THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION
OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
SAMARKAND STATE INSTITUTE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
FACULTY OF TRANSLATION THEORY AND PRACTICE
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSLATION THEORY AND PRACTICE
SUBJECT: TRANSLATION THEORY
COURSE WORK
THEME: TRANSLATION OF SET EXPRESSIONS AND WORD
COMBINATIONS IN CONSECUTIVE TRANSLATION
Scientific supervisor: Saliyeva Z.
Head of chair: Kuldoshev U .
Performed by: Shakarova S.
Group: 412
SAMARKAND – 2021
1
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………….3
CHAPTER I. BACKGROUND IFORMATION ABOUT
CONSECUTIVE TRANSLATION
1.1.
Language interpretation…………...………………………………4
1.2.
History of consecutive translation ……..........................................10
Conclusion on chapter I………………………………………………..16
CHAPTER II. PROBLEMS IN CONSECUTIVE TRANSLATION
2.1. Difficulties in consecutive interpretation…………….……………17
2.2. Translating of set expressions and word combinations..…………...23
Conclusion on chapter II…………………………….……...…………27
CONCLUSION………………………………….……………….…….29
REFERENCES…...…………………………………………….……..32
2
INTRODUCTION
The actuality of course work. Consecutive interpreting is a type of
interpretation where an interpreter commences interpreting after the speaker
finishes the speech. The kind of interpretation mostly applies to situations when
people have limited English proficiency, and it is meant to obtain clarity from the
statements made by such people. Consecutive interpretation is essential in the
political field since it helps in retaining accuracy in translated information and
assists diplomats overcome language barriers during various meetings.
The purpose of the course work. The main purpose of the research is to
study, collect and deliver in-depth research about drama. Learning and
presenting it to students.
Degree of course work. This theme has been learned by many scientists
over the world and added some news by learning this theme.
The object and subject of course work. Books, lectures, articles and
articles about drama are the main objects and subjects of this course work.
The theoretical and practical significance of the work. The fact that our
research has collected information about masterpieces of world literature, and
the generalization of the data, determines its theoretical significance. The fact
that these recommendations and conclusions can be used in literary studies and
English courses at different levels of education and in writing articles,
coursework, qualification works and master's theses proves its practical
significance.
Scientific methodological bases of research. This coursework includes
techniques such as writing, comparing, and criticizing and commenting on the
author's writings.
The general structure of the work. Our research work consists of 2
chapters, conclusion, and a list of references.
3
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT CONSECUTIVE
TRANSLATION
1.1.
Language interpretation
Interpreting is a translational activity in which one produces a first and
final translation on the basis of a one-time exposure to an expression in a source
language.
The most common two modes of interpreting are simultaneous interpreting,
which is done at the time of the exposure to the source language, and consecutive
interpreting, which is done at breaks to this exposure.
Interpreting is an ancient human activity which predates the invention of
writing. However, the origins of the profession of interpreting date back to less
than a century ago.
Research into the various aspects of the history of interpreting is quite
new. For as long as most scholarly interest was given to professional conference
interpreting, very little academic work was done on the practice of interpreting in
history, and until the 1990s, only a few dozen publications were done on it.
Considering the amount of interpreting activities that is assumed to have
occurred for thousands of years, historical records are limited. Moreover,
interpreters and their work have usually not found their way into the history
books. One of the reasons for that is the dominance of the written text over the
spoken word (in the sense that those who have left written texts are more likely to
be recorded by historians). Another problem is the tendency to view it as an
ordinary support activity which does not require any special attention, and
the social
status of
interpreters,
who
were
sometimes
treated
unfairly
by scribes, chroniclers and historians. [1, 7p]
Our knowledge of the past of interpreting tends to come from letters,
chronicles, biographies, diaries and memoirs,
4
along
with
a
variety
of
other documents and literary works, many of which (and with few exceptions)
were only incidentally or marginally related to interpreting.
Many Indo-European
languages have
words
for
'interpreting'
and
'interpreter'. Expressions in Germanic, Scandinavian and Slavic languages denoting
an interpreter can be traced back to Akkadian, around 1900 BCE. The Akkadian
root targumânu/turgumânu also
gave
rise
to
the
term dragoman via
an
etymological sideline from Arabic.
The
English
word
‘interpreter’,
however,
is
derived
from Latin interpres (meaning ‘expounder’, ‘person explaining what is obscure’),
whose semantic roots are not clear. Some scholars take the second part of the word
to be derived from partes or pretium (meaning ‘price’, which fits the meaning of a
‘middleman’, ‘intermediary’ or ‘commercial go-between’), but others have
suggested a Sanskrit root.
In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter starts to interpret after the
speaker pauses. Therefore, the time needed is much longer (possibly double the
time needed). Traditionally, the interpreter will sit or stand near the speaker.
Consecutive interpretation can be conducted in a pattern of short or long
segments according to the interpreter's preference. In short CI, the interpreter relies
mostly on memory whereas, in long CI, most interpreters will rely on note-taking.
The notes must be clear and legible in order to not waste time on reading
them. Consecutive interpreting of whole thoughts, rather than in small pieces, is
desirable so that the interpreter has the whole meaning before rendering it in the
target language. This affords a truer, more accurate, and more accessible
interpretation than where short CI or simultaneous interpretation is used. [1, 15]
An attempt at consensus about lengths of segments may be reached prior to
commencement, depending upon complexity of the subject matter and purpose of
the interpretation, though speakers generally face difficulty adjusting to unnatural
speech patterns.
5
On occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter
during consecutive interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation
and translation; the interpreter must render the source-language document to the
target-language as if it were written in the target language. Sight translation occurs
usually, but not exclusively, in judicial and medical work.
Consecutive interpretation may be the chosen mode when bilingual
listeners are present who wish to hear both the original and interpreted speech or
where, as in a court setting, a record must be kept of both.
When no interpreter is available to interpret directly from source to target,
an intermediate interpreter will be inserted in a relay mode, e.g. a Greek source
language could be interpreted into English and then from English to another
language. This is also commonly known as double-interpretation. Tripleinterpretation may even be needed, particularly where rare languages or dialects
are involved. Such interpretation can only be effectively conducted using
consecutive interpretation.
