
cell.
indicate
which
chromosomes.
each
the
the
to
paternal
the
there
“M”
in
are
Y
ou
the
can
maternal
do
this
by
chromatid.
different
have
red
stages
of
your
model
or
but
2
them
paper.
at
cleaners.
1
of
the
random
T
ake
divide
to
each
of
a
meiosis.
your
as
This
first
in
the
is
how
division
centre
photograph
model
they
Make
double-stranded
so
that
we
the
in
of
your
they
will
so
they
division
which
you
or
of
of
your
make
chromosomes
appear
sure
blue
that
in
the
a
the
to
middle
colours
chromosomes
the
together.
that
are
of
can
towards
towards
the
pair
assume
that
first
facing
facing
movement
and
of
pairs
of
chromosomes
the
pipe
stage
of
are
and
two
chromosomes.
ways
“M”chromosomes
the
of
chromosomes
two
occurs,
two
on
blue
start
Position
division
stage
are
two
the
cleaner
chromosome
as
and
at
drawn
chromosomes
over.
division
or
appear.
pipe
first
you
crossing
Model
of
around
C.3.2).
have
how
over
both
chromosomes,
cleaners
the
cleaners
Figure
crossing
that
of
length
represents
photographs
1
Move
It
pipe
stage
Move
in
piece
are
“double-stranded”
equator
5
or
which
double-stranded
4
large
make
identical
3
a
take
red
that
sketch
models
mm
sketches.
two
“cell”
80
possible.
chromosomes
meiosis
2
as
and
piece
pencil
on
big
chromosomes
putting
make
wire.
drawn
is
to
about
a
the
same
at
this
along
Y
ou
the
pole
or
is
that
no
the
should
pairs
stage
there
–
find
with
with
“P”
and
pole.
apart
into
is
division
line
meiosis.
same
cell
in
It
this
arrange
chromosomes
imaginary
in
two.
as
in
What
stage
has
3
of
the
happened
first
to
p
the
number
of
Figure
C.3.5
Models
chromosomes
6
Model
the
movement
of
the
chromosomes
as
happens
in
the
the
of
way
the
modelling
Why
is
it
division
Y
ou
can
your
by
meiosis
in
that
Unit
the
in
Figure
behave?
C.2
(page
If
C.3.2.
you
What
are
not
do
you
sure
notice
look
late
two
stage
pairs
1
of
of
the
back
division
of
meiosis
about
to
the
283).
chromosomes
form
pairs
in
stage
1
of
the
rst
meiosis?
make
models
taking
shown
chromosomes
activity
essential
of
as
at
second
first
division
of
chromosomes?
a
to
model
make
a
photographs
to
show
poster.
or
how
Do
making
the
not
cell
forget
some
appears
at
to
a
make
each
stage
record
of
and
your
use
model
drawings.
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16:17
Heredity
Meiosis
Written
Comparing
It
is
easy
help
you
to
with
confused
remember
meiosis
between
how
they
these
are
two
similar
types
to
each
Mitosis
cell
pairs
nuclear
and
division.
how
they
A
diagram
are
to
compare
them
and
a
table
will
different.
parent
cell
(contains
become
two
of
other
Meiosis
chromosomes
parent
variation
activity
mitosis
get
to
and
visible
(contains
pairs
each
chromosome
been
duplicated
to
form
of
two
homologous
nuclear
has
two
of
chromatids
envelope
homologous
chromosomes)
chromosomes)
chromosome
chromosomes
become
each
chromosome
visible
has
chromatid
been
form
duplicated
two
to
chromatids
centromere
homologous
(partner)
chromosomes
and
the
nuclear
chromosomes
envelope
the
disappears
centre
cell
of
lie
homologous
along
move
the
chromosomes
and
the
cell
equator)
are
equator
after
opposite
division,
line
up
on
equator
second
begins
divide
along
the
two
a
time
and
two
move
cells
four
daughter
which
half
the
identical
to
Read
C.3.7
over
the
of
Comparison
past
●
number
cells
●
chromosome
●
genetic
few
between
pages
and
mitosis
make
as
the
of
parent
crossing
over
may
cell
have
Figure
cells
number
the
cell;
parent
p
poles
are
chromosomes
reappears
separate
opposite
daughter
contain
envelope
now
to
equator
the
nuclear
the
for
chromatids
to
into
the
chromosomes
poles
cell
up
divides
separate
to
pair
on
the
separated
and
lie
on
(equator)
chromatids
then
and
a
occurred
meiosis
table
to
compare
mitosis
with
meiosis.
Here
are
three
features
to
start
with:
produced
number
differences
in
daughter
between
cells
daughter
of
humans
cells.
Questions
1
Where,
3
How
4
Which
5
Explain
6
State
in
the
many
cells
human
the
three
human
will
cells
body,
be
are
importance
ways
in
does
meiosis
produced
if
a
take
single
place?
cell
divides
by
meiosis?
haploid?
of
which
meiosis.
meiosis
differs
from
mitosis.
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Heredity
C.4
and
Variation
Variation
Variation
species.
are
variation
is
All
t he
t he
different
Learning
phenotypic
organisms
from
one
differences
wit hin
anot her,
a
in
between
single,
ot her
individuals
sexually
words
wit hin
reproducing
t here
is
By
a
species
variation
in
●
These
differences
environmental
may
conditions,
e.g.
be
due
end
be
of
this
able
genes
inherited
from
t he
diet
parent,
e.g.
genes
for
growt h
explain
the
difference
between
inherited
(genetic)
and
non-inherited
explain
is
If
you
of
study
human
simple
●
a
group
features
of
people,
t hat
is
groups,
a
group
blood
Genetic
There
are
you
can
controlled
obser ve
by
genes
variation
and
are
in
a
sex
list
are
(see
group
(see
long
but
many
in
a
t he
(see
Figure
of
case
t he
C.1.6
human
controlled
study
case
on
study
page
features
by
on
genes
a
on
129)
page
261)
279).
t hat
in
page
are
more
easier
to
complex
study
way
t han
t han
t he
blood
described
text
books,
e.g
some
people
can
roll
t heir
tongue
like
t he
girl
Figure
C.4.1
C.4.2
and
some
cannot.
This
is
an
example
of
variation
but
genetic
individuals.
In
is
the
this
differences
chapter
you
not
can
simple
Variation
in
between
Figure
variation
important.
number
inherited
p
in
genetic
variation
blood
Rhesus
●
why
way.
ABO
●
variation
rate.
●
Inherited
you
to:
(environmental)
●
topic
to:
any
●
population.
the
should
outcomes
investigate
the
variation
among
the
inheritance.
people
around
you
70
60
50
ycneuqerF
40
30
20
10
0
Tongue
p
Figure
C.4.3
A
roller
bar
chart
Discontinuous
Discontinuous
t he
A
feature
There
in
a
is
such
of
as
in
feature
result
Discontinuous
is
results
human
a
small
t here
wit hin
ABO
gradation
in
the
where
question
phenotypes:
smoot h
discontinuous
show
roller
of
an
investigation
into
tongue
rolling
variation
t he
discrete
no
to
variation
characteristic
number
Non-tongue
a
are
blood
group
between
number
of
clearly
dened
differences
in
population.
group
A,
system
group
blood
B,
groups.
distinct
shows
group
types,
AB
Where
we
a
small
and
t he
call
group
O.
differences
t his
variation.
variation
usually
occurs
when
an
individual
feature
is
p
controlled
by
just
one
or
two
genes
as
we
will
see
in
Chapter
C.5.
Figure
like
C.4.2
Can
you
roll
your
tongue
this?
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Heredity
Variation
Practical
Study
✔
you
are
more
rolling
often
interested
about
variation,
eye
used
genetics
the
such
and
as
in
examples
as
of
earlobes,
colour,
that
examples
search
human
by
online
genetics”
John
H.
Requirements
●
graph
and
paper
1
Choose
are
of
for
human
human
of
some
suitable
features
that
you
can
record
read
McDonald
class
or
from
another
class
or
from
among
your
Make
a
table
of
up
the
the
Calculate
groups,
4
10
13
21
14
15
7
Use
the
16
in
which
first
to
feature
record
you
the
have
number
chosen.
of
people
The
who
easiest
show
way
to
the
do
different
this
totals.
the
e.g.
your
data
Investigate
present
tongue
C.4.4
extend
your
T
o
measure
a
as
far
as
hand
from
furthest
edge
extent
of
of
plot
a
try
collect
people
and
bar
to
in
data
your
non-tongue
chart,
like
program
the
and
from
sample
This
at
makes
least
that
20
are
in
it
is
to
easy
to
people.
the
various
roller.
one
use
in
it
Figure
to
C.4.3.
make
the
Y
ou
bar
could
chart
enter
for
you.
more
results
as
features
bar
that
show
discontinuous
variation
and
charts.
variation
span
variation
is
where
t here
is
a
complete
range
of
forms
in
t he
possible
characteristic
measure
roller
of
spreadsheet
some
your
Continuous
hand
to
a
Continuous
Figure
should
percentage
data
into
Y
ou
5.
6
4
the
of
Delaware.
3
to
members
the
add
and
the
friends.
the
of
=
p
for
“myths
forms
University
variation
tongue
2
article
Activity
learning
your
of
variation
tip
Discontinuous
If
and
little
your
in
question
wit hin
a
population.
finger
thumb
Features of humans that show continuous variation that you can measure are:
●
40
males
height
●
body
mass
30
●
lengt h
ycneuqerf
●
hand
of
forenger
span.
20
Data
for
t hen
used
continuous
to
make
variation
a
is
histogram
collected
as
shown
into
in
a
table
Figure
or
spreadsheet
C.4.5.
A
feature
and
such
10
as
is
human
called
a
height
follows
normal
t he
pattern
shown
distribution.
Alt hough
is
t he
in
t he
Figure
graph
C.4.6.
in
This
Figure
pattern
C.4.6
is
0
symmetrical,
170
190
210
230
handspan
250
t his
not
always
case
and
t he
graph
may
be
skewed
as
in
270
Figure
width/mm
we
C.4.7
.
call
t his
Where
t he
continuous
differences
in
a
feature
show
a
smoot h
gradation,
variation.
40
Continuous
variation
usually
occurs
when
an
individual
feature
is
females
controlled
by
a
number
of
genes;
it
is
polygenic.
30
ycneuqerf
Practical
20
Continuous
Activity
variation
10
Requirements
0
170
190
210
handspan
p
Figure
the
C.4.5
results
variation
female
in
of
230
250
●
a
metre
●
a
tape
●
a
set
As
some
rule
270
measure
width/mm
T
wo
an
histograms
investigation
hand
students
span
in
male
to
of
scales
–
preferably
digital
with
weights
in
kg
show
people
are
sensitive
about
their
height
and
weight
you
might
be
into
and
advised
to
use
to
for
choose
this
other
features,
such
as
hand
span
and
length
of
forenger,
investigation.
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16:17
Heredity
1
and
T
ake
and
variation
the
measurements
height
Record
3
Organise
Do
4
the
well
the
the
i.e.
not
Divide
as
all
the
the
use
a
so
it
a
into
in
tally
in
or
on
order
–
between
people.
Y
ou
can
collect
the
weight
a
spreadsheet.
smallest
the
to
smallest
largest.
Calculate
number
and
the
the
largest.
unit.
classes,
e.g.
C.4.5.
like
20
features.
the
Figure
table
least
table
is
include
range
histograms
can
in
difference
to
at
other
results
data
forget
as
of
ycneuqerF
2
range,
Variation
this
170 –189
Y
ou
to
should
organise
mm,
190 –209
have
your
at
least
mm,
five
etc.
as
classes.
in
Y
ou
data:
Height
Size
class
/
mm
Number
T
otal
p
frequency
210
5
–
229
Count
///
up
how
percentages
Our
effects.
Much
This
inherited
as
a
of
many
human
type
of
are
in
food
variation
is
Impor tant
–
each
histogram
people
is
t he
not
Convert
those
effects
result
do
on
of
inherited
causes
who
class.
like
in
the
Figure
results
grow
to
t heir
over weight
●
quality
diet
●
t he
way
t hese
and
is
we
grow
to
social
t he
to
●
and
have
children
normal
near
A
most
the
normal
of
the
mean
distribution
population
height
environmental
known
as
non-
are:
not
Height
people
receive
who
enough
have
too
food
much
are
are
who
do
not
have
enough
D
adult
males/m
unlikely
likely
vitamin
of
to
be
Figure
in
C.4.7
skewed
with
A
distribution
most
of
the
that
is
population
tall
t heir
rickets
–
t he
body
–
being
being
have
interactions
more
mass
t hese
people
and
have
speak
active
have
many
and
people
t he
a
are
more
effects
type
more
muscular
on
of
t he
human
religion
likely
t hey
physique
variation,
t hat
t hey
e.g.
belong
any)
exposure
develop
●
stature;
activity
language(s)
(if
on
–
to
with
and
obese
food
likely
exercise
are
●
of
are
or
full
C.4.6
curve
into
p
to
Figure
C.4.5.
variation
impor tant
variation
variation.
quantity
people
plot
has
males/m
3
environmental
environment
develop.
●
of
adult
ycneuqerF
Causes
many
and
of
Percentage
to
disease
properly;
–
children
diseases
who
such
as
are
of ten
polio
sick
have
do
had
not
grow
signicant
and
effects
children
climate
–
exposure
to
t he
sun
causes
t he
skin
to
darken
in
light-skinned
people
●
behaviour
neglect
Many
people
Income
clean
–
some
people
take
good
care
of
t heir
appearance
and
ot hers
it.
would
levels
water,
Causes
also
sanitation,
of
add
determine
t he
income
access
education
genetic
as
an
t hat
and
impor tant
families
medical
have
factor
to
a
to
t his
healt hy
list.
diet,
facilities.
variation
p
Figure
3
Genetic
differences
between
t he
organisms
in
a
population
are
caused
can
random
assor tment
of
chromosomes
during
t he
rst
division
of
old.
These
identical
Researchers
twins
who
are
follow
by:
the
●
C.4.8
months
development
find
out
of
about
twins
like
these
environmental
meiosis
variation
(Figure
C.3.3)
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Heredity
Variation
●
random
wit h
50%
chance
female
so
●
fer tilisation,
anot her
t he
and
crossing
were
●
mutation
whole
–
a
50%
is
over
linked
we
t hat
a
baby
as
pure
wit h
zygote
chance
male
during
change
chromosome
in
a
determines
determination
inherit
t hat
t he
an
X
zygote
which
of
sex
gamete
where
chromosome
will
inherit
a
variation
so
Y
fuses
t here
t he
is
baby
a
is
chromosome
C.1.6)
meiosis
on
chance
t he
will
(Figure
toget her
a
i.e.
saw
and
which
single
eit her
a
can
separate
chromosome
single
(chromosome
gene
t he
alleles
(Figure
(gene
of
genes
t hat
C.3.4)
mutation)
or
in
a
mutation).
Mutations
A mutation occurs when there is any change in the amount or arrangement
of DNA in a cell which alters a characteristic. There are two types of mutation:
●
gene
–
any
change
in
t he
arrangement
of
DNA
in
a
gene
which
alters
a
characteristic
●
chromosomal
–
any
t he
Gene
A
is
a
lengt h
278).
called
is
a
A
rats
Human
The
DNA
t hat
t he
of
a
number
of
chromosomes
in
a
cell
or
chromosome.
a
are
for
in
to
mutations
ot hers,
used
susceptible
rat
to
t he
t he
mutate
exposed
over
commonly
t hat
genes
are
Most
advantage
codes
change
All
organisms
chemicals.
an
warfarin,
over
of
mutation.
if
cer tain
organism
to
in
str ucture
spontaneous
gene
increased
and
to
change
mutations
gene
(page
change
any
at
a
sequence
ver y
low
mutagens,
are
e.g.
a
harmful,
gives
its
of
a
of
t his
rate
such
mutation
poison,
t he
production
base
but
single
but
as
t his
is
rate
radiation
some
giving
protein
DNA
a
possessor
give
rat
an
t he
resistance
advantage
poison.
mutations
majority
albinism.
of
mutations
Some
Huntington’s
deterioration
mutant
disease
of
t he
result
alleles
which
is
ner vous
in
are
a
recessive
alleles,
dominant,
late
onset
e.g.
e.g.
t he
condition
t he
allele
alleles
causing
causing
involving
a
gradual
system.
Albinism
Albinism
in
p
Figure
C.4.9
Albino
twins
from
T
anzania
t he
is
a
skin.
pigment
in
condition
The
t he
person
disease
Huntington’s
disease
as
middle
age,
had
(HD)
Huntington’s
usually
person
skin
lacks
and
t he
hair
pigment
along
wit h
melanin
a
lack
of
is
a
serious
chorea.
when
The
people
neurological
symptoms
are
in
t heir
do
disorder
t hat
used
40s
not
or
begin
50s
and
to
to
appear
have
be
until
already
children.
HD
is
but
gradually
a
progressive
The
inherits
allele
who
t he
have
cer tain
t he
t hat
develop
if
disease
deteriorates
t hemselves.
will
t he
white
iris.
Huntington’s
known
where
has
disease
is
at
is
genetic
t he
t he
risk
allele
test
for
condition
patients
caused
high
dominant
a
and
until
by
of
do
a
are
is
no
dominant
developing
not
HD
is
mild
develop
positive
to
longer
allele,
t he
any
t hat
begin
able
so
disease.
to
anyone
Some
symptoms
t he
wit h,
care
person
so
for
who
people
it
is
not
concerned
disease.
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Heredity
Sickle
and
cell
variation
Variation
anemia
Sickle
cell
blood
cells
anemia
is
contain
production
of
a
condition
t he
normal
t hat
results
oxygen-carr ying
haemoglobin
is
from
a
pigment
gene
mutation.
haemoglobin.
controlled
by
a
gene
(H)
Red
The
wit h
two
N
alleles.
The
However
at
allele
H
some
stage
controls
in
t he
production
human
ancestr y,
a
of
normal
gene
haemoglobin.
mutation
led
to
a
new
S
allele,
wit h
This
to
H
a
.
