PART I (1)– THE MORAL AGENT
Zita M. Corpuz
CULTURE and MORAL BEHAVIOR
Culture
 Denotes relationship to the arts and humanities.
 In a broader sense, culture denotes the practices, beliefs and
perceptions of a given society.
 It is being opposed with “savagery”, that is being
“cultured” – seen as a product of a certain evolvement from
a natural state.
Culture (Other definitions)
 The cumulative deposit of knowledge, beliefs, hierarchies, attitudes, values, meanings,
etc. acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual or
group striving.
 consists of patterns, explicit and implicit of behavior acquired and transmitted by
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments in artifacts;
 The sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people considered to be their
tradition and are transmitted from generation to generation.
Culture (Other definitions)
 A cultivated behavior – the totality of a person’s learned, accumulated experience
which is socially transmitted; behavior through social learning.
 The essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their
attached values; culture systems – as products of actions and conditioning
influences upon further action.
CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE
 includes all the things individuals learn while growing up
among particular group: attitudes, standards of morality,
rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions
about the proper way to live, beliefs about how females and
males should interact, ideas about how the world works,
Culture’s Role in Moral Behavior
 Culture is a “way of life” of a group of people – includes moral values and behaviors
along with knowledge, beliefs, symbols, that they generally accept without thinking
about them.
- These are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the
next through:
- * Social learning – the process of by which individuals acquire knowledge from others in
the groups to which they belong as a normal part of childhood.
- *enculturation/socialization - the process by which infants and children socially learn
the culture, including the morality of those around them.
People learn moral aspects of right or wrong from
transmitters of culture: respective parents, teachers,
novels films and television.
Moral Standards and the Social Conditioning Theory (Social Convention)
Social Conditioning Theory explained:
 Some purport the things we regard as moral laws (moral standards or rules) are
nothing but social conventions.
 Convention-those things agreed upon by people, like those thought by their
authorities.
 Convention-the usual customary ways through which things are done within a
group.
 Since morality is handed down through education and socialization through
parents, elders or teachers, some believe that moral standards are merely
human invention.
 Moral laws then are simply what nations happen to approve.
Analysis of the Theory by Philosopher C.S. Lewis
Just because something is learned at home or in school does not
necessarily mean that it is a social convention.
Mathematical operations, geographical facts and scientific laws are also
taught in those institutions, yet they are never considered as mere human
fabrications.
Meaning, whether or not people know and like them, they are as they are.
Question: which class
does moral law belong?
Morality belongs to the same class as Math/Science:
- universal values – nations/cultures only have slightly
different moralities but not quite different ones. We
can recognize the same moral law running through
them.
moral progress –
development/impr
ovement,
changing for the
better.
there is a moral standard/rule which we measure
moralities, and that standard is real.
-Example – New testament’s morality is far
better than Nazi (national socialist) morality (like
the systematic cold-blooded murder of 5.9 million
European Jews).
The sense of moral obligation cannot be
squarely explained by social conditioning.
-there are plenty of situations where a
person although conditioned and influenced
by his culture to adopt a particular course,
feels the moral obligation to take an entirely
different action.
- Example – in cultures where moral views
have become corrupted – the Nazi societythose who opted to go against societal
norms are considered as social reformers
and moral models.
-Example 2- micro level – cheating
-
Our “intellect” likewise remembers what
actions are moral and what are not
The role of intellect in our moral decisions
explains how social conditioning somehow affects
one’s concept of morality
 The so-called sense of moral obligation therefore
cannot be squarely explained by social conditioning.
 Example in micro level – “cheating during
examinations”
 It is basically our intellect that is nurtured by the
teachings of moral authorities.
Cultural Relativism in Ethics
 The most famous form of moral relativism
 A theory in Ethics which holds that ethical judgements have their
origins either in individual or cultural standards.
 Defines “moral” as what is socially approved by the majority in-a
particular culture.
 So what is deemed moral within one group may be totally
despicable to the members of another group.
Cultural Relativism in Ethics
 Moral relativists/advocates view all moral norms as
equally true, and moral as mere preferences.
 They view themselves as open-minded as they
consider other cultures not as wrong but simply
different.
The Theory’s Ethical Faults:
 Cultural Relativism  discourages analytical thinking and independent decision making.
 Requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription to social norms.
 Endorses traditionalism
 Results to tolerance considering practices as morally acceptable.
ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
 People from different cultures appear to have
seemingly , but not essentially different sets of values
because culture has a major impact on morality
 This is particularly apparent in ethics of the Eastern or
Asian culture as compared to those from the Western
culture.
Summarized table on what are perceived as
differences between Western and Eastern Ethics.
Western Ethics
Eastern Ethics
Focus
Finding the truth
Protocol and Respect
Basis
Rational Thought
Religious Teachings
Emphasis
Logic, Cause and Effect
Respect Towards Family
Roots in
Athens, Rome and Judeo Christianity
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism
and Taoism
Rational
Holistic and Cultural
Good must triumph over evil
Good and Bad, Light and Dark all exist
in equilibrium
Approach
Conflict and
Harmony
Filipino Moral Character: Strengths and Weaknesses
 Filipino cultural morality, especially that which concerns social ethics centers on ideally
having “smooth interpersonal relationship” (SIR).

1)
2)
3)
It is anchored on at least 6 Filipino values:
Pakikisama – having and maintaining good relationship.
Hiya - a feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment; shyness or inhibition
Amor propio – a high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism
that cause him to have an easily wounded pride.
4) Utang na loob – demands the balancing of obligations and debts.
5) Filipino hospitality – the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous and
entertaining to their guests.
6) Respect for elders – Filipinos have unique ways of expressing respect to elders.