Simultaneous interpretation (SI) suffers the disadvantage that if a person is
performing the service the interpreter must do the best, he or she can within the
time permitted by the pace of source speech. However, they also have the
advantages of saving time and not disturbing the natural flow of the speaker. SI can
also be accomplished by software where the program can simultaneously listen to
incoming speech and speak the associated interpretation. The most common form
is extempore SI, where the interpreter does not know the message until he or she
hears it.
Simultaneous interpretation using electronic equipment where the
interpreter can hear the speaker's voice as well as the interpreter's own voice was
introduced at the Nuremberg trials in 1945. The equipment facilitated large
numbers of listeners, and interpretation was offered in French, Russian, German
and English. The technology arose in the 1920s and 1930s when American
businessman Edward Filene and British engineer Alan Gordon Finlay developed
6
simultaneous interpretation equipment with IBM. Yvonne Kapp attended a
conference with simultaneous translation in 1935 in the Soviet Union. As it proved
successful, IBM was able to sell the equipment to the United Nations, where it is
now widely used in the United Nations Interpretation Service.
In the ideal setting for oral language, the interpreter sits in a sound-proof
booth and speaks into a microphone, while clearly seeing and hearing the sourcelanguage speaker via earphones. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to the
target-language listeners via their earphones. [1, 19p]
Pavel Palazchenko's My Years with Gorbachev and Shevardnadze: The
Memoir of a Soviet Interpreter gives a short history of modern interpretation and of
the transition from its consecutive to simultaneous forms. He explains that during
the nineteenth century interpreters were rarely needed during European diplomatic
discussions; these were routinely conducted in French, and all government
diplomats were required to be fluent in this language. Most European government
leaders
and
heads
of
state could
also
speak
French. Historian Harold
Nicolson attributes the growing need for interpretation after World War I to the
fact that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and British Prime Minister David Lloyd
George "were no linguists". At the time, the concept and special equipment needed
for simultaneous interpretation, later patented by Alan Gordon Finlay, had not been
developed, so consecutive interpretation was used.
Consecutive interpreters, in order be accurate, used a specialized system of
note-taking which included symbols abbreviations and acronyms. Because they
waited until the speaker was finished to provide translation, the interpreters then
had the difficult task of creating from these notes as much as half an hour of freeflowing sentences closely matching the speaker's meaning. Palazchenko
cites Anton Velleman [de], Jean Herbert and the Kaminker brothers as skilled
interpreters, and notes one unusual case in which André Kaminker interpreted a
speech by a French diplomat who spoke for two and a half hours without stopping.
7
After World War II, simultaneous interpretation came into use at
the Nuremberg trial, and began to be more accepted. Experienced consecutive
interpreters asserted that the difficulties of listening and speaking at the same time,
adjusting for differences in sentence structure between languages, and interpreting
the beginning of a sentence before hearing its end, would produce an inferior
result. As well, these interpreters, who to that point had been prominent speakers,
would now be speaking invisibly from booths. [2, 56p]
In 1951, when the United Nations expanded its number of working
languages to five (English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish), consecutive
interpretation became impractical in most cases, and simultaneous interpretation
became
the
most
common
process
for
the
organization's
large
meetings. Consecutive interpretation, which provides a more fluent result without
the need for specialized equipment, continued to be used for smaller discussions.
Since time immemorial, whispered interpretation has been used, known in
the trade by the French term chuchotage. To avoid disturbing the original speaker
and those present listening to the original speaker, the interpreter's voice is kept at
a low volume. To do this, the interpreter and the person requiring interpretation
must sit or stand in close proximity to one another. No actual whispering is
involved as this is difficult to decipher as well as being too much of a strain on the
voice: the interpreter uses normal 'voiced' speech at a low volume. Only one or at
the most two people in need of interpretation can be accommodated, unless
portable electronic equipment is used.
This form of interpretation puts a strain on the interpreter who has to sit for
long periods leaning towards the person in need of interpretation.
Conference interpreting refers to interpretation at a conference or large
meeting, either simultaneously or consecutively. The advent of multi-lingual
meetings has reduced the amount of consecutive interpretation in the last 20 years.
Conference interpretation is divided between two markets: institutional and
private. International institutions (EU, UN, EPO, et cetera), which hold
8
multilingual meetings, often favor interpreting several foreign languages into the
interpreters' mother tongues. Local private markets tend to have bilingual meetings
(the local language plus another), and the interpreters work both into and out of
their mother tongues. These markets are not mutually exclusive. The International
Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) is the only worldwide association of
conference interpreters. Founded in 1953, its membership includes more than
2,800 professional conference interpreters, in more than 90 countries.
Judicial, legal, or court interpreting occurs in courts of justice,
administrative tribunals, and wherever a legal proceeding is held (i.e., a police
station for an interrogation, a conference room for a deposition, or the locale for
taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting can be the consecutive interpretation
of witnesses' testimony, for example, or the simultaneous interpretation of entire
proceedings, by electronic means, for one person, or all of the people attending. In
a legal context, where ramifications of misinterpretation may be dire, accuracy is
paramount. Teams of two or more interpreters, with one actively interpreting and
the second monitoring for greater accuracy, may be deployed. [2, 78p]
The right to a competent interpreter for anyone who does not understand
the language of the court (especially for the accused in a criminal trial) is usually
considered a fundamental rule of justice. Therefore, this right is often guaranteed
in national constitutions, declarations of rights, fundamental laws establishing the
justice system or by precedents set by the highest courts. However, it is not a
constitutionally required procedure (in the United States) that a certified interpreter
be present at police interrogation. This has been especially controversial in cases
where illegal immigrants with no English skills are accused of crimes.
In the US, depending upon the regulations and standards adhered to per
state and venue, court interpreters usually work alone when interpreting
consecutively, or as a team, when interpreting simultaneously. In addition to
practical mastery of the source and target languages, thorough knowledge of law
and legal and court procedures is required of court interpreters. They are often
9
required to have formal authorization from the state to work in the courts – and