This
different
small
carr y
controls
amino
difference
oxygen.
haemoglobin
(see
allele
Figure
At
acid
t he
at
reduces
low
collapse
one
t he
oxygen
into
a
production
point
ability
of
along
of
sickle
shape
t he
can
have
genotype
one
H
of
t hree
genotypes:
wit h
t he
haemoglobin.
medical
cells
t he
wit h
name
molecule
abnormal
of
t he
H
N
H
N
,
H
S
H
S
and
H
S
H
produce
red
genotype
This
treatment,
is
H
people
cells
wit h
normal
.
red
die
when
blood
cells
haemoglobin.
People
with
abnormally
some
par ts
sickle
the
parasite
This
the
of
the
t hey
wit h
cell
are
produce
sickle
wit h
cell
t his
red
blood
anemia
cells
and,
condition
cell
world
trait
gives
causing
People
normal
condition
oxygen
the
young.
some
sickle
low
Those
wit h
haemoglobin.
S
H
called
blood
are
wit h
t he
wit hout
likely
to
is
trait
wit h
known
suffer
a
as
condition
resistance
malaria
(page
to
t he
is
so
some
cell
ability
they
be
ver y
nds
It
it
appears
much
H
ill
and
S
H
produce
abnormal
trait.
to
sur vive
advantageous.
malaria.
325),
genotype
and
sickle
reduced
concentrations,
this
t he
haemoglobin
abnormal
constant
N
of ten
disorder
N
H
S
Those
lengt h.
haemoglobin
hence
molecule
C.4.10).
N
t he
haemoglobin
its
concentrations,
N
People
a
transpor t
normally.
oxygen
In
fact,
This
occurs
that
Plasmodium,
more
at
in
because
difcult
to
p
infect
red
blood
cells
that
contain
the
abnormal
Figure
who
see
Chromosome
A
mutations
chromosome
●
●
In
mutation
t he
str ucture
t he
number
humans,
wit hstand
of
of
such
t hem
one
(or
a
spontaneous
more)
chromosomes
mutations
better
and,
are
in
change
chromosome(s)
in
a
Blood
sickle
some
become
cell
from
a
of
anemia.
person
the
red
Y
ou
blood
can
cells
sickle-shaped
in:
or
cell.
usually
some
has
that
have
is
C.4.10
haemoglobin.
let hal,
cases,
but
plants
ourish
as
a
seem
result
to
of
be
able
to
t hem.
Human cells are sometimes found in which the chromosome number is
greater than the expected 46. This occurs from the fusion of a normal sperm
or egg cell with an egg or a sperm cell that was produced after a pair of
homologous chromosomes failed to separate during meiosis (Figure C.4.1
1).
Such a failure is called chromosome non-disjunction. The best known
example of chromosome non-disjunction in humans is Down’s syndrome.
People with this syndrome have an extra copy of chromosome 21 in each
of their cells. Children with this syndrome have a characteristic appearance
with a roundish face and almond-shaped eyes. In addition, they suffer
Did
varying degrees of mental retardation, stunted physical growth, heart
you
know?
?
abnormalities and reduced resistance to certain diseases.
Gene
in
Why
is
genetic
variation
the
any
population
between
of
individuals.
differences.
organisms
Some
However,
inuenza
commonly
virus.
occur
Because
important?
this
In
mutations
some
of
is
t hat
t his
reproduce
variation
inherited.
sexually,
results
This
from
inherited
t here
is
variation
environmental
variation
virus
very
will
mutates
difcult
last
for
to
so
get
years
a
often,
it
vaccine
against
is
that
‘u.
is
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Heredity
Variation
Normal
Non-disjunction
impor tant
more
for
t he
offspring
competition
sur vival
t han
for
t he
such
of
t he
species.
environment
resources
as
Organisms
can
space,
suppor t.
water
food
generally
Therefore,
or
and
variation
produce
t here
is
mates.
Parents
The
organisms
more
of
t he
t his
Gametes
likely
next
would
Figure
C.4.11
t hat
best
As
generation.
result
in
alleles,
better
to
able
are
sur vive.
favourable
a
If
able
t heir
ot her
compete
t hey
will
favourable
organisms
in
to
result,
in
t he
words
escape
predation
and
characteristics
next
t he
or
reproduce
generation
next
be
are
will
t he
inherited,
inheriting
generation
be
parents
would
be
t hose
genetically
sur vive.
(types)
Poorly
p
to
Chromosome
t he
non-
disjunction
adapted
organisms
population.
sur vive,
but
t hey
competition.
need
Organisms
For
produce
not
t hat
fewer
example,
an
are
die
for
not
offspring
animal
t heir
alleles
successful
t han
t hat
is
in
t hose
unable
to
be
lost
from
competition
t hat
to
are
nd
might
successful
sufcient
in
food,
key
or
bacteria
not
a
plant
lacks
to
t he
antibiotic
giving
Antibiotic
resistant
for
the
first
resistant
and
example
bacteria
As
grow
reproduce
t he
use
growing
and
bacteria
stop
it
can
chlorophyll
numbers
of
as
ot her
plants,
offspring.
bacteria
is
seen
when
continues
produce
antibiotics
resistance
has
resist
meant
t he
sur vive.
mutations
in
pat hogenic
(disease-causing)
types
which
are
resistant
to
antibiotics
to
has
increased,
t hem.
t hat
A
t his
antibiotic.
cer tain
chance
type
While
of
t he
bacterial
mutation,
bacterium
is
non-resistant
cells
which
at
an
have
has
resulted
advantage
types
will
die,
in
because
t his
There
will
be
less
competition,
e.g.
for
food
from
t he
type
non-
killed
resistant
all
much
large
reproducing
will
are
of
developed
variation,
antibiotic
as
produce
time
non-resistant
or
produce
to
treat
microorganisms
disease
to
resistance
Anot her
to
unable
needed
with
mutation
used
is
energy
antibiotic
bacteria
antibiotic
t hat
resisant
to
be
bacteria
used
now
type,
resistance
is
so
t he
shown
resistant
in
Figure
type
will
ourish.
This
selection
of
antibiotic
C.4.12.
resistant
Questions
to
the
antibiotic
selection
antibiotic
has
occurred
1
What
2
Name
3
a
Figure
C.4.12
variation?
five
causes
of
genetic
variation.
for
resistance
What
took
p
is
Selection
for
up
would
you
expect
weight-lifting
on
to
a
happen
regular
to
a
basis?
person’s
b
Would
physique
these
if
he/she
changes
be
due
antibiotic
to
resistance
the
environment
4
Define
mutation
5
Explain
6
Which
why
of
As
sickle
and
the
due
is
following
cell
to
name
variation
haemophilia;
7
or
or
both?
mutagen.
important.
features
intelligence;
anaemia
a
genes
is
eye
a
show
colour;
severe
discontinuous
variation:
albinism;
capacity?
disease,
lung
what
might
you
height;
expect
S
to
happen
over
production?
8
In
which
the
course
Explain
parts
of
the
your
of
time
to
the
H
allele
controlling
its
answer.
world
is
the
sickle
cell
trait
advantageous?
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Heredity
C.5
and
variation
Monohybrid
Monohybrid
inheritance
Learning
By
Introduction
to
the
inheritance
is
t he
passing
down
of
a
single
parent
to
offspring.
Examples
of
t hese
single
be
of
this
able
topic
you
to:
characteristic
●
from
outcomes
genetics
should
Monohybrid
end
inheritance
characteristics
in
define
the
terms
used
in
human
genetics
inheritance
are
blood
groups
and
t he
ability
to
make
t he
skin
pigment
●
melanin.
The
basic
“laws”
of
genetics
were
rst
developed
by
explain
monohybrid
Gregor
inheritance
Mendel,
who
studied
genetics
using
pea
plants.
Alt hough
he
worked
wit h
●
plants,
t he
including
“laws”
t hat
he
discovered
apply
equally
to
explain
sex
linkage.
animals,
terms
following
Knowledge
questions
genetics
humans.
Genetic
The
of
of
glossar y
t he
related
should
terms
to
in
help
t his
monohybrid
Chromosome
a
thin,
Gene
a
length
a
single
of
Allele
is
so
an
DNA
protein;
the
group
you
will
structure
that
it
ABO
is
which
carries
the
blood
group
form
has
one
of
a
for
is
dominant
it
will
Recessive
if
an
allele
is
recessive
it
is
describes
Heterozygous
refers
to
an
an
individual’
s
individual
non-identical
(pure-breeding)
characteristic
Locus
the
problems.
attempt
genetic
of
the
genetic
instructions
inheritance,
gene
information
for
e.g.
making
one
controls
hair
gene
colour,
gene,
blood
e.g.
the
group
A
gene
and
controlling
another
for
blood
always
only
express
expressed
itself
when
in
the
the
phenotype
dominant
allele
present
Genotype
e.g.
you
B
allele
Homozygous
genetic
as
another
single
allele
an
two
you
carries
unit
group;
if
not
the
basic
Dominant
is
attempt
help
on
alternative
blood
as
inheritance.
thread-like
controls
and
you
glossar y
–
is
in
alleles
refers
genetic
whom
of
the
a
make-up
single
same
for
gene,
to
an
individual
controlled
by
two
one
characteristic
characteristic
in
e.g.
whom
identical
is
controlled
by
Aa
a
alleles
single
of
the
same
gene,
AA
position
on
a
chromosome
where
a
particular
gene
is
always
found
Phenotype
describes
an
biochemical
Written
Answering
Using
A
to
physical
e.g.
blood
appearance,
group
e.g.
brown-eyed,
or
A
activity
genetics
symbol
individual’
s
make-up,
questions
represent
the
allele
for
normal
skin
pigment
and
the
answer
the
p
symbol
a
following
to
represent
short
the
allele
for
albinism
(see
page
292)
questions.
Figure
a
pea
how
1
What
2
Give
is
the
the
alternative
genotype
allele
to
C.5.1
flower.
His
plants
Gregor
Mendel
experimental
enabled
characteristics
him
are
to
holding
work
on
discover
inherited
A?
of
a
homozygous
of
a
person
person
with
normal
skin
pigmentation.
✔
3
Give
the
genotype
who
is
homozygous
recessive
albinism.
4
Give
the
Study
Look
genotype
of
a
person
who
is
tip
with
Figure
C.1.3
for
understanding
at
these
terms
help
in
used
in
heterozygous.
genetics.
295
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Monohybrid
Heredity
inheritance
5
What
(b)
would
be
the
phenotype
of
a
person
whose
genotype
and
variation
was:
(a)
Aa;
aa?
6
Why
are
7
Why
is
e.g.
people
the
AA,
What
is
9
What
are
albinism
genotype
Aa
8
with
or
humans
homozygous?
always
written
as
pairs
of
symbols,
aa?
meant
the
of
always
by
the
term
possible
locus?
genotypes
for
people
with
normal
skin
pigmentation?
It
is
completely
humans
t hat
we
and
would
from
t hem.
Mice
make
share
t he
mouse,
we
appear
mice
are
of
at
t he
and
about
This
is
is
Figure
brown
C.5.2
and
different
Variation
white
alleles
mice
of
the
in
same
next
and
There
are
are
mouse
many
much
exper iments
is
times
time
genetics.
many
a
to
For
are
one
varieties
(albino)
reason
form
of
mice
wit h
long
anyt hing
species
domesticated
white
so
lear n
different
different
using
The
allele
mice.
times
t he
of
to
in
If
of
t hese
and
we
of
mice
t he
house
mice,
mice
but
wit h
breed
one
many
we
achieved
parents
and
White
colour
bred
by
and
brown
fur
is
in
t he
taking
t he
grandparents
mice
colour
t he
among
offspring
enough
brown
mice
repetitions
can
results
introduced
are
t heir
investigation
inher it ance
summarise
organisms
are
does
dominant
bred
not
feature
offspring
as
t here
t here
giving
t hemselves
are
a
you
are
were
mixture
35
nd
white
t hat
of
brown
t here
mice:
brown
hundreds
(anot her
of
mice
a
ratio
to
offspring
13
t he
3:1.
offspr ing
whic h
be
t heir
mice
fur
t he
feature.
offspring
many
can
brown.
brown
humans)
t hat
t hat
white
are
recessive
you
as
in
Wit h
close
patter n
of
is
t hat
If
sure
This
means
phenotype.
unet hical
2.7:1.
set
This
suggests
example,
making
homozygous.
brown-coloured
is
by
generation
colour
t hree
rst
can
This
star t
lines.
t he
fur
ver y
Mendel
p
There
breeding
generation
investigate
laborator y
are
bred
white
For
which
ratio
to
any
and
patience
investigation
t he
all.
t hat
3:1.
We
pure
all
white
t hing
conduct
common.
The
an
of
animals
in
generation
exactly
When
at
to
gestation
lot
experiments
from
toget her
and
a
musculus.
look
parental
had
world.
t he
fur.
Breeding
mice
genes
Mus
shall
brown
need
suitable
many
across
unet hical
anyway
t he
t his
in
can
white
idea
as
be
deduce
of
explained
t hat
fur
using
is
as
brown
follows.
fur
Looking
colour
is
at
t he
dominant.
recessive.
letters
to
represent
t hese
alleles.
follows.
mice:
are
expressing
gene
for
●
Mice
have
a
gene
t hat
controls
t he
colour
of
fur.
coat
●
The
allele
which
causes
The
allele
for
white
use
t hese
brown
fur
is
represented
as
B
colour
●
We
✔
Exam
can
now
you
read
inheritance,
gene
fur
about
decide
controls.
is
represented
symbols
and
by
follow
b
a
standard
way
to
explain
t he
tip
genetics
When
fur
In
a
pattern
what
this
feature
example
it
of
t he
cross
wit h
t he
mice.
of
Parental
phenotype
Parental
genotype
Brown
x
BB
x
White
the
bb
is
colour
.
296
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16:17
Heredity
Each
and
adult
variation
mouse
is
Monohybrid
diploid
and
t herefore
must
have
two
symbols.
Parental
male
phenotypes
Now
we
can
continue
t he
diagram
as
shown
in
Figure
brown
●
×
female
fur
white
fur
C.5.3
Parental
Note
inheritance
t hat:
BB
×
bb
genotypes
We
have
represented
We
have
used
t he
types
of
gamete
not
t he
number
of
gametes.
Parental
B
b
+
gametes
●
t hat
you
are
a
met hod
strongly
for
laying
advised
to
out
t his
cross
(shown
here
in
italics)
use.
F
genotype
Bb
1
●
To
represent
t he
F
offspring,
we
have
used
a
device
called
a
Punnett
F
2
phenotype
all
brown
fur
1
square.
F
phenotype
brown
fur
×
brown
×
Bb
fur
1
As
can
be
seen
in
Figure
C.5.3,
we
have
a
3:1
ratio,
which
is
what
Mendel
found.
How
F
genotypes
Bb
1
can
you
tell
the
difference
between
an
animal
that
is
homozygous
F
+
gametes
1
dominant
and
one
that
is
heterozygous
since
they
have
the
same
male
phenotype?
with
This
unknown
is
possible
genotype
with
and
an
a
testcross
animal
that
that
is
involves
crossing
homozygous
the
gametes
animal
recessive.
We
do
B
know
that
the
animal
with
the
unknown
genotype
must
Parental
be
BB
or
male
female
female
×
phenotypes
short
b
Bb.
hair
long
hair
gametes
Parental
SS
ss
genotypes
genotypes
F
BB
2Bb
bb
2
Parental
and
S
phenotypes
s
+
brown
gametes
F
phenotypic
3
fur
brown
brown
fur
:
fur
white
white
fur
fur
2
F
genotype
Ss
1
ratio
F
phenotype
all
short
hair
1
p
Parental
male
F
brown
C.5.3
explain
×
phenotypes
Figure
A
genetic
diagram
to
female
fur
white
fur
phenotype
short
hair
×
short
the
inheritance
of
fur
colour
in
hair
1
mice
Parental
Bb
bb
F
genotypes
Ss
×
Ss
1
genotypes
F
+
gametes
✔
1
Study
tip
Parental
b
+
gametes
male
gametes
T
o
become
you
male
gametes
need
with
practise
genetics
answering
s
S
problems.
B
familiar
to
book
b
look
but
at
There
to
one
give
are
several
more
involving
help,
in
this
we
will
cats.
female
female
b
gametes
gametes
Offspring
Bb
genotypes
brown
bb
fur
white
✔
fur
F
genotypes
SS
2Ss
Study
tip
ss
2
and
phenotypes
and
phenotypes
short
Offspring
1
brown
fur
:
1
white
hair
short
hair
long
hair
fur
phenotypic
in
F
phenotypic
3
short
hair
:
1
long
closely
Figure
offspring
the
genetic
What
diagram
would
be
like
if
the
male
the
with
ratio
brown
p
at
C.5.4.
hair
2
ratio
Look
Figure
C.5.4
genotype
of
A
a
testcross
brown
to
mouse
find
the
p
Figure
length
C.5.5
in
The
inheritance
of
hair
hair
dominant,
was
homozygous
BB?
cats
An example of a human condition controlled by a recessive allele is albinism.
Before you read further, look at your answers to the questions for the written
activity above.
297
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16:17
Monohybrid
Heredity
inheritance
●
Parental
male
phenotypes
Two
female
normal
×
people
normal
skin
colour
may
have
a
child
wit h
variation
albinism.
normal
●
pigmentation
Assume
pigmentation
A
pigment
Parental
wit h
and
Aa
is
t he
and
a
allele
is
t he
t hat
controls
allele
t hat
t he
gives
formation
rise
to
no
of
normal
skin
pigment.
Aa
genotypes
●
As
bot h
t heir
produce
skin
pigment
t hey
must
bot h
have,
at
least,
one
A
in
genotypes.
Parental
+
gametes
●
male
To
genotypes,
gametes
A
produce
Ot her
a
is
an
in
examples
governed
condition
by
a
albino
ot her
of
child
words
bot h
bot h
monohybrid
recessive
governed
by
a
allele
must
are
have,
dominant
least,
heterozygous
inheritance
and
at
(see
include
Huntington’s
one
a
in
Figure
cystic
disease
t heir
C.5.6).
brosis
which
is
which
a
allele.
female
Codominance
gametes
In
t he
previous
recessive.