 These Filipino social values are important to maintain
harmony in Filipino relationships in social institutions
such as family school and community.
 The SIR with pakikipagkapwa-tao has been deemed as
a central core of essential cultural traits that form and
define an almost stereotypic Filipino character.
UNIVERSAL VALUES
 refer to those values generally shared by cultures
 a strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong.
 On the Eskimos – human infants cannot survive if they are not given extensive care for a
period of years, thus the young would not survive and the older members of the group
would not be replaced. – universal value could be respect for human life.
 Other values could be truth telling – indispensable in the existence of a society.
Social Conditioning Theory
Cultural Relativism
VS.
Ethics
Moral Standards
Universal Values
DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT –
The Moral Agent (2)
Moral Character – refers to the existence or lack of virtues
such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty and loyalty.
 To say that a person has a good moral character means
he/she is a good person and a good citizen with a sound
moral compass.
Moral Character and Virtues
 “Character” – derived from the Greek word “charakter”
which was initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin.
 The word “character” came later to mean a distinct mark
by which one thing is distinguished from others.
 Then chiefly to mean the assemblage of qualities that
distinguish one person from another.
 In Ethics, the word character has a different linguistic history.
 In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle tells us that there are 2 distinct of human
excellences:
1) excellence of thought –
2) Excellence in character
 His phrase of excellence of character (ethikai aretai) is translated as moral virtues.
 Ethikos (ethical) is the adjective cognate with ethos (character)
 Virtue or excellence in moral character therefore highlights not just
distinctiveness/individuality but the blend of qualities that make a person ethically
admirable.
The Circular Relations of Acts and Character
 Not all acts help build moral character, but those acts which
emanate from moral characters certainly matter in moral
development.
 Thus, there appears the apparent circular relationship between
individual acts and moral character.
 A person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but
moral character itself generates acts that help develop either
VIRTUE or VICE.
 Therefore:
 Moral development is understood in the sense of human
flourishing
 Flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and
intellectual excellence.
 Virtuous traits of character ought to be stable and enduring and
not mere products of fortune, but of learning, constant practice
and cultivation.
Moral Characters as Dispositions
Dispositions
 Are particular kinds of properties or characteristics that objects can possess.
Examples – solubility of sugar, fragility of porcelain, elasticity of rubber-band
 The moral character traits that constitute a person’s moral character are
characteristically understood as behavioral or affective dispositions.
 Moral character traits among human beings – either virtues or vices are
considered dispositions.
Moral character traits
 are those dispositions of character for which it is suitable to hold agents morally
responsible.
 A moral character trait for which a person is deserving of a positive reactive
attitude such as praise or gratitude is a VIRTUE.
 A VICE on the other hand is a moral character traits for which the agent is
deserving of a negative reactive attitude such as resentment or blame.
 Therefore:
 A good moral character is a disposition to do virtuous acts.
 Oppositely, a bad moral character is in effect to do vicious deeds.
 A good disposition leads us to make moral choices –
thereby contributing to moral VIRTUE;
 A bad disposition inclining us toward making
immoral choices, bringing us to VICE.
6 Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
 His theory of stages of moral development agreed with Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980)
theory of moral development.
 Kohlberg employed Piaget’s story telling techniques to tell stories involving moral
dilemma.
 One of his best known stories concerns a man called Heinz.
Kohlberg’s Questions:
 Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
 Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
 What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
 Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
6 Stages of Moral Development
 Kohlberg believed the people can pass through these levels in the order listed.
 Each new stage replaces the kind of reasoning typical of the previous stage. Some do
not achieve all the stages.
Level 1 – Pre-conventional morality
 Stage 1 – Obedience and Punishment Orientation
 Stage 2 – Individualism and Exchange
Level 2 – Conventional morality
 Stage 3 – Good Interpersonal relationships
 Stage 4 – Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 – Post conventional morality
 Stage 5 – Social Contract and Individual Rights
 Stage 6 – Universal Principles.
Interpretation and Summary
Level
Level 1:
Pre-conventional morality
Age Range
Seen in preschool children,
most elementary school
students, some junior high
school students and a few
high school students
Stage
Nature of Moral Reasoning
Stage 1: Punishmentavoidance and obedience
 People make decisions
based on what is best for
themselves.
 They obey rules only if
established by more
powerful individuals.
 They may disobey if they
aren’t likely to get
caught.
 Wrong behaviors are
punished.
Stage 2: Exchange of Favors
People may try to satisfy
other’s needs only if their
needs are also met. (“you
scratch my back, I’ll scratch
yours.”)
Interpretation and Summary
Level
Level 2:
Conventional morality
Age Range
Stage
Seen in a few older
Stage 3: Good Boy/Girl
elementary school students,
some junior high school
students, and many high
school students. (Stage 4
typically does not appear
until the high school years).
Stage 4: Law and order
Nature of Moral Reasoning
 People are concerned
about making good
relationships through
sharing, trust and loyalty.
 They take other people’s
perspectives into
account when making
decisions.
 SIR.
 They know rules are
necessary for keeping
society running
smoothly.
 They believe its their
“duty” to obey them.
Interpretation and Summary
Level
Level 3:
Postconventional morality
Age Range
Stage
Rarely seen before college
Stage 5: Social contract
(Stage 6 is extremely rare even
in adults.
Stage 6: Universal ethical
principle
Nature of Moral Reasoning
 People recognize that rules
represent agreements among
many individuals about
appropriate behavior.
 Rules are seen as potentially
useful mechanisms that can
maintain general social order
and protect individual rights.
 A hypothetical, Ideal stage that
few people ever reach.
 People in this stage adhere to
few abstract universal
principles (equality, respect for
human dignity, commitment to
justice)