then are called certified court interpreters. In many jurisdictions, the interpretation
is considered an essential part of the evidence. Incompetent interpretation, or
simply failure to swear in the interpreter, can lead to a mistrial. [2, 90p]
1.2 History of consecutive translation
Consecutive interpretation is when the interpreter allows the source
language speaker to completely finish speaking and then interprets what was said
in the target language. This allows the interpreter to take notes while the source
language
is
being
spoken
and
is
often
needed
for
very
technical
details. Consecutive interpretation is the original form of interpretation. After
WWI,
during
the
Paris
Peace
Conference,
the
need
for consecutive
interpretation arose, due to the fact that people with different backgrounds, cultures
and languages were all getting together to hear the same information.
As a result of World War I, the League of Nations and the International
Labor Organization were formed. This meant that there would continuously be a
need for interpretation due to all of the international meetings that would be
occurring in the future. These meetings would often drag on because of the act
of consecutive interpretation is time consuming; the speaker would speak several
sentences and the interpreter would take notes and relay the message in the target
language. This added hours to the meetings and would water down any freedom of
personality, cultural nuances or emotions behind the messages that were
being interpreted due to the lengthy time frame and mental exhaustion that
the interpreters faced. [3, 27p]
The consecutive interpretation definition explains that the speaker says a
sentence or two, then pauses while the interpreter repeats them in another
language. It can take place in person, over the phone or via video conference.
This headline consecutive interpreting definition has a range of additional
elements within it. For example, in some situations the consecutive interpreter will
take notes, while in others they won’t. There are also different forms of
10
consecutive interpretation. In short consecutive interpreting, the speaker will pause
every sentence or two. In long consecutive interpreting, the speaker will continue
for longer before pausing, often delivering whole thoughts and then allowing the
interpreter to provide the consecutive translation.
I’ve seen consecutive interpreters in action in a huge range of settings.
They can facilitate partnership working between businesses that don’t speak the
same language. They can help speakers to present to small audiences
(simultaneous interpretation tends to be better suited to larger audiences; I’ll get on
to simultaneous vs consecutive interpretation in a moment).
There are also plenty of business to customer (B2C) uses for consecutive
interpreting, as well as business to business (B2B) ones. Healthcare providers
whose patients speak different languages, for example, often rely on a consecutive
interpreter with specialist medical knowledge to facilitate conversations. I’ll talk
more about the scenarios that consecutive interpreting is suited to below, but first
let’s just clarify the differences between consecutive and simultaneous
interpreting.
The consecutive interpreter translates the speaker’s words every sentence
or two, with the speaker pausing to allow them sufficient time to do so. The
simultaneous interpreter, meanwhile, delivers the speaker’s words in real time.
Simultaneous interpreting is the kind of interpreting that you see in action
at large, multilingual events, where interpreters sit in soundproof booths and
translate the speaker’s words as he delivers them. It requires specialist audio and
technical equipment, as well as the booths themselves. It also usually requires
interpreters to work in pairs, due to the mental strain of simultaneously listening to
one language while speaking in another. [3, 39p]
The consecutive interpreter, meanwhile, tends to work alone and has no
need for any specialist equipment. A notepad and pencil is about as technical as
their requirements get.
11
You can click the link below to find out more about simultaneous
interpretation and its uses.
A consecutive interpreter needs to have a wide range of skills in order to
perform their role successfully. These are the minimum skills that the individual
requires:
• Fluency in two languages
• Active listening skills
• Fast-paced analytical abilities
• Superb short-term memory
• Shorthand or other structured form of note-taking
• Clear diction
• Cultural awareness
The need to speak two languages fluently is a given. As mentioned above,
the consecutive interpreter may also need specialist subject knowledge, depending
on the nature of the information that they will be working with.
They must also have excellent active listening skills and be able to analyse
and prioritise the information that they are receiving incredibly fast.
A superb short-term memory is another essential, as is the ability to take
rapid, structured notes. Being able to write in shorthand is a bonus here, but
interpreters own sets of abbreviations and notes can be just as effective. The dots
and squiggles don’t have to mean anything to anyone else, just the interpreter who
is taking the notes and then using them as prompts to relay the speaker’s words in
another language. [3, 41p]
The ability to speak clearly is also hugely important, for obvious reasons.
Finally, it is important for the interpreter to have a keen cultural
understanding of those they are conveying information to. This can help with
everything from phrasing sentences the right way, including (for example) dealing
with things like idioms, to ensuring the right use of tone.
12
Interpreters may well have a range of additional skills. As I say, these are
the bare minimum that you should expect a competent consecutive interpreter to
have.
Consecutive interpreting is the most popular type of interpretation work.
In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter converts the words into the target
language after the speaker delivers one or two sentences. The speaker pauses and
waits for the interpreter to convey the message before continuing with their speech.
In consecutive interpreting, the linguist has time to write down notes, so
they do not have to remember everything that the speaker said.
Because of the start and stop of the delivery of a speech or presentation, the
meeting or small conference can last longer.
In any type of interpreting work, the interpreter has to prepare before the
event. The interpreter needs to be familiar with the particular terminology that
speakers will use during the meeting. It is essential for the client to give the
interpreter a briefing, background information about the participants, and the topics
for discussion so that the interpreting service will be effective.
Consecutive interpretation service does not need many technical types of
equipment like headphones, audio consoles, microphones, and soundproof booths.
What the interpreter needs are pencils or pens and notepads. Often the interpreter
works alone.
The interpretation service is applicable for seminars with a limited number
of participants, business meetings, classes, and bilingual meetings. Typically, the
audience is smaller, compared to large conferences that use simultaneous
interpretation services. [4, 44p]
Similar to a simultaneous interpreter, the consecutive interpreter must be
fluent in the source and target languages. The service needs interpreters with
experience and expertise in a specific subject. Cultural knowledge, understanding
of the nuances of the language, sharp memory, excellent speaking, and keen
hearing are also necessary skills.
13

