Sentences and
Paragraphs
WRITING CLEAR SENTENCES
COMBINING SENTENCES
IMPROVING SENTENCE STYLE
UNDERSTANDING PARAGRAPHS AND COMPOSITIONS
Writing Clear
Sentences
Objective(s):
• To use appropriate connectives to show addition,
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contrast, choice, or result.
To choose appropriate subordinating conjunctions
to show time, cause, purpose, or condition.
To revise sentences by inserting adverb clauses.
To subordinate ideas by using adjective clauses.
To revise sentences by correcting faulty
coordination.
To revise sentences by correcting faulty parallelism.
To identify and revise sentence fragments, run-on
sentences, and unnecessary shifts in subject, tense,
and voice.
Ways to Achieve Clarity
Clarity is essential in conveying information
whether your purpose is to explain the
steam engine or to describe your new
neighborhood.
Important reminders:
• One of the best ways to bring clarity to your writing
is to show the appropriate relationship between
ideas.
• To do this, you must adjust and revise the structure
of each sentence until it accurately communicates
your message.
• Coordinating and subordinating ideas are two
ways to sharpen and clarify your writing.
Coordinating Ideas
• What is are Coordinating Ideas?
– Ideas that are equally important or that carry
the same weight in a sentence.
• To show that ideas are coordinate, you link them
with a coordinating conjunction, such as and or
but or another connective.
• Sometimes the connective may simply be a
punctuation mark.
– The Pathfinder lander was sending back its first
image of the surface of Mars, and everyone was
focused on the television screens.
– Crisp foods have to be loud in the upper register;
foods which generate low-frequency rumblings are
crunchy, or slurpy, but not crisp.
• The connective you use shows the relationship
between ideas. For example, and links similar ideas,
while but links contrasting ideas.
Coordinating Ideas
• The following chart lists connect words you can use to
show addition, contrast, choice, and result.
• Addition: also, and, as well as, besides, both…and
• Contrast: but, however, nevertheless, still, yet
• Choice: either…or, neither…nor, nor, or, otherwise
• Result: accordingly, consequently, for, hence, so, therefore, thus
– When you use connectives to join words, phrases, or subordinate clauses
(clauses that do not express complete thoughts), the result is a compound
element in your sentence, these compound elements may be subjects, verbs,
modifiers, or complements. When you use coordination to join complete
thoughts, or independent clauses, the result is a compound sentence.
• CONTRAST Elijah slurped his soup but wiped his mouth neatly
• CHOICE
• ADDITION
• RESULT
afterward. [compound verb]
Either Regina or Bookie will go to the movie with me.
[compound subject]
Basketball players are generally tall, fit, and quick.
[compound predicate adjective]
Mack’s hair was uncombed; consequently, he looked
too messy for the photo. [compound sentence]
Coordinating Ideas
• Be sure to choose a connective that shows the
correct relationship between the linked ideas.
Otherwise, your meaning will not be clear to
your readers.
• UNCLEAR: Nell looked for her wallet, and she couldn’t
find it anywhere.
• CLEAR: Nell looked for her wallet, but she couldn’t find it
anywhere.
– When you use a coordinating conjunction to link independent
clauses, put a comma before the conjunction unless the clauses are
very short.
• EXAMPLES
Vikram made peach cobbler, and he brought it to
the picnic.
Carly drove and Sandra slept.
– When you use a conjunctive adverb to join independent clauses, put
a semicolon before the adverb and a comma after it.
• EXAMPLE
Francine studied hard for the driving exam;
however, she overslept on the day of the test.
Subordinating Ideas
• Not all ideas are created equal.
Sometimes, one idea in a sentence is
more important than another, and you
will want to downplay, or subordinate,
the less important idea.
One way to subordinate an idea is to
place it in a subordinate clause. Used as
part of a sentence, the subordinate clause
elaborates on the thought expressed in an
independent clause.
• EXAMPLES
Petra, who is learning how to scuba
dive, took a trip to the coast.