Offspring
genotypes
AA
2Aa
multiple
examples,
However
t his
alleles
we
need
stated
not
t hat
be
t he
an
allele
case;
is
eit her
sometimes
dominant
bot h
are
or
expressed
aa
when
and
normal
and
pigmentation
t hey
occur
toget her
in
someone
wit h
a
heterozygous
genotype.
In
albino
phenotypes
t his
Offspring
3
normal
pigmentation
:
ratio
Figure
C.5.6
albinism.
An
The
inheritance
example
of
t he
alleles
are
said
to
be
codominant.
albino
phenotypic
p
case
We
have
also
t he
case;
sometimes
a
of
single
inheritance
of
demonstrates
t he
t hat
t here
characteristic.
inheritance
monohybrid
assumed
gene
are
These
gene
bot h
a
for
t hese
only
more
are
t he
ever
t han
referred
ABO
has
two
to
blood
two
alleles
as
alleles.
of
a
multiple
groups
is
a
This
gene
also
not
controlling
alleles.
good
is
The
example
t hat
concepts.
On the surface membrane of our red blood cells are proteins called antigens:
A
●
Parental
male
antigen
A
antigen
B
–
controlled
by
allele
I
female
×
phenotypes
blood
group
A
blood
group
B
B
●
A
Parental
I
O
B
I
I
–
controlled
by
allele
I
O
O
I
●
neit her
antigen
A
nor
antigen
B
–
controlled
by
allele
I
genotypes
A
Alleles
B
I
and
A
I
are
codominant
(t his
may
also
be
represented
as
I
B
I
);
Parental
A
O
I
B
+
I
O
I
I
O
bot h
gametes
male
A
of
t hese
alleles
in
Table
C.5.1.
A
I
can
over
t he
occur,
recessive
giving
t he
allele
I
.
All
genotypes
possible
and
combinations
B
I
Note
t he
new
way
of
representing
phenotypes
alleles:
t his
shown
notation
is
O
I
always
To
B
dominant
gametes
I
I
are
B
I
used
become
wit h
multiple
familiar
wit h
alleles.
t his
notation,
suppose
a
woman
is
heterozygous
O
I
for
group
B
and
her
husband
is
heterozygous
for
group
A.
We
can
represent
female
t he
inheritance
of
ABO
blood
groups
among
t heir
children
using
t he
gametes
O
A
I
I
O
I
O
I
diagram
O
in
Figure
C.5.7
.
I
Transfusions
A
Offspring
I
O
A
I
I
B
B
I
I
O
I
O
I
O
I
genotypes
The
Offspring
blood
phenotypes
blood
blood
occasion
group
group
group
group
A
AB
B
O
is
during
If
someone
rejected.
p
Figure
blood
C.5.7
Inheritance
of
blood
t he
ABO
It
transfusions
blood
receives
will
clot
blood
and
of
may
–
a
see
group
t he
system
Case
different
cause
Study
becomes
blood
deat h.
on
group
Blood
is
page
impor tant
to
us
129
t hen
it
matched
may
be
before
a
ABO
transfusion
groups
when
blood
about
20
Rhesus
R
and
and
people
different
blood
usually
blood
group
group
system
receive
blood
systems.
which
is
The
of
t he
ot her
controlled
by
same
one
a
group.
t hat
gene
you
wit h
There
know
two
are
is
t he
alleles,
r
298
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16:17
Heredity
q
and
T
able
Blood
variation
C.5.1
group
Monohybrid
Phenotypes
name
and
genotypes
(Phenotype)
of
blood
groups
✔
Genotype
A
Group
A
I
Group
B
I
A
A
I
or
I
Study
B
I
B
I
or
I
A
AB
I
Group
O
I
have
A
O
positive
RR
Rhesus
negative
rr
Try
these
squares
1
A
couple
their
and
first
A.
that
3
A
blood
be:
group
cat
O?
had
a
knows
breeder
testcross?
baby.
to
●
genetics
bags
of
has
Use
of
●
opaque
●
labelling
of
genetic
She
blood
identify
a
a
one
and
copy
offspring
two
copies
of
the
gene
as
in
O
I
Rr
genetic
in
this
and
A,
diagrams
with
Punnett
Chapter.
O.
What
blood
diagram
and
group
why
men
How
the
the
–
it
blood
who
short-haired
is
group
(with
the
B,
probability
blood
Punnett
that
group
square)
AB
to
the
to
the
is
Desmond,
both
group
group
B.
have
Can
testing
be
the
but
blood
he
can
father.
be
he
of
group
the
only
father?
be
used
Suggest
a
in
test
father.
which
could
diagram
is
cannot
of
cat
father
baby
could
cat
explain
be
homozygous
breeder
your
find
out
by
using
a
answer.
Activity
gummy
bears
genetics
bags,
certain
identification
genetic
the
is
Marcia
heterozygous.
gummy
offspring
a
AB
group
Explain
positive
Practical
The
use
groups
her.
his
answer.
make
or
and
examples
blood
Use
knowing
testing
dominant
have
parents
answer.
your
can
I,
1
Always
the
the
Desmond
paternity
in
will
even
Explain
see
have
has
denies
problems.
can
your
Marcia
problems
child
blood
explain
2
you
gametes
gene
activity
genetics
genetic
as
I
I
Rhesus
Answering
the
B
I
O
Written
that
O
I
of
Group
tip
O
Note
B
inheritance
e.g.
bear
(also
known
as
jelly
babies)
to
represent
the
crosses
paper
bags
–
not
clear
plastic
bags
pens
Requirements
Many
gummy
bears
represent
white)
Y
ou
to
1
need
Look
2
work
through
different
Choose
in
different
colours
–
red,
yellow,
orange,
colourless
(to
green
a
this
genetic
a
of
and
group
for
chapter
ratios
particular
this
on
that
monohybrid
you
genetics
activity.
have
cross:
genetics
come
here
and
identify
the
across.
are
some
to
start
p
●
T
wo
alleles:
(colourless
one
dominant
gummy
(red
gummy
bear)
and
the
other
Figure
C.5.8
Genetic
gummy
bears
recessive
bear)
●
Cross
1
homozygous
●
Cross
2
heterozygous
dominant
x
x
homozygous
recessive
heterozygous
299
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16:17
Monohybrid
Heredity
inheritance
3
Decide
divide
to
4
the
the
Write
the
Make
full
Sex
else.
the
full
the
so
linkage
that
is
genes
are
on
follow
ratio.
be
The
have
number
produced
needs
to
and
be
close
exact.
identify
gummy
to
show
it
as
yours
bears
how
inherited
the
how
blindness
us
and
is
and
the
through
examples
to
X
can
vision
are
it
is
or
are
format
Y
a
a
and
work
swap
out
in
features
two
this
genetic
and
a
case
The
dominant
likely
controlled
(a
to
by
to
with
the
ratio
and
you
have
generations.
chapter.
chosen
T
o
Write
make
several
a
of
diagrams.
N/n.
t he
said
in
how
X
be
are
for
t he
sex
of
colour
to
colour
for
not
t he
of
colour
clot).
gene
has
t he
Genes
Examples
normal
t he
between
as
C.1.7).
red-green
fails
wit h
alleles
C
(Figure
blood
distinguish
chromosomes.
on
sex-linked.
people
The
sex
chromosome
genes
which
symbol
to
t he
carried
genes
to
two
child.
The
on
few
sex-linked
disorder
handwriting
on
are
be
are
are
sex
ver y
by
show
t hat
wit h
carries
colour-blind
represented
in
do
chromosome
are
diagram
difcult
lower
and
alleles
to
most
haemophilia
produce
of
not hing
smaller
t hat
constr uct
vision
inheritance
have
These
t he
characteristics
since
“parents”
involved.
are
learn
your
the
to
to
the
diagrams
you
t he
t hat
chromosome
Let
bag
out
bears
to
have
cross
diagram
chromosomes.
t hat
the
of
genetic
offspring
variation
linkage
Some
Y
on
not
Count
type
of
according
does
gummy
genetic
these
Sex
but
something
suggest
from
number
offspring
ratio,
someone
5
total
and
colour
been
upper
used
case
C
c
allele
for
normal
colour
vision
is
written
toget her
wit h
t he
N
X
chromosome
as
X
.
The
recessive
allele
for
colour
blindness
is
written
as
n
X
.
Including
t he
X
chromosome
N
Parents
mother
×
●
father
The
woman
colour
N
Genotypes
X
n
is
X
shows
t his
n
X
condition
is
sex-linked.
N
and
t he
man
is
X
Y
as
t hey
bot h
have
normal
vision.
N
X
X
Y
N
●
N
Gametes
t hat
n
X
We
know
We
can
X
is
X
n
X
as
she
has
a
colour-blind
child.
Y
●
female
gametes
In
Figure
blind
N
C.5.9
child
do
t he
there
being
cross
is
born
a
1
to
as
in
4
this
shown
(i.e.
in
25%
couple.
Figure
or
C.5.9.
0.25)
Any
boy
chance
has
a
1
of
in
2
a
colour-
chance
(i.e.
X
50%
or
Since
N
X
now
n
X
N
woman
N
X
X
t he
N
N
X
X
0.5).
t he
woman
has
t he
allele
for
colour
blindness
but
does
not
n
X
express
it,
she
is
described
as
a
carrier
male
gametes
The
N
genetics
of
haemophilia
are
exactly
the
same
as
in
the
previous
n
Y
example;
the
N
Offspring
genotypes
X
X
gene
is
is
carried
recessive.
on
the
Imagine
X
that
chromosome
a
couple
who
and
the
both
allele
have
for
blood
N
X
N
and
the
disease
-
female
with
colour
vision
with
n
X
-
female
with
colour
normal
clotting
time
have
a
haemophiliac
son.
If
we
use
the
vision
H
phenotypes
symbol
N
X
Y
-
male
with
colour
X
to
represent
an
X
chromosome
ratio
-
male
with
colour
blindness
blood
clotting
female
male
has
being
for
normal
recessive
and
allele
the
for
symbol
X
to
haemophilia,
represent
we
can
an
X
chromosome
constr uct
a
diagram
with
to
1:1:1:1
explain
No
allele
h
Y
the
Genotypic
the
vision
n
X
with
colour
colour
vision,
there
is
a
50%
chance
blind
of
what
has
happened
to
this
couple.
any
●
The
woman
is
XX
and
t he
man
is
XY.
H
p
Figure
C.5.9
Sex
linkage
and
colour
●
Both
have
blood
that
clots
normally,
so
the
man
is
X
Y.
blindness
300
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16:17
Heredity
●
and
They
variation
have
a
Monohybrid
haemophiliac
child,
so
t he
woman
must
Parental
H
carr y
●
We
a
recessive
can
now
do
allele.
t he
She
cross
is,
as
t herefore,
shown
in
X
Figure
wit h
red-green
colour-blindness,
t here
is
a
C.5.10.
1
H
in
4
genotypes
X
t his
chance
couple.
t hat
This
counselling
is
a
is
haemophiliac
taken
into
child
account
will
be
when
male
h
H
X
X
born
H
h
X
H
X
,
X
Y
,
to
genetic
given.
female
Genetic
Y
(i.e.
Gametes
25%)
Normal
×
female
Parental
As
Carrier
phenotypes
h
X
inheritance
counselling
gametes
H
h
X
X
Suppose a couple have had a child with haemophilia
or sickle cell anaemia and they want to know the
H
H
X
X
H
H
X
X
h
X
chances of another child of theirs having this condition.
male
gametes
The couple can go to a genetic counsellor. Genetic
h
H
counsellors need to have a good understanding of
Y
X
X
Y
Y
human genetics to be able to explain things clearly and
to help people make up their own minds. A woman may
H
X
H
H
X
X
H
Y
X
h
h
X
X
Y
go to a genetic counsellor having had the results of a test
such as amniocentesis (see page
260
Offspring
and Figure C.1.1).
phenotypes
Female
:
Male
:
Female
with
with
with
normal
normal
normal
clotting
clotting
time
time
:
Male
who
She might know that if her child is born it will have
Down’s syndrome. The genetic counsellor will explore
has
clotting
time
haemophilia
but
all the medical and legal options with her, which may
h
has
include termination of the pregnancy (abortion).
Genotypic
Males
are
much
characteristics
recessive
it
will
other
X
than
harmful
usually
X
be
are
allele
he
will
Answering
controlled
Explain
how
the
a
one
by
a
if
If
of
a
harmful
female
her
X
dominant
he
that
the
:
1
:
1
:
1
has
the
p
Figure
C.5.10
Sex
linkage
and
haemophilia
chromosomes,
allele
male
inherits
1
ratio
sex-linked
on
only
the
her
has
one
harmful
condition.
activity
colour
by
show
However
from
genetics
Red-green
on
therefore
suffer
to
females.
masked
Written
1
likely
chromosome.
chromosome
allele,
more
X
(carrier)
problems
blindness
allele
normal
2
is
a
recessive,
sex-linked
condition.
It
is
n
male
and
normal
female
could
have
a
colour-blind
child.
What
2
A
couple
from
to
sex
a
know
child
that
family,
disease.
children
there
3
the
haemophilia.
start
the
will
was
People
a
with
Suggest
future
will
Use
have
case
use
of
was
visit
a
genetic
the
only
of
might
wife’s
six
genetic
are
happen
genetic
in
now
to
to
diagrams
to
died.
show
would
the
to
the
the
The
explain
of
couple
genetic
young
are
about
that
any
counsellor
about
of
their
say
if
family?
cases
your
very
information
chances
successfully
number
died
seek
husband’s
treated
the
he
cousins
counsellor
What
haemophilia
distant
when
diagram
haemophilia.
haemophilia
what
and
a
one
He
but
be?
with
of
a
blood
protein.
haemophilia
in
the
answer.
301
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16:17
Genetic
Heredity
engineering
and
variation
Questions
1
Explain
the
term
monohybrid
2
Explain
the
terms
gene,
inheritance
allele,
genotype,
homozygous
and
heterozygous
3
The
Rhesus
The
dominant
controls
Explain
who
is
Define
5
Explain
6
Why
7
8
is
the
is
a
people
is
controlled
Rhesus
by
positive
a
gene
blood;
with
the
two
allele
alleles.
r
blood.
with
Rhesus
positive
blood
may
have
a
child
negative.
terms
a
system
controls
negative
two
how
R
sex
determination
red-green
colour-blind
and
colour-blind
male
more
sex
linkage
female
likely
to
be
could
arise.
produced
than
a
colour-
female?
Write
it
Rhesus
how
group
allele
Rhesus
4
blind
blood
a
fact
sheet
on
haemophilia:
what
it
is,
how
it
is
inherited
and
how
treated.
Describe
the
differences
between
the
chromosomes
in
males
and
females.
Learning
By
the
should
end
be
C.6
outcomes
of
this
able
topic
you
to:
DNA
describe
the
is
t he
knowledge
tests
●
Genetic
for
engineering
genetic
of
DNA
genetic
material
to
of
all
develop
conditions,
organisms.
ways
treat
to
and
We
have
genetically
cure
exploited
modify
genetic
our
species,
disorders,
develop
analyse
structure
evidence
in
forensics
and
compare
t he
genes
of
different
species
to
examine
of DNA
●
explain
what
engineering
●
discuss
the
relationships
But
what
between
t hem.
genetic
involves
advantages
disadvantages
engineering.
t he
of
and
genetic
is
molecule
into
DNA?
wit h
a
Figures
str ucture
chromosomes
during
ot her
enzymes
proteins
can
for
times
reach
t he
C.6.1
like
during
in
it
t he
and
and
a
spiral
nuclear
life
use
of
C.6.2
a
t he
show
staircase.
division
cell
it
is
t hat
It
is
and
packaged
information
is
a
packaged
(mitosis
not
DNA
stored
in
ver y
ver y
meiosis).
so
tightly
t he
long
genes
tightly
However,
and
to
make
cell.
Strand
of
core
p
Figure
The
C.6.1
DNA
is
The
the
DNA
genetic
in
each
of
protein
chromosome
material;
the
DNA
histones
is
packed
provide
around
histone
structural
molecules.
support
302
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16:17
Heredity
and
Genetic
Genetic
variation
Genetic
engineering
engineering
characteristics
of
an
is
t he
(recombinant
process
organism
by
involved
inser ting
in
DNA
technology)
changing
genes
from
one
or
anot her
more
organism
the
is
into
its
t he
DNA.
same
The
“foreign”
species,
a
DNA
totally
could
different
come
from
species
or
anot her
be
DNA
DNA
made
individual
up
of
engineering
t hat
has
of
two
strands
been
forming
synt hesised
in
t he
laborator y.
DNA
can
even
be
moved
from
a
human
into
a
a
bacterium.
Do
not
t hink
t hat
t his
is
t hat
unusual:
vir uses
do
t his
all
t he
the
strands
are
held
double
helix
together
time.
Scientists
t hink
t hat
a
lot
of
t he
DNA
we
have
in
our
by
chromosomes
weak
bonds
has
come
For
many
t hrough
from
years,
like
However,
possible
is
as
our
developed,
knowledge
a
gene
and
has
“factories”
DNA
your
of
from
t he
genotypes
plants.
t he
Later,
programme
of
cer tain
selective
t hat
was
organisms
breeding
used
to
produce
cattle.
genetics
one
DNA
t hat
and
e.g.
allowed
Practical
changed
Hope
recombinant
engineering,
into
have
animals
Jamaican
take
as
specic
were
t he
to
known
cells
humans
rearing
programmes
breeds
vir uses.
has
organism
increased,
and
technology
us
to
produce
turn
or,
it
transfer
more
has
it
products
anot her.
commonly,
microorganisms
useful
become
to
for
and
This
genetic
p
Figure
C.6.2
The
double
helix
of
DNA
mammalian
us.