Aside from memorization, a consecutive interpreter should be
good at note-taking. The way the interpreter takes notes depends on the
system each one of them develops through practice, training, and their
earlier experiences. They can use initials, symbols, and abbreviations to help
them remember the concepts and ideas that the speaker wants to deliver.
One consecutive interpreter’s notes may or may not be legible to another
interpreter.

The interpreter must maintain visual contact with the speaker
instead of focusing on note-taking. They should keep their notes simple,
with only the basic information so the notes will be easier to read but will
help them summarize the message in their head. But the interpreter should
include things that are harder to remember such as names, numbers, and
dates.
Any type of interpretation service is important because it enables speaking
different languages to understand one another. The setup is more personal and
intimate because the consecutive interpreter normally stays next to the speaker.
Each form has its own advantages, disadvantages, and fits different needs.
Consecutive interpretation, for example, has its set of advantages, such as:

The delivery of the interpretation is more emotional and fluent.
The consecutive interpreter has more time to prepare for the nuances of the
language and to choose the words carefully.

The service does not need audio, electronic, and technical
equipment, as well as soundproof interpreters’ booths.

The quality of the translation is better because the interpreter
has more time to prepare, which helps in choosing the tone of the message
and the right words in the target language.

The attention of the audience increases as they can understand
the message better, as well as see and hear the speaker’s tone of voice and
the body language of the speaker and the interpreter.
14

The audience who can understand some of the words in the
original language can appreciate the translation better. [4, 87p]
Simultaneous interpreting is tailor-fit for large seminars and conferences,
like the international meetings at the United Nations. In one-on-one discussions
and small meetings, it is more effective to use consecutive interpreting. The
interpreter listens while the speaker relays the message, and waits until the speaker
pauses. The interpreter then delivers the message in the target language, using their
memory and notes to make sure that the message is correct.
Consecutive interpreting is applicable for different settings and industries
that conduct informal and formal discussions.
You can use consecutive interpreting for:

