MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING - Solutions Manual
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING: AN OVERVIEW
1-1 – 1-19
2
Management Accounting and the Business Environment
2-1 – 2-5
3
Understanding of Financial Statements
3-1 – 3-10
4
Financial Statements Analysis – I
4-1 – 4-9
5
Financial Statements Analysis – II
5-1 – 5-38
6
Cash Flow Analysis
6-1 – 6-18
7
Gross Profit Valuation Analysis and Earnings Per Share
Determination
7-1 – 7-7
8
Cost Concepts and Classifications
8-1 – 8-17
9
Cost Behavior: Analysis and Use
9-1 – 9-30
10
Systems Design: Job-Order Costing and Process Costing
10-1 – 10-16
11
Systems Design: Activity-Based Costing and Management
11-1 – 11-15
12
Variable Costing
12-1 – 12-21
13
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
13-1 – 13-37
14
Responsibility Accounting and Transfer Pricing
14-1 – 14-26
15
Functional and Activity-Based Budgeting
15-1 – 15-22
16
Standard Costs and Operating Performance Measures
16-1 – 16-17
17
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and
Decision Making - I
17-1 – 17-2
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and
Decision Making – II
18-1 – 18-7
19
Relevant Costs for Decision Making
19-1 – 19-33
20
Capital Budgeting Decisions
20-1 – 20-16
21
Decentralized Operations and Segment Reporting
21-1 – 21-4
22
Business Planning
22-1 – 22-6
18
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
23
Strategic Cost Management; Balanced Scorecard
23-1 – 23-4
24
Advanced Analysis and Appraisal of Performance: Financial
and Nonfinancial
24-1 – 24-12
25
Managing Productivity and Marketing Effectiveness
25-1 – 25-19
26
Executive Performance Measures and Compensation
26-1 – 26-3
27
Managing Accounting in a Changing Environment
27-1 – 27-22
CHAPTER 1
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING: AN OVERVIEW
I.
Questions
1. Use of the word “need” in the quoted passage is pejorative. It implies an
unlimited level of demand for information. However, rational managers
apply a cost-benefit criterion to information and will only want accounting
information if its benefits exceed its costs. Accounting information
provides benefits by improving decision making and controlling behavior
in organizations. In most organizations, accounting information is very
prevalent which implies that its benefits exceed its costs. Hence,
successful managers will find it in their self-interest to learn how to use
accounting information in these organizations.
Clearly, this statement is incurred in those firms where accounting
information has very limited usefulness (e.g., if the accounting
information is often wrong or is not produced in a timely fashion). In
these organizations, managers do not find the accounting information to
have benefits in excess of its costs, will not use it, do not need to know
how to use it, and definitely do not need it.
2. a. Historical costs are of limited use in making planning decisions in a
rapidly changing environment. With changing products, processes
and prices, the historical costs are inadequate approximations of the
opportunity costs of using resources.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Historical costs may, however, be useful for control purposes, as they
provide information about the activities of managers and can be used
as performance measures to evaluate managers.
b. The purpose of accounting systems is to provide information for
planning purposes and control. Although historical costs are not
generally appropriate for planning purposes, additional measures are
costly to make. An accounting system should include additional
measures if the benefits of improved decision making are greater than
the costs of the additional information.
3. Finance and economics textbooks traditionally state that the goal of a
profit organization is to maximize shareholder wealth. Managers are
frequently presumed to act in the best interest of the shareholder, although
recent finance literature recognizes that appropriate incentives are
necessary to align manager interests with shareholder interests. The goal,
however, are not very clear as to how this is achieved. Most finance
textbooks focus on financing decisions and not on the use of assets and
dealing with customers.
Marketing’s goal of satisfying customers recognizes that customers are the
source of revenues for the organization, and therefore the means through
which shareholder value is increased. However, customer satisfaction is
only valuable insofar as it creates shareholder wealth. The further goal of
marketing is to ensure that customer satisfaction is maximized without
compromising the organization’s profitability.
4. Yes. Planning is really much more vital than control; that is, superior
control is fruitless if faulty plans are being implemented. However,
planning and control are so intertwined that it seems artificial to draw
rigid lines of separation between them.
5. Yes. The controller has line authority over the personnel in his own
department but is a staff executive with respect to the other departments.
6. Line authority is exerted downward over subordinates. Staff authority is
the authority to advise but not command others; it is exercised laterally or
upward. Functional authority is the right to command action laterally and
downward with regard to a specific function or specialty.
7. Cost accounting is the controller’s primary means of implementing the 7point concept of modern controllership. Cost accounting is intertwined
with all seven duties to some extent, but its major focus is on the first
three.
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
8. Bettina Company
President
VP, Production
VP, Finance
VP, Sales
Controller
Treasurer
Assistant
Controller
Assistant
Treasurer
Special
Studies
Manager
Cost
Accounting
Manager
Tax
Manager
Internal
Audit
Manager
Cost
Systems
Analyst
Budget &
Standard
Cost Analyst
Performance
Analyst
Cost Clerk
Payroll
Clerk
Accounts
Receivable
Clerk
Accounts
Payable
Clerk
General
Accounting
Manager
Billing
Clerk
System &
EDP
Manager
General
Ledger
Bookkeeper
9. Management accountants contribute to strategic decisions by providing
information about the sources of competitive advantage and by helping
managers identify and build a company’s resources and capabilities.
10. In most organizations, management accountants perform multiple roles:
problem solving (comparative analyses for decision making), scorekeeping
(accumulating data and reporting reliable results), and attention directing
(helping managers properly focus their attention).
11. Three guidelines that help management accountants increase their value to
managers are (a) employ a cost-benefit approach, (b) recognize behavioral
as well as technical considerations, and (c) identify different costs for
different purposes.
12. Management accounting is an integral part of the controller’s function in
an organization. In most organizations, the controller reports to the chief
financial officer, who is a key member of the top management team.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
13. Management accountants have ethical responsibilities that are related to
competence, confidentiality, integrity, and objectivity.
14. By reporting and interpreting relevant data, the controller exerts a force or
influence that impels management toward making better-informed
decisions.
The controller of one company described the job as “a business advisor
to…help the team develop strategy and focus the team all the way through
recommendations and implementation.”
15.
Audience:
Purpose:
Timeliness:
Restrictions:
Type of Information:
Nature of Information:
Scope:
Audience:
Purpose:
Timeliness:
Restrictions:
Type of Information:
Financial Accounting
External:
shareholders, creditors, tax
authorities
Report on past performance to external parties;
basis of contracts with owners and lenders
Delayed; historical
Regulated; rules driven by generally accepted
accounting principles and government
authorities
Financial measurements only
Objective, auditable, reliable, consistent,
precise
Highly aggregate; report on entire organization
Managerial Accounting
Internal: Workers, managers, executives
Inform internal decisions made by employees
and managers; feedback and control on
operating performance
Current, future oriented
No regulations; systems and information
determined by management to meet strategic
and operational needs
Financial, plus operational and physical
measurements on processes, technologies,
suppliers customers, and competitors
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
Nature of Information:
Scope:
More subjective and judgmental; valid,
relevant, accurate
Disaggregate; inform local decisions and
actions
16. The competitive environment has changed dramatically. Companies
encountered severe competition from overseas companies that offered
high-quality products at low prices. Activity-based costing systems are
introduced in many manufacturing and service organizations to overcome
the inability of traditional cost systems to accurately assign overhead
costs. Activity-based management is a viable approach for managers to
make decisions based on ABC information. There has been improvement
of operational control systems such that information is more current and
provided more frequently. The nature of work has changed from
controlling to informing.
Firms are concerned about continuous
improvement, employee empowerment and total quality. Nonfinancial
information has become a critical feedback measure. Finally, the focus of
many firms is on measuring and managing activities.
17. As measurements are made on operations and, especially, on individuals
and groups, the behavior of the individuals and groups are affected.
People will react to the measurements being made by focusing on the
variables or behavior being measured. In addition, if managers attempt to
introduce or redesign cost and performance measurement systems, people
familiar with the previous system will resist. Management accountants
must understand and anticipate the reactions of individuals to information
and measurements. The design and introduction of new measurements
and systems must be accompanied with an analysis of the likely reactions
to the innovations.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1
a.
b.
c.
d.
(1)
(3)
(1)
(2)
Problem solving
Attention-directing
Problem solving
Scorekeeping
Exercise 2
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
a.
b.
c.
d.
(4)
(3)
(6)
(5)
Marketing
Production
Customer service
Distribution
Exercise 3
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
(4)
(3)
(5)
(4)
(5)
(3)
(1)
(2)
Marketing
Production
Distribution
Marketing
Distribution
Production
Research and development
Design
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Problem Solving, Scorekeeping, and Attention Directing)
Because the accountant’s duties are often not sharply defined, some of these
answers might be challenged:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Scorekeeping
Attention directing
Scorekeeping
Problem solving
Attention directing
Attention directing
Problem solving
Scorekeeping (depending on the extent of the report) or attention
getting
9. This question is intentionally vague. The give-and-take of the
budgetary process usually encompasses all three functions, but it
emphasizes scorekeeping the least. The main function is attention
directing, but problem solving is also involved.
10. Problem solving
Problem 2 (Management Accounting Information System)
1. Inputs: b, g, i, m
2. Processes: a, d, f, j
3. Outputs: e, k, n
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
4. System objectives: c, h, l
Problem 3 (Role of Management Accountants)
Planning. The management accountant gains an understanding of the impact
on the organization of planned transactions (i.e., analyzing strengths and
weaknesses) and economic events, both strategic and tactical, and sets
obtainable goals for the organization. The development of budgets is an
example of planning.
Controlling. The management accountant ensures the integrity of financial
information, monitors performance against budgets and goals, and provides
information internally for decision making. Comparing actual performance
against budgeted performance and taking corrective action where necessary is
an example of controlling. Internal auditing is another example.
Evaluating Performance. The management accountant judges and analyzes
the implication of various past and expected events, and then chooses the
optimum course of action. The management accountant also translates data
and communicates the conclusions. Graphical analysis (such as trend, bar
charts, or regression) and reports comparing actual costs with budgeted costs
are examples of evaluating performance.
Ensuring Accountability of Resources.
The management accountant
implements a reporting system closely aligned to organizational goals that
contribute to the measurement of the effective use of resources and
safeguarding of assets. Internal reporting such as comparison of actual to
budget is an example of accountability.
External Reporting. The management accountant prepares reports in
accordance with generally accepted accounting principles and then
disseminates this information to shareholders, creditors, and regulatory tax
agencies. An annual report or a credit application are examples of external
reporting.
Problem 4 (Line Versus Staff)
Jamie Reyes is staff. She is in a support role – she prepares reports and helps
explain and interpret them. Her role is to help the line managers more
effectively carry out their responsibilities.
Stephen Santos is a line manager. He has direct responsibility for producing a
garden hose. Clearly, one of the basic objectives for the existence of a
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
manufacturing firm is to make a product. Thus, Stephen has direct
responsibility for a basic objective and therefore holds a line position.
Problem 5 (Professional Ethics and End-of-Year Games)
Requirement 1
The possible motivations for the snack foods division wanting to play end-ofyear games include:
(a) Management incentives. Yummy Foods may have a division bonus
scheme based on one-year reported division earnings. Efforts to front-end
revenue into the current year or transfer costs into the next year can
increase this bonus.
(b) Promotion opportunities and job security. Top management of Yummy
Foods likely will view those division managers that deliver high reported
earnings growth rates as being the best prospects for promotion. Division
managers who deliver “unwelcome surprises” may be viewed as less
capable.
(c) Retain division autonomy. If top management of Yummy Foods adopts a
“management by exception” approach, divisions that report sharp
reductions in their earnings growth rates may attract a sizable increase in
top management supervision.
Requirement 2
The “Standards of Ethical Conduct…” require management accountants to:


Refrain from either actively or passively subverting the attainment of
the organization’s legitimate and ethical objectives, and
Communicate unfavorable as well as favorable information and
professional judgment or opinions.
Several of the “end-of-year games” clearly are in conflict with these
requirements and should be viewed as unacceptable by Tan:
(a) The fiscal year-end should be closed on midnight of December 31.