Activity
onions
Requirements
●
a
kitchen
●
ice
bath
blender
to
keep
materials
cool
as
●
detergent,
●
ice
necessary
●
some
●
sodium
●
a
●
pineapple
not
Y
ou
use
juice
can
juice
wear
cause
Chill
the
it
Make
a
(table
muslin
so
from
ice
fresh
or
not
by
so
“soup”
by
test
●
glass
in
the
a
juice
doing
this
out
wash
placing
throughout
beaker
●
your
as
for
a
source
a
at
naked
if
of
protease;
you
least
activity:
ames.
spill
2
hours,
water
,
water
3
and
Strain
the
e.g.
a
use
pinch
mixture
100
of
table
and
is
on
or
them.
overnight.
procedure.
blending
cm
ethanol
Pineapple
any
your
onions
with
a
little
salt
3
cold
do
carton)
practical
any
hands
freezer
(industrial
alcohol)
rod
from
this
near
liquid
tubes
pineapples
while
carry
irritation
●
pineapple
protection
do
skin
thick
cheesecloth
(made
ethanol
on
/
salt)
pineapple
eye
ammable
Keep
2
or
tinned
should
highly
1
chloride
washing-up
ethanol
denatured
onions
strainer
cold
e.g.
and
some
3
of
salt.
collect
chopped
onions,
Blend
high
the
on
liquid
part
with
speed
in
a
200
for
cm
15
of
cold
seconds.
beaker.
3
4
Add
5
Let
6
Pour
the
each
about
7
30
the
Add
a
cm
of
washing-up
mixture
settle
mixture
few
one
into
third
drops
of
for
5
test
liquid
to10
tubes
and
swirl
to
mix.
minutes.
or
other
small
glass
containers,
to
make
full.
fresh
pineapple
juice
to
the
containers.
303
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16:17
Genetic
Heredity
engineering
8
Tilt
the
test
ethanol
the
is
soluble
Use
the
10
(IDA)
mixture.
form
9
a
is
pulls
more
a
the
small
you
Make
sample
for
use
than
Gene
a
can
vectors
be
are
produced
called
a
the
by
with
model
of
1
Cell
use
of
broken
open
enzymes.
strands
of
1:
A
Stage
2:
This
Stage
3:
The
can
DNA
cut
into
by
restriction
These
a
it
want
placing
one
to
it
the
will
end
and
onto
of
the
the
touch
rod.
strand,
it
precipitate.
measure
in
tube
“spool”
will
and
meet.
the
ethanol
in
mass
any
of
suitable
forget
to
take
a
photograph.
There
from
nd
all
are
sorts
easily
lots
of
and
of
instructions
materials.
make
a
Find
model.
available
some
Try
to
online
instructions
make
a
better
be
done
vir uses
and
joining
up
is
simply
vector
small
DNA
DNA.
from
from
inser ted
a
gene
“carries”
of
two
Organisms
DNA
or
it
into
a
cell.
Alternatively,
into
a
cell.
Examples
known
more
as
plasmids.
different
containing
DNA
organisms
recombinant
is
DNA
are
(GMOs).
engineering
is
ring
t hat
loops
organisms
isolated
gene
by
a
illustrated
a
here
involves
t hree
stages.
donor.
into
a
carrier
(vector).
gene
wit hin
its
vector
is
transferred
to
t he
host.
are
of
the
gene
shorter
the
use
cell
wit h
t he
desired
gene
is
broken
up
using
enzymes.
DNA
(genetic
of
enzyme
material)
using
on
on
ethanol
of
DNA
DNA
The
3
you
by
into
top
top.
released
fragments
a
don’t
DNA.
can
into
gene
if
DNA
pull
where
in
on
on
by
Isolation
2
of
placed
genetic
Stage
you
stick
should
layer
float
layers
well-chilled
lid.
DNA
you
recombinant
type
towel
the
the
a
will
dissolve
ethanol
DNA
layer
forms
and
the
diagram.
genetically-modied
The
a
As
ethanol
paper
Dip
the
not
it
of
DNA
materials
in
a
save
and
volume
that
water
does
DNA.
and
same
so
than
DNA
molecule.
the
tube
water
the
rod
the
variation
yourself
models
transfer
gene
of
is
the
successful
own
C.6.2
one
on
simply
this
making
that
or
the
collect
into
the
dense
salted
where
stringy
about
into
less
but
to
DNA
been
your
Figure
long,
is
T
wirl
container
have
Tr y
rod
Pour
slowly
water,
layer.
DNA
Dry
very
45°.
clumps
glass
white
to
Ethanol
in
white
product,
If
tube
and
is
then
extracted
from
the
restriction
enzymes.
These
cell.
cut
The
the
DNA
DNA
at
is
cut
precise
into
shor ter
places
that
lengths
scientists
separated
can
plate
identify.
As
a
result,
one
long
strand
of
DNA
will
be
cut
in
several
places.
fragments
The
gene
probe
is
a
required
may
be
By
the
active
use
probe
of
a
the
want
can
the
be
piece
enabling
us
be
found
binds
of
to
to
DNA
from
par t
of
(Figure
t hese
t he
C.6.3).
nd
our
gene
acquire
t he
genes
pieces.
desired
from
The
To
gene.
probe
among
t he
do
t his,
This
is
a
gene
probe
slightly
ot her
fragments.
radio-
fragment
There
containing
now
which
single-stranded
radioactive,
4
must
used
gene
are
ot her
ways
to
required.
The
genetic
engineers
you
identified
who
modied
bacteria
to
produce
insulin
realised
t hat
t he
cells
t hat
make
probe
insulin
t heir
make
p
Figure
C.6.3
Stages
in
isolating
a
in
t he
islets
cytoplasm.
copies
of
of
So
viral
Langerhans
t hey
RNA
used
in
in
newly
t he
t he
pancreas
discovered
form
of
DNA.
must
have
enzymes
Before
a
from
1970
lot
of
RNA
vir uses
no-one
in
t hat
t hought
gene
t his
was
possible.
304
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CSEC
HSB
Unit
C.indd
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16:17
Heredity
and
Anot her
variation
way
is
Genetic
simply
to
make
t he
DNA
required
in
a
laborator y.
1
engineering
Insert
the
gene
These
synt hetic
genes
have
exactly
t he
same
proper ties
as
DNA
gene
from
viral
organisms
ot her
and
can
organisms
Insertion
of
be
for
the
inser ted
t he
into
t he
production
isolated
gene
DNA
of
of
useful
a
vector
into
bacteria,
yeasts
DNA
and
products.
(carrier)
2
virus
Place
DNA
A
vector
is
a
plasmid
or
vir us
which
can
into
carr y
a
gene
from
donor
the
in
the
to
virus
recipient
circular
The
strands
rest
One
(host).
of
this
enzyme,
anot her
Several
of
DNA
will
restriction
enzyme,
DNA
are
(plasmids)
account
a
vectors
known,
that
are
concentrate
enzyme,
ligase,
is
is
used
e.g.
found
on
used
to
certain
the
to
join
in
use
cut
some
of
t he
t he
vir uses
and
bacteria.
vir uses.
viral
desired
DNA
gene
and
to
bacterial
bacterial
t he
DNA
of
Generally,
Vir uses
t he
vir uses
t hat
injecting
isolated
vir us.
t hat
infect
t heir
gene
The
attack
bacteria
DNA
into
isolated
into
eit her
attach
t he
anot her
gene
cell.
is
placed
bacteria
to
t he
This
or
inside
yeast
outside
provides
of
a
t he
cells
t heir
way
of
are
3
DNA
vir us.
host
used.
hosts
Virus
to
the
attaches
host
DNA
4
DNA
and
getting
t he
cell.
Viral
inserted
Transfer
to
a
new
Host
cells
attaches
wit h
are
to
t he
now
some
infected
of
required
t he
wit h
host
gene)
t he
cells
into
modied
and
injects
vir us.
its
The
own
vir us
host
DNA.
host
produces
The
host
cell
DNA
(along
will
now
●
In
a
be
and
used
which
extracted
manufacture
t he
desired
Figure
C.6.4
Transfer
of
a
gene
into
a
product
using
a
virus
as
a
vector
C.6.5).
fermenter,
large
can
t hem.
bacterium
(Figure
The
required
chemical
p
●
now
into
host
the
●
and
injects
amounts
t he
of
bacteria
t he
or
yeasts
divide
repeatedly
and
produce
Human
Insulin
Production
product.
DNA
●
The
product
is
har vested
and
used.
human
pancreas
cell
Proteins are made up of amino acids linked together in a certain order.
bacterial
DNA
The sequence of bases in DNA is a code that determines the sequence of
human
insulin
plasmid
producing
amino acids in proteins. Two processes occur inside cells to link amino
gene
DNA
bacterium
acids together.
introduction
●
Transcription
–
a
copy
of
a
gene
is
made
as
a
small,
recombinant
plasmid
molecule
called
ribonucleic
acid
(RNA).
The
of
shor t-lived
molecules
of
RNA
DNA
DNA
into
DNA
are
out
recombinant
a
bacterial
cell
with
restriction
small
enough
to
pass
into
t he
cytoplasm
carr ying
t he
“message”
enzymes
for
making
a
par ticular
protein
to
ribosomes
(see
Unit
A.1.2).
recombinant
bacterium
●
Translation
code
in
–
ribosomes
link
t he
amino
acids
toget her
using
t he
RNA.
recombinant
bacteria
human
and
insulin
Insulin
multiplying
producing
human
insulin
fermentation
All
diabetics
used
to
be
treated
wit h
insulin
obtained
from
pigs
extraction
tank
&
purification
and
cattle,
which
were
slaughtered
for
t he
meat
trade.
People
and
In
t hat
also
t he
diabetics
t hat
1970s,
humans.
t he
were
demand
scientists
They
were
at
for
r isk
identied
able
to
of
getting
insulin
t he
transfer
would
gene
t he
diseases
be
t hat
piece
more
from
of
DNA
for
t he
supply.
insulin
t hat
codes
in
for
human
insulin
wit h
into
bacter ia.
recombinant
Figure
DNA
C.6.5
divide
to
shows
how
produce
t his
many
is
done.
to
GM
make
bacter ia
human
available
in
are
given
insulin.
t he
Human
nutr ients
insulin
and
more
bacter ia.
conditions
produced
like
insulin
Bacter ia
p
These
insulin
animals
t han
codes
of
were
human
worr ied
in
tank
t hey
t his
need
became
Figure
in
the
C.6.5
1970s
bacteria
that
This
to
process
make
could
was
carried
out
genetically-modified
produce
human
insulin
1982.
305
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16:17
Genetic
Heredity
engineering
Other
Many
using
ver y
good
cells
are
medicines
at
Examples
protein
modied
of
these
that
B.6.4),
(see
B.7
.1)
hormone
The
machine”.
It
treatment
t he
of
case
Genetic
Many
put
growing,
and
are
been
year.
but
or
people
t hat
rice
for
t hat
goats,
rice
traditional
from
one
larger
a
The
plasma
For
cer tain
hormone
protection
to
treat
not
are
always
mammalian
of
(see
B.6.4),
clots
from
cer vical
haemophiliacs
gland
was
and
t he
affects
regulates
rst
Escher ichia
t hat
of
crops
cotton,
to
to
coli
be
(E.
cancer
(see
ten
our
made
coli)
hormone
about
not
an
can
C.5)
is
growt h
by
a
which
used
people
in
“gene
t hen
t he
per
million
also
However,
yet
be
par t
for
selective
which
available
in
example,
protein
in
its
a
is
tiny
GM
milk
is
t hat
it
goat
a
can
year
for
a
go
on
t he
crop
from
of
genetic
A.
This
blind
a
large
healt h
is
no
to
each
scale,
of
poor
can
be
and
cattle,
engineering
faster
ot her
be
sheep
sh
GM
possible
by
can
of
rear.
much
is
e.g.
type
are
produce
as
genes
vitamin
modied,
it
t he
rainfall
diet.
and
possible
been
is
result
genetic
quantities
in
t he
who
farmers
breeding,
not
putting
make
t here
of
have
eat
little
growing
t heir
(2014)
available
modication
as
for
milk
disadvantages
such
to
crop
t hey
is
are
benets
of
t heir
yet
as
children
genetically
in
as
t here
t hat
are
t he
when
such
used
of
approved
been
while
where
is
should
proteins
features
carotene,
number
been
of
killed
qualities,
beta
livestock
tobacco
used
are
carotene
t here
pigs
be
and
grow
impor tant
have
or
Examples
pests
will
t he
and
maize
make
beta
anot her,
are
to
t han
move
met hods,
produced
t he
using
same
collected
in
genes
and
much
quantity
from
of
90 000
donations.
disadvantages
weeds
GM
which
quantities.
human
blood
to
diseases
are
production
blood
manufactured
insect
rice
genetic
met hods,
species
chemicals
The
crops
human
and
of
for
bacterium
reduce
is
chickens
advantages
growth
forming
pituitar y
nutritional
quickly.
Advantages
The
so
have
animals
ver y
so
happens
produce
and
industrial
production
modied.
body,
help
t his
and
weedkillers
into
plants
from
stature
soya,
so
t he
to
whom
grows
sheep,
In
when
Domesticated
goats
as
improved
done
The
if
t he
genetically
bacteria
yeasts
human
bacteria
B.6.4).
resistance,
modcations.
has
in
such
human
protein
t he
its
shor t
resistance,
Additionally,
and
in
of
resistance,
pest
drought
maize
by
hormone.
study
crops,
herbicide
placed
type
so
for
into
However,
hormone
modication
crops
into
blood
secreted
t he
a
are
inuenza
a
controlling
is
manufactures
(see
is
gene
ways
thrombin
8,
growth
rate.
research
substances.
for
factor
for
bacteria.
proteins,
similar
medicines
vaccines
This
human
in
prevents
and
Human
ot her
chemicals
modied
producing
and
(see
and
genetically
also
medicines
a
variation
medicines
ot her
made
and
so
t hat
microbes
dangerous,
t hey
are
could
and
herbicide
become
escape
consumers
resistance
“super weeds”
from
could
t hat
laboratories
become
resistant
pass
from
farmers
and
to
factories,
GM
crops
cannot
foods
to
control,
and
become
because
of
306
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CSEC
HSB
Unit
C.indd
306
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16:17
Heredity
t he
fear
and
of
variation
t he
advantages
t he
discriminates
Moral,
Many
in
against
are
organism
T
oxin
t hat
by
t he
small
and
of
making
t hat
GM
develop
farmers
who
technology
and
about
DNA
t he
use
of
organisms.
from
a
market
cannot
environmental
transgenic
contains
(poison)
unknown.
concerned
production
gene(s)
and
companies
ethical
people
t he
new
to
Genetic
also
GM
afford
This
concerns
transgenic
different
huge
crops.
it.
recombinant
A
gives
engineering
species
DNA
technology
organism
and
is
expresses
an
t he
proteins.
production
in
plants
A bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
produces a toxin that kills the larvae of
moths and butteries. The bacterial gene controlling toxin production has
been isolated, inserted into a vector, and transferred into the cells of tobacco,
tomato and cotton plants. These modied plants now produce the toxin so
giving them protection against damage by moth larvae. The toxin is harmless
to humans but any pests that have a resistance to the toxin will survive,
reproduce and increase in number making the protection useless. Resistance
of this type has already emerged in the USA where GM crops are widely grown.
Herbicide
Soya
has
resistance
been
herbicide
soya
plants
at
in
t he
soil
develop
weeds
for
where
so
times
much
or
become
lead
to
an
can
and
be
have
to
are
given
Bot h
t he
had
being
of
new
organisms
t he
weedkiller
t hat
reducing
to
crop.
and
a
weeds
having
People
crops
use
The
are
t hat
crop
t hey
could
could
more
be
might
development
of
money
a
might
gene
(herbicide).
compete
yields.
The
different
herbicide
concer ned
t his
will
wit h
use
breaks
t hat
make
of
t he
herbicides
down
weeds
t he
will
control
of
“escape”
dispersed
possess
a
outside
gene
“super weeds”
on
weed
for
a
t hat
control
t he
areas
herbicide
farmers
t han
on
t he
and
cannot
control
and
transgenic
made
not
upset
to
in
evolution
into
speed
t hem
up
t hat
t he
allows
t hem
evolutionar y
to
process
of
genetically
products
bacteria
used
which
t he
organisms
transplant
use
vir uses
pat hogens
could
might
up
insects.
humans
could
speed
inser ted
This
transgenic
bacteria
become
of
weedkiller
e.g.
specic
to
Muslims,
Mutation
saves
growt h
GM
spend
insecticide-resistant
Attempts
a
insecticide.
Objections
kill
nutr ients,
and
(GM)
organisms
crops
tolerate
to
else.
Transgenic
produce
and
to
crop
products.
t he
grown,
Farmers
t he
difcult.
from
are
anyt hing
Some
to
modied
seeds
t hey
water
dur ing
more
modied
on
yields
har mless
resistance
control.
of
sprayed
light,
into
Genetically
Pollen
is
increases
different
soya
genetically
This
weedkiller
in
in
or
engineer
containing
might
“balance
so
Some
genes
t hat
t heir
people,
from
organs
e.g.
Jews
pigs.
viruses
genetic
we
pigs
operations.
of
engineering
not
be
nature”;
able
e.g.
could
to
mutate
control.
transgenic
and
Transgenic
salmon
grow
307
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CSEC
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16:17
Genetic
Heredity
engineering
ver y
rapidly
could
same
and
reduce
Genetic
have
escape
show
genes
have
for
of
all
of
from
ot her
t he
sh
at
which
been
for
or
genetic
This
sh
farms
species
to
as
where
t hey
t hey
are
compete
reared
for
t he
some
lead
pay
to,
for
a
to
you
e.g.
the
a
reality.
make
are
years,
your
soon
insurance
or
care
who
polygenic
Soon
own
susceptible
but
health
disorders
developing
screening
becoming
disorders
inherited
of
is
by
analysed
for
could
refusing
risk
DNA
genome
available
cer tain
high
individuals
using
whole
them.
premiums
alleles
against
screening
your
could
are
t hey
numbers
variation
food.
Discrimination
to
if
t he
and
they
it
will
to.
have
people
a
like
for
specic
have
that
hear t
This
available
putting
who
prole
condition
be
possible
prole.
Tests
will
companies
of
be
genetic
up
the
shows
they
disease.