Human resources meetings for multilingual staff

Press and personal interviews

Business meetings

Multilingual staff evaluations

Conferences among teachers and parents

Meetings between attorneys and clients

Court depositions

Medical interviews and consultations

Press briefings and conferences

Tours and travels
Unlike in huge seminars and conferences where the setup is more
structured and formal, the flow of the discussion in consecutive interpretation is
akin to regular conversation. Each participant has the time to speak, pausing only
to allow the interpreter to translate the conversation in another language. One of
the downsides of consecutive interpretation is that it takes longer for the meeting to
finish because each speaker has to wait for the interpreter to deliver the message.
[4, 104p]
15
However, the service does not involve complicated planning. The vital
thing is to use an interpreter who has the right industry background and experience,
to deliver the words correctly. For instance, for medical interpreting, the interpreter
should have prior experience in a particular field. They should know and
understand the specific terminology used in the specific branch of medicine and
translate the words into the language that the listener could easily understand.
Conclusion on chapter I
Consecutive interpreting is a type of interpretation where an interpreter
commences interpreting after the speaker finishes the speech. The kind of
interpretation mostly applies to situations when people have limited English
proficiency, and it is meant to obtain clarity from the statements made by such
people. Consecutive interpretation is essential in the political field since it helps in
retaining accuracy in translated information and assists diplomats overcome
language barriers during various meetings.
There are a lot of instances where political interpreting is acquired, not only
between world leaders. Live or prerecorded broadcasts of political events,
International speeches, press conferences, are some events that require
interpretation. However, these examples are not less important of interpreting for
political leaders because it requires the same knowledge and professionalism in
delivering the right accurate meaning. [5, 77p]
The political field is highly dynamic and has sensitive information that,
when interpretation is involved, has to be accurate. The consecutive interpretation
is adapted for utilization in small meetings and delegations where accuracy and
precision are the main elements. One of the significance of consecutive
interpreting is the fact that it allows for analysis of the message in its context
before giving it to the audience. The political field consists of management issues
that will eventually call for a deeper understanding, and the interpreter needs a
good time to interpret the initial message accurately. In most cases, interpretation
of the political discourses may require a great deal of conceptualization.
16
Also, it helps diplomats in the political arena to overcome the language
barrier without losing the sense of business interests. Since most of the discussions
in politics take place in one-on-one meetings, consecutive interpretation is pretty
relevant since it maintains the meeting atmosphere and relays the information in a
manner that both parties will not struggle to reveal the meaning.
This kind of interpretation is extremely challenging because of its sensitive
contexts that might influence target others and causing more cultural
misunderstandings. This reminds us of the blooper during Nikita Khrushchev’s
speech at the Polish Embassy when he was interpreted as saying, about the United
States and the Western World at the highest point of the Cold War “We will bury
you” that supposed to be interpreted into “We will outlast you”. This mistake
prompted the envoys from twelve NATO nations and Israel to leave the room. [5,
80p]
Lastly, this kind of interpretation doesn’t only require language but also to
be culturally aware. Interpreters must be aware of the culture of the languages they
are interpreting from and into. If a political reference is made in one language, a
good interpreter will be ready to transform this into a comparable statement that
the target audience can understand.
17
CHAPTER II
PROBLEMS IN CONSECUTIVE TRANSLATION
2.1. Difficulties in consecutive interpretation
Consecutive interpreting entails a large number of almost concurrent
cognitive, psychomotor and affective processes, all of which pose major challenges
for the interpreter who has to deal with them simultaneously. The interpreter is
constantly confronted with unexpected situations that must be dealt with while
he/she is already working at the limits of his/her available processing capacity
(Gile 1995). It is therefore crucial that interpreter training should be as effective as
possible and that during their training period, future professional interpreters
should develop a series of strategies or tactics that can be used to solve the
problems encountered. Gile (1995; 2009) describes a series of tactics and strategies
interpreters apply when problems in the interpreting process arise. He establishes a
distinction
between
the
terms tactics and strategies.
According
to
this
author, strategies are planned actions with specific objectives and tactics refer to
online decisions and actions taken by the interpreter during the execution of the
task to overcome the difficulties encountered. He restricts the use of these two
terms to deliberate decisions and actions aimed at preventing or solving problems.
In the present study, we prefer to use the term strategy to refer to both immediate
and longer-term actions taken to solve a problem. At the same time, as we shall see
in the results of the study, and bearing in mind that our analysis is based on a
retrospective reflection by the students after having completed a task, it is
impossible to determine whether the strategies adopted by the students when faced
with an interpreting problem are conscious and deliberate, or whether they are
unconscious, spontaneous actions and reactions in response to a difficulty. [5,
110p]
Interpreting quality depends on certain skills and strategies that need to be
acquired over time, usually as part of a university training programme. One issue
that is central to the question of what makes a good interpreter, and is closely
18
related to the interpreter training, is the question of how the interpreting output of
experts and novices differs, both in terms of quality and processing (Sunnari 2003).
In this sense, a number of studies have been carried out in the field of teaching
interpreting which define how the evolution from novice to expert interpreter takes
place. Hoffman (1997) and Moser-Mercer, Frauenfelder et al. (2000) stress that the
development of expertise happens in different phases, as students progress from a
cognitive stage, through an associative stage to an autonomous stage. In translation
and interpreting novices still need to engage in tactical learning whereby they learn
specific rules for solving specific problems. This tactical knowledge then becomes
increasingly well organised and the novice develops a set of strategies designed to
optimally solve the problems he/she encounters (Moser-Mercer, Frauenfelder et
al. 2000: 110). It is worth noting the prominent position that strategic competence
has come to occupy in recent thinking about the acquisition of interpreting
expertise and the fact that some authors (Ericsson 2001; Moser-Mercer,
Frauenfelder et al. 2000) point to strategic ability as an indication of expert
knowledge in interpreting. According to Moser-Mercer (1997: 194), research on
the interpreting process needs to go further, addressing not only the knowledge
structures, but, more particularly, the dynamic nature of their application during
the interpreting process.
However, following Hurtado (2001: 276), despite their fundamental
importance concerning the key role of operative knowledge in translation and
interpreting, studies which examine translation and interpreting strategies are still
in their infancy. Gile (2000: 81) similarly stresses that there are very few studies
that describe strategic processes in interpreting. [6, 91p]