Michael likes going to the coast
because the beaches are clean
and uncrowded.
– The kinds of subordinate clauses you will use most often
are adverb clauses and adjective clauses.
Adverb Clause
• An adverb clauses modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb in a
sentence. You introduce an adverb
clause, with a subordinating conjunction
such as although, after, because, if,
when, or, while. The conjunction shows
show how the adverb clause relates to
the main clause.
– Usually, the conjunction shows a relationship of time,
cause or reason, purpose or result, or condition.
– The following chart lists subordinating conjunction you
can use to show each kind of relationship.
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Time: after, as, before, since, until, when, whenever, while
Cause: as, because, even though, since, unless, whereas, while
Purpose: in order that, so that, such that, that
Condition: although, despite, if, provided that, though
•
Adjective Clauses
What is are Adjective Clauses?
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You can also subordinate an idea by placing it in an
adjective clause, a subordinate clause that modifies a noun
or pronoun in a sentence. An adjective clause usually begins
with who, whom, whose, which, that.
• Before you use an adjective clause in a sentence,
you need to decide which idea in the sentence
you want to subordinate. Suppose you wanted to
combine these two ideas in one sentence:
Albert Einstein was born in 1879. He is considered one
of the greatest scientist of the twentieth century, was
born in 1879.
• If you wanted to emphasize that Einstein is
considered one of the greatest scientist of the
twentieth century, put his birth information in an
adjective clause.
• If you wanted to emphasize that Einstein was born
in 1879, you would put that information in an
independent clause.
Correcting Faulty
Coordination
In everyday speech, we tend to be casual about stringing
together ideas with and. In writing, though, it is essential to
show clearly the relationship among ideas. If you use
coordinating conjunction to join ideas that are not coordinate,
or equal, you end up with faulty coordination.
• To avoid faulty coordination, check each
compound sentence to see if the ideas are really
equal in importance. If they are not, subordinate
the less-important idea by placing it in a
subordinate clause or a phrase. You may need to
add, delete, or rearrange words in the sentence.
This male butterfly is distinguishable from females of its
species, and its wings reflect ultraviolet light. (FAULTY)
Because its wings reflect ultraviolet light, this male
butterfly is distinguishable from females of its species.
(REVISED)
Using Parallel Structure
• To create clarity and rhythm in a sentence, it is important
to express similar ideas in similar grammatical forms. For
example, pair an adjective with an adjective, a
prepositional phrase with a prepositional phrase, and
noun clause with a noun clause. When you use the same
grammatical form for similar ideas, you create parallel
structure.
• Remember to use parallel structure when you link coordinate ideas.
• Use parallel structure when you compare or contrast ideas.
• Use parallel structure when you link ideas with correlative conjunctions
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(both…and, either…or, neither…nor, nor, and not only… but also)
To avoid awkwardness and confusion, place correlative conjunctions directly
before the parallel terms.
When you create parallel structure, you often need to repeat an article, a
preposition, or a pronoun before each of the parallel terms to make your
meaning clear.
To clarify your meaning, you will need to add a few words to the second part of
a sentence that uses parallel structure.
For many writers, parallel structure is an important stylistic tool. Parallelism
creates natural rhythm and flow in both prose and poetry.
When you use parallelism as a stylistic device in your own writing, revise by
reading your work aloud, listening for strong and consistent rhythm.
Obstacles to
Clarity
HOW TO CHECK YOUR WRITING FOR SOME
COMMON OBSTACLES TO CLARITY: SENTENCE
FRAGMENTS, RUN-ON SENTENCES, AND
UNNECESSARY SHIFTS
Sentence Fragments
• A sentence expresses a complete thought. If
you punctuate a part of a sentence as if it were
a whole sentence, you create a sentence
fragment. Fragments are usually confusing
because the reader has to puzzle out the
missing information.
• Fragment: 1929, the global economy into a worldwide
depression. [missing verb]
• Sentence: In 1929, the global economy collapsed into a
worldwide depression.
– Phrase Fragments
A phrase is a group of words that does not a subject and a verb.
When a phrase is separated from the sentence it belongs with, it
becomes a sentence fragment.
• FRAGMENT
• SENTENCE
I found my sister in the den. Making origami swans
out of blue and green paper. [participial phrase
fragment]
I found my sister in the den making origami swans
out of blue and green paper.
Sentence Fragments
• Subordinate Clause Fragments
A subordinate clause has a subject and a verb but does not express
a complete thought. Unlike an independent clause, a subordinate
clause cannot stand on its own.
• FRAGMENT
• SENTENCE
Sea urchins have long, moveable spines, which they
use to push themselves across the ocean floor.
[adjective clause fragment]
Sea urchins have long, moveable spines, which they
use to push themselves across the ocean floor.
A complete sentence is usually the clearest way to express a
thought. However, experienced writers sometimes use fragments
for stylistic effect.
You can use fragments occasionally in expressive and creative
writing such as journal entries and short stories. For example, you
might use fragments in dialogue to capture the natural sounds of
your characters’ speech. You can also use fragments in classified
ads and other types of writing where an informal, shorthand style
is appropriate. However, avoid fragments in informative writing
such as research papers and reports. Because your readers expect
formal, straight forward language in this type of writing.
Run-on Sentences
• A run-on sentence is just the opposite of a
fragment. It is made up of two complete
sentences run together as if they were one
sentence. Most run-on are comma plices (two
complete thoughts that have only a comma
between them). Other run-ons, called fused
sentences, have no punctuation between the
two thoughts. The following examples show
ways to correct run-ons.
• RUN-ON
Naomi longed to make the basketball team, to achieve her
goal, she practiced ever afternoon.
• CORRECT Naomi longed make the basketball team. To achieve her
goal, she practiced every afternoon. [two sentences]
• RUN-ON She tried different exercises, her skills showed no
improvement.
• CORRECT She tried different exercises, but her skills showed no
improvement. [compound sentence with comma and
coordinating conjunction]
Unnecessary Shifts in
Sentences
• For clarity, it is usually best to keep the same subject and
the same verb form throughout a sentence. Unnecessary
shifts in subject, tense, or voice can make a sentence
award to read.
– Shifts in Subject
• Note that sometimes, especially in short compound sentences, a
shift in subject is necessary to express your intended meaning. In
the following sentence, the shift in subject is natural.
NATURAL SHIFT: Jesse jumped off the swing, but no one caught
him.
• Most often, though, a shift in subject is awkward and
unnecessary. In the following examples, notice that each
sentence is much clearer when it has the same subject
throughout.
AWKWARD
BETTER
AWKWARD
BETTER
The Mullaneys have a new puppy, and the shelter is
where they found it.
The Mullaneys have a new puppy, and they found it at
the shelter.
All runners should be at the track by 7:00 so that you
can pick your registration forms.
All runners should be at the track 7:00 so that they can
pick up their registration forms.
Shifts in Verb Tense and Voice
• Unnecessarily changing verb tense or voice in
midsentence can also create awkwardness and
confusion. Stick to the tense and voice you start
with unless you have a good reason for
changing.
AWKWARD
Aldo talked about going to the North Pole, but then he
goes to the Antarctic. [shift from past tense to present
tense]
BETTER
Aldo talked about going the dangerous to the North
Pole, but then he went to the Antarctic. [past tense
throughout]
AWKWARD
Volunteers made the dangerous journey after dark, but
no wolves were encountered. [shifts from active voice
to passive voice]
BETTER
Volunteers made the dangerous journey after dark,
but they encountered no wolves.
• A shift in voice usually causes a shift in subject, too. Notice that in the
awkward sentence in the last pair, the shift from active to passive voice
result in a shift from the subject volunteers to the subject wolves.
Combining
Sentences
Combining for Variety
• Have you ever found your mind drifting while
reading, despite real efforts to concentrate? (Be
honest.) Choppy sentences can make it hard to
concentrate. Of course, a short, simple
sentence can be used to create emphasis. If
you only use short sentences, however, you
probably will not hold your reader’s attention for
very long.
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–
When some of the sentences are combined to create longer, more varied
ones, the passage sounds smoother and more interesting.
Sentence-combining techniques can help create balance, rhythm, and
precision in your writing. In this chapter, you will learn several techniques
for combining sentences to improve variety and style.
Inserting Words and Phrases
• Sometimes, a sentence adds only a little information to a
more important idea that appears before or after it.
Instead of giving a small detail a sentence of its own, you
can insert that detail into another sentence as a word or
phrase. By combining the sentences, you eliminate extra
words and repeated ideas. (Notice, for example, how
many words are repeated in the four sentences printed
below.)
• Four Sentences
The surgeon considered doing the operation.
The operation would be simple. The surgeon
was experienced. She thought the operation
would go smoothly.
• One Sentence
Thinking it would go smoothly, the experienced
surgeon considered doing the simple operation.
or
The experienced surgeon considered doing the
simple operation, as she thought it would go
smoothly.
Single-Word Modifiers
• Before you take a word from one sentence and
insert it into another sentence, check to make
sure the word can act as a modifier in the
second sentence. You may need to change the
word into an adverb or adjective before you
insert it.
USING THE SAME FORM
• Original: Angela de Hoyos is a Mexican American poet.
She is an award-winning poet.
• Combined: Angela de Hoyos is an award-winning
Mexican American poet.
CHANGING THE FORM
• Original: She was involved in the revolution of the 1960s.
It was a revolution of the culture.
• Combined: She was involved in the cultural revolution of
the 1960s.
Combining Sentences by
Inserting Phrases
Prepositional Phrases
• Usually, you can insert a prepositional phrase
without any changes in form.
• Original: Ole likes contemporary American films. He likes
the ones with ensembles casts.
• Combined: Ole likes contemporary American films with
ensemble casts.
– Sometimes you can change a part of one sentence into a
prepositional phrases and then insert it into another sentence.
Participial Phrases
• A participial phrase contains a participle and its modifiers
and complements. Participial phrases act as adjectives in a
sentence. They help develop concrete details that elaborate
on a sentence’s main idea and so can add interest to your
writing.
• Example(s): Sometimes their mother sat in the room behind them,
sewing, or dressing their younger sister, or nursing the baby, Paul.
Combining Sentences by
Inserting Phrases
Absolute Phrases
• An absolute phrase consists of (1) a participle or a
participial phrase, (2) noun or a pronoun that the
participle or participial phrase modifies, and (3) any other
modifiers of that noun or pronoun. The entire word group
is used as an adverb to modify the independent clause of
a sentence.
• Absolute phrases express something about time, cause, or
circumstances of the action in the independent clause.
Absolute phrases are easy to spot because they always
contain a noun that is different from the subject of the
independent clause. Using absolute phrases is another
way to combine sentences.
• Original: The wind started gusting. Constance returned
home.
• Combined: The wind gusting, Constance returned home.
Combining Sentences by
Inserting Phrases
Appositive Phrases
• An appositive phrase is made up of an
appositive and its modifiers. Appositive
phrases add detail by identifying or
describing a noun or pronoun in a
sentence. For clear meaning, insert an
appositive phrases directly before or
after the noun or pronoun it identifies or
describes.
– You can combine sentences in a variety of ways by using
appositive phrases.
Combining Sentences by
Coordinating and Subordinating
Ideas
Coordinating ideas
• You can join equally important words, phrases, or clauses
by using coordinating conjunctions (such as and, but, or,
for, yet) or correlative conjunctions (such as both … and,
either … or, neither … nor). When you combine sentences
in this way, you will usually create a compound subject,
compound verb, a compound object, or a compound
sentence.
Subordinating ideas
• When two related sentences contain ideas of unequal importance, you
can combine the sentences by making less important ideas into a
subordinate clause (an adjective clause, an adverb clause, or a noun
clause). The use of subordination will help show relation between the
ideas.
Clauses
• An adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun and
usually begins with who, whose, which,, where, or that. To
combine sentences by using an adjective clause, first
decide which sentence you want to subordinate. Then,
change that sentence into an adjective clause and insert
it into the other sentence.
• Original: Mammals alone possess hair. Hair is really filaments
made mainly of dead cells filled with protein.
• Combined: Hair, which mammals alone possess, is really
filaments made mainly of dead cells filled with protein.
• An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb in a
sentence. To form an adverb clause, add a subordinating conjunction
(such as although, after, because, if, when, where, or while) to the
beginning of the sentence you want to subordinate. Then, attach the
adverb clause to a related sentence. You may need to delete or replace
some words to form a clause.
• Original: Carlos left the store. He could not find the CD he wanted.
• Combined: Carlos left the store because he could not find the CD he
wanted.
• A noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a noun. It usually begins
with that, what, whatever, how, who, whom, whoever, or whomever.
Sometimes you can drop the introductory word, such as that, whom, or
which, from a noun clause without any confusion.
Improving
Sentence Style
Revising for Variety
• No one likes to read dull writing –not your
cousin in Chicago, not your chemistry
teacher, and not your colleagues at
work. Whether you are writing a personal
letter, a report on ions, or a memo about
time-saving techniques, a versatile writing
style will help you convey your message
with punch and pizazz.
– As you learn to evaluate and revise your writing, you can
develop an eye for sentence style. The next time you
draft an essay, examine how your sentences fit together.
Do they add up to lively, natural-sounding paragraphs? If
your writing sounds dull, you probably need to vary the
beginnings and the structures of some of your
sentences.
Varying Sentence
Beginnings
• Most sentences begin with a subject followed
by a verb.
• Canoeing is a popular activity.
• Some people prefer kayaking to canoeing.
– While there is nothing wrong with this basic subject-verb pattern, it
can begin to sound monotonous after a while. You can improve the
style of your writing by beginning some sentences with introductory
words, phrases, and clauses instead of with subjects. At the same
time, you can make more effective connections between related
sentences.
• BLAND
Bernice won the sculpting contest. She told her best
friend Emi as soon as she found out.
• BETTER
Bernice won the sculpting contest. As soon as she
found out, she told her best friend Emi.
*Sometimes the best way to vary sentence beginnings is to reduce a short
sentence to an introductory word, phrase, or clause and attach it to
another sentence. This is where your sentence-combining skills come in
handy.*
Revising to Reduce
Wordiness
• Which would you rather read: a ten-page essay
on the health benefits of broccoli or a one-ortwo paragraph statement on the subject?
Skilled writers make every word count, suiting
length to purpose. Your writing is most effective
when it is clear, concise, and free of clutter of
unnecessary words. To avoid wordiness, keep
these three points in mind.
• Use only words you need to make your point.
• Avoid complicated words where simple ones will do.
• Do not repeat words unless it is absolutely necessary.
– Sometimes you can fix a wordy sentence by taking out whole groups
of unnecessary words. At other times you can revise by reducing
clauses to phrases and both clauses and phrases to single words.
Understanding
Paragraphs and
Compositions
How Paragraphs and
Compositions Fit Together
• Imagine standing on top of a mountain, looking
out over the thick forest below.
• What do you see? A wide ribbon of deep green –or
that one tree that towers over the others? You have
probably heard the saying about seeing the forest or
seeing the trees.
• What about seeing both the whole and its parts?
• When you write a composition, you do just that.
You pay attention to the parts (the paragraphs), but
you also keep the whole (the composition) in mind.
The Parts of a Paragraph
Paragraphs can be different as oak trees are from pines.
Some paragraphs are a single word; others run several
pages. Their uses differ, too: to present a main idea, to
connect one idea to another, to emphasize an idea, or
simply to give the reader’s eye a rest in long passages.

Many paragraphs in essay and other types of
nonfiction, including workplace writing , develop one
main idea. Each main-idea paragraph is often built
from a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a
clincher sentence.