Eugenics
DNA
have
technology
been
disease
and
further
an
and
desirable.
meaning
can
be
successfully
inability
used
This
of
to
to
give
might
the
used
term
to
treated
insert
by
make
used
to
into
therapy
antibodies.
humans
be
genes
gene
the
some
conditions
However,
characteristics
“improve”
humans;
for
that
this
are
human
people
such
could
as
be
which
eye
taken
considered
race,
an
to
is
be
the
eugenics
Questions
1
Outline
the
produce
a
processes
human
involved
in
genetically
modifying
bacteria
to
protein.
2
State
three
benefits
that
3
State
three
concerns
genetic
that
some
technology
people
has
have
had
about
on
the
society.
use
of
this
technology.
Summary
●
Chromosomes
genes.
Before
temporarily
●
●
●
Genes
are
are
a
made
parts
In
a
diploid
In
a
haploid
cell,
cell
long
cell
up
of
thin
divides
a
of
structures,
it
two
copies
chromosome
one
of
from
DNA,
chromosomes
that
so
carry
that
each
is
chromatids.
chromosomes
only
made
its
are
each
that
control
found
pair
of
in
individual
homologous
homologous
characteristics.
pairs.
chromosomes
is
found.
●
Before
gains
●
a
the
Mitosis
that
cell
are
is
a
type
nuclear
nucleus
and
it
During
separate
reached
the
must
needs
division
identical.
break
have
its
information
of
genetically
chromatids
into
divide,
genetic
chromosome
●
can
to
poles,
to
divide
grow
which
and
each
the
opposite
daughter
two
daughter
chromatids
poles
reform
cell
survive.
produces
mitosis
nuclei
so
of
of
the
cell.
and
the
cell
cells
each
When
the
divides
two.
Meiosis
during
halves
meiosis
contributes
to
the
chromosome
there
is
variation
some
in
the
number
from
reorganisation
next
of
diploid
the
to
haploid;
chromosomes
which
generation.
308
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16:17
Heredity
●
and
variation
Meiosis
has
two
chromosomes
As
a
result
animals,
●
of
divisions:
separate;
meiosis
including
Monohybrid
An
Genetic
allele
is
four
the
the
first
is
the
the
alternative
division
second
nuclei
humans,
inheritance
the
in
in
are
formed
products
of
inheritance
form
of
a
the
division
gene
homologous
the
chromatids
which
are
meiosis
of
at
a
separate.
haploid.
become
single
the
engineering
In
gametes.
characteristic,
same
locus
on
a
chromosome.
●
●
Multiple
e.g.
the
The
locus
always
●
alleles
The
three
is
are
when
alleles
the
of
place
more
the
on
than
ABO
a
two
blood
alleles
group
chromosome
exist
in
the
population,
gene.
where
a
particular
gene
is
found.
genotype
describes
the
alleles
of
a
gene
that
are
present
in
an
organism.
●
The
phenotype
activity
●
●
●
of
the
Homozygous
sex
The
are
sex
XY
.
is
have
●
Sex
the
an
In
protein
sex
is
the
(factor
be
Genetics
8)
they
Variation
can
Variation
is
Natural
be
Genetic
important
selection
in
the
of
a
be
as
X
is
or
Although
to
the
only
by
on
a
a
or
raw
on
blood
from
mutations
–
are
are
half
the
of
material
e.g.
blood
are
allele
and
the
X
standard
random
for
at
of
another
a
the
inherited
XX
and
his
males
sperm
a
usually
clotting
greater
these
risk
genes.
recessive
of
This
alleles
chromosome.
format
fusion
of
that
gametes.
(environmental).
natural
selection
to
act
variation.
human
height,
or
groups.
different
of
Autosomes
chromosome,
and
over
of
chromosomes
change
the
sex.
non-inherited
crossing
of
sex
Males
on
using
show
of
gene.
Females
faulty
allele
result
chromosome.
vision
continuous,
number
Y
the
gene.
a
father
chromosome
(genetic)
assortment
structure
X
Y
.
the
chromosome.
dominant
human
a
a
is
chromosomes.
and
by
gene
caused
a
of
determining
colour
square
acts
involve
a
of
alleles
X
represented
either
results
are
It
influences.
sex
have
of
for
one
it
genetically
can
mutation).
is
e.g.
random
Mutations
or
have
inherited
variation
fertilisation
●
the
by
of
genes
half
genes
can
pair
determined
and
Punnett
variation
meiosis;
a
humans
is
on
only
a
by
diseases
“masked”
discontinuous,
●
are
crosses
using
Inherited
in
appearance.
alleles
different
carry
occurrence
the
genetic
because
on.
●
is
identical
have
not
offspring
humans,
includes
●
do
chromosome
linked
cannot
●
X
of
linkage
X.
that
organism’s
environmental
have
determined
chromosomes
Sex
an
of
genotypes
chromosomes
●
and
genotypes
Heterozygous
Genetic
describes
genes
gametes;
in
the
chromosomes
during
and
structure
chromosomes
occur
naturally,
during
meiosis;
random
mutations.
of
in
a
a
gene
cell
their
(gene
mutation)
(chromosomal
rate
is
increased
by
mutagens.
●
The
three
are:
isolation
a
●
vector;
of
of
human
in
recombinant
the
transfer
Examples
e.g.
stages
gene
of
the
genetic
insulin,
from
gene
a
DNA
into
engineering
growth
technology
donor;
a
(genetic
of
the
engineering)
isolated
gene
into
host.
are
hormone
insertion
the
and
production
factor
8
for
of
useful
chemicals,
haemophiliacs.
309
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16:17
Practice
Heredity
Questions
8
Practice
Section
1
Which
of
the
following
pairs
of
and
conditions
are
variation
sex-linked?
Questions
A
Albinism
B
Sickle
C
Haemophilia
D
Red-green
and
cell
sickle
anaemia
cell
anaemia.
and
haemophilia.
A
Chromosomes
are
A
mitochondria
B
ribosomes
found
in
which
cell
str ucture?
9
Genetic
and
colour
variation
red-green
blindness
cannot
colour
and
result
blindness.
albinism.
from
which
of
t he
following?
2
C
cell
D
nucleus
A
membrane
diploid
A
n
B
n
C
2n
cell
can
be
represented
by
A
Assor tment
B
Crossing
C
Random
D
Shuffling
of
over
chromosomes
in
fer tilisation
of
in
meiosis.
chromosomes.
of
gametes.
chromosomes
in
mitosis.
2
10
Gender
Which
is
determined
of
t he
by
statements
t he
sex
below
chromosomes,
is
not
X
and
Y.
correct?
2
D
3
2n
Which
of
t hese
processes
occurs
in
mitosis?
A
Males
B
The
are
XY
gender
and
of
chromosome
I
Crossing
II
Formation
of
become
T
wo
A
II
B
I
and
IV
C
I
and
II
and
cell
C
All
D
The
eggs
III
and
X
Section
The
have
t he
a
A
for
chromosome
only
has
genes
for
determining
obser ved
chromosomes
a
slide
were
under
stained
a
microscope
and
to
easy
where
see.
a
characteristic
written
as
Aa
can
What
are
chromosomes?
[2]
be
If
t he
tissues
had
been
cheek
cells
from
a
as
A
homozygous
B
heterozygous
C
homozygous
D
none
of
t he
dominant
been
iii)
t he
t he
formed.
above
iv)
following
how
sentences
correctly
describes
many
present?
Name
recessive
Identify
not
of
a
features
student
ii)
Which
X
chromosome
human,
5
by
cells
IV
genotype
described
sperm
B
i)
4
by
divisions
t he
III
carried
XX
determined
spindle
1
D
are
is
shorter
female
IV
females
embr yo
over
Chromosomes
III
an
chromosomes
would
have
[1]
process
by
which
cheek
cells
are
[1]
one
formed
type
by
of
t he
cell
in
process
t he
body
named
t hat
in
a)
is
iii)
an
above.
[1]
allele?
b
A
An
allele
is
a
lengt h
of
DNA
in
a
Kuntie
An
allele
is
an
alternative
form
of
a
single
identical
An
allele
describes
t he
physical
sets
are
of
siblings.
They
chromosomes
believe
in
t heir
t hey
cells
even
gene.
t hough
C
Krishna
chromosome.
have
B
and
appearance
of
t hey
are
not
twins,
since
t hey
share
a
close
an
resemblance
to
each
ot her.
individual.
i)
D
An
allele
is
t he
genetic
makeup
for
a
Explain
how
Use
a
diagram
formed.
An
example
of
discontinuous
variation
A
height
B
skin
C
gender
in
D
body
effects
2
Students
colour
ways.
mass
Recombinant
DNA
technology
involves
t hree
in
a
Some
I
A
gene
within
A
gene
is
inserted
its
vector
III
A
gene
is
isolated
into
is
a
transferred
carrier
to
incorrect.
show
genes
and
on
t hese
some
the
differ
from
variations
by
a
is
t he
correct
order
t he
Complete
a
I
,
II,
host
differences
I,
C
II,
III,
many
differences
environmental
t he
following
tick
in
t he
and
t heir
table
about
correct
cause
of
inherited
variation
by
placing
column.
only
of
variation
Genes
and
environment
(body
mass)
III
colour
II
III,
colour
I
ABO
III,
in
in
by
stages?
Hair
D
ot her
caused
Characteristic
Eye
B
are
(vector)
Weight
A
twins
stages:
donor
of
[5]
identical
genes.
Genes
Which
each
are
Cause
from
how
[5]
school
of
characteristics
II
to
is
a
7
is
characteristic.
ii)
6
t his
II,
blood
group
I
Thickness
of
calf
muscle
[5]
310
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Heredity
and
b
variation
i)
Explain
Practice
if
between
it
is
two
environment
ii)
Explain
and
t he
possible
people
for
t he
be
due
to
only.
5
variation
to
a
t he
difference
sur vey
to
[4]
discontinuous
A
between
variation
examples.
[4]
Suggest
impor tance
one
species.
3
Sickle
cell
a
information
help
continuous
wit h
t he
use
of
variation
among
town
t he
t he
is
was
shown
blood
conducted
distribution
bank
in
to
t he
be
is
caused
by
a
change
in
t he
Group
t he
below
prepared
Frequency
A
27
B
20
haemoglobin
in
hospital
and
times
This
would
of
(%)
4
production.
O
is
table
local
groups.
gene
N
H
a
[2]
anaemia
controls
for
blood
a
AB
which
of
emergencies.
of
Blood
iii)
in
determine
Questions
unaffected
allele
of
t he
haemoglobin
49
gene.
S
H
is
If
t he
t he
changed
allele
of
t he
haemoglobin
gene.
i)
S
genotype
is
H
Plot
a
bar
t he
person
has
sickle
If
t he
genotype
is
H
about
H
t he
person
If
t he
genotype
Which
blood
group
as?
Identify
one
is
H
H
,
advantage
what
is
t he
State
of
having
Draw
a
genetic
diagram
to
show
A
new
of
children
by
a
man
wit h
H
t he
and
a
born
lost.
woman
genetic
wit h
normal
haemoglobin.
t heir
cross
in
a
ii),
what
propor tion
homozygous
dominant
ii)
homozygous
recessive
heterozygous
Explain
why
woman
in
children
Suggest
will
cell
it
t he
wit h
a
6
a
Complete
t heir
has
baby ’s
and
baby
Mrs.
whilst
(Group
t he
O)
her
wit h
B.
blood
[4]
name
group
Smit h
Mr.
argue
is
impossible
genetic
sickle
cross
cell
combination
produce
at
least
anaemia.
Red-green
for
to
t he
anaemia.
of
one
man
produce
t he
i)
wit h
ii)
t hat
b
sickle
[2]
following
meanings.
colour
about
genetic
is
is
tag
AB.
removed
Mr.
(Group
A)
Smit h
claim
Hunt
(Group
B)
t hat
and
she
Mrs.
t hat
she
about
is
t he
t heirs.
four
blindness
is
is
a
people
answer.
recessive,
t he
by
your
solve
allele
t he
[5]
sex-linked
r
terms
genetic
normal
[2]
cross
male
condition.
t he
diagram
and
a
to
show
t he
heterozygous
offspring
female
for
[6]
genetic
cross
above:
terms
State
t he
ratio
of
normal
children
to
[4]
term
Meaning
A
by
meant
sex-linked
of
From
explain
recessive
a
a
fully
governed
what
Use
t his
table
It
Explain
[2]
genotypes
child
a
and
any
and
colour-blind
Genetic
had
blood
information
problem
i)
and
baby
The
O)
condition.
[3]
c
4
people
is:
i)
ii)
of
group
of
t his
i)
blood
[6]
Using
offspring
genotypes
and
S
Hunt
t he
A
H
is
c
t he
t he
N
production
iii)
of
[1]
t his
(Group
t he
[5]
most
[1]
and
From
in
condition
b
condition.
b
found
[1]
group
iii)
is
S
ii)
known
ii)
information
groups.
has
population?
i)
t he
blood
haemoglobin.
N
a
show
t he
N
ii)
normal
to
cell
collected
N
anaemia.
graph
S
H
length
genetic
of
DNA
code
for
which
a
ii)
carries
single
State
the
protein.
d
Allele
Explain
an
individual’
s
for
a
particular
percentage
[2]
of
male
colour-blind.
red-green
among
men
colour
t han
children
who
[2]
blindness
women.
is
more
[3]
genetic
7
make-up
be
why
frequent
Describes
t he
could
children.
a
Two
types
of
cell
division
are
mitosis
and
meiosis.
characteristic.
Identify
t hree
differences
between
t he
two
types
of
Phenotype
cell
b
A
man
is
tongue
a
tongue
roller.
non-tongue
having
Use
c
a
a
can
be
i)
ii)
is
a
diagram
is
by
Explain
are
a
t he
show
sum
t he
crossing
over
Identify
disadvantage
t he
genetic
b
non-
who
of
is
variations
Mutations
number
a
i)
t hem
roller?
working.
ii)
[6]
population
meiosis
a
one
t hat
c
Dave
is
a
leads
to
i)
mutations
vir uses.
t hat
[3]
ii)
when
condition
extra
two
rice
t he
Identify
who
is
changes
caused
in
features
was
increase
advantages
given
t hree
t han
are
in
t he
cells.
by
the
of
the
cells.
presence
[1]
t his
[2]
help
advice
ot her
that
phenotypic
can
t here
in
chromosome
farmer
Discuss
t his
of
occur
chromosomes
engineering
in
in
can
State
List
[3]
condition.
genetic
a
of
of
factors.
[2]
to
a
chances
in
variation.
lead
is
woman
your
of
organisms
different
how
fat her
non-tongue
to
t he
between
caused
whose
marries
What
who
variation
differences
man
roller.
child
genetic
Genetic
roller
The
division.
in
to
uses
advised
his
and
Dave.
of
genetic
disadvantages
of
[6]
genetic
agriculture.
t hat
profits.
engineering
[3]
311
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16:17
Unit
D
Disease
D.1
Learning
By
the
will
end
be
on
D.1
outcomes
of
able
this
topic
define
What
and
impact
and
disease
you
to:
health
its
humans
Health
There
●
and
do
are
we
two
mean
ver y
by
different
health?
ways
of
answering
t he
question
‘What
is
good
disease
health?’
●
classify
diseases
different
into
categories
One
●
differentiate
between
of
and
●
is
exercise
to
how
asthma
a
sor t
getting
of
checklist
over-tired,
–
the
t he
ability
absence
to
of
do
a
cer tain
illness,
and
so
amount
on.
respiratory
The
other
The
rst
way
state
the
possible
treatment
to
ask
people,
‘What
does
it
mean
to
you
to
be
healt hy?’
way
might
seem
more
objective,
but
healt h
is
increasingly
seen
as
tract
of
we
decide
for
ourselves.
In
other
words,
it
is
subjective.
causes
When
and
is
affects
something
●
produce
without
symptoms
explain
the
way
signs
asked,
‘What
is
good
healt h?’
people
generally
give
t he
following
asthma.
sor ts
of
enjoy
or
answers:
life,
stressed
The
all
World
complete
to
Disease
a
can
family,
t he
an
live,
e.g.
is
hot,
good
a
Ill
●
studied
of
be
of
at
babies
having
poor
as
by
The
has
a
long
from
job
or
dened
well-being,
being
not
able
to
being
tired
occupation.
healt h
and
malfunction
life,
pain,
free
of
as
‘a
from
t he
state
of
disease
mind
or
or
body
healt h.
levels:
shelter
reducing
t he
level
by
t he
against
t hat
t he
loving,
t he
t he
It
is
is
cool
which
t he
to
and
mental
responsible
realise
weat her
t he
and
t he
t hey
signicantly
accidents
physical,
caring,
in
when
elements,
of
individual,
impor tant
community
chance
for
of
worldwide.
home
t he
impor tance
of
at
and
affected
children
a
free
satisfying
(WHO)
nation
is
living
being
social
various
t he
provides
and
and
a
well-ventilated
healt h
diseases.
disease,
family,
dened
healt h
dr y,
which
aids
risk
of
emotional
adults
cannot
over-stressed.
healt h
can
result
inheritance
anaemia
●
may
community,
clean,
and
and
mental
individual’s
infectious
be
be
from
and
Organization
condition
physical
healt h
time
Healt h
Healt h
t hat
t he
free
friends
physical,
inrmity’.
leading
being
having
of
and
self-abuse,
from:
faulty
alleles,
Huntington’s
e.g.
from
e.g.
t hose
for
haemophilia,
sickle
cell
disease
cigarette
smoking,
excessive
alcohol
consumption,
over-eating
●
dietar y
●
deciency,
infectious
●
diseases,
degenerative
personal
and
vitamin
e.g.
diseases,
Huntington’s
●
e.g.
or
measles,
e.g.
mineral
deciencies
inuenza,
osteoar t hritis,
dengue
fever
Alzheimer’s
disease,
disease
social
factors,
e.g.
loneliness,
poor
housing.
Diseases
p
Figure
D.1.1
Doctors
do
their
best
A
to
treat
people
when
they
are
ill
disease
two
diseases
to
keep
and
them
offer
advice
healthy
and
is
any
change
from
normal
healt h.