This study aims to identify some general patterns in the emergence of
problems and strategies reported by students at two different stages of training in
consecutive interpreting. Furthermore, it analyses the students’ perceptions
concerning their ability to resolve interpreting problems. Finally, the study
19
evaluates whether the questionnaire used is a suitable method for studying the
strategic component in interpreting.
The results presented are descriptive and were obtained from the analysis
of a post-interpreting questionnaire answered by the students. It is, therefore, a
pilot study whose purpose is to approach the subject on the basis of the information
provided by the individual students who participated in the study. It should be
pointed out that the questionnaire was not specifically designed for the purpose of
the research, but was previously used by the researcher (who is also a teacher of
interpreting) as a didactic instrument in the interpreting classroom. It was as a
result of observing how students were prompted by the questions in the
questionnaire to reflect in detail on the problems they had encountered in their
interpreting tasks and how they had solved them that we decided to undertake the
present study to monitor the observable patterns in the data obtained. We study the
problems reported by two groups of interpreting students (beginners and advanced)
when carrying out an exercise in consecutive interpreting. We also set out to
identify the strategies reported by the two groups of students in solving the
problems detected. Another objective of the study is to observe the usefulness of
the post-interpreting questionnaire in research on this topic.
As stated by Riccardi, “conference interpreting is no longer merely
considered an implicit competence, a skill difficult to explain and put into words
and whose teaching is even more difficult, if not impossible” (Riccardi 2005: 757).
It is also a form of declarative knowledge, rising into consciousness, which can
therefore be verbalized. Accordingly, if we succeed in understanding how the
processes involved in the exercise of interpreting are acquired and developed, we
shall be able to lay the foundations for designing training parameters which take
strategic competence into account.
First of all, it should be noted that since we are dealing with the training
phase, we do not only understand the problems as objective difficulties as defined
in section 3 when talking about the theoretical concept, but also consider the
20
perceptions of the students to look at the larger number of strategies they use to
negotiate their difficulties. [6, 110p]
The problems reported by students from both groups are listed below,
broken down according to each of the interpreting phases: listening and
understanding, note-taking, decoding notes and expressing and reformulating. The
objective here is not to offer an in-depth classification, and the problems clearly
belong to different categories: from problems directly related to the interpreting
task to those directly related to the abilities of the subjects. The total number of
problems gathered from the advanced group post-interpreting questionnaires is
appreciably lower than those from the novice group, although the latter included
one more subject.
Listening and Understanding
 Lack of understanding of the source speech
 Numbers
 Lack of common sense
 Speed of delivery of the source speech
 Unfamiliarity with the topic
 Sound problems
 Length of the source speech
 Information density
 Lack of practice
 Lack of attention/concentration
Note-taking:
 Lack of understanding of the source speech
 Speed of delivery of the source speech
 Information density
 Lack of practice
 Numbers
Decoding notes:
 Unable to understand their own notes
 Lack of restitution speed
 Lack of connectors
 Unclear notes
21
 Memory problems
Expressing and reformulating:
 Lack of understanding of the source speech
 Feeling nervous
 Lack of confidence
 Unclear notes
 Overuse of connectors
 Problems expressing themselves
As shown, the main problem during the listening phase in the case of both
groups is lack of understanding. Significantly, all the 8 novice students and the 7
advanced students state that they have experienced problems with listening and
understanding. The novice students also report a high percentage of problems
related to what they describe as the poor sound quality of the recording, as well as
difficulties with numbers, speed of delivery and a general unfamiliarity with the
topic in hand. In the advanced students’ group, apart from the lack of
understanding, the most salient problems were the speed of delivery, numbers, and
lack of attention or loss of concentration. A high percentage of advanced students
also had difficulties with the unfamiliarity of the topic. The predominant
differences occurring between both groups are related to problems with the sound
(where novice students reported having encountered major difficulties) and lack of
attention / concentration (reported only by the advanced students). [7, 88p]
As regards note-taking, the speed of delivery of the original speech is the
major difficulty encountered by both groups. However, there is an appreciable
difference between the two groups, this problem being found to affect the novice
students more than the advanced. Furthermore, the novice students pinpoint
problems of lack of understanding of the original speech as directly affecting the
quality of their note-taking. Other difficulties reported by the novice students,
albeit to a lesser extent, are density of information and lack of practice. In the case
of the advanced group, the only problems mentioned are related to the speed of
22
delivery of the source speech and numbers, although in this case the percentages
are in general lower than those for the novice group. It should be noted that
advanced students do not mention lack of practice. [7, 191p]
When it came to decoding their own notes, the main difficulty encountered
by the novice students was not being able to understand their own notes taken
during the listening phase, which made it impossible to reconstruct the speech
correctly. They also mentioned unclear notes (closely related to the previous point)
and the lack of connectors.
Compared to the beginners’ group, however, the advanced group placed
more emphasis on the fact that unclear notes would make it more difficult to
interpret them later. Furthermore, the advanced group stated that they did not
encounter problems with the delivery speed. They were the only students who
reported memory problems.
Expressing in the target language, along with the listening phase, is the
point at which novice students encounter most problems. In addition to identifying
expression problems in general, this group mentions very serious problems caused
by a lack of clarity in their notes, a lack of understanding and being nervous. A
noteworthy feature of this phase in relation to novice students is the appearance of
problems related to feeling nervous and a lack of confidence, since this is the
interpreting phase during which the student feels most exposed and is working
under a great deal of pressure. As regards the advanced group, there is no
overriding difficulty during this phase. As can be seen in Table 6, the difficulties
mentioned are general problems of expression, unclear notes and a lack of
understanding. However, the advanced students did not mention having problems
with the overuse of connectors or with personal factors such as feeling nervous or
lacking confidence. [7, 156p]
2.2. Translation of set expressions and word combinations
As a matter of fact there are so many languages all around the world each of
which differs from the others in some aspects. Also it is obvious that the people of
23
different countries have got diverse ideologies and every society perceives the
world in a different way from the other one and consequently the ideologies
influence the languages and the ways of expressing meanings. Finally, as the
result, the collocations and idiomatic expressions of the languages diverge from
each other in most cases. The previous works done by some other researchers
include Noor Balfaqeeh's (2009) and Margarita Strakšiene‟s (2009) papers on the