“Extending” the close falsely reports next year’s sales as this year’s sales.
(b) Altering shipping dates is falsification of the accounting reports.
(c) Advertisements run in December should be charged to the current year.
The advertising agency is facilitating falsification of the accounting
records.
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
The other “end-of-year games” occur in many organizations and may fall into
the “gray” to “acceptable” area.
However, much depends on the
circumstances surrounding each one:
(a) If the independent contractor does not do maintenance work in December,
there is no transaction regarding maintenance to record.
The
responsibility for ensuring that packaging equipment is well maintained is
that of the plant manager. The division controller probably can do little
more than observe the absence of a December maintenance charge.
(d) In many organizations, sales are heavily concentrated in the final weeks of
the fiscal year-end. If the double bonus is approved by the division
marketing manager, the division controller can do little more than observe
the extra bonus paid in December.
(e) If TV spots are reduced in December, the advertising cost in December
will be reduced. There is no record falsification here.
(g) Much depends on the means of “persuading” carriers to accept the
merchandise. For example, if an under-the-table payment is involved, it is
clearly unethical. If, however, the carrier receives no extra consideration
and willingly agrees to accept the assignment, the transaction appears
ethical.
Each of the (a), (d), (e) and (g) “end-of-year games” may well disadvantage
Yummy Foods in the long run. For example, lack of routine maintenance may
lead to subsequent equipment failure. The divisional controller is well advised
to raise such issues in meetings with the division president. However, if
Yummy Foods has a rigid set of line/staff distinctions, the division president is
the one who bears primary responsibility for justifying division actions to
senior corporate officers.
Requirement 3
If Tan believes that Ryan wants her to engage in unethical behavior, she
should first directly raise her concerns with Ryan. If Ryan is unwilling to
change his request, Tan should discuss her concerns with the Corporate
Controller of Yummy Foods. Tan also may well ask for a transfer from the
snack foods division if she perceives Ryan is unwilling to listen to pressure
brought by the Corporate Controller, CFO, or even President of Yummy
Foods. In the extreme, she may want to resign if the corporate culture of
Yummy Foods is to reward division managers who play “end-of-year games”
that Tan views as unethical and possibly illegal.
Problem 6
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
James Torres has come up with a scheme that involves a combination of data
falsification and smoothing! Not only has he made up the revenue numbers,
but also he has had the gall to defer some of them to the next period. Making
up such numbers is clearly illegal. Smoothing, in this example is also illegal
because the numbers are fictitious.
Problem 7
Clearly the vice-president will lose his or her job if you turn him or her in.
Given that this is a major violation of the code of ethics and a violation patent
law, the vice-president could go to jail. Your best course of action is to check
your information and if the vice-president is definitely involved, go
immediately to the VP’s superior (who is probably a senior VP or the company
president). The organization’s attorneys will take over from there.
Problem 8
One option is to do nothing and ignore what you saw, however, this may
violate your own code of ethics and your ethical responsibilities under the
organization’s code of ethics. Given that you want to do something, it is
probably best to start by talking to employees in your organization whose job
it is to deal with ethical issues. If no such employees exist or are available,
you might start by using a decision model. This model incorporated the
following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Determine the Facts – What, Who, Where, How
Define the Ethical Issue
Identify Major Principles, Rule, Values
Specify the Alternatives.
Compare Values and Alternatives, See if Clear Decision
Assess the Consequences.
Make Your Decision.
IV. Cases
Case 1 (Financial vs. Managerial Accounting)
Requirement (a)
Other forward looking information desired in addition to the income statement
information are
1. Disclosure of the components of financial performance, i.e., nature
and source of revenues, various activities, transactions, and other
relevant events affecting the company.
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
2. Nature and function of the components of income and expenses
Requirement (b)
No. GAAP does not allow capitalization of employee training and advertising
costs even if management feels that they increase the value of the company’s
brand name. The reasons are uncertainty of the future benefits that may be
derived therefrom and difficulty and reliability of their measurement.
Requirement (c)
Detailed information that managers would likely request are analysis of the
significant increases in
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sales
Cost of sales
Payroll
Stock and option based compensation
Advertising and promotion.
Requirement (d)
Nonmonetary measures:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Change in number and profile of customers
Share in the market
Who, what and how many are the competitors
Product lines offered by the entity vs. Product lines of competitors
Sales promotion and advertising activities
Requirement (e)
1. Competitors
2. Employees
3. Prospective creditors
Case 2 (You get what you measure!)
Requirement (a)
Increase in sales to new customers to sales
Too much emphasis on this ratio may lead the sales manager to spend more
time developing business with new customers and disregard the needs of
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
existing customers. It is therefore possible to lose the business of several key
accounts.
Requirement (b)
Decrease in cost of goods sold to sales
This performance measure could create the following problems:
1. Purchasing goods with poor quality at lower cost and selling them for
the same price.
2. Indiscriminately increasing selling price to widen the profit margin
without regard to competitor’s current prices.
3. If the entity is manufacturing its own goods, managers could try to
economize on costs, i.e., buying poorer quality of materials,
employing unskilled workers, etc. thereby causing deterioration of the
quality of the finished products.
In all of the above situations, customer patronage could eventually be
adversely affected.
Requirement (c)
Decrease in selling and administrative expense to sales
Cost-cutting is generally advisable for as long as the quality of goods and
services are not compromised. Likewise, certain cost-saving measures could
demotivate sales people and other employees and could lead to counterproductive activities.
Case 3 (The Roles of Managers and Management Accountants)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Managerial accounting, Financial accounting
Planning
Directing and motivating
Feedback
Decentralization
Line
Staff
Controller
Budgets
Performance report
Chief Financial Officer
Precision; Nonmonetary data
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
Case 4 (Ethics in Business)
If cashiers routinely short-changed customers whenever the opportunity
presented itself, most of us would be careful to count our change before
leaving the counter. Imagine what effect this would have on the line at your
favorite fast-food restaurant. How would you like to wait in line while each
and every customer laboriously counts out his or her change? Additionally, if
you can’t trust the cashiers to give honest change, can you trust the cooks to
take the time to follow health precautions such as washing their hands? If you
can’t trust anyone at the restaurant would you even want to eat out?
Generally, when we buy goods and services in the free market, we assume we
are buying from people who have a certain level of ethical standards. If we
could not trust people to maintain those standards, we would be reluctant to
buy. The net result of widespread dishonesty would be a shrunken economy
with a lower growth rate and fewer goods and services for sale at a lower
overall level of quality.
Case 5 (Ethics and the Manager)
Requirement 1
Failure to report the obsolete nature of the inventory would violate the
Standards of Ethical Conduct as follows:
Competence


Perform duties in accordance with relevant technical standards.
Prepare complete reports using reliable information.
By failing to write down the value of the obsolete inventory, Perez would not
be preparing a complete report using reliable information. In addition,
generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) require the write-down of
obsolete inventory.
Integrity




Avoid conflicts of interest.
Refrain from activities that prejudice the ability to perform duties
ethically.
Refrain from subverting the legitimate goals of the organization.
Refrain from discrediting the profession.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Members of the management team, of which Perez is a part, are responsible
for both operations and recording the results of operations. Since the team
will benefit from a bonus, increasing earnings by ignoring the obsolete
inventory is clearly a conflict of interest. Perez would also be concealing
unfavorable information and subverting the goals of the organization.
Furthermore, such behavior is a discredit to the profession.
Objectivity


Communicate information fairly and objectively.
Disclose all relevant information.
Hiding the obsolete inventory impairs the objectivity and relevance of financial
statements.
Requirement 2
As discussed above, the ethical course of action would be for Perez to insist
on writing down the obsolete inventory. This would not, however, be an easy
thing to do. Apart from adversely affecting her own compensation, the ethical
action may anger her colleagues and make her very unpopular. Taking the
ethical action would require considerable courage and self-assurance.
Case 6 (Preparing an Organization Chart)
Requirement 1
See the organization chart on page 17.
Requirement 2
Line positions would include the university president, academic vice-president,
the deans of the four colleges, and the dean of the law school. In addition, the
department heads (as well as the faculty) would be in line positions. The
reason is that their positions are directly related to the basic purpose of the
university, which is education. (Line positions are shaded on the organization
chart.)
All other positions on the organization chart are staff positions. The reason is
that these positions are indirectly related to the educational process, and exist
only to provide service or support to the line positions.
Requirement 3
All positions would have need for accounting information of some type. For
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Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
example, the manager of central purchasing would need to know the level of
current inventories and budgeted allowances in various areas before doing any
purchasing; the vice president for admissions and records would need to know
the status of scholarship funds as students are admitted to the university; the
dean of the business college would need to know his/her budget allowances in
various areas, as well as information on cost per student credit hour; and so
forth.
Case 7 (Ethics in Business)
Requirement 1
No, Santos did not act in an ethical manner. In complying with the president’s
instructions to omit liabilities from the company’s financial statements he was
in direct violation of the IMA’s Standards of Ethical Conduct for
Management Accountants. He violated both the “Integrity” and “Objectivity”
guidelines on this code of ethical conduct. The fact that the president ordered
the omission of the liabilities is immaterial.
Requirement 2
No, Santos’ actions can’t be justified. In dealing with similar situations, the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has consistently ruled that “…
corporate officers…cannot escape culpability by asserting that they acted as
‘good soldiers’ and cannot rely upon the fact that the violative conduct may
have been condoned or ordered by their corporate superiors.” (Quoted from:
Gerald H. Lander, Michael T. Cronin, and Alan Reinstein, “In Defense of the
Management Accountant,” Management Accounting, May, 1990, p. 55) Thus,
Santos not only acted unethically, but he could be held legally liable if
insolvency occurs and litigation is brought against the company by creditors
or others. It is important that students understand this point early in the
course, since it is widely assumed that “good soldiers” are justified by the fact
that they are just following orders. In the case at hand, Santos should have
resigned rather than become a party to the fraudulent misrepresentation of the
company’s financial statements.
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Case 6
Requirement 1
President
Vice
President,
Auxiliary
Services
Manager,
Central
Purchasing
Vice
President,
Admissions &
Records
Manager,
University
Press
Dean, Business
(Departments)
Vice
Academic Vice
President
Manager,
University
Bookstore
Dean,
Humanities
(Departments)
President,
Financial
Services
(Controller)
Manager,
Computer
Services
Manager,
Accounting
& Finance
Dean,
Engineering &
Quantitative
Dean,
Fine Arts
(Departments)
1-17
Vice
President,
Physical
Plant
(Departments)
Manager,
Grounds &
Custodial
Services
Dean,
Law School
Manager, Plant
&
Maintenance
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING - Solutions Manual
Case 8 (Ethics in Business)
Requirement 1
Andres Romero has an ethical responsibility to take some action in the matter
of PhilChem, Inc. and the dumping of toxic wastes. The Standards of Ethical
Conduct for Management Accountants specifies that management
accountants should not condone the commission of acts by their organization
that violate the standards of ethical conduct. The specific standards that apply
are as follows.
•
•
•
•
Competence. Management accountants have a responsibility to
perform their professional duties in accordance with relevant laws and
regulations.
Confidentiality. Management accountants must refrain from
disclosing confidential information unless legally obligated to do so.
However, Andres Romero may have a legal responsibility to take
some action.
Integrity. Management accountants have a responsibility to:
- refrain from either actively or passively subverting the attainment
of the organization’s legitimate and ethical objectives.
- communicate favorable as well as unfavorable information and
professional judgments or opinions.
Objectivity. Management accountants must fully disclose all relevant
information that could reasonably be expected to influence an
intended user’s understanding of the reports, comments, and
recommendations.
Requirement 2
The Standards of Ethical Conduct for Management Accountants indicates
that the first alternative being considered by Andres Romero, seeking the
advice of his boss, is appropriate. To resolve an ethical conflict, the first step
is to discuss the problem with the immediate superior, unless it appears that
this individual is involved in the conflict. In this case, it does not appear that
Romero’s boss is involved.
Communication of confidential information to anyone outside the company is
inappropriate unless there is a legal obligation to do so, in which case Romero
should contact the proper authorities.