The Parts of a Paragraph
• The Main Idea
 is the paragraph’s central idea or focus.
• The Topic Sentence
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
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is an explicit statement of the main idea.
is often the first or second sentence in the paragraph.
can instead appear at the end of a paragraph to emphasize or summarize.
is not necessarily a dry statement –it can be lively and interesting.
• Supporting Sentences
 elaborate on the main idea, these sentences support, build, or prove the main




idea.
often use details of the following types: sensory details, images of sight, sound,
taste, smell, and texture.
facts or statistics: details that can be proven true (a reader can check the
accuracy). A statistic is a fact involving numbers.
examples: specific instances that illustrate a general idea.
anecdotes: brief stories about people or events that illustrate a main idea.
• The Clincher Sentence
 may restate the topic sentence, summarize supporting details, offer a final
thought, or help readers refocus on the main idea of a long paragraph.
 is sometimes bold, colorful, or clever –a definite closing.
The Parts of a Paragraph
Not every paragraph has, or needs, a topic sentence. In
fiction, paragraphs rarely have topic sentences.
 Paragraphs presenting time sequences (how-to
instruction or histories, for example) may also lack
topic sentences-the steps or events themselves focus
the reader’s mind.
 Finally, a paragraph may imply, or suggest, its main
idea without directly stating it in a topic sentence. In
your school writing, however, topic sentences are a
help: They keep you focused on each paragraph’s
topic.

Qualities of
Paragraphs
Qualities of Paragraphs
Think about trees again. Each type is so distinct: a pine
with its needles and cones, a magnolia with its glossy
leaves and huge blossoms. Yet, while different, each is a
please whole.
 Paragraphs achieve this wholesomeness, too, through
three major qualities: unity, coherence, and
elaboration.
Qualities of a Good
Paragraph
1. UNITY - singleness or "oneness" of purpose. All the detail sentences
clearly point to or support the topic sentence.
2. COHERENCE - all the sentences and ideas in the paragraph flow
smoothly together to make clear and logical points about the
topic. Coherence can be achieved through the use of:

A. A natural or easily recognized order:
> Time Order (Chronological) - arranging details or sentences as they happen according to
time; usually used in writing narratives
> Space / Direction Order (Spatial) - arranging evidence in relation to space, direction or
location
> Importance Order (Emphatic) - arranging details in order of importance or emphasis
> Step-by-Step (Sequential or Procedural) - arranging information according to numbers.
Qualities of a Good
Paragraph
B. Transition Words and Phrases - used to show the connection from one sentence to
another, or to signal a new train of thoughts.
C. Repetition of Key Words - important words or phrases (and their synonyms) may be
repeated throughout a paragraph to connect the thoughts into a coherent statement.
D. Substitution of Pronouns for Key Nouns - use a key noun in one sentence and then use a
pronoun in its place in the following sentences. When using pronouns consider the nouns
to be replace by checking the nouns:
1.
number - is the noun to be substituted singular of plural,
2.
function in the sentence - is the noun to be replaced use as a possessive, a subject, or
object,
3.
gender - is the noun to be replaced a male, a female, a common noun or a neutral
noun,
4.
person - is the noun to be replaced in the first, second, or third person.
E. Parallelism - use of the same grammatical structure in several sentences to establish
coherence. The use of similar phrasing helps tie ideas and sentences together.
Qualities of a Good
Paragraph
3. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT - support and evidence
provided by the writer can be explained in different ways,
These details can be provided by giving or using:
- narration – telling a story
- description – painting something or someone by use of words
- comparison – showing how two subjects are similar
- contrast – pointing out how two subjects are different from each other
- example – providing illustrations or representatives of an idea or topic
- classification – organizing or grouping together subjects with the same qualities or
characteristics
- division – taking out a part from the whole to fully discuss or emphasize how the
part is integral to the whole
- definition – giving the meaning of a term, idea, or concept
- process analysis – telling how something is achieved or came to be; or telling how
to do something
- cause and effect – showing reasons/results of a phenomena/process