issue. Balfaqeeh uses a number of theories regarding this issue beside mentioning
some Arabic examples by making a questionnaire and providing some quantitative
and qualitative data. On the other hand, Strakšiene analyses idiomatic expressions
through giving some Lithuanian examples and concludes that the translation of
idioms involves four basic translation strategies: “paraphrasing, which involves
explanatory and stylistic paraphrase; idiom to idiom translation, which involves
using idiom of similar meaning and form, and using idiom of similar meaning but
dissimilar form; literal translation; and finally, omission”. [8, 66p] To illuminate
the issue, we need to explain some types of meaning at first. A. Definition of
Idioms & Fixed Expressions Idioms and fixed expressions have got a vast territory
in a way that they can include many cultural aspects such as religious beliefs,
culture-specific items, superstitions, and different ideologies of the people from
diverse societies and nations. Idioms are treated as figures of speech, which are
defined in the Collins English Dictionary (2006) as “an expression such as a
simile, in which words do not have their literal meaning, but are categorized as
multi-word expressions that act in the text as units”. Longman Idioms Dictionary
(1998) defines them as “a sequence of words which has a different meaning as a
group from the meaning it would have if you understand each word separately”.
Accordingly, idioms should not be broken up into their elements because they are
sometimes referred to as a fixed expression. [8, 87p]
Newmark who considers idiom as an „extended‟ metaphor claims that an
idiom has two main functions: pragmatic and referential. The pragmatic function is
to appeal to the senses, to interest, to surprise, to delight. He mentions that the first
24
function is called cognitive, while the other is aesthetic. The referential function is
“to describe a mental process or state, a concept, a person, an object, a quality or
an action more comprehensively and concisely than is possible in literal or
physical language”. According to McMordiew “we can say that an idiom is a
number of words which [when they are] taken together, mean something different
from the individual words of the idiom when they stand alone”. On the other hand,
Moon (1998) in her book, A Corpus-Based Approach, defines idiom as “an
ambiguous term, used in conflicting ways‟‟. In lay or general use, idiom has two
main meanings. First, idiom is a particular means of expressing something in
language, music, art, and so on, which characterizes a person or group; secondly,
an idiom is a particular lexical collocation or phrasal lexeme, peculiar to a
language”. Most of the scholars quote that both idioms and fixed expressions and
specially the former one in most of the cases show no flexibility to change in form
and grammar. In this case Baker (1992) states that: …idioms and fixed expressions
are at the extreme end of the scale from collocations in one or both of these areas:
flexibility of patterning and transparency of meaning. They are frozen patterns of
languages which allow little or no variation in form and, in the case of idioms,
often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual components
(p. 63). She also mentions that some idioms even allow “no variation in form under
normal circumstances” and that a translator cannot do any of the following with an
idiom: a) Change the order of the words in it; b) Delete a word from it; c) Add a
word to it; d) Replace a word with another; and finally e) Change its grammatical
structure (idem). Moreover, classifies idioms as a type of fixed expression that
include proverbs, stock phrases, catchphrases, allusions, idiomatic similes and
discoursal expressions. But Balfaqeeh (2009) criticizes that “this classification
does not have defined boundaries and a structural overlap is very much expected”.
[8, 97p]
B. Types of Meaning Different scholars of linguistics have categorized types
of meaning in their own ways. Some of them have spoken in general terms while
25
some others have used more specific classifications. For example, Larson (1984)
believes that there are two primary kinds of meaning, namely, „Explicit‟ and
„Implicit‟ meanings. He states that there are also three sub-categories for these two
primary kinds of meaning: 1) „Referential meaning‟ in which a specific word
"refers to a certain thing, event, attribution or relation which a person can perceive
or imagine" (idem); 2) „Organizational meaning‟ that deals some aspects with
surface structure and grammatical points of the sentence in a way that "referential
meanings are put together and expressed by a variety of combinations (idem); 3)
„Situational meaning‟ that is the meaning of an utterance in a given
communication . On the other hand Nida (1964) categorizes three sub-branches for
the kinds of meaning: 1) „Linguistic meaning‟ that borrows some elements of
Chomsky's (1957) model and the fact that meanings are arbitrary; 2) „Referential
meaning‟ that is called denotative meaning. This category contains the words that
can be found as an entry of a dictionary; and finally;
3) „Emotive meaning‟ that is called connotative meaning and deals with
extra-linguistic factors and the figurative meanings that a word may convey. The
last classification of meaning types in this paper deals with Koller's (1979)
equivalence or „Korrespondenz and aquivalenz‟ (ibid: 46) in which he proposes
five types of meanings for the corresponding equivalents: 1) „Denotative
equivalence‟ deals with non-linguistic content of a text and Koller names it as
content invariance; 2) „Connotative equivalence‟ deals with a feeling or idea that
is suggested by a particular word although it is not necessarily a part of that word's
meaning. Koller calls this type of meaning as stylistic equivalence; 3) „Textnormative equivalence‟ is related to different text types in which different types of
texts behave in different ways; 4) „Pragmatic equivalence‟ which deals with the
influence of the text on the target language audience. It can be said that this type of
meaning is the same as Nida's (1964) „dynamic equivalence‟; 5) „Formal
equivalence‟ that concentrates on “the form and aesthetics of the text and
meaning” (idem). This kind of „Formal equivalence‟ mustn‟t be considered as the
26
same „Formal equivalence‟ of Nida (1964) which refers to the literal meaning of a
word. As it can be seen every scholar has got his/her own way of categorizing
meaning types that is based on his/her personal taste, but there is one thing in
common and it is nearly all the scholars have determined a kind of meaning that
deals with a meaning type related to „non-linguistic‟ or „extra-linguistic‟ aspects
of words, i.e., all scholars have got a categorization which refers to idiomatic
expressions of languages. For example, in the meaning types stated above, Larson's
(1984) „situational meaning‟, Nida's (1964) „emotive meaning‟ and Koller's
(1979) „connotative meaning‟ are related to the domain of idioms and fixed
expressions.
Conclusion on chapter II
This is a very brief description of consecutive interpreting for the noninitiated, and does not claim to cover everything. There are a large number of
books that have been written on consecutive interpreting in general and on notetaking specifically, where much more detailed information can be found.
Consecutive interpreting is a mode of interpreting in which the speaker
makes a speech (or says a few sentences) whilst the interpreter takes notes. The
interpreter then reproduces what the speaker has said for the audience. He is
normally standing or sitting close to the speaker, uses a pad and pen to take
notes and uses the microphone (if there is one) only once the speaker has
finished and it is his turn to speak. [9, 34p]
In order to be a good consecutive interpreter you must be able to listen very
actively, analyse what the speaker is saying, make useful notes which will jog
your memory of the speech as you give it back, and then be able to make the
speech as if it were your own in your active language.
The three main actions are:
1) listen actively (understand)
2) analyse (take structured notes)
3) reproduce (communicate)
27
A number of different skills are involved – beyond the understanding of the