Contacting a member of the Board of Directors would be an inappropriate
action at this time. Romero should report the conflict to successively higher
levels within the organization and turn only to the Board of Directors if the
problem is not resolved at lower levels.
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Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Requirement 3
Andres Romero should follow the established policies of the organization
bearing on the resolution of such conflict. If these policies do not resolve the
ethical conflict, Romero should report the problem to successively higher
levels of management up to the Board of Directors until it is satisfactorily
resolved. There is no requirement for Romero to inform his immediate
superior of this action because the superior is involved in the conflict. If the
conflict is not resolved after exhausting all courses of internal review, Romero
may have no other recourse than to resign from the organization and submit an
informative memorandum to an appropriate member of the organization.
(CMA Unofficial Solution, adapted)
V. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
D
D
D
B
D
A
B
D
D
A
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
D
D
D
A
A
A
D
A
D
D
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
B
B
A
A
B
C
B
D
B
C
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
D
C
D
B
D
B
C
B
A
A
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
A
C
D
B
C
B
A
B
C
D
CHAPTER 2
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
AND THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
I.
Questions
8-19
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
B
B
A
C
D
C
C
C
A
B
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
1. Managerial accounting information often brings to the attention of
managers important issues that need their managerial experience and
skills. In many cases, managerial-accounting information will not answer
the question or solve the problem, but rather make management aware that
the issue or problem exists. In this sense, managerial accounting
sometimes is said to serve an attention-directing role.
2. Non-value-added costs are the costs of activities that can be eliminated
with no deterioration of product quality, performance, or perceived value.
3. Managers rely on many information systems in addition to managerialaccounting information. Examples of other information systems include
economic analysis and forecasting, marketing research, legal research and
analysis, and technical information provided by engineers and production
specialists.
4. Becoming the low-cost producer in an industry requires a clear
understanding by management of the costs incurred in its production
process. Reports and analysis of these costs are a primary function of
managerial accounting.
5. Some activities in the value chain of a manufacturer of cotton shirts are as
follows:
(a) Growing and harvesting cotton
(b) Transporting raw materials
(c) Designing shirts
(d) Weaving cotton material
(e) Manufacturing shirts
(f) Transporting shirts to retailers
(g) Advertising cotton shirts
Some activities in the value chain of an airline are as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Making reservations and ticketing
Designing the route network
Scheduling
Purchasing aircraft
Maintaining aircraft
Running airport operations, including handling baggage
Serving food and beverages in flight
Flying passengers and cargo
8-20
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
6. Strategic cost management is the process of understanding and managing,
to the organization’s advantage, the cost relationships among the activities
in an organization’s value chain.
7. If customers who provide a company with the most profits are attracted,
satisfied, and retained, profits will increase as a result.
8. A value chain is a sequence of business functions whose objective is to
provide a product to a customer or provide an intermediate good or
service in a larger value chain. These business functions include R&D,
design, production, marketing, distribution, and customer service.
An organization can become more effective by focusing on whether each
link in the chain adds value from the customer’s perspective and furthers
the organization’s objectives.
9. Cost:
Quality:
Organizations are under continuous pressure to reduce the
cost of the products or services they sell to their customers.
Customers are expecting higher levels of quality and are less
tolerant of low quality than in the past.
Time:
Time has many components: the time taken to develop and
bring new products to market; the speed at which an
organization responds to customer requests; and the reliability
with which promised delivery dates are met. Organizations
are under pressure to complete activities faster and to meet
promised delivery dates more reliably than in the past in order
to increase customer satisfaction.
Innovation: There is now heightened recognition that a continuing flow of
innovative products or services is a prerequisite for the
ongoing success of most organizations.
10. Managers make planning decisions and control decisions. Planning
decisions include deciding on organization goals, predicting results under
various alternative ways of achieving those goals, and then deciding how
to attain the desired goals. Control decisions include taking actions to
implement the planning decisions and deciding on performance evaluation
and feedback that will help future decision making.
11. Four themes for managers to attain success are customer focus, valuechain and supply-chain analysis, key success factors, and continuous
improvement and benchmarking.
8-21
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
12. Companies add value through R&D; design of products, services, or
processes; production; marketing; distribution; and customer service.
Managers in all business functions of the value chain are customers of
management accounting information.
13. This phrase means that people will direct their attention to work primarily
on those tasks that management monitors and measures. Employees may
not pay as much attention (or no attention) to tasks that are not measured.
Often management will reward people based on how well they perform
relative to a specific measure. As an example, in a manufacturing
organization, if people are measured and rewarded based on the number of
outputs per hour, regardless of quality, employees will focus their
attention on producing as many units of output as possible. A negative
consequence is that the quality of output may suffer.
14. Some of these new measures are quality, speed to market, cycle time,
flexibility, complexity and productivity.
15. Customer satisfaction is often thought to be a qualitative measure of
performance as one cannot directly observe “satisfaction.” However,
using attitude surveys and psychological measurements, customer
satisfaction can be measured in quantitative terms. For instance, people
who design surveys often employ attitude scales that ask questions in
which customers respond on a 1 to 5 scale. These values can be summed
and averaged to determine satisfaction scores.
16.
Stakeholders
Contribution
Requirements
Employees
Effort, skills,
information
Rewards, interesting
jobs, economic
security, proper
treatment
Partners
Goods, services,
information
Financial rewards
commensurate with the
risk taken
Owners
Capital
Financial rewards
Community
Allows the
organization to operate
Conformance to laws,
good corporate
8-22
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
and does not oppose
its operation
citizenship and,
perhaps, leadership
17. Competitive benchmarking is an organization’s search for, and
implementation of, the best way to do something as practiced in other
organizations.
Continuous improvement is the relentless search to (1) document,
understand, and improve the activities that the organization undertakes to
meet its customers’ requirement, (2) eliminate processing activities that do
not add product features that customers value, and (3) improve the
performance of activities that increase customer value or satisfaction.
18. A value-added activity is an activity that, if eliminated, would reduce the
product’s service to the customer in the long run.
An activity that cannot be classified as value-added is a nonvalue-added
activity:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Value-added
Nonvalue-added
Nonvalue-added
Value-added
Nonvalue-added
Nonvalue-added
Value-added
Value-added
Nonvalue-added
Value-added
19. Just-in-time means making a good or service only when the customer,
internal or external, requires it. Just-in-time requires a product layout
with a continuous flow (no delays) once production starts. It means that
setup costs must be reduced substantially to eliminate the need to produce
in batches, and it means that processing systems must be reliable. Just-intime production is based on the elimination of all nonvalue-added
activities to reduce cost and time. It is an approach to improvement that
is continuous and involves employee empowerment and involvement.
20. Managerial accounting is concerned with providing information to
managers for use within the organization. Financial accounting is concerned with providing information to stockholders, creditors, and others
outside of the organization.
8-23
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
21. A strategy is a game plan that enables a company to attract customers by
distinguishing itself from competitors. The focal point of a company’s
strategy should be its target customers.
II. Multiple Choice Questions
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
B
A
D
A
D
A
C
B
D
B
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
A
B
C
D
A
A
B
C
B
A
31. B
32. C
33. C
CHAPTER 3
UNDERSTANDING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
I.
Questions
1. A financial statement is a means of communicating information about an
enterprise in financial (i.e., peso) terms. It represents information that the
accountant believes is a true and fair representation of the financial
activity of the enterprise.
2. Every financial statement relates to time in one way or another. A
statement of financial position, or balance sheet, represent a “picture” of
the enterprise at a point in time (e.g., the end of a month or year). An
income statement and a statement of cash flows, on the other hand, cover
activity that took place over a period of time (e.g., a month or year).
3. a. Creditors are interested in financial statements to assist them in
evaluating the ability of a business to repay its debts. No one wants
8-24
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
to extend credit to a company that is unable to meet its obligations as
they come due.
b. Potential investors use financial statements in selecting among
alternative investment opportunities. They are interested in investing
in companies in which the value of their investment will increase as a
result of future profitable operations.
c. Labor unions are interested in financial statements because the
financial position of a company and its profits are important factors in
the company’s ability to pay higher wages and to employ more people.
4. Business transactions affect a company’s financial position, and as a
result they change the statement of financial position or balance sheet. The
other financial statements – the income statement and the statement of
cash flows – are detailed expansions of certain aspects of the statement of
financial position and help explain how the company’s position changed
over time.
5. The cost principle indicates that many assets are included in the financial
records, and therefore, in the statement of financial position, at their
original cost to the reporting enterprise. This principle affects accounting
for assets in several ways, one of which is that the amount of most assets
is not adjusted periodically for changes in the market value of the assets.
Instead, cost is retained as the basic method of accounting, regardless of
changes in the market value of those assets.
6. The going concern assumption states that in the absence of evidence to the
contrary (i.e., bankruptcy proceedings), an enterprise is expected to
continue to operate in the foreseeable future. This means, for example,
that it will continue to use the assets it has in its financial statements for
the purpose for which they were acquired.
7. The three categories and the information included in each are:
Operating activities – Cash provided by and used in revenue and expense
transactions.
Investing activities – Cash provided by and used as a result of investments
in assets, such as machinery, equipment, land, and buildings.
Financial activities – Cash provided by and used in debt and equity
financing, such as borrowing and repaying loans, and investments from
and dividends paid to the enterprise’s owners.
8-25
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
8. Adequate disclosure refers to the requirement that financial statements,
including accompanying notes, must include information necessary for
reasonably informed users of financial statements to understand the
company’s financial activities. This requirement is often met, in part, by
the addition of notes to the financial statements. Financial statement notes
include both quantitative and qualitative information that is not included
in the body of the financial statements.
9. A strong income statement is one that has significantly more pesos of
revenue than expenses, resulting in net income that is a relatively high
percentage of the revenue figure. A trend of relatively high income
numbers over time signals a particularly strong income situation.
10. A strong statement of cash flows is one that shows significant amounts of
cash generated from operating activities. This means that the enterprise is
generating cash from its ongoing activities and is not required to rely on
continuous debt and equity financing, or the sale of its major assets.
11. The purpose of classifications in financial statements is to develop useful
subtotals, which help users analyze the statements. The most commonly
used classifications are:
In a balance sheet: current assets, plant and equipment, other assets,
current liabilities, long-term liabilities and equity.
In a multiple-step income statement: revenue, cost of goods sold,
operating expenses, and nonoperating items. The operating expense
section often includes subclassifications for selling expenses and for
general and administrative expenses.
In a statement of cash flows: operating activities, investing activities, and
financing activities.
12. In classified financial statements, similar items are grouped together to
produce subtotals which may assist users in their analyses. Comparative
financial statements show financial statements for two or more time
periods in side-by-side columns. Consolidated statements include not
only the financial statement amounts for the company itself but also for
any subsidiary companies that it owns. The financial statements of large
corporations often possess all three of these characteristics.
13. In a multiple-step income statement, different categories of expenses are
deducted from revenue in a series of steps, thus resulting in various
subtotals, such as gross profit and operating income. In a single-step
8-26
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
income statement, all expenses are combined and deducted from total
revenue in a single step. Both formats result in the same amount of net
income.
II. Matching Type
1.
1. d
2. g
3. a
4. j
5. e
6. h
7. f
8. b
9. c
10. i
2.
1. d
2. a
3. i
4. g
5. m
6. c
7. h
8. n
9. f
10. k
11. b
12. j
13. e
14. l
3.
a. F
b. I
c. F
d. I
e. I
f. F
g. F
h. F
I.
j.
I
F
k. F
l. I
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Preparing a Balance Sheet – A Second Problem)
Requirement (a)
SM Farms
Balance Sheet
September 30, 2005
Assets
Liabilities and Equity
Liabilities:
Cash
P 16,710
Accounts receivable 22,365
Land
Barns and sheds
Citrus trees
Livestock
Notes payable
P530,000
Accounts
550,000
78,300
76,650
payable
77,095
Property taxes payable
9,135
Wages payable
1,820
120,780
Total
8-27
liabilities
P618,050
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Irrigation system
Farm machinery
20,125
42,970
Fences & gates
33,570
Total
Equity:
Share capital
250,000
Retained earnings*
93,420
Total
P961,470
P961,470
* Total assets, P961,470, minus total liabilities, P618,050, less share capital,
P250,000.
Requirement (b)
The loss of an asset, Barns and Sheds, from a typhoon would cause a decrease
in total assets. When total assets are decreased, the balance sheet total of
liabilities and equity must also decrease. Since there is no change in liabilities
as a result of the destruction of an asset, the decrease on the right-hand side of
the balance sheet must be in the retained earnings account. The amount of the
decrease in Barns and Sheds, in the equity, and in both balance sheet totals, is
P23,800.
Problem 2 (Preparing a Balance Sheet and Cash Flow Statement; Effects
of Business Transactions)
Requirement (a)
The Tasty Bakery
Balance Sheet
August 1, 2005
Assets
Liabilities and Equity
Liabilities:
Cash
P 6,940
Accounts receivable 11,260
Supplies
Notes
P
7,000
Accounts
payable
16,200
Salaries payable
8,900
Land
Building
67,000
84,000
Total
Equipment and fixtures
44,500
Equity:
8-28
payable
74,900
liabilities
P100,000
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Share
capital
80,000
Retained earnings
40,700
Total
Total
P220,700
P220,700
Requirement (b)
The Tasty Bakery
Balance Sheet
August 3, 2005
Assets
Liabilities and Equity
Liabilities:
Cash
P 14,490
Accounts receivable 11,260
Supplies
8,250
Land
Building
Notes
P
payable
74,900
Accounts
payable
7,200
payable
8,900
Salaries
67,000
84,000
Total
Equipment and fixtures
51,700
liabilities
P 91,000
Equity:
Share capital
105,000
Retained earnings
40,700
Total
Total
P236,700
The Tasty Bakery
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Period August 1 - 3, 2005
8-29
P236,700
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Cash flows from operating
activities:
Cash
payment
of
accounts payable
Cash
purchase
of
supplies
Cash
used
in
operating activities
P(16,200
)
(1,250)
P(17,450
)
Cash flows from investing
activities:
None
Cash flows from financing
activities:
Sale of share capital
Increase in cash
Cash balance, August 1,
2005
Cash balance, August 3,
2005
P25,000
P 7,550
6,940
P14,490
Requirement (c)
The Tasty Bakery is in a stronger financial position on August 3 than it was on
August 1.
On August 1, the highly liquid assets (cash and accounts receivable) total only
P18,200, but the company has P25,100 in debts due in the near future
(accounts payable plus salaries payable).
On August 3, after additional infusion of cash from the sale of stock, the liquid
assets total P25,750, and debts due in the near future amount to P16,100.
Note to Instructor: The analysis of financial position strength in requirement
(c) is based solely upon the balance sheets at August 1 and August 3.
Hopefully, students will raise many legitimate issues regarding necessity of
information about operations, rate at which cash flows into the business, etc.
In this problem, the improvement in financial position results solely from the
sale of share capital.
8-30
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Problem 3 (Preparing Financial Statements;
Transactions)
Effects of Business
Requirement (a)
The First Malt Shop
Balance Sheet
September 30, 2005
Assets
Liabilities and Equity
Liabilities:
Cash
Accounts receivable
Supplies
P 7,400
1,250
Notes payable*
P 70,000
3,440
Accounts
55,000
Total
payable
8,500
Land
Building
45,500
liabilities
P 78,500
Equity:
Share
Furniture & fixtures
capital
50,000
Retained earnings
4,090
20,000
Total
Total
P132,590
P132,590
* Total assets, P132,590, less equity, P54,090, less accounts payable, P8,500, equals
notes payable.
Requirement (b)
The First Malt Shop
Balance Sheet
October 6, 2005
Assets
Liabilities and Equity
Liabilities:
Cash
Accounts receivable
Supplies
P 29,400
1,250
4,440
8-31
Notes
P
payable
70,000
Accounts
payable
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
18,000
Land
55,000
Building
45,500
Total
liabilities
P 88,000
Equity:
Share
Furniture & fixtures
capital
80,000
Retained earnings
5,590
38,000
Total
Total
P173,590
P173,590
The First Malt Shop
Income Statement
For the Period October 1-6, 2005
Revenues
Expenses
Net income
P 5,500
(4,000)
P 1,500
The First Malt Shop
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Period October 1-6, 2005
Cash flows from operating
activities:
Cash
received
from
revenues
Cash paid for expenses
Cash paid for accounts
payable
Cash paid for supplies
Cash used in operating
activities
8-32
P5,500
(4,000
)
(8,500
)
(1,0
00)
P(8,000)
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Cash flows from investing
activities:
None
Cash flows from financing
activities:
Cash received from sale of
share capital
P30,000
Increase in cash
P
22,000
7,400
P29,400
Cash balance, October 1, 2005
Cash balance, October 6, 2005
Requirement (c)
The First Malt Shop is in a stronger financial position on October 6 than on
September 30. On September 30, the company had highly liquid assets (cash
and accounts receivable) of P8,650, which barely exceeded the P8,500 in
liabilities (accounts payable) due in the near future. On October 6, after the
additional investment of cash by shareholders, the company’s cash alone
exceeded its short-term obligations.
Problem 4 (Preparing a Balance Sheet; Discussion of Accounting
Principles)
Requirement (1)
Fil-Cinema Scripts
Balance Sheet
November 30, 2005
Assets
Liabilities and Equity
Liabilities:
Cash
Notes receivable
Accounts receivable
P 3,940
2,200
2,450
8-33
Notes
P
payable
73,500
Accounts
payable
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
32,700
Land
39,000
Building
54,320
Total
liabilities
P106,200
Equity:
Share
Office furniture*
12,825
Total
Retained
capital
5,000
earnings
3,535
Total
P114,735
P114,735
* P8,850 + P6,500 – P2,525.
Requirement (2)
(1) The cash in Cruz’s personal savings account is not an asset of the
business entity Fil-Cinema Scripts and should not appear in the balance
sheet of the business. The money on deposit in the business bank account
(P3,400) and in the company safe (P540) constitute cash owned by the
business. Thus, the cash owned by the business at November 30 totals
P3,940.
(2) The years-old IOU does not qualify as a business asset for two reasons.
First, it does not belong to the business entity. Second, it appears to be
uncollectible. A receivable that cannot be collected is not viewed as an
asset, as it represents no future economic benefit.
(3) The total amount to be included in “Office furniture” for the rug is
P9,400, the total cost, regardless of whether this amount was paid in cash.
Consequently, “Office furniture” should be increased by P6,500. The
P6,500 liability arising from the purchase of the rug came into existence
prior to the balance sheet date and must be added to the “Notes payable”
amount.
(4) The computer is no longer owned by Hollywood Scripts and therefore
cannot be included in the assets. To do so would cause an overstatement
of both assets and equity. The “Office furniture” amount must be reduced
by P2,525.
(5) The P22,400 described as “Other assets” is not an asset, because there is
no valid legal claim or any reasonable expectation of recovering the
income taxes paid. Also, the payment of income taxes by Cruz was not a
business transaction by Fil-Cinema Scripts. If a refund were obtained
8-34
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
from the government, it would come to Cruz personally, not to the
business entity.
(6) The proper valuation for the land is its historical cost of P39,000, the
amount established by the transaction in which the land was purchased.
Although the land may have a current fair value in excess of its cost, the
offer by the friend to buy the land if Cruz would move the building
appears to be mere conversation rather than solid, verifiable evidence of
the fair value of the land. The “cost principle,” although less than perfect,
produces far more reliable financial statements than would result if
owners could “pull figures out of the air” in recording asset values.
(7) The accounts payable should be limited to the debts of the business,
P32,700, and should not include Cruz’s personal liabilities.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
D
D
D
B
A
B
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
a.
27.
28.
29.
30.
D
C
B
C
17.
18.
19.
20.
B
C
D
A
D
A
A
B
C
C
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
B
C
A
B
A
D
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
B
D
D
D
C
A
27.
28.
29.
30.
B
B
D
C
37. A
38. C
CHAPTER 4
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS ANALYSIS - I
I.
Questions
1. The objective of financial statements analysis is to determine the extent of
a firm’s success in attaining its financial goals, namely:
a. To earn maximum profit
8-35
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
b. To maintain solvency
c. To attain stability
2. Some of the indications of satisfactory short-term solvency or working
capital position of a business firm are:
1. Favorable credit position
2. Satisfactory proportion of cash to the requirements of the current
volume
3. Ability to pay current debts in the regular course of business
4. Ability to extend more credit to customers
5. Ability to replenish inventory promptly
3. These tests are:
1. Improvement in the financial position
2. Well-balanced financial structure between borrowed funds and
equity
3. Effective employment of borrowed funds and equity
4. Ability to declare satisfactory amount of dividends to
shareholders
5. Ability to withstand adverse business conditions
6. Ability to engage in research and development in an attempt to
provide new products or improve old products, methods or
processes
4. Some indicators of managerial efficiency are:
1. Ability to earn a reasonable return on its investment of borrowed
funds and equity
2. Ability to control operating costs within reasonable limits
3. No overinvestment in fixed assets, receivables and inventories
5. The techniques used in Financial Statement Analysis are:
I.
Vertical analysis which shows the relationships of the items in the
same year: also referred to as “static measure.”
a. Financial ratios
b. Common-size statements
II. Horizontal analysis which shows the changes or tendencies of an
item for 2 or more years; also referred to as “dynamic measure.”
8-36
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
a. Comparative statements - showing changes in absolute
amount and percentages
b. Trend percentages
III. Use of special reports or statements
a. Statements of Changes in Financial Position
b. Gross Profit / Net Income Variation Analysis
6. Refer to page 133 of the textbook.
7. Horizontal analysis involves the comparison of items on financial
statements between years. Analysis of comparative financial statements
or the increase/decrease method of analysis and trend percentages are the
two techniques that may be applied under horizontal analysis.
Vertical analysis involves the study of items on a single statement for a
single year, such as the analysis of an income statement for some given
year. Common-size statement and financial ratios are techniques used in
vertical analysis.
8. Trends can indicate whether a situation is improving, remaining the same
or deteriorating. They can also give insight to the probable future course
of events in a firm.
9. Trend percentages represent the expression of several years’ financial data
in percentage form in terms of a base year.
10. Refer to page 133 of the textbook.
11. Observation of trends is useful primarily in determining whether a
situation is improving, worsening, or remaining constant. By comparing
current data with similar data of prior periods we gain insight into the
direction in which future results are likely to move.
Some other standards of comparison include comparison with other
similar companies, comparison with industry standards, and comparison
with previous years’ information. By comparing analytical data for one
company with some independent yardstick, the analyst hopes to determine
how the position of the company in question compares with some standard
of performance.
12. Trend percentages are used to show the increase or decrease in a financial
statement amount over a period of years by comparing the amount in each
8-37
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
year with the base-year amount. A component percentage is the
percentage relationship between some financial amount and a total of
which it is a part.
Measuring the change in sales over a period of several years would call
for use of trend percentages. The sales in the base year are assigned a
weight of 100%. The percentage for each later year is computed by
dividing that year’s sales by the sales in the base year.
13. Expenses (including the cost of goods sold) have been increasing at an
even faster rate than net sales. Thus Premiere is apparently having
difficulty in effectively controlling its expenses.
14. A corporate net income of P1 million would be unreasonably low for a
large corporation, with, say, P100 million in sales, P50 million in assets,
and P40 million in equity. A return of only P1 million for a company of
this size would suggest that the owners could do much better by investing
in insured bank savings accounts or in government bonds which would be
virtually risk-free and would pay a higher return.
On the other hand, a profit of P1 million would be unreasonably high for a
corporation which had sales of only P5 million, assets of, say, P3 million,
and equity of perhaps one-half million pesos. In other words, the net
income of a corporation must be judged in relation to the scale of
operations and the amount invested.
II. True or False
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. True
8. False
9. True
10. True
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Percentage Changes)
a. Accounts receivable decreased 16% (P24,000 decrease  P150,000 =
16% decrease).
b. Marketable securities decreased 100% (P250,000 decrease  P250,000 =
100% decrease).
c. A percentage change cannot be calculated because retained earnings
showed a negative amount (a deficit) in the base year and a positive
amount in the following year.
8-38
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
d. A percentage change cannot be calculated because of the zero amount of
notes receivable in 2005, the base year.
e. Notes payable increased 7 ½% (P60,000 increase  P800,000 = 7 ½%
increase).
f. Cash increased 3% (P2,400 increase  P80,000 = 3% increase).
g. Sales increased 10% (P90,000 increase  P900,000 = 10% increase).
Problem 2 (Computing and Interpreting Rates of Change)
Requirement (a)
Computation of percentage changes:
1. Net sales increased 10% (P200,000 increase  P2,000,000 = 10%
increase).
2. Total expenses increased 11% (P198,000 increase  P1,800,000 = 11%
increase).
Requirement (b)
1. Total expenses grew faster than net sales. Net income cannot also have
grown faster than net sales, or the sum of the parts would exceed the size
of the whole.
2. Net income must represent a smaller percentage of net sales in 2006 than
it did in 2005. Again, the reason is that the expenses have grown at a
faster rate than net sales. Thus, total expenses represent a larger
percentage of total sales in 2006 than in 2005, and net income must
represent a smaller percentage.
Problem 3 (Financial Statement Analysis using Comparative Statements
or Increase-Decrease Method)
Requirement 1
XYZ Corporation
Balance Sheet
As of December 31
Change
Peso
Assets
Cash and equivalents
Receivables
2005
2006
14,000
28,800
16,000
55,600
8-39
2,000
26,800
%
14.29%
93.06%
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Inventories
Prepayments and others
Total current assets
Property, plant & equipment - net
of dep.
Total assets
Liabilities and Equity
Notes payable to banks
Accounts payable
Accrued liabilities
Income taxes payable
Total current liabilities
Share capital
Retained earnings
Total equity
Total liabilities and equity
54,000
4,800
101,600
85,600
7,400
164,600
31,600
2,600
63,000
58.52%
54.17%
62.01%
30,200
131,800
73,400
238,000
43,200
106,200
143.05%
80.58%
10,000
31,600
4,200
5,800
51,600
44,600
35,600
80,200
131,800
54,000
55,400
6,800
7,000
123,200
44,600
70,200
114,800
238,000
44,000
23,800
2,600
1,200
71,600
0
34,600
34,600
106,200
440.00%
73.32%
61.90%
20.69%
138.76%
0.00%
97.19%
43.14%
80.58%
XYZ Corporation
Income Statement
Years ended December 31
(P thousands)
Change
Peso
Net sales
Cost of goods sold
Gross profit
Selling, general and administrative
expenses
Income before income taxes
Income taxes
Net income
%
2005
266,400
191,400
75,000
2006
424,000
314,600
109,400
157,600
123,200
34,400
59.16%
64.37%
45.87%
35,500
39,500
12,300
27,200
58,400
51,000
16,400
34,600
22,900
11,500
4,100
7,400
64.51%
29.11%
33.33%
27.21%
while
Current
Liabilities
increased by 138.76%
while
Current
Liabilities
increased by 138.76%
while
Accounts
Receivable
increased by 93.06%
Requirement 2
Short-term financial position
1. Current
increased by 62.01%
Assets
 Unfavorable
2. Quick
increased by 62.40%
Assets
 Unfavorable
3. Net
increased by 59.16%
Sales
 Unfavorable
8-40
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
4. Cost of
Goods Sold

Leverage
5. Total
Assets

6. Total
Liabilities

Profitability
7. Net
Sales

8. Net
Sales
increased by 64.37%
while
10. Net
Income
increased by 58.52%
Favorable
increased by 80.58%
while
Total
Liabilities
increased by 138.76%
while
Total
Equity
increased by 43.14%
while
Cost of
Goods Sold
increased by 64.37%
while
Selling,
General &
increased by 64.51%
Administrative
Expenses
while
Net
Income
increased by 27.21%
while
Total
Assets
increased by 80.58%
Unfavorable
increased by 138.76%
Unfavorable
increased by 59.16%
Unfavorable
increased by 59.16%
 Unfavorable
9. Net
Sales
Inventories
increased by 59.16%
 Unfavorable
increased by 27.21%
 Unfavorable
Problem 4 (Trend Percentages)
Requirement (1)
The trend percentages are:
Sales
Year 5 Year 4 Year 3 Year 2 Year 1
125.0 120.0 110.0 105.0 100.0
Cash
Accounts receivable
Inventory
Total current assets
80.0
140.0
112.0
118.8
90.0
124.0
110.0
113.1
105.0
108.0
102.0
104.1
110.0
104.0
108.0
106.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Current liabilities
130.0
106.0
108.0
110.0
100.0
Requirement (2)
8-41
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Sales:
The sales are increasing at a steady rate, with a particularly
strong gain in Year 4.
Assets:
Cash declined from Year 3 through Year 5. This may have been
due to the growth in both inventories and accounts receivable.
In particular, the accounts receivable grew far faster than sales
in Year 5. The decline in cash may reflect delays in collecting
receivables. This is a matter for management to investigate
further.
Liabilities:
The current liabilities jumped up in Year 5. This was probably
due to the buildup in accounts receivable in that the company
doesn’t have the cash needed to pay bills as they come due.
Problem 5 (Use of Trend Percentages)
a. 1. An unfavorable tendency could be observed in Receivables in relation
to Net Sales from 2003 – 2005 because receivables had been
increasing at a much faster rate than Net Sales. This could indicate
inefficiency in the collection of receivables or simply poor company
credit policy. The situation however, improved in 2006 and 2007
when sales started to move up at a faster rate than accounts
receivable. This would indicate improvement in the credit and
collection policy or more cash sales were being generated.
2. Unfavorable tendency in inventory persisted from 2003 to 2007
because it had been going up at a much faster rate than Net Sales. If
this continues, the company will end up with over-investment in
inventory because the buying rate is faster than the selling price.
3. Favorable tendencies could be noted in Fixed Assets in relation to Net
Sales because inspite of the minimal additions to fixed assets made by
the company from 2003 through 2007, sales had been increasing at a
very encouraging rate.
4. Net Income had likewise been increasing at a much faster rate than
net sales. This is favorable because this would indicate that the
company had been successfully controlling the increases in Cost of
Sales and Operating Expenses.
b. Review computations of the Trend Percentages. It will be noted that the
Trend Percentages in Total Noncurrent Liabilities and Equity from 2005
8-42
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
to 2007 were interchanged.
interpretation is done.
Correction should be made first before
1. The upward tendency in current assets had been accompanied by an
upward trend in current liabilities. It could be noted that current
assets had been moving up at a much faster rate than current
liabilities. This is favorable because the margin of safety of the shortterm creditors is widened.
2. Favorable tendencies could also be observed in noncurrent assets
which had been increasing and which increases had been accompanied
by downward trend in noncurrent liabilities. This would mean better
security on the part of creditors and stronger financial position.
3. There is an unfavorable tendency in Net Sales in relation to noncurrent assets. Sales had not been increasing at the same rate as the
increases in fixed assets. This could indicate that more investments
are made in noncurrent assets without considering whether or not they
could sell the additional units of product they are producing.
c. The unfavorable trend in net income could be attributed to the following
tendencies:
1. Higher rates of increases in cost of sales as compared to sales.
2. Higher rates of increases in selling, general and administrative
expenses in relation to net sales.
3. Higher rates of increases in other financial expenses than the rates of
increases in net sales
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
D
A
A
B
D
C
C
A
D
C
36. A, C, D
37. B*
38. D
8-43
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
* (P400,000 – P160,000)  P160,000 = 150%
CHAPTER 5
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS ANALYSIS - II
I.
Questions
1. By looking at trends, an analyst hopes to get some idea of whether a
situation is improving, remaining the same, or deteriorating. Such
analyses can provide insight into what is likely to happen in the future.
Rather than looking at trends, an analyst may compare one company to
another or to industry averages using common-size financial statements.
2. Ratios highlight relationships, movements, and trends that are very
difficult to perceive looking at the raw underlying data standing alone.
Also, ratios make financial data easier to grasp by putting the data into
perspective. As to the limitation in the use of ratios, refer to page 129.
3. Price-earnings ratios are determined by how investors see a firm’s future
prospects. Current reported earnings are generally considered to be useful
only so far as they can assist investors in judging what will happen in the
future. For this reason, two firms might have the same current earnings,
but one might have a much higher price-earnings ratio if investors view it
to have superior future prospects. In some cases, firms with very small
current earnings enjoy very high price-earnings ratios. This is simply
because investors view these firms as having very favorable prospects for
earnings in future years. By definition, a stock with current earnings of
P4 and a price-earnings ratio of 20 would be selling for P80 per share.
4. A manager’s financing responsibilities relate to the acquisition of assets
for use in his or her company. The acquisition of assets can be financed in
a number of ways, including through issue of ordinary shares, through
issue of preference shares, through issue of long-term debt, through
leasing, etc. A manager’s operating responsibilities relate to how these
assets are used once they have been acquired. The return on total assets
ratio is designed to measure how well a manager is discharging his or her
8-44
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
operating responsibilities. It does this by looking at a company’s income
before any consideration is given as to how the income will be distributed
among capital resources, i.e., before interest deductions.
5. Financial leverage, as the term is used in business practice, means
obtaining funds from investment sources that require a fixed annual rate
of return, in the hope of enhancing the well-being of the ordinary
shareholders. If the assets in which these funds are invested earn at a rate
greater that the return required by the suppliers of the funds, then leverage
is positive in the sense that the excess accrues to the benefit of the
ordinary shareholders. If the return on assets is less than the return
required by the suppliers of the funds, then leverage is negative in the
sense that part of the earnings from the assets provided by the ordinary
shareholders will have to go to make up the deficiency.
6. How a shareholder would feel would depend in large part on the stability
of the firm and its industry. If the firm is in an industry that experiences
wide fluctuations in earnings, then shareholders might be very pleased that
no interest-paying debt exists in the firm’s capital structure. In hard
times, interest payments might be very difficult to meet, or earnings might
be so poor that negative leverage would result.
7. No, the stock is not necessarily overpriced. Book value represents the
cumulative effects on the balance sheet of past activities evaluated using
historical prices. The market value of the stock reflects investors’ beliefs
about the company’s future earning prospects. For most companies
market value exceeds book value because investors anticipate future
growth in earnings.
8. A company in a rapidly growing technological industry probably would
have many opportunities to invest its earnings at a high rate of return;
thus, one would expect it to have a low dividend payout ratio.
9. It is more difficult to obtain positive financial leverage from preference
shares than from long-term debt due to the fact that interest on long-term
debt is tax deductible, whereas dividends paid on preference shares are not
tax deductible.
10. The current ratio would probably be highest during January, when both
current assets and current liabilities are at a minimum. During peak
operating periods, current liabilities generally include short-term
borrowings that are used to temporarily finance inventories and
8-45
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
receivables. As the peak periods end, these short-term borrowings are paid
off, thereby enhancing the current ratio.
11. A 2-to-1 current ratio might not be adequate for several reasons. First, the
composition of the current assets may be heavily weighted toward slowturning inventory, or the inventory may consist of large amounts of
obsolete goods. Second, the receivables may be large and of doubtful
collectibility, or the receivables may be turning very slowly due to poor
collection procedures.
12. Expenses (including the cost of goods sold) have been increasing at an
even faster rate than net sales. Thus Sunday is apparently having
difficulty in effectively controlling its expenses.
13. If the company’s earnings are very low, they may become almost
insignificant in relation to stock price. While this means that the p/e ratio
becomes very high, it does not necessarily mean that investors are
optimistic. In fact, they may be valuing the company at its liquidation
value rather than a value based upon expected future earnings.
14. From the viewpoint of the company’s shareholders, this situation
represents a favorable use of leverage. It is probable that little interest, if
any, is paid for the use of funds supplied by current creditors, and only
11% interest is being paid to long-term bondholders. Together these two
sources supply 40% of the total assets. Since the firm earns an average
return of 16% on all assets, the amount by which the return on 40% of the
assets exceeds the fixed-interest requirements on liabilities will accrue to
the residual equity holders – the ordinary shareholders – raising the return
on equity.
15. The length of operating cycle of the two companies cannot be determined
from the fact the one company’s current ratio is higher. The operating
cycle depends on the relationships between receivables and sales, and
between inventories and cost of goods sold. The company with the higher
current ratio might have either small amounts of receivables and
inventories, or large sales and cost of sales, either of which would tend to
produce a relatively short operating cycle.
16. The investor is calculating the rate of return by dividing the dividend by
the purchase price of the investment (P5  P50 = 10%). A more
meaningful figure for rate of return on investment is determined by
relating dividends to current market price, since the investor at the present
time is faced with the alternative of selling the stock for P100 and
8-46
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
investing the proceeds elsewhere or keeping the investment. A decision to
retain the stock constitutes, in effect, a decision to continue to invest P100
in it, at a return of 5%. It is true that in a historical sense the investor is
earning 10% on the original investment, but this is interesting history
rather than useful decision-making information.
17. A corporate net income of P1 million would be unreasonably low for a
large corporation, with, say, P100 million in sales, P50 million in assets,
and P40 million in equity. A return of only P1 million for a company of
this size would suggest that the owners could do much better by investing
in insured bank savings accounts or in government bonds which would be
virtually risk-free and would pay a higher return.
On the other hand, a profit of P1 million would be unreasonably high for a
corporation which had sales of only P5 million, assets of, say, P3 million,
and equity of perhaps one-half million pesos. In other words, the net
income of a corporation must be judged in relation to the scale of
operations and the amount invested.
II. True or False
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. True
9. False
10. False
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Common Size Income Statements)
Common size income statements for 2005 and 2006:
Sales.................................................
Cost of goods sold.............................
Gross profit.......................................
Operating expenses...........................
Net income........................................
2006
100%
66
34%
28
6%
2005
100%
67
33%
29
4%
The changes from 2005 to 2006 are all favorable. Sales increased and the
gross profit per peso of sales also increased. These two factors led to a
substantial increase in gross profit. Although operating expenses increased in
peso amount, the operating expenses per peso of sales decreased from 29 cents
to 28 cents. The combination of these three favorable factors caused net
income to rise from 4 cents to 6 cents out of each peso of sales.
8-47
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Problem 2 (Measures of Liquidity)
Requirement (a)
Current assets:
Cash
Marketable securities
Accounts receivable
Inventory
Unexpired insurance
Total current assets
Current liabilities:
Notes payable
Accounts payable
Salaries payable
Income taxes payable
Unearned revenue
Total current liabilities
P 47,600
175,040
230,540
179,600
4,500
P637,280
P 70,000
125,430
7,570
14,600
10,000
P227,600
Requirement (b)
The current ratio is 2.8 to 1. It is computed by dividing the current assets of
P637,280 by the current liabilities of P227,600. The amount of working
capital is P409,680, computed by subtracting the current liabilities of
P227,600 from the current assets of P637,280.
The company appears to be in a strong position as to short-run debt-paying
ability. It has almost three pesos of current assets for each peso of current
liabilities. Even if some losses should be sustained in the sale of the
merchandise on hand or in the collection of the accounts receivable, it appears
probable that the company would still be able to pay its debts as they fall due
in the near future. Of course, additional information, such as the credit terms
on the accounts receivable, would be helpful in a careful evaluation of the
company’s current position.
Problem 3 (Common-Size Income Statement)
Requirement 1
2006
2005
Sales
100.0 %
100.0 %
Less cost of goods sold...........................................................................................................
63.2
60.0
Gross margin..........................................................................................................................
36.8
40.0
Selling expenses.....................................................................................................................
18.0
17.5
8-48
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Administrative expenses........................................................................................................
13.6
14.6
Total expenses........................................................................................................................
31.6
32.1
Net operating income............................................................................................................
5.2
7.9
Interest expense.....................................................................................................................
1.4
1.0
Net income before taxes.........................................................................................................
3.8 %
6.9 %
Requirement 2
The company’s major problem seems to be the increase in cost of goods sold,
which increased from 60.0% of sales in 2005 to 63.2% of sales in 2006. This
suggests that the company is not passing the increases in costs of its products
on to its customers. As a result, cost of goods sold as a percentage of sales
has increased and gross margin has decreased. Selling expenses and interest
expense have both increased slightly during the year, which suggests that costs
generally are going up in the company. The only exception is the
administrative expenses, which have decreased from 14.6% of sales in 2005 to
13.6% of sales in 2006. This probably is a result of the company’s efforts to
reduce administrative expenses during the year.
Problem 4 (Comparing Operating Results with Average Performance in
the Industry)
Requirement (a)
Ms. Freeze,Inc.
100%
49
51%
Sales (net)
Cost of goods sold
Gross profit on sales
Operating expenses:
Selling
General and administrative
Total operating expenses
Operating income
Income taxes
Net income
21%
17
38%
13%
6
7%
Industry Average
100%
57
43%
16%
20
36%
7%
3
4%
Requirement (b)
Ms. Freeze’s operating results are significantly better than the average
performance within the industry. As a percentage of sales revenue, Ms.
Freeze’s operating income and net income after nearly twice the average for
the industry. As a percentage of total assets, Ms. Freeze’s profits amount to
an impressive 23% as compared to 14% for the industry.
The key to Ms. Freeze’s success seems to be its ability to earn a relatively
high rate of gross profit. Ms. Freeze’s exceptional gross profit rate (51%)
probably results from a combination of factors, such as an ability to command
8-49
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
a premium price for the company’s products and production efficiencies which
lead to lower manufacturing costs.
As a percentage of sales, Ms. Freeze’s selling expenses are five points higher
than the industry average (21% compared to 16%). However, these higher
expenses may explain Ms. Freeze’s ability to command a premium price for
its products. Since the company’s gross profit rate exceeds the industry
average by 8 percentage points, the higher-than-average selling costs may be
part of a successful marketing strategy. The company’s general and
administrative expenses are significantly lower than the industry average,
which indicates that Ms. Freeze’s management is able to control expenses
effectively.
Problem 5 (Common-Size Statements)
Requirement 1
The income statement in common-size form would be:
Sales.........................................................
Less cost of goods sold.............................
Gross margin............................................
Less operating expenses............................
Net operating income................................
Less interest expense................................
Net income before taxes............................
Less income taxes (30%)..........................
Net income...............................................
2006
100.0%
65.0
35.0
26.3
8.7
1.2
7.5
2.3
5.3%
2005
100.0%
60.0
40.0
30.4
9.6
1.6
8.0
2.4
5.6%
The balance sheet in common-size form would be:
2006
Current assets:
Cash
..........................................................
Accounts receivable, net
..........................................................
Inventory
..........................................................
Prepaid expenses
..........................................................
Total current assets
8-50
2.0%
2005
5.1%
15.0
10.1
30.1
15.2
1.0
1.3
48.1
31.6
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Plant and equipment.................................
Total assets...............................................
51.9
100.0%
68.4
100.0%
25.1%
20.1
45.1
12.7%
25.3
38.0
15.0
19.0
Ordinary shares, P5 par
10.0
12.7
Retained earnings
29.8
30.4
54.9
62.0
100.0%
100.0%
Liabilities:
Current liabilities...............................
Bonds payable, 12%...........................
Total liabilities.............................
Equity:
Preference shares, 8%, P10 par
Total equity
Total liabilities and equity.........................
Note: Columns do not total down in all cases due to rounding differences.
Requirement 2
The company’s cost of goods sold has increased from 60 percent of sales in
2005 to 65 percent of sales in 2006. This appears to be the major reason the
company’s profits showed so little increase between the two years. Some
benefits were realized from the company’s cost-cutting efforts, as evidenced
by the fact that operating expenses were only 26.3 percent of sales in 2006 as
compared to 30.4 percent in 2005. Unfortunately, this reduction in operating
expenses was not enough to offset the increase in cost of goods sold. As a
result, the company’s net income declined from 5.6 percent of sales in 2005 to
5.3 percent of sales in 2006.
Problem 6 (Solvency of Alabang Supermarket)
Requirement (a)
(Pesos in
Millions)
Current assets:
Cash
Receivables
Merchandise inventories
Prepaid expenses
P
8-51
74.8
152.7
1,191.8
95.5
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Total current assets
P1,514.8
Quick assets:
Cash
Receivables
Total quick assets
P
74.8
152.7
P 227.5
Requirement (b)
(1) Current ratio:
Current assets (Req. a)
Current liabilities
Current ratio (P1,514.8  P1,939.0)
P1,514.8
P1,939.0
0.8 to 1
(2) Quick ratio:
Quick assets (Req. a)
Current liabilities
Quick ratio (P227.5  P1,939.0)
P 227.5
P1,939.0
0.1 to 1
(3) Working capital:
Current assets (Req. a)
Less: Current liabilities
Working capital
P1,514.8
P1,939.0
P(424.2)
Requirement (c)
No. It is difficult to draw conclusions from the above ratios. Alabang
Supermarket’s current ratio and quick ratio are well below “safe” levels,
according to traditional rules of thumb. On the other hand, some large
companies with steady ash flows are able to operate successfully with current
ratios lower than Alabang Supermarket’s.
Requirement (d)
Due to characteristics of the industry, supermarkets tend to have smaller
amounts of current assets and quick assets than other types of merchandising
companies. An inventory of food has a short shelf life. Therefore, the
inventory of a supermarket usually represents only a few weeks’ sales. Other
merchandising companies may stock inventories representing several months’
sales. Also, supermarkets sell primarily for cash. Thus, they have relatively
few receivables. Although supermarkets may generate large amounts of cash,
it is not profitable for them to hold assets in this form. Therefore, they are
likely to reinvest their cash flows in business operations as quickly as
possible.
8-52
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Requirement (e)
In evaluating Alabang Supermarket’s liquidity, it would be useful to review the
company’s financial position in prior years, statements of cash flows, and the
financial ratios of other supermarket chains. One might also ascertain the
company’s credit rating from an agency such as Dun & Bradstreet.
Note to Instructor: Prior to the year in which the data for this problem was
collected, Alabang Supermarket had reported a negative retained earnings
balance in its balance sheet for several consecutive periods. The fact that
Alabang Supermarket has only recently removed the deficit from its financial
statements is also worrisome.
Problem 7 (Balance Sheet Measures of Liquidity and Credit Risk)
Requirement (a)
(1) Quick assets:
Cash
Marketable securities (short-term)
Accounts receivable
Total quick assets
P 47,524
55,926
23,553
P127,003
(2) Current assets:
Cash
Marketable securities (short-term)
Accounts receivable
Inventories
Prepaid expenses
Total current assets
P 47,524
55,926
23,553
32,210
5,736
P164,949
(3) Current liabilities:
Notes payable to banks (due within one year)
Accounts payable
Dividends payable
Accrued liabilities (short-term)
Income taxes payable
Total current liabilities
P 20,000
5,912
1,424
21,532
6,438
P 55,306
8-53
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Requirement (b)
(1) Quick ratio:
Quick assets (Req. a)
Current liabilities (Req. a)
Quick ratio (P127,003  P55,306)
P127,003
P 55,306
2.3 to 1
(2) Current ratio:
Current assets (Req. a)
Current liabilities (Req. a)
Current ratio (P164,949  P55,306)
P164,949
P 55,306
3.0 to 1
(3) Working capital:
Current assets (Req. a)
Less: Current liabilities (Req. a)
Working capital
P164,949
55,306
P109,643
(4) Debt ratio:
Total liabilities (given)
Total assets (given)
Debt ratio (P81,630  P353,816)
P 81,630
P353,816
23.1%
Requirement (c)
(1) From the viewpoint of short-term creditors, Bonbon Sweets’ appear
highly liquid. Its quick and current ratios are well above normal rules of
thumb, and the company’s cash and marketable securities alone are almost
twice its current liabilities.
(2) Long-term creditors also have little to worry about. Not only is the
company highly liquid, but creditors’ claims amount to only 23.1% of
total assets. If Bonbon Sweets’ were to go out of business and liquidate
its assets, it would have to raise only 23 cents from every peso of assets
for creditors to emerge intact.
(3) From the viewpoint of shareholders, Bonbon Sweets’ appears overly
liquid. Current assets generally do not generate high rates of return.
Thus, the company’s relatively large holdings of current assets dilutes its
return on total assets. This should be of concern to shareholders. If
Bonbon Sweets is unable to invest its highly liquid assets more
productively in its business, shareholders probably would like to see the
money distributed as dividends.
8-54
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Problem 8 (Selected Financial Measures for Short-term Creditors)
Requirement 1
Current assets (P80,000 + P460,000 + P750,000 +
P10,000)..............................................................................................................
P1,300,000
Current liabilities (P1,300,000 ÷ 2.5)......................................................................
520,000
Working capital.......................................................................................................
P 780,000
Requirement 2
Acid-test ratio =
Cash + Marketable securities + Accounts receivable
Current liabilities
Acid-test ratio
Requirement
3 =
P80,000 + P0 + P460,000
P520,000
= 1.04 to 1 (rounded)
a. Working capital would not be affected:
Current assets (P1,300,000 – P100,000).................................................................
P1,200,000
Current liabilities (P520,000 – P100,000)...............................................................
420,000
Working capital.......................................................................................................
P 780,000
b. The current ratio would rise:
Current ratio
=
Current rate
=
Current assets
Current liabilities
P1,200,000
P420,000
= 2.9 to 1 (rounded)
Problem 9 (Selected Financial Ratios)
1. Gross margin percentage:
Gross margin
Sales
P840,000
P2,100,000
=
2. Current ratio:
Current assets
Current liabilities
=
P490,000
P200,000
3. Acid-test ratio:
8-55
= 40%
= 2.45 to 1
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Quick assets
Current liabilities
P181,000
P200,000
=
= 0.91 to 1 (rounded)
4. Accounts receivable turnover:
Sales
Average accounts receivables
=
365 days
14 times
P2,100,000
P150,000
= 14 times
= 26.1 days (rounded)
5. Inventory turnover:
Cost of goods sold
Average inventory
=
365 days
4.5 times
P1,260,000
P280,000
= 4.5 times
= 81.1 days to turn (rounded)
6. Debt-to-equity ratio:
Total liabilities
Total equity
P500,000
P800,000
=
= 0.63 to 1 (rounded)
7. Times interest earned:
Earnings before interest
and income taxes
Interest expense
=
8. Book value per share:
Equity
Ordinary shares outstanding
=
P180,000
P30,000
P800,000
20,000 shares*
= 6.0 times
= P40 per share
* P100,000 total par value ÷ P5 par value per share = 20,000 shares
Problem 10 (Selected Financial Ratios for Ordinary Shareholders)
1. Earnings per share:
Net income to ordinary shares
Average ordinary shares
outstanding
8-56
=
P105,000
20,000 shares
= P5.25 per share
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
2. Dividend payout ratio:
Dividends paid per share
Earnings per share
3. Dividend yield ratio:
Dividends paid per share
Market price per share
4. Price-earnings ratio:
Market price per share
Earnings per share
=
P3.15
P5.25
= 60%
=
P3.15
P63.00
= 5%
=
P63.00
P5.25
= 12.0
Problem 11 (Selected Financial Ratios for Ordinary Shareholders)
1. Return on total assets:
Return on
total assets
=
Net income + [Interest expense x (1 – Tax rate)]
Average total assets
=
P105,000 + [P30,000 x (1 – 0.30)]
½ (P1,100,000 + P1,300,000)
=
P126,000
P1,200,000
= 10.5%
2. Return on ordinary shareholders’ equity:
Return on ordinary
shareholders’ equity
=
=
=
Net income – preference dividends
Average ordinary shareholders’ equity
P105,000
½ (P725,000 + P800,000)
P105,000
P762,500
= 13.8% (rounded)
3. Financial leverage was positive, since the rate of return to the ordinary
shareholders (13.8%) was greater than the rate of return on total assets
(10.5%). This positive leverage is traceable in part to the company’s
current liabilities, which may carry no interest cost, and to the bonds
8-57
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
payable, which have an after-tax interest cost of only 7%.
10% interest rate × (1 – 0.30) = 7% after-tax cost.
Problem 12 (Selected Financial Measures for Short-Term Creditors)
Requirement (1)
Current assets
(P80,000 + P460,000 + P750,000 + P10,000)....................................
P1,300,000
Current liabilities (P1,300,000 ÷ 2.5)......................................................
520,000
Working capital.......................................................................................
P 780,000
Requirement (2)
Acid-test ratio
=
Cash + Marketable securities
+ Accounts receivable + Short-term notes
Current liabilities
=
P80,000 + P0 + P460,000 + P0
P520,000
= 1.04 (rounded)
Requirement (3)
a. Working capital would not be affected by a P100,000 payment on
accounts payable:
Current assets (P1,300,000 – P100,000)................................
P1,200,000
Current liabilities (P520,000 – P100,000).............................. 420,000
Working capital......................................................................
P 780,000
b. The current ratio would increase if the company makes a P100,000
payment on accounts payable:
Current ratio
=
Current assets
Current liabilities
=
P1,200,000
P420,000
8-58
= 2.9 (rounded)
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Problem 13 (Effects of Transactions on Various Financial Ratios)
1. Decrease
Sale of inventory at a profit will be reflected in an increase
in retained earnings, which is part of shareholders’ equity.
An increase in shareholders’ equity will result in a decrease
in the ratio of assets provided by creditors as compared to
assets provided by owners.
2. No effect
Purchasing land for cash has no effect on earnings or on the
number of ordinary shares outstanding. One asset is
exchanged for another.
3. Increase
A sale of inventory on account will increase the quick assets
(cash, accounts receivable, marketable securities) but have
no effect on the current liabilities. For this reason, the acidtest ratio will increase.
4. No effect
Payments on account reduce cash and accounts payable by
equal amounts; thus, the net amount of working capital is
not affected.
5. Decrease
When a customer pays a bill, the accounts receivable
balance is reduced. This increases the accounts receivable
turnover, which in turn decreases the average collection
period.
6. Decrease
Declaring a cash dividend will increase current liabilities,
but have no effect on current assets. Therefore, the current
ratio will decrease.
7. Increase
Payment of a previously declared cash dividend will reduce
both current assets and current liabilities by the same
amount. An equal reduction in both current assets and
current liabilities will always result in an increase in the
current ratio, so long as the current assets exceed the
current liabilities.
8. No effect
Book value per share is not affected by the current market
price of the company’s stock.
8-59
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
9. Decrease
The dividend yield ratio is obtained by dividing the
dividend per share by the market price per share. If the
dividend per share remains unchanged and the market price
goes up, then the yield will decrease.
10. Increase
Selling property for a profit would increase net income and
therefore the return on total assets would increase.
11. Increase
A write-off of inventory will reduce the inventory balance,
thereby increasing the turnover in relation to a given level
of cost of goods sold.
12. Increase
Since the company’s assets earn at a rate that is higher
than the rate paid on the bonds, leverage is positive,
increasing the return to the ordinary shareholders.
13. No effect
Changes in the market price of a stock have no direct effect
on the dividends paid or on the earnings per share and
therefore have no effect on this ratio.
14. Decrease
A decrease in net income would mean less income available
to cover interest payments. Therefore, the times-interestearned ratio would decrease.
15. No effect
Write-off of an uncollectible account against the Allowance
for Bad Debts will have no effect on total current assets.
For this reason, the current ratio will remain unchanged.
16. Decrease
A purchase of inventory on account will increase current
liabilities, but will not increase the quick assets (cash,
accounts receivable, marketable securities). Therefore, the
ratio of quick assets to current liabilities will decrease.
17. Increase
The price-earnings ratio is obtained by dividing the market
price per share by the earnings per share. If the earnings
per share remains unchanged, and the market price goes
up, then the price-earnings ratio will increase.
18. Decrease
Payments to creditors will reduce the total liabilities of a
company, thereby decreasing the ratio of total debt to total
equity.
Problem 14 (Interpretation of Financial Ratios)
a. The market price is going down. The dividends paid per share over the
three-year period are unchanged, but the dividend yield is going up.
8-60
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Therefore, the market price per share of stock must be decreasing.
b. The earnings per share is increasing. Again, the dividends paid per share
have remained constant. However, the dividend payout ratio is decreasing.
In order for the dividend payout ratio to be decreasing, the earnings per
share must be increasing.
c. The price-earnings ratio is going down. If the market price of the stock is
going down [see part (a) above], and the earnings per share are going up
[see part (b) above], then the price-earnings ratio must be decreasing.
d. In Year 1, leverage was negative because in that year the return on total
assets exceeded the return on ordinary equity. In Year 2 and in Year 3,
leverage was positive because in those years the return on ordinary equity
exceeded the return on total assets employed.
e. It is becoming more difficult for the company to pay its bills as they come
due. Although the current ratio has improved over the three years, the
acid-test ratio is down. Also note that the accounts receivable and
inventory are both turning more slowly, indicating that an increasing
portion of the current assets is being made up of those items, from which
bills cannot be paid.
f.
Customers are paying their bills more slowly in Year 3 than in Year 1.
This is evidenced by the decline in accounts receivable turnover.
g. Accounts receivable is increasing. This is evidenced both by a slowdown
in turnover and in an increase in total sales.
h. The level of inventory undoubtedly is increasing. Notice that the inventory
turnover is decreasing. Even if sales (and cost of goods sold) just
remained constant, this would be evidence of a larger average inventory on
hand. However, sales are not constant but rather are increasing. With sales
increasing (and undoubtedly cost of goods sold also increasing), the
average level of inventory must be increasing as well in order to service
the larger volume of sales.
IV. Cases
Case 1 (Common-Size Statements and Financial Ratios for Creditors)
Requirement 1
This Year
8-61
Last Year
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
a. Current assets
Current liabilities
Working capital
P2,060,000
1,100,000
P 960,000
P1,470,000
600,000
P 870,000
b. Current assets (a)
Current liabilities (b)
Current ratio (a) ÷ (b)
P2,060,000
P1,100,000
1.87 to 1
P1,470,000
P600,000
2.45 to 1
c. Quick assets (a)
Current liabilities (b)
Acid-test ratio (a) ÷ (b)
P740,000
P1,100,000
0.67 to 1
P650,000
P600,000
1.08 to 1
d. Sales on account (a)
Average receivables (b)
Turnover of receivables (a) ÷ (b)
P7,000,000
P525,000
13.3 times
P6,000,000
P375,000
16.0 times
Average age of receivables:
365 ÷ turnover
27.4 days
22.8 days
e. Cost of goods sold (a)
Average inventory (b)
Inventory turnover (a) ÷ (b)
P5,400,000
P1,050,000
5.1 times
P4,800,000
P760,000
6.3 times
71.6 days
P1,850,000
P2,150,000
0.86 to 1
57.9 days
P1,350,000
P1,950,000
0.69 to 1
P630,000
P90,000
7.0 times
P490,000
P90,000
5.4 times
f.
Turnover in days: 365 ÷ turnover
Total liabilities (a)
Equity (b)
Debt-to-equity ratio (a) ÷ (b)
g. Net income before interest and taxes (a)
Interest expense (b)
Times interest earned (a) ÷ (b)
Requirement 2
a.
METRO BUILDING SUPPLY
Common-Size Balance Sheets
Current assets:
Cash
Marketable securities
Accounts receivable, net
Inventory
8-62
This Year
Last Year
2.3 %
0.0
16.3
32.5
6.1 %
1.5
12.1
24.2
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Prepaid expenses
Total current assets
Plant and equipment, net
Total assets
Liabilities:
Current liabilities
Bonds payable, 12%
Total liabilities
Equity:
Preference shares, P50 par, 8%
Ordinary shares, P10 par
Retained earnings
Total equity
Total liabilities and equity
0.5
51.5
48.5
100.0 %
0.6
44.5
55.5
100.0 %
27.5 %
18.8
46.3
18.2 %
22.7
40.9
5.0
12.5
36.3
53.8
100.0 %
6.1
15.2
37.9
59.1
100.0 %
Note: Columns do not total down in all cases due to rounding.
b.
METRO BUILDING SUPPLY
Common-Size Income Statements
This Year
100.0 %
77.1
22.9
13.9
9.0
1.3
7.7
3.1
4.6 %
Sales
Less cost of goods sold
Gross margin
Less operating expenses
Net operating income
Less interest expense
Net income before taxes
Less income taxes
Net income
Last Year
100.0 %
80.0
20.0
11.8
8.2
1.5
6.7
2.7
4.0 %
Requirement 3
The following points can be made from the analytical work in parts (1) and (2)
above:
The company has improved its profit margin from last year. This is
attributable to an increase in gross margin, which is offset somewhat by an
increase in operating expenses. In both years the company’s net income as a
percentage of sales equals or exceeds the industry average of 4%.
8-63
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Although the company’s working capital has increased, its current position
actually has deteriorated significantly since last year. Both the current ratio
and the acid-test ratio are well below the industry average, and both are
trending downward. (This shows the importance of not just looking at the
working capital in assessing the financial strength of a company.) Given the
present trend, it soon will be impossible for the company to pay its bills as
they come due.
The drain on the cash account seems to be a result mostly of a large buildup in
accounts receivable and inventory. This is evident both from the common-size
balance sheet and from the financial ratios. Notice that the average age of the
receivables has increased by 5 days since last year, and that it is now 9 days
over the industry average. Many of the company’s customers are not taking
their discounts, since the average collection period is 27 days and collection
terms are 2/10, n/30. This suggests financial weakness on the part of these
customers, or sales to customers who are poor credit risks. Perhaps the
company has been too aggressive in expanding its sales.
The inventory turned only 5 times this year as compared to over 6 times last
year. It takes three weeks longer for the company to turn its inventory than the
average for the industry (71 days as compared to 50 days for the industry).
This suggests that inventory stocks are higher than they need to be.
In the authors’ opinion, the loan should be approved on the condition that the
company take immediate steps to get its accounts receivable and inventory
back under control.
This would mean more rigorous checks of
creditworthiness before sales are made and perhaps paring out of slow paying
customers. It would also mean a sharp reduction of inventory levels to a more
manageable size. If these steps are taken, it appears that sufficient funds
could be generated to repay the loan in a reasonable period of time.
Case 2 (Financial Ratios for Ordinary Shareholders)
Requirement 1
a.
Net income
Less preference dividends
Net income remaining for ordinary (a)
Average number of ordinary shares (b)
8-64
This Year
P324,000
16,000
Last Year
P240,000
16,000
P308,000
50,000
P224,000
50,000
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Earnings per share (a) ÷ (b)
P6.16
P4.48
b. Ordinary dividend per share (a)*
Market price per share (b)
Dividend yield ratio (a) ÷ (b)
P2.16
P45.00
4.8%
P1.20
P36.00
3.33%
*P108,000 ÷ 50,000 shares = P2.16;
P60,000 ÷ 50,000 shares = P1.20
c. Ordinary dividend per share (a)...............................................................................
P2.16
P1.20
Earnings per share (b).............................................................................................
P6.16
P4.48
Dividend payout ratio (a) ÷ (b)................................................................................
35.1%
26.8%
d. Market price per share (a).......................................................................................
P45.00
P36.00
Earnings per share (b).............................................................................................
P6.16
P4.48
Price-earnings ratio (a) ÷ (b)...................................................................................
7.3
8.0
Investors regard Metro Building Supply less favorably than other firms in
the industry. This is evidenced by the fact that they are willing to pay only
7.3 times current earnings for a share of the company’s stock, as
compared to 9 times current earnings for the average of all stocks in the
industry. If investors were willing to pay 9 times current earnings for
Metro Building Supply’s stock, then it would be selling for about P55 per
share (9 × P6.16), rather than for only P45 per share.
e.
This Year
Last Year
Equity......................................................................................................................
P2,150,000
P1,950,000
Less preference shares.............................................................................................
200,000
200,000
Ordinary equity (a)..................................................................................................
P1,950,000
P1,750,000
Number of ordinary shares (b).................................................................................
50,000
50,000
Book value per share (a) ÷ (b).................................................................................
P39.00
P35.00
A market price in excess of book value does not mean that the price of a
stock is too high. Market value is an indication of investors’ perceptions
of future earnings and/or dividends, whereas book value is a result of
already completed transactions and is geared to the past.
Requirement 2
a.
This Year
Last Year
Net income..............................................................................................................
P 324,000
P 240,000
Add after-tax cost of interest paid:
[P90,000 × (1 – 0.40)].........................................................................................
54,000
54,000
8-65
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Total (a)...................................................................................................................
P 378,000
P 294,000
Average total assets (b)............................................................................................
P3,650,000
P3,000,000
Return on total assets (a) ÷ (b)................................................................................
10.4%
9.8%
b.
This Year
Last Year
Net income..............................................................................................................
P 324,000
P 240,000
Less preference dividends........................................................................................
16,000
16,000
Net income remaining for ordinary
shareholders (a)...................................................................................................
P 308,000
P 224,000
Average total equity*...............................................................................................
P2,050,000
P1,868,000
Less average preference shares................................................................................
200,000
200,000
Average ordinary equity (b).....................................................................................
P1,850,000
P1,668,000
*1/2(P2,150,000 + P1,950,000); 1/2(P1,950,000 + P1,786,000).
Return on ordinary equity (a) ÷ (b)
16.6%
13.4%
c. Financial leverage is positive in both years, since the return on ordinary
equity is greater than the return on total assets. This positive financial
leverage is due to three factors: the preference shares, which has a
dividend of only 8%; the bonds, which have an after-tax interest cost of
only 7.2% [12% interest rate × (1 – 0.40) = 7.2%]; and the accounts
payable, which may bear no interest cost.
Requirement 3
We would recommend keeping the stock. The stock’s downside risk seems
small, since it is selling for only 7.3 times current earnings as compared to 9
times earnings for the average firm in the industry. In addition, its earnings
are strong and trending upward, and its return on ordinary equity (16.6%) is
extremely good. Its return on total assets (10.4%) compares favorably with
that of the industry.
The risk, of course, is whether the company can get its cash problem under
control. Conceivably, the cash problem could worsen, leading to an eventual
reduction in profits through inability to operate, a reduction in dividends, and
a precipitous drop in the market price of the company’s stock. This does not
seem likely, however, since the company can easily control its cash problem
through more careful management of accounts receivable and inventory. If
this problem is brought under control, the price of the stock could rise sharply
over the next few years, making it an excellent investment.
8-66
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Case 3 (Comprehensive Ratio Analysis)
Requirement 1
This Year
Last Year
a. Net income..............................................................................................................
P 280,000
P 168,000
Add after-tax cost of interest:
P120,000 × (1 – 0.30).........................................................................................
84,000
P100,000 × (1 – 0.30).........................................................................................
70,000
Total (a)...................................................................................................................
P 364,000
P 238,000
Average total assets (b)............................................................................................
P5,330,000
P4,640,000
Return on total assets (a) ÷ (b)................................................................................
6.8%
5.1%
b. Net income..............................................................................................................
P 280,000
P 168,000
Less preference dividends........................................................................................
48,000
48,000
Net income remaining for ordinary (a).....................................................................
P 232,000
P 120,000
Average total equity.................................................................................................
P3,120,000
P3,028,000
Less average preference shares................................................................................
600,000
600,000
Average ordinary equity (b).....................................................................................
P2,520,000
P2,428,000
Return on ordinary equity (a) ÷ (b)..........................................................................
9.2%
4.9%
c. Leverage is positive for this year, since the return on ordinary equity
(9.2%) is greater than the return on total assets (6.8%). For last year,
leverage is negative since the return on the ordinary equity (4.9%) is less
than the return on total assets (5.1%).
Requirement 2
This Year
P 232,000
50,000
P4.64
Last Year
P 120,000
50,000
P2.40
b. Ordinary dividend per share (a)
Market price per share (b)
Dividend yield ratio (a) ÷ (b)
P1.44
P36.00
4.0%
P0.72
P20.00
3.6%
c. Ordinary dividend per share (a)
P1.44
P0.72
a. Net income remaining for ordinary (a)
Average number of ordinary shares (b)
Earnings per share (a) ÷ (b)
8-67
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Earnings per share (b)
Dividend payout ratio (a) ÷ (b)
d. Market price per share (a)
Earnings per share (b)
Price-earnings ratio (a) ÷ (b)
P4.64
31.0%
P2.40
30.0%
P36.00
P4.64
7.8
P20.00
P2.40
8.3
Notice from the data given in the problem that the average P/E ratio for
companies in Helix’s industry is 10. Since Helix Company presently has
a P/E ratio of only 7.8, investors appear to regard it less well than they do
other companies in the industry. That is, investors are willing to pay only
7.8 times current earnings for a share of Helix Company’s stock,
as compared to 10 times current earnings for a
share of stock for the average company in the
industry.
e. Equity
Less preference shares
Ordinary equity (a)
Number of ordinary shares (b)
Book value per share (a) ÷ (b)
P3,200,000
600,000
P2,600,000
P3,040,000
600,000
P2,440,000
50,000
P52.00
50,000
P48.80
Note that the book value of Helix Company’s stock is greater than the
market value for both years. This does not necessarily indicate that the
stock is selling at a bargain price. Market value is an indication of
investors’ perceptions of future earnings and/or dividends, whereas book
value is a result of already completed transactions and is geared to the
past.
f.
Gross margin (a)
Sales (b)
Gross margin percentage (a) ÷ (b)
P1,050,000
P5,250,000
20.0%
P860,000
P4,160,000
20.7%
This Year
P2,600,000
1,300,000
P1,300,000
Last Year
P1,980,000
920,000
P1,060,000
P2,600,000
P1,300,000
P1,980,000
P920,000
Requirement 3
a. Current assets
Current liabilities
Working capital
b. Current assets (a)
Current liabilities (b)
8-68
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Current ratio (a) ÷ (b)
2.0 to 1
2.15 to 1
c. Quick assets (a)
Current liabilities (b)
Acid-test ratio (a) ÷ (b)
P1,220,000
P1,300,000
0.94 to 1
P1,120,000
P920,000
1.22 to 1
d. Sales on account (a)
Average receivables (b)
Accounts receivable turnover (a) ÷ (b)
Average age of receivables,
365 ÷ turnover
e. Cost of goods sold (a)
Average inventory (b)
Inventory turnover (a) ÷ (b)
Number of days to turn inventory,
365 days ÷ turnover (rounded)
P5,250,000
P750,000
7.0 times
P4,160,000
P560,000
7.4 times
52 days
P4,200,000
P1,050,000
4.0 times
49 days
P3,300,000
P720,000
4.6 times
91 days
79 days
f.
P2,500,000
P3,200,000
0.78 to 1
P1,920,000
P3,040,000
0.63 to 1
P520,000
P120,000
4.3 times
P340,000
P100,000
3.4 times
Total liabilities (a)
Equity (b)
Debt-to-equity ratio (a) ÷ (b)
g. Net income before interest and taxes (a)
Interest expense (b)
Times interest earned (a) ÷ (b)
Requirement 4
As stated by Meri Ramos, both net income and sales are up from last year.
The return on total assets has improved from 5.1% last year to 6.8% this year,
and the return on ordinary equity is up to 9.2% from 4.9% the year before.
But this appears to be the only bright spot in the company’s operating picture.
Virtually all other ratios are below the industry average, and, more important,
they are trending downward. The deterioration in the gross margin
percentage, while not large, is worrisome. Sales and inventories have
increased substantially, which should ordinarily result in an improvement in
the gross margin percentage as fixed costs are spread over more units.
However, the gross margin percentage has declined.
Notice particularly that the average age of receivables has lengthened to 52
days—about three weeks over the industry average—and that the inventory
turnover is 50% longer than the industry average. One wonders if the increase
in sales was obtained at least in part by extending credit to high-risk
customers. Also notice that the debt-to-equity ratio is rising rapidly. If the
8-69
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
P1,000,000 loan is granted, the ratio will rise further to 1.09 to 1.
In the author’s opinion, what the company needs is more equity—not more
debt. Therefore, the loan should not be approved. The company should be
encouraged to make another issue of ordinary stock in order to provide a
broader equity base on which to operate.
Case 4 (Statement Reconstruction Using Ratios)
Bulacan Company
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Sales
Less: Cost of Sales (4)
Gross Profit
Less: Expenses
Net Income (1)
P140,800
84,480
P 56,320
46,320
P 10,000
Bulacan Company
Balance Sheet