Diseases
can
be
classied
into
with
groups.
Communicable
are
infectious
diseases
like
measles.
They
can
support
be
passed
from
one
person
to
anot her
and
are
caused
by
pathogens,
such
312
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16:19
Disease
as
and
bacteria,
are
not
vir uses
such
Diseases
are
as
are
and
humans
fungi.
e.g.
by
feeling
Signs
are
Health
Non-communicable
degenerative,
diabetes,
temperature
Signs
on
e.g.
detected
feels,
subjective.
your
impact
infectious,
diseases,
person
its
sickle
symptoms
too
what
and
cell
see
hot,
an
inherited
anaemia
and
too
obser ver
t hat
it
is
or
can
too
and
signs.
cold
and
all
Symptoms
or
t he
diseases
t hat
deciency
sick.
e.g.
can
a
see
are
what
t he
Symptoms
doctor
t hat
may
you
are
take
have
a
rash.
objective.
p
Written
Figure
D.1.2
sleeping
swellings
Different
categories
of
disease
World
are
classied
in
a
great
variety
of
different
categories.
T
able
a
few
of
checks
on
this
Health
these
categories.
Make
two
for
signs
a
list
of
human
●
a
list
of
disease
examining
woman’s
neck.
Organization
an
ambitious
The
(WHO)
is
campaign
test
for
sleeping
sickness
and
lists:
reduce
●
by
D.1.1
to
just
nurse
sickness
coordinating
Diseases
A
activity
of
lists
disease
rickets.
feeling
detect,
high
are
nutritional
and
the
number
of
cases
diseases
categories.
Key
terms
!
Y
ou
are
will
probably
nding
within
it
nd
difcult
medicine,
occupations
of
the
to
parts
rst
think
of
list
of
the
easier
to
categories
body,
types
compile
of
of
than
diseases,
the
second.
think
pathogens,
of
age,
If
you
Pathogen
specialisms
sex
people.
the
index
of
this
book
to
nd
different
disease
and
their
you
have
than
D.1.1.
lled
one
Y
ou
will
several
category,
degenerative
nd
pieces
e.g.
disease.
that
some
of
paper
diseases
with
Huntington’s
All
dietary
disease
deciency
can
your
is
be
an
lists,
start
classied
inherited
diseases
are
caused
to
transmitted
(disease)
by
a
Any
pathogen
into
from
one
person
that
to
complete
another
T
able
causing
causes.
is
When
disease
Communicable
disease
Use
A
organism.
and
–
an
infectious
disease.
more
disease
and
Non-communicable
(disease)
Any
caused
a
disease
that
is
not
by
a
non-communicable.
pathogen.
Y
ou
may
nd
reorganising
how
q
to
easier
as
organise
T
able
T
ype
it
it
of
D.1.1
you
to
put
your
change
table
your
in
mind
a
spreadsheet,
about
the
so
you
categories,
can
keep
examples
and
it.
T
ypes
disease
of
diseases
with
examples
✔
Description
Examples
Exam
Cause
Asthma
Dietary
deciency
Lack
of
nutrient
a
in
particular
the
important
diet
tip
Scurvy
A
lack
of
vitamin
C
Rickets
A
lack
of
vitamin
D
cannot
Infectious
is
an
example
communicable
catch
(communicable)
else,
Non-infectious
measles.
unlike
of
disease.
it
from
the
sure
non-
someone
common
Make
a
You
you
cold
or
know
(non-communicable)
which
diseases
are
infectious
Degenerative
(communicable)
and
which
are
not
Inherited
(non-communicable).
Asthma
Ast hma
is
unlike
cold
a
an
example
which
of
a
disease
usually
lasts
t hat
for
a
people
week
or
can
have
two.
for
During
a
long
an
time,
ast hma
✔
bronchi
and
bronchioles
become
narrower
as
t he
muscles
in
will
The
The
overall
linings
effect
is
also
t hat
become
t he
inamed
sufferer
will
and
more
wheeze,
mucus
cough
and
is
be
come
across
the
terms
t hem
chronic
contract.
tip
attack
You
t he
Exam
produced.
shor t
and
Make
sure
mean
and
acute
you
use
in
this
know
them
Unit.
what
in
they
your
of
answers.
breat h.
During
bloodstream
an
will
ast hma
attack
decrease.
This
t he
is
a
volume
of
dangerous
oxygen
absorbed
condition
and
can
into
lead
t he
to
deat h.
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Health
and
Disease
disease
Causes
The
of
causes
include,
a
its
impact
on
humans
asthma
of
(substances
substances
and
ast hma
t hat
found
anxiety,
Normal
are
cause
in
not
fully
allergies),
fur
and
exercise
understood,
e.g.
pollen,
feat hers
and
(see
genetic
airway
b
but
include
tobacco
Figure
allergens
smoke,
D.1.4).
dust
Ot her
mites
causes
and
can
factors.
During
asthma
symptoms
narrowed
airway
muscle
(limited
air
flow)
airway
tightened
wall
muscles
constrict
airway
p
Figure
D.1.4
moulds
Dust
(green)
mites
and
feed
organic
on
detritus
on
inflamed/
fibres.
Their
faeces
(greenish
spots)
thickened
are
powerful
allergens.
The
glossy
airway
brown
spheres
are
their
eggs
wall
(x40)
mucus
thickened
muscle
airway
mucus
muscle
p
Figure
b)
a
D.1.3
person
Diagnosis
Diagnosis
lungs
using
breat hed
by
of
of
t he
t he
p
Figure
D.1.5
Using
a
peak
flow
does
a
peak
of
a
bronchus
in
a)
a
person
who
does
not
have
asthma,
asthma
for
meter
lungs
of
measuring
and
muscle
(Figure
gives
and
t he
D.1.5).
an
t he
movement
This
air
measures
indication
build-up
of
of
of
t he
out
how
of
t he
much
resistance
to
air
is
ow
mucus.
asthma
several
allergens,
involves
ow
t he
contractions
are
through
have
asthma
ast hma
out
Treatments
There
Sections
who
wall
steps
e.g.
by
to
not
cope
wit h
keeping
ast hma.
pets
and
The
by
rst
is
cleaning
to
avoid
your
exposure
home
to
regularly.
meter
Dr ugs
can
help
alleviate
t he
inammation
t he
bronchial
Figure
of
t he
air ways
t he
symptoms,
bronchial
enabling
e.g.
tubes
more
air
steroids
and
to
t he
get
in
are
dr ug
and
used
to
reduce
salbutamol
out
of
t he
dilates
lungs
(see
D.1.6).
314
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Disease
and
Case
Ast hma
highest
dust
is
a
healt h
rates
of
are
on
humans
Health
carried
selected
a
t he
t he
t he
in
in
t he
worse
when
prevalence
among
Table
between
Prevalence
adolescents
of
children
D.1.2
in
on
and
It
t hat
is
African
dust
ast hma
in
of
school
September
t he
severity
and
Barbados
widely
ast hma
ast hma
shows
Trinidad
Caribbean.
world.
Caribbean,
schools
D.1.2
among
problem
questionnaire
experienced.
T
able
asthma
ast hma
in
out
high
completed
childhood
much
investigate
was
q
and
elsewhere
children,
To
impact
believed
of
Wheezing
Number
students
in
the
experienced
of
asthmatic
disease
in
the
previous
over
on
Trinidad
and
and
attending
t he
Barbados,
especially
are
Tobago,
35
December
any
of
a
study
randomly
2002.
symptoms
in
high.
t hat
Students
t hey
results.
of
asthma
T
obago
study
attacks
one
concentrations
age
and
has
symptoms,
(all
and
the
asthma-associated
results
are
Trinidad
Number
past
and
study
Saharan
and
its
symptoms
percentages)
T
obago
3519
1469
13.1
13.4
year
the
year
1–3
10.5
10.9
1.9
3.0
0.9
1.8
4–12
p
more
than
12
Figure
asthma
Lifetime
prevalence
helps
Wheezing
Asthma
Family
history
of
24.1
24.3
12.8
13.5
asthma
23.0
the
D.1.6
A
using
person
an
because
it
who
has
inhaler.
The
relaxes
muscles
drug
in
bronchi
13.4
African dust clouds reach the Caribbean from January to October. There
has been evidence of increased amounts of Saharan dust being transported
across the Atlantic to the Americas since the mid-1960s. The dust carries
spores of the fungus,
Aspergillus, which has been linked to causing asthma
attacks. Since the 1960s, there has been evidence of increased numbers of
patients with asthma attending accident and emergency (A&E)
departments in Caribbean countries for the treatment of asthma.
Sources
Based
vol.
of
on
25
information
(2006)
asthma
Tobago:
and
among
results
of
from
Monteil
Gyan
et
al.
adolescents
a
al.
Chinese
Comparison
in
nationwide
et
the
Journal
of
Caribbean
cross-sectional
of
Geochemistr y,
prevalence
islands
sur vey
of
and
severity
Trinidad
(2005),
BMC
and
Public
p
Health
Figure
D.1.7
Saharan
dust
storm
5(96).
viewed
from
space
Questions
1
What
2
Describe
and
3
meant
t he
Tobago
Explain
is
4
is
Explain
ast hmatic
term
of
shown
t he
in
how
t he
results
as
how
involved
by
t he
in
study
and
study
Table
could
triggering
dust
prevalence?
on
be
extended
ast hmatic
fungal
childhood
ast hma
in
Trinidad
D.1.2.
to
nd
out
if
Saharan
dust
attacks.
spores
could
be
involved
in
triggering
attacks.
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Non-communicable
(non-infectious)
Disease
diseases
5
Studies
found
t hat
during
of
should
dust.
t hat
6
have
depar tments
Why
dust
What
is
factors
is
t he
t he
in
t here
t he
time
are
researchers
cause
of
evidence
in
t he
more
when
be
t he
results
people
t here
war y
ast hma
and
are
of
its
impact
attending
increased
drawing
on
humans
A&E
quantities
t he
conclusion
attacks?
for
t he
involvement
of
genetic
ast hma?
Questions
1
State
2
Make
the
a
table
nausea
and
Learning
By
the
will
end
be
causes,
this
to
topic
discuss
you
the
and
diabetes
and
●
4
State
four
5
Describe
prevention
of:
a
●
high
on
possible
and
of
the
topic
will
involve
have
as
having
a
a
sign
or
symptom:
headache,
feeling
tired
asthma.
two
of
asthma.
possible
referring
already
following
skin.
causes
explain
of
temperature,
your
symptoms
mellitus
(types
1
is
been
index
a
condition
covered
in
been
to
treatments
for
asthma.
(non-infectious)
several
previous
topics
in
diseases
which
various
described.
when
Topic
a
person
B.1.6
on
is
greatly
page
89
over weight.
when
dealing
The
wit h
condition
body
mass
(BMI).
2)
diseases.
Maths
will
sick),
rash
each
Obesity
has
ailments
cardiovascular
Y
ou
classify
health.
Non-communicable
Obesity
digestive
●
three
conditions
obesity
●
State
This
to
of
signs/symptoms,
treatment
●
of
able
definition
(feeling
having
3
D.2
outcomes
WHO
also
explain
be
the
able
skills
1
to:
importance
of
T
able
D.2.1
shows
the
estimated
percentages
of
people
in
the
Caribbean
fitness
who
●
explain
diet
●
the
and
describe
importance
overweight
importance
obese
in
1980,
1990,
2000
and
2008.
q
T
able
D.2.1
of
Year
stress
and
of
exercise
the
were
%
management.
overweight
%
obese
-2
(BMI
≥
25
kg
m
-2
)
(BMI
≥
30
kg
m
)
Males
Females
1980
25.3
29.0
4.8
9.2
1990
30.3
37.1
6.1
12.7
2000
37.0
46.4
8.9
18.8
2008
46.3
55.1
14.0
26.5
1
Plot
the
2
Explain
3
What
data
on
a
suitable
graph
or
Males
Females
chart.
-2
in
4
the
percentage
of
of
BMI
the
≥
male
25
kg
m
population
was
overweight,
but
not
obese
1990?
Make
four
conclusion
5
meaning
Can
any
conclusions
with
link
be
data
about
taken
made
the
from
between
data
the
in
the
table
and
support
each
table.
gender,
obesity
and
diabetes?
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Disease
and
its
Digestive
Gastric
The
t his
is
lined
hydrochloric
layer
of
is
to
Non-communicable
(non-infectious)
a
and
ver y
t hick
pepsin
becomes
layer
from
t hinner
or
of
mucus.
harming
it.
This
prevents
However,
non-existent
and
t he
its
sometimes
stomach’s
it.
acid
This
inamed.
burns
leads
The
t he
to
cause
stomach
gastric
of
lining
ulcers,
t hese
is
in
of ten
and
t he
which
pepsin
t he
unclear,
may
stomach
but
t hey
are
lining
known
p
Figure
D.2.1
photographs
to
be
inuenced
by
stress
and
alcohol
consumption.
A
recently
is
t he
bacterium
Helicobacter
pylor i
t hat
infects
many
of ten
wit hout
causing
any
at
show
the
two
how
have
grown!
In
our
the
1950s
people,
and
alt hough
Look
to
discovered
waistbands
cause
diseases
reduced.
digest
becomes
wit h
acid
mucus
hydrochloric
begin
humans
ulcers
resistance
The
on
ailments
stomach
own
impact
1960s
obesity
was
very
rare,
now
symptoms.
it
is
very
common
The treatment for gastric ulcers may involve drugs that reduce acid secretion
or antibiotics to treat infection by
Helicobacter pylori. These treatments are
often successful, so surgery to remove part of the stomach is not used as much
as in the past.
Gall
stones
These form in the gall bladder when cholesterol becomes solid (Figure D.2.2).
This can produce a number of small stones, or one large one, that can ll the
✔
Study
tip
entire gall bladder. This can be a very painful condition.
See
Treatments
entire
and
gall
var y,
bladder.
ultrasound
bladder,
but
but
to
care
include
The
use
break
has
to
of
up
be
surger y
to
remove
chemicals
the
gall
taken
to
stone.
with
dissolve
It
how
the
is
gall
the
possible
much
fatty
stone
gall
to
or
even
stone
live
foods
the
gradually
without
are
in
the
a
gall
page
about
the
bladder.
into
the
It
78
to
remind
position
stores
of
bile
yourself
the
gall
which
ows
duodenum.
diet.
Pancreatitis
This
is
an
reasons,
inammation
including
pancreatic
duct
Eventually,
even
leak
t he
into
Diabetes
Diabetes
enzymes
t he
body
B.3.4
1
and
of
t hese
(from
Summarising
will
nd
complete
and
This
t he
and
pancreas
to
pancreatic
where
t hey
may
gall
t he
for
a
which
variety
block
of
t he
duodenum.
juice
can
happen
stone
digest
digest
t he
pancreas
ot her
and
organs.
have
hear t
covered
in
Unit
B.5.4
on
page
192
and
circulation
problems
have
been
covered
in
activity
diseases
of
been
146).
information
T
able
methods
2
disease
information
cardiovascular
to
in
t he
cavity
type
page
Written
Y
ou
pancreas.
mellitus
type
number
Unit
t he
consumption
connecting
Cardiovascular
A
of
alcohol
D.2.2
on
in
on
obesity,
earlier
below.
treatment
non-communicable
and
diabetes
sections
The
table
of
mellitus
the
should
prevention.
diseases
(types
book.
show
Find
1
and
the
causes,
Y
ou
may
come
you
may
need
2)
and
information
symptoms,
across
other
p
information
which
is
worth
including.
If
so,
another
Figure
gall
Y
ou
could
head
it
‘Further
comments’
before
you
start
lling
in
D.2.2
Gall
stones
inside
the
column.
the
bladder
table.
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Non-communicable
(non-infectious)
Disease
diseases
q
T
able
D.2.2
Causes,
Disease
symptoms
and
treatment
Cause(s)
of
four
and
its
impact
on
non-communicable
Symptoms
humans
diseases
Treatment/
prevention
Fitness
p
Figure
D.2.3
Swimming
helps
to
build
The
up
strength,
as
well
as
stamina
words
‘tness’
same
suppleness
t hing.
tness
has
However,
t hree
–
and
–
increase
T
able
D.2.3
tness
(see
do
to
you
your
in
generally
t he
Table
refers
in
mean
t he
to
physical
tness.
Physical
at
t hey
enjoy,
least
If
you
on
take
stamina,
up
a
slowly
a
range
and
to
for
take
to
15
or
can
The
need
week
strengt h
spor t
you
tness.
probably
times
new
before
physical
will
natural
of
D.2.4).
weeks
star t
t hree
maximum
have
you
your
to
t he
D.2.3).
Figure
several
in
stamina,
breat hless
(see
D.2.3).
for
Figure
having
effects
improvement
you
(see
joints
exercise
somet hing
get
power
exibility,
in
differ
prepared
form
expect
of
to
impor tant
care.
do
or
and
t he
For
exercise,
see
any
activity
more
any
t hing
is
lasting
so
minutes
t hat
on
suppleness
each
q
t hey
components.
muscle
improvement
stamina
if
Suppleness
to
to
as
3
signicant
helps
used
Strengt h
be
Y
oga
sometimes
2
suppleness
D.2.4
are
Stamina – endurance, the ability to keep going without gasping for breath.
Activities
Figure
‘healt h’
1
movement
p
and
and
Consequences
of
different
occasion.
activities
for
physical
fitness
Activity
Stamina
Strength
Suppleness
Activity
Stamina
Strength
Suppleness
Activity
Stamina
Strength
Suppleness
Badminton
**
**
***
Football
***
***
***
Sailing
*
**
**
Canoeing
***
***
**
Golf
*
*
**
Squash
***
**
***
Climbing
***
**
*
Gymnastics
**
***
****
Swimming
stairs
****
****
****
(hard)
Cricket
*
*
**
Hill
***
**
*
T
ennis
Cycling
***
***
**
Housework
walking
*
*
**
Walking
*
*
***
Jogging
****
**
**
(hard)
**
***
***
**
*
*
*
****
*
(briskly)
Dancing
Weight-
(ballroom)
lifting
Dancing
***
*
****
Judo
**
**
****
***
****
**
Rowing
****
****
**
Yoga
*
*
****
(disco)
Digging
*
=
no
real
benefit;
**
=
beneficial
effect;
***
=
very
The
beneficial
effect;
importance
****
of
=
excellent
diet
effect
and
exercise
Diet
Diet
is
much
such
ver y
impor tant
sugar
as
and
obesity
fat
and
when
will
dealing
cause
wit h
weight
gain
all
t he
and
above.
may
lead
The
to
intake
several
of
too
diseases,
hyper tension.
Exercise
Regular exercise is essential for a healthy lifestyle. It will affect several parts of
your body including the respiratory, circulatory, skeletal and nervous systems.
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Disease
and
its
impact
The
immediate
and
dept h
of
It
is
B.3
and
of
effects
excessive
feeling
making
may
lead
of
you
note
exercise
be
t hat
be
people
in
bad
to
of ten
Table
for
tiredness.
likely
nd
life
good
anxiety,
Stress
for
t he
It
such
in
as
an
Topic
in
increase
B.2.2.
Figure
‘feel
D.2.3
body.
can
become
loss
from
Stress
management
of
stressful.
us,
of
stress
stress
or
sleep,
its
The
D.2.5,
even
good’
are
It
all
can
af ter
as
in
t he
rate
well
as
in
doing
to
t he
exercise.
However,
injuries
immune
or
to
a
system,
ill.
cer tain
be
us
amount
aler t.
about
stress
too
irritability
managing
your
is
and
life
inevitable
much
so
stress
poor
t hat
and
can
physical
you
do
not
consequences.
achieved
coping
of
However,
better
in
two
wit h
main
t he
ways,
decreasing
t he
stress.
p
Figure
D.2.5
The
consequences
If
you
are
stressed
because
you
do
not
have
enough
time
to
t
you
might
decide
to
drop
one
of
your
commitments.
If
you
are
tr y
you
taking
feel
some
members
of
your
asser tiveness
family
classes
or
do
not
talking
listen
to
to
t hem
you,
you
might
unless
explaining
how
excessive.
●
improved
as
Some
a
to
●
a
Still
so
or
meal
nd
t hat
if
nd
an
day,
practices
Caribbean,
t he
diseases
rise
aged
are
of
t he
admit
talking
be,
not
t his
t hat
t hem
good
you
also
help,
enough
could
to
to
at
include
cannot
relaxing
about
t he
a
counsellor.
treating
t hemselves
out,
so
can
t hat
in
as
are
the
lower
heart
rate
fitness,
and
e.g.
what
t he
be
suppose
you
you
are
blood
●
improved
●
increase
●
improvement
pressure
respiratory
in
muscle
in
fitness
size
self-esteem
following.
perfect
and
set
your
help.
in
helps.
problems
to
You
ever yone
music
somet hing,
could
t he
are
tr y
to
family
enough,
such
meet
has
a
as
for
whet her
new
at
chance
least
to
talk
in
Caribbean
many
of
increase
and
due
iron
in
ot her
common.
concerned
children,
cancer
with
to
Healt h
anaemia
inadequate
from
diabetes,
obesity,
par ts
of
t he
world,
aut horities
nutrition-related
t hroughout
t he
about:
iron-deciency
absor ption
●
are:
day.
Health
●
are
listening
simply
t hat
study
Caribbean
applying
you
cope
t hat
evening
ever y
t heir
chronic
feel
to
need
Case
t he
and
self-critical,
or,
ot hers
about
In
exercise
lower.
nd
friend
clot hes
one
bit
people
Ot hers
you
strategies
being
sights
strategies
because
Some
Stop
●
coping
stressed
doing.
●
long-term
of
cardiovascular
decreased
●
are
exercise
feel.
Learning
get
the
The
consequences
such
you
long-term
exercise
stressed
is
because
of
ever yt hing
beneficial,
in,
diseases
long-term
benecial.
lead
weaken
unhappiness,
is
harmful
can
and
A
keeping
management
suffer
amount
exercise,
summarised
shown
can
more
people
healt h.
are
of
considered
(non-infectious)
management
even
to
to
per petual
Stress
Many
exercise
exercise
of
were
Non-communicable
B.4.
interesting
The
humans
consequences
breat hing,
consequences
Units
on
in
pregnant
iron
intake
in
women
and
school-
t he
and
poor
diet
foods
hyper tension,
especially
in
t hose
coronar y
aged
35
hear t
and
disease,
over.
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Non-communicable
(non-infectious)
Disease
diseases
In
t he
t he
1950s,
t he
due
to
diets
people’s
rened
They
sugar
but
diseases
The
in
contributed
been
tubers
fast
a
to
many
a
of
result,
children
monitoring
to
Fur thermore,
p
Figure
eating
D.2.6
a
Are
healthy
these
young
balanced
diet
people
to
to
educate
and
in
impact
concerned
This
was
Governments
meat,
on
fats,
humans
about
largely
increased
oils
and
diets
t hat
led
attendance
improved.
led
foods.
fat,
t hat
have
rich
and
in
energy
responsible
sugar,
for
t he
receive
a
to
an
proper
and
t he
lifestyle
of
in
diet.
school
initiative
t he
eating
adopted
met hods.
attention
the
t he
of
improving
planning
span
need
children
campaign
for
on
balanced
programmes
status
promotion
popularity
communities
nutrition
t here
vegetables,
self-help
improvement
preparation
nutritional
fr uits,
focus
A
has
addition,
The
to
adequate
and
salt
In
grains,
eaten.
and
increased
and
diseases.
are
t han
restaurants
The
shor tcomings.
and
healthy
diets
energy
too
fast-food
governments
increased
nutrition
are
in
largely
cereals,
Parents
School
t he
of
less
many
menus
improved
wit h
poor
t hat
are
of
children
parents
diets
chronic
beans)
children.
a
to
processed
and
t hat
problems
saturated
has
exhibit
promote
initiatives
above.
amount
resources
good
fats,
t hese
ensure
improve
a
to
listed
and
programme’s
class
were
region.
making
ot her
refers
in
young
involving
school
in
t he
protein.
by
proliferation
t he
(peas
t he
school-aged
t he
a
high
in
programmes
of
in
refers
impor ted
increase
schools
Dominica
habits
As
in
only
also
seen
legumes
insufcient
feeding
not
bullet
meals
t he
among
nutrition
Due
of
to
Caribbean
nutrition
decades
saturated
costly
reduction
and
foods
has
on
consumption
as
second
Caribbean
dependency
in
such
t he
and
intake
and
recent
Malnutrition
nutrients,
t he
its
available.
healt h
over
of
people
energy
energy
Malnutrition
nutrients.
and
more
affected
in
and
introduced
emerged.
t hat
decient
protein
nutrition,
has
governments
malnutrition
and
must
of
the
constant
involved.
be
designed
population
at
large.
at
The
governments
of
t he
Caribbean
have
come
toget her
under
an
school?
initiative
toget her
called
t hrough
providing
each
Caribbean
ve
are
policies
challenge
to
is
eating
habits
giving
simple
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
all
do
to
Eat
larger
Eat
less
Use
Choose
of
oily,
salty
fewer
more
Drink
little
more
to
t he
of
diet
and
fr uits
foods,
and
salty
foods
our
in
most
training,
food
paid
to
each
countr y.
foods
is
a
goals
of
t he
and
impor tant
Here
closely
list
t hings
of
The
t he
is
t hings
we
healt h.
coloured
barbequed
vegetables.
foods.
seasonings
and
The
nutritious
t he
work
education
attention
population.
and
and
of
of
They
research.
oppor tunities
One
whole
Healt h.
ser vice,
and
availability
greasy
sweet
care
economic
our
amounts
salt,
wit h
t he
in
activities:
population.
improve
Drink
Be
t he
advice
fatty,
less
and
improve
of
coordination
analysed,
agricultural
can
types
information,
countr y
Cooperation
and
salty
snacks.
drinks.
water.
or
no
alcohol.
physically
active.
320
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Disease
and
Based
on
(1998).
its
impact
on
information
Cajanus,
the
humans
from
Non-communicable
Assessing
Car ibbean
Food
Dietar y
and
Trends
Nutr ition
in
t he
Quarterly
(non-infectious)
diseases
Caribbean
31(4)
Questions
1
How
did
intakes
2
3
in
Suggest
and
governments
t he
two
reasons
t he
4
Explain
5
State
Caribbean
6
Describe
7
Describe
would
in
t he
is
meant
recent
steps
of
t he
of
by
protein
and
energy
rise
in
anaemia
iron
in
t he
cases
in
pregnant
women
diet
of
pregnant
women
and
t he
chronic
diseases
t hat
disease.
have
increased
in
t he
by
governments
to
improve
t he
diets
of
t he
Caribbean.
you
make
term
decades.
taken
t he
how
you
for
nutrition-related
population
increase
children.
what
t hree
Caribbean
children.
impor tance
school-aged
t he
1950s?
school-aged
Explain
in
would
sure
set
t hat
up
all
a
t he
school
feeding
children
programme.
benetted
from
How
it?
q
T
able
D.2.4
Questions
Year
Death
per
Use
other
topics/sections
in
the
book
when
answering
these
Death
rate
per
100 000
questions.
females
males
1
Which
activity
in
T
able
D.2.3
do
you
think
is
best
for
all
rate
100 000
round
physical
1985
28
41
1990
40
57
1995
43
59
2000
54
72
fitness?
2
Suggest
minute
why
when
3
State
the
4
State
two
5
In
point
of
regular
8
T
able
1985
exercise
the
three
is
at
of
list
a
coping
the
the
heart
beating
fewer
times
each
rest.
of
with
fitness.
stress.
positive
outcomes
and
b
the
negative
outcomes
exercise.
D.2.4
and
person
to
components
ways
form
leads
shows
trends
in
diabetes
mortality
in
the
Caribbean
between
2000.
a
Plot
the
data
b
Describe
c
Calculate
the
the
on
a
suitable
death
rate
in
percentage
graph.
females
increase
between
in
the
1985
death
and
rate
a
2000.
for
males
and
q
b
for
females
between
1985
and
T
able
D.2.5
2000.
Condition
d
Suggest
why
females
have
a
higher
death
rate
from
diabetes
%
deaths
%
deaths
than
in
1980
in
2000
males.
Heart
9
T
able
1980
D.2.5
and
shows
the
major
causes
of
death
in
the
Caribbean
between
disease
Cancer
20
16
12
15
Diabetes
2000.
4
Stroke
a
Plot
these
data
on
a
suitable
11
10
10
graph.
Injuries
b
Which
causes
of
death
have
increased
in
c
Which
causes
of
death
have
decreased
this
in
period?
this
and
8
7
violence
HIV/AIDS
period?
No
data
6
available
d
Why
do
you
think
there
was
no
data
available
for
HIV/AIDS
in
1980?
Hypertension
6
6
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Communicable
(infectious)
Learning
By
the
end
Disease
diseases
D.3
outcomes
of
this
topic
Communicable
be
able
describe
the
causes,
symptoms
D.3.1
of
a
range
the
of
treatment
describe
and
acute
a
range
of
effects
transmitted
on
her
are
what
causes
controlled.
t hem,
Note
how
t hat
t hey
are
inuenza,
are
classied
as
acute
respirator y
infections.
and
is
is
one
over
t hat
usually
comes
on
suddenly,
has
clearly
dened
quickly.
Gastroenteritis
the
of
the
is
inammation
of
t he
stomach
and
intestines.
Diarrhoea,
infections
pregnant
(nausea)
and
abdominal
pains
may
result.
Causes
are
infections
mother
by
and
diseases,
t hey
infectious
sickness
(STIs)
of
how
bronchitis
infection
Gastroenteritis
sexually
range
and
diseases
●
a
t herefore
diseases
symptoms
control
diseases
of
An
explain
humans
diseases
shows
and
pneumonia
infectious
●
on
signs
treated
and
impact
to:
Table
●
its
you
Infectious
will
(infectious)
and
food
and
water-borne
pat hogens
and
irritation
of
t he
lining
of
t he
foetus.
alimentar y
cause
q
T
able
D.3.1
Disease
t his
The
canal
by
some
foods
and
dr ugs.
Typhoid
and
cholera
bot h
can
condition.
features
Causative
of
six
communicable
diseases,
including
control
Symptoms
and
treatment
Spread
Signs
Control
Treatment
Droplet
Shivering,
Headache,
Flu
infection
raised
fever,
good
warmth,
ventilation
drinks,
organism
Inuenza
Virus
body
temperature
sore
throat
Rest,
vaccine,
hot
pain
killers
Tuberculosis
Spores
Coughing,
Fever,
Avoid
in
spitting
sufferers
overcrowding,
tuberculosis
infection
blood
become
droplet
and
Pneumonia
Ringworm
Antibiotics
Bacterium
Mycobacterium
Bacterium
Spores
Coughing,
Fever,
Pneumococcus
in
sputum
chest
droplet
infection
red
Fungus
Spores
Red
Tinea
oors,
on
towels,
is
thin
pain
in
on
Avoid
Antibiotics
Thoroughly
Fungicide
dry
ointments
skin.
sources
body
skin
spitting,
vaccine
overcrowding
Itching
patches
avoid
BCG
pale
Avoid
(antifungal
of
drugs)
infection,
e.g.
changing
rooms
Cholera
Antibiotics
Bacterium
Contaminated
Vomiting,
Gastroenteritis
Proper
Vibrio
water
severe
where
disposal
diarrhoea
intestines
of
are
chlorination
cholerae
particularly
by
faeces
inamed,
stomach
pains
faeces,
drinking
of
water
and
dehydration
T
yphoid
Gastroenteritis
Contaminated
Severe
water
diarrhoea,
treatment
fever,
both
food
and
rash
Antibiotics
Proper
Bacterium
Salmonella
and
of
water
food,
vaccination
322
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Disease
and
its
impact
on
humans
Communicable
(infectious)
diseases
Bronchitis
Bronchitis
causing
is
a
more
condition
mucus
to
where
be
t he
bronchi
released.
This
and
can
be
bronchioles
treated
and
are
inamed,
cured.
Study
✔
However,
See
bronchitis
is
a
condition
of ten
found
in
people
who
smoke.
The
Figure
damages
cells
lining
t he
bronchi
and
bronchioles.
Goblet
more
mucus
and
fewer
cilia
work
to
get
rid
of
t he
yourself
on
about
page
the
98
to
goblet
cells
cells
produce
B.2.1.4
cigarette
remind
smoke
tip
mucus.
and
cilia
in
the
lining
of
the
The
bronchi.
result
is
hence
long
t hat
t he
mucus
term
lasting,
accumulates
‘smoker’s
severe
in
cough’.
infections.
t he
air ways
Bacteria
This
is
can
referred
and
now
to
as
has
to
t hrive
be
coughed
here
chronic
and
(long
up,
cause
lasting)
bronchitis.
Sexually
Each
year
sexually
and
be
sexually
worldwide.
transmitted
foetus
not
life
As
by
some
t he
t he
enough.
can
if
and,
Treatment,
condential
(see
term
also
be
at
some
whet her
Figure
–
suggests,
treated
in
infections
(STDs)
contact,
placenta
t hreatening
embarrassment
diseases
sexual
STIs
across
infections
transmitted
transmitted
However,
to
transmitted
(STIs)
(STIs)
affect
a
sexually
normally
early.
a
sterility
doctor
people
in
or
if
ot her
not
a
known
t he
as
Caribbean
infection
can
intercourse.
ways,
breast
t hey
at
in
transmitted
t hrough
However,
cases,
by
and
commonly
sexual
transmitted
bir t h
–
many
can
e.g.
milk.
cause
dealt
special
wit h
from
Most
mot her
STIs
are
discomfor t,
quickly
clinic,
is
always
D.3.1).
p
STIs
are
caused
by
a
wide
variety
of
organisms
Figure
about
●
their
doctor
vir uses
–
genital
her pes,
genital
war ts
and
D.3.1
People
concerned
including:
or
sexual
health
specialist
can
health
visit
clinic
a
in
HIV/AIDS
confidence
●
●
●
●
bacteria
fungi
–
–
chlamydial
infection,
syphilis
and
gonorrhoea
t hr ush
protozoa
–
trichomoniasis
ar t hropods
–
e.g.
pubic
lice,
also
known
as
‘crabs’.
Did
you
know?
?
Gonorrhoea
Many
Gonorrhoea
is
caused
by
a
bacterium
which
lives
in
t he
cer vix,
a
urinar y
scientists
vaccine
success.
tract,
mout h
and
rectum.
In
women,
t he
disease
can
spread
to
t he
oviducts,
causing
pelvic
inammator y
disease.
This
can
result
are
HIV
,
They
trying
so
are
far
to
nd
without
looking
for
a
ovaries
vaccine
and
for
that
will
promote
the
in
production
of
antibodies
that
infer tility.
attach
The
early
include
or
a
penis.
t he
symptoms
burning
involves
a
ver y
many
hard
course
infection
sensation
However,
disease
of
of
to
on
t he
bacterium
urination
people
control.
antibiotics.
by
have
no
and
a
are
discharge
symptoms
Treatment
However,
is
mild
at
some
strains
from
rst
relatively
and
may
t he
which
vagina
makes
straightfor ward
of
t he
HIV
bacterium
and
to
and
to
a
number
of
t he
most
commonly
used
antibiotics.
education
and
by
t he
use
of
condoms
is
essential.
In
HIV
changeable
are
many
the
world.
ot her
STIs,
gonorrhoea
cannot
be
caught
from
toilet
However,
pregnant
women
can
transmit
t he
is
one
viruses
The
of
the
and
most
there
strains
best
of
cells.
across
vaccine
are
HIV
strains,
would
but
inactivate
the
reality
is
all
that
common
seats
or
bacterium
to
against
one
strain
by
are
kissing.
infecting
different
antibodies
wit h
it
envelope
Prevention
HIV
t hrough
outer
stop
However,
against
resistant
the
usually
not
effective
against
t heir
others.
unborn
children.
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Communicable
(infectious)
Disease
diseases
Genital
Exam
✔
term
carrier
was
used
in
inheritance.
Here
blisters
it
in
a
during
slightly
different
As
care
how
you
use
of
genital
appear
sexual
it
her pes
which
can
are
itching
lead
to
in
ulcers.
t he
area
Genital
followed
her pes
is
by
a
rash.
passed
is
activity
caused
by
a
and
t he
vir us
infection
t here
is
no
can
be
passed
complete
cure.
to
t he
newborn
Prevention
is
by
context.
avoiding
T
ake
humans
is
child.
used
on
the
on
on
impact
herpes
symptoms
Later,
section
its
tip
The
The
and
the
contact
wit h
a
known
sufferer.
Once
again
education
is
ver y
term.
impor tant
in
t he
drive
to
reduce
t he
number
of
cases.
envelope
HIV/AIDS
HIV
is
t he
because
and
it
t hus
Immune
t he
new
HIV
genetic
material
protein
(RNA)
Figure
D.3.2
genetic
copies
The
material,
of
itself
virus
RNA,
inside
HIV
to
uses
make
human
t hem
ill
and
lymphocytes,
These
in
disease-causing
becomes
(Figure
system
D.3.2).
to
It
is
become
microorganisms.
eventually
develops
so-called
decient
When
AIDS
t his
(Acquired
Syndrome).
Eventually
only
off
vir us
immune
HIV
t he
t hus
takes
weakening
over
lymphocyte
travel
to
and
breaks
uninfected
our
turns
immune
it
open,
into
a
releasing
lymphocytes,
system.
factor y
for
HIV
hundreds
attacking
and
turn.
identied
in
1983.
By
2001
t here
were
approximately
coat
35
p
was
human’s
lymphocyte,
vir uses.
infecting
viral
person
a
a
ght
human
inside
production.
of
to
Deciency
attacks
Once
Immunodeciency
causes
unable
happens,
HIV
Human
of ten
its
more
million
be
spread
receiving
people
by
world-wide
sexual
blood
infected
intercourse
from
someone
wit h
wit h
t he
someone
infected
wit h
vir us.
HIV
infected
HIV
(e.g.
can
wit h
only
HIV,
t hrough
a
by
cut,
cells
sharing
needles
reasons)
or
from
Unfor tunately,
against
many
HIV,
HIV
vir us
t he
various
The
key
t heir
to
into
by
diseases
t he
a
contact
wear
play)
These
it
to
reducing
t he
receiving
her
effective
improved
dr ugs
replicating.
wit h
for
medical
offspring.
available,
have
blood
t he
slow
Ot her
AIDS
life
t he
dr ugs
tends
vaccination
expectancy
for
progression
are
to
used
develop
to
of
treat
t hrough
system.
HIV
of
par tners
infection
HIV
and
People
getting
to
someone
of
infected
and
HIV
by
widely
from
spread
HIV.
or
anti-retroviral
which
The
wit h
no
immune
sexual
gloves
and
still
prevention
barrier
wit h
treatments
preventing
fewer
as
is
dr ug
damaged
to
injection
mot her
t here
but
behaviour.
have
ser ve
to
a
a
dr ug
patients.
t he
having
for
for
blood
be
people
in
be
by
to
cuts
use
among
like
to
people
to
change
encouraging
condoms
prevented
measures
wit h
needles
educating
people
also
(t hrough
of
is
prevented
more
should
spor ts
sharing
can
from
people
off
who
which
coming
urging
come
people
dentists
t he
eld
inject
of
dr ugs
intravenously.
Typically,
t he
rst
infected
People
if
t hey
do
or
not
takes
wit h
Someone
known
it
several
symptoms
a
infect
wit h
for
someone
Unfor tunately,
HIV,
many
but
ot her
who
infected
t his
people
does
not
wit h
means
wit hout
show
HIV
t hat
any
to
develop
someone
realising
it.
symptoms,
is
car r ier.
who
are
years
AIDS.
can
infected
as
t hink
HIV
have
remote
HIV
of
t hey
positive
access
to
may
or
clinics
communities.
be
not.
A
infected
Many
where
person
wit h
such
t hey
who
HIV
people
can
be
knows
should
do
not
tested,
t hat
as
t hey
have
go
t hey
are
a
for
test
to
see
testing,
live
in
infected
or
poor
wit h
324
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Disease
HIV
t he
and
may
not
STIs
whose
of
to
humans
admit
many
STIs
can
be
mot hers
vir us
during
The
in
on
t his
Effect
as
t here
communities.
is
This
a
social
makes
stigma
seeking
associated
medical
of
vectors
on
human
health
wit h
help
difcult.
Effects
Most
impact
wish
condition
more
t he
its
at
STIs
to
t he
or
cause
passed
are
bir t h.
breast
on
from
affected
Disease
and
mot her
by
can
t he
to
HIV
also
foetus
foetus.
vir us
cross
A
high
become
from
t he
percentage
infected
mot her
to
by
t he
of
babies
receiving
baby
feeding
gonorrhoea
foetus
mother
via
t he
and
syphilis
placenta.
abnormalities,
e.g.
are
This
eye
caused
can
lead
by
to
bacteria
deat h
of
and
t he
t hey
baby
can
pass
(stillbir t h)
defects.
Questions
1
Explain
the
difference
between
communicable
and
non-communicable
diseases.
2
State
help
3
two
ways
slow
Make
a
the
table
chapter.
Use
in
which
spread
to
of
show
the
getting
dentists
wear
protective
gloves
can
HIV
.
information
same
to
column
about
the
headings
as
STIs
in
mentioned
T
able
in
this
D.3.1.
p
Figure
D.3.3
reflected
(b)
D.4
Effect
of
vectors
on
human
health
St.
in
T
wo
in
of
(a)
HIV/AIDS
Belize
and
Vincent
Learning
By
views
posters
the
end
outcomes
of
this
topic
you
Malaria
will
Malaria
is
a
tropical
disease
caused
by
a
protozoan
called
D.4.1).
The
parasite
needs
a
female
mosquito
able
called
Anopheles
to
discuss
a
vector
(a
carrier)
and
carr y
it
from
person
to
person.
The
life
cycle
is
complicated
and
is
summarised
in
Figure
D.4.3.
Notice
describe
A
female
and
mosquito
injects
saliva
Plasmodium
infect
●
The
●
takes
wit h
enters
blood
a
blood
meal
Plasmodium
from
into
t he
a
person
person’s
who
is
uninfected
life
cycles
body
of
mosquito
and
●
explain
t his
liver
in
which
female
cells
where
it
reproduces
t he
red
enter
mosquito
mosquito
gametes
roles
the
of
housefly
vectors
importance
and
blood.
and
t hen
leaves
of
controlling
vectors.
to
blood
t he
takes
becomes
cells
(see
Figure
D.4.1)
and
divide
to
plasma.
a
blood
infected
✔
meal
wit h
from
t he
an
infected
gametes
of
fuse
and
anot her
reproductive
stage
occurs
Study
tip
person
The
mosquitoes
and
Anopheles
Aedes
aegypti
Plasmodium.
of
The
malaria
the
cells.
forms
gametes
Anot her
and
●
red
feeding
form
the
describe
methods
●
of
on
stages.
●
●
fever
the
the
following
effects
dengue
of
●
Plasmodium
the
act
and
as
to:
Plasmodium
●
(Figure
be
wit hin
disease.
are
They
insect
have
vectors
similar
life
t he
cycles
and
have
to
lay
their
eggs
mosquito.
in
●
The
to
infective
take
stage
anot her
moves
blood
to
t he
salivar y
glands
to
wait
for
t he
mosquito
water.
Make
differences
sure
you
between
learn
the
them.
meal.
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Effect
of
vectors
on
human
Disease
health
The
main
symptom
temperature
even
can
41 °C.
of ten
attacks
A
of
from
Whilst
and
dr ugs
quinine.
malaria
up
periods
fatal.
fever
number
being
These
be
of
of
shoots
of
have
a
adults
been
high
normal
fever
weakness
Ot hers
is
its
recur
rarely
for
fever.
of
ever y
few
die,
impact
affected
37 °C
t hey
its
to
days.
continue
humans
person’s
around
In
on
40 °C
children
to
suffer
or
t hey
periodic
years.
developed
include
The
value
and
against
mepacrine
and
malaria,
stage
Mosquito
t he
longest
used
paludrine.
in
liver
Human
red
blood
cell
liver
p
Figure
D.4.1
Plasmodium,
a
structure
the
stage
The
of
protozoan,
which
which
its
cell
causes
varies
malaria,
depending
lifecycle.
In
this
has
on
electron
blood
micrograph
you
can
see
the
stage
that
stage
infects
red
blood
cells.
T
wo
salivary
parasites
glands
have
infected
this
cell
(x
5000)
fertilisation
male
gametes
gut
p
Figure
D.4.2
mosquito
A
female
taking
a
blood
Note
transmitting
how
full
its
of
cells
inside
and
containing
female
male
gametes
mosquito
meal
and
Figure
D.4.3
Life
cycle
of
the
parasite
which
causes
malaria
Plasmodium.
abdomen
is
with
Dengue
human
female
Anopheles
p
possibly
and
released
fever
blood
Dengue
carried
the
fever
by
the
names
ve
and
and
a
fever
which
seven
rash.
The
along
aegyptii
with
rash
with
is
severe
and
the
form
–
legs
it
is
treatment
and
or
caused
t his
It
given
feet
caused
four
types
fever
in
the
three
is
to
gums
by
of
lasts
a
the
for
muscles
or
four
form
and
vir us
and
can
below
vir us
is
given
between
days
–
that
joints,
af ter
also
the
the
cause
skin.
bleeding.)
given
necessar y).
pain
nose,
for
for
be
are
is
haemorrhagic
the
term
Because
be
There
DEN-4.The
the
from
medical
not
Caribbean
headaches,
on
bleeding
rest
the
mosquito.
severe
the
in
DEN-3
appears
more
(Haemorrhaging
prevalent
DEN-2,
days
This
star ts.
vomiting
Aedes
DEN-1,
is
by
a
vir us
condition.
plenty
wor t h
of
The
uids
noting
sufferers
t here
wit h
is
no
specic
patient
must
(intravenously
t hat
t he
aspirin
if
should
haemorrhagic
adult
form
eggs
as
it
‘t hins’
t he
blood
reducing
t he
chances
water
t hat
it
will
clot.
pupa
Dengue
larva
factors
is
mosquito
p
Figure
D.4.4
transmits
the
Life
cycle
malarial
of
Anopheles,
the
mosquito
vector
which
Public
an
emerging
contribute
to
controls
healt h
disease.
t his.
in
most
systems
to
A
There
number
are
no
countries
detect
and
of
effective
wit h
dengue.
control
parasite
epidemics
are
deteriorating
around
t he
world.
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Disease
Rapid
has
and
its
growt h
led
to
of
cities
on
in
overcrowding,
substandard
mosquitoes
The
impact
sanitation,
to
increase
live
in
humans
tropical
urban
Effect
to
water
more
breeding
and
sites
for
tyres
mosquitoes.
human
health
surface
breathing
more
tube
people.
non-biodegradable
discarded
on
and
plastic
eggs
in
packaging
vectors
countries
decay
allowing
closer
of
makes
Air
laid
water
new
travel
larva
mouth
helps
people
infected
wit h
dengue
vir uses
brushes
to
move
easily
from
city
to
city.
antenna
Vectors
antenna
future
of
image
A vector is an organism that carries a pathogen
and transmits it from one host to another.
adult
Often vectors carry the pathogen on their
compound
feet or in their mouthparts. Some pathogens
eye
complete their life cycle in the body of the
vector as happens with Plasmodium
pupa
Ot her
and
common
vectors
are
houseies,
birds
rats.
female
Life
cycle
of
p
Figure
D.4.4
feeds
on
blood
Anopheles
shows
t he
life
cycle
Figure
D.4.5
transmits
of
the
Life
cycle
virus
that
of
Aedes
causes
aegypti,
dengue
the
mosquito
vector
which
fever
Anopheles.
Life
cycle
Figure
D.4.5
transmits
she
Life
of
Aedes
shows
dengue
aegypti
t he
various
fever,
where
stages
t he
of
t he
female
life
can
cycle
pass
of
on
t he
t he
mosquito
vir us
to
t hat
people
as
feeds.
cycle
of
the
housey
The common housey can carry a number of disease-causing organisms
including the bacteria which cause food poisoning (Figure D.4.6).
eye
mouth
onto
–
enzymes
food
which
are
regurgitated
partially
digests
it.
antenna
Disease-causing
organisms
may
be
proboscis
deposited
onto
the
food.
p
Figure
D.4.6
Houseflies
can
transmit
diseases
eggs
are
rotting
laid
on
bodies
of
animals
adult
Study
✔
tip
pupa
egg
The
use
of
insecticides
the
selection
are
resistant.
in
a
way
of
This
similar
antibiotic
has
mosquitoes
to
has
to
that
happened
the
resistance
led
evolution
in
of
bacteria.
larva
See
p
Figure
D.4.7
The
life
cycle
of
a
Figure
C.4.12
on
page
294.
housefly
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Effect
of
vectors
on
human
Disease
health
Control
The
main
of
vector-transmitted
met hod
of
control
is
to
attack
and
its
impact
on
humans
diseases
t he
vector.
Malaria
Despite
of
t he
helped
●
countless
world’s
to
control
Spraying
t he
mosquito
●
Draining
●
Using
of ten
p
Figure
in
D4.8
Mosquito
insecticide
have
nets
proved
soaked
but
method
they
have
to
to
a
be
control
used
breeding
t he
of
serious
dollars
diseases.
having
been
However,
spent,
t he
malaria
following
is
still
measures
one
have
it.
wit h
oils.
insecticides
grounds
This
breeding
evolves
insects,
to
(marshes
t he
grounds
kill
resistance
including
kills
t he
to
some
of
t he
t hat
by
waters)
of
t he
suffocation.
Unfor tunately,
pesticides
are
stagnant
lar vae
mosquito.
mosquito.
t he
and
mosquito
which
benecial
to
also
t he
kill
mosquito
many
ot her
humans.
very
●
effective
millions
most
malaria
Using
biological
control
by
introducing
a
predator,
such
as
guppies
-
(a
properly
●
sh)
to
eat
Preventing
mosquito
Dengue
Control
t he
t he
nets
mosquito
female
lar vae.
mosquito
impregnated
from
wit h
biting
insecticide
people,
placed
e.g.
by
over
t he
use
of
beds.
fever
of
mosquito
dengue
t hat
is
fever
is
t he
same
as
in
t he
case
of
malaria,
in
t hat
it
is
t he
controlled.
Gastroenteritis
By
removing,
help
p
Figure
D.4.9
An
electron
achieve
Leptospira,
the
bacterium
leptospirosis
sewage
ies,
gastroenteritis
should
be
removed
will
and
occur
less
treated,
of ten.
garbage
To
cans
have
tightly
tting
lids
and
be
cleaned
regularly,
r ubbish
should
that
be
causes
reducing
micrograph
should
of
or
t his
placed
in
plastic
bags
and
sealed,
r ubbish
dumps
should
be
carefully
(x5000)
managed,
and
food
should
insecticides
be
should
covered
be
used
to
to
avoid
kill
contamination,
and
y
traps
houseies.
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis
mild
inamed
failure
into
Ot her
The
Figure
t he
disease
are
a
D.4.10
broken
A
brown
drainage
rat
notoriously
they
are
so
difficult
environments
such
as
well
we
sewers
make
symptoms
can
muscles,
include
be
mild
nausea,
liver
or
severe.
vomiting
damage,
The
and
jaundice,
kidney
bleeding.
t his
disease
and
may
help
to
be
rats.
dr unk
domestic
antibiotics
are
education,
infect
strict
so
enter
animals,
as
rodent
t hat
contaminated
or
When
it
is
a
t he
can
are
rats
urinate,
body
carr y
bacterial
control,
people
t he
via
of
cut
t he
of
risks
in
bacteria
t he
skin.
bacteria.
infection.
vaccination
aware
a
t hese
t he
Ot her
domestic
of
swimming
water.
study
Rats
control
adapted
and
Symptoms
aching
emerging
pipe.
to
severe
responds
potentially
disease.
fever,
including
which
Dengue
as
The
water
and
Case
from
bacterial
include
internal
animals,
animals
p
a
causing
met hods
in
eyes.
and
Bacteria
get
is
symptoms
for
to
fever
the
them,
Dengue,
a
mosquito-borne
vir us
t hat
causes
high
fever,
nausea
and
drains
painful
Latin
and
body
aches,
America.
migration,
is
reaching
Changing
have
epidemic
weat her
increased
t he
levels
patterns,
number
as
of
in
t he
well
as
cases,
Caribbean
increased
according
and
tourism
to
t he
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Disease
Pan
and
impact
American
t he
wettest
The
vir us,
ridden
rash,
into
by
its
a
severe
the
of
for
four
with
severe
and
if
they
includes
bed
rest
Wit h
vaccine
do
and
(PAHO).
countries
distinct
muscle
young
dehydration
most
painful
external
amongst
Effect
Organization
headache,
and
humans
year
has
week
more
internal
usually
Healt h
time
which
for
on
strains,
u-like
and
adults
not
receive
hydration.
fatal
keeps
children.
prompt
Severe
such
Some
of
cases
these
Victims
can
high
can
available,
public
healt h
campaigns
to
control
mosquitoes.
can
which
require
marked
are
also
a
fatal,
die
from
normally
hospitalisation.
exper ts
rely
on
fumigation
Figure
D.4.11
Infection
by
one
strain
provide
immunity
against
infection
by
anot her.
In
fact,
a
house
people
at
wit h
one
greater
or
risk
more
of
strains
of
developing
t he
vir us
dengue
are
fever
t hought
if
infected
t he
Rico
State
Epidemiologist
commitment
prevent
dengue
Dengue
and
control
par ticipation
dengue.
can
reproduce
P revention
and
Control
change
patterns
t hat
in
a
have
seasons,
dengue
as
as
result
in
at
reasons
the
t he
for
Garcia
all
t he
Rivera
sectors
amount
astonishing
Amer icas ,
global
increased
t he
recent
of
of
Given
mosquito
climate
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