passive/foreign language.
A consecutive interpreter first has to learn how to 'listen actively'. This
might sound straightforward but interpreters listen in a very different way to
other people (just as a psychoanalyst also has a special way of listening to
people talk) – because the purpose of the listening is different. Interpreters are
not listening to react or join in the conversation, they are listening to be able to
remember and reproduce accurately and faithfully in another language what was
said (and psychoanalysts are listening for clues as to the mental state of their
patient).
In order to learn this special skill interpreters are first taught how to be able
to reproduce a speech without taking notes. In the Speech Repository there a
number of examples of these kind of speeches under the category basic and
beginners. Only once this has been mastered will they go on to learn notetaking.
Note-taking is part of the second phase of ‘analysis’ – this necessitates the
ability to prioritise information and distinguish between primary and secondary
information, to be able to clearly note down who has said what, when something
happened, (who, what, when, where, how) the speaker's opinion and so on. On
the SCICtrain videos there is a whole chapter devoted to consecutive
interpreting. The ORCIT website has modules on consecutive and some of DG
Interpretation's training material is also available on this platform.
The third and final phase of ‘reproducing’ what you have heard requires
again a number of different skills – the ability to access short-term memory,
understand your notes, communicate in an engaging way to name but a few.
Stress management and voice care are an important part of this too. [9, 45p]
All of these different skills need to be learnt. You are not an interpreter just
because you happen to speak more than one language; it is much more complex
28
than that. There are a large number of universities who offer courses in
conference interpreting.
29
CONCLUSION
Consecutive interpreting is the most popular type of interpretation work. In
consecutive interpreting, the interpreter converts the words into the target language
after the speaker delivers one or two sentences. The speaker pauses and waits for the
interpreter to convey the message before continuing with their speech.
In consecutive interpreting, the linguist has time to write down notes, so they do
not have to remember everything that the speaker said.
Because of the start and stop of the delivery of a speech or presentation, the
meeting or small conference can last longer.
In any type of interpreting work, the interpreter has to prepare before the event.
The interpreter needs to be familiar with the particular terminology that speakers will
use during the meeting. It is essential for the client to give the interpreter a briefing,
background information about the participants, and the topics for discussion so that
the interpreting service will be effective.
Consecutive interpretation service does not need many technical types of
equipment like headphones, audio consoles, microphones, and soundproof booths.
What the interpreter needs are pencils or pens and notepads. Often the interpreter
works alone. [9, 77p]
The interpretation service is applicable for seminars with a limited number of
participants, business meetings, classes, and bilingual meetings. Typically, the
audience is smaller, compared to large conferences that use simultaneous
interpretation services.
Similar to a simultaneous interpreter, the consecutive interpreter must be fluent
in the source and target languages. The service needs interpreters with experience and
expertise in a specific subject. Cultural knowledge, understanding of the nuances of
the language, sharp memory, excellent speaking, and keen hearing are also necessary
skills.
Aside from memorization, a consecutive interpreter should be good at notetaking. The way the interpreter takes notes depends on the system each one of them
develops through practice, training, and their earlier experiences. They can use
initials, symbols, and abbreviations to help them remember the concepts and ideas
30
that the speaker wants to deliver. One consecutive interpreter’s notes may or may not
be legible to another interpreter.
The interpreter must maintain visual contact with the speaker instead of focusing
on note-taking. They should keep their notes simple, with only the basic information
so the notes will be easier to read but will help them summarize the message in their
head. But the interpreter should include things that are harder to remember such as
names, numbers, and dates. [10, 30p]
Any type of interpretation service is important because it enables speaking
different languages to understand one another. The setup is more personal and
intimate because the consecutive interpreter normally stays next to the speaker. Each
form has its own advantages, disadvantages, and fits different needs.
Consecutive interpretation, for example, has its set of advantages, such as:
The delivery of the interpretation is more emotional and fluent. The consecutive
interpreter has more time to prepare for the nuances of the language and to choose the
words carefully.
The service does not need audio, electronic, and technical equipment, as well as
soundproof interpreters’ booths.
The quality of the translation is better because the interpreter has more time to
prepare, which helps in choosing the tone of the message and the right words in the
target language.
The attention of the audience increases as they can understand the message
better, as well as see and hear the speaker’s tone of voice and the body language of
the speaker and the interpreter.
The audience who can understand some of the words in the original language
can appreciate the translation better.
Simultaneous interpreting is tailor-fit for large seminars and conferences, like the
international meetings at the United Nations. In one-on-one discussions and small
meetings, it is more effective to use consecutive interpreting. The interpreter listens
while the speaker relays the message, and waits until the speaker pauses. The
interpreter then delivers the message in the target language, using their memory and
notes to make sure that the message is correct.
31
Consecutive interpreting is applicable for different settings and industries that
conduct informal and formal discussions. [10, 45p]
You can use consecutive interpreting for:
Human resources meetings for multilingual staff
Press and personal interviews
Business meetings
Multilingual staff evaluations
Conferences among teachers and parents
Meetings between attorneys and clients
Court depositions
Medical interviews and consultations
Press briefings and conferences
Tours and travels
Unlike in huge seminars and conferences where the setup is more structured and
formal, the flow of the discussion in consecutive interpretation is akin to regular
conversation. Each participant has the time to speak, pausing only to allow the
interpreter to translate the conversation in another language. One of the downsides of
consecutive interpretation is that it takes longer for the meeting to finish because each
speaker has to wait for the interpreter to deliver the message.
However, the service does not involve complicated planning. The vital thing is to
use an interpreter who has the right industry background and experience, to deliver
the words correctly. For instance, for medical interpreting, the interpreter should have
prior experience in a particular field. They should know and understand the specific
terminology used in the specific branch of medicine and translate the words into the
language that the listener could easily understand.
32
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34
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ds%20carefully.
23.https://ec.europa.eu/education/knowledge-centre-interpretation/conferenceinterpreting/consecutiveinterpreting_en#:~:text=Consecutive%20interpreting%20is%20a%20mode,h
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24.https://www.tomedes.com/translator-hub/consecutive-interpretation
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26.https://translit.ie/consecutive-interpreting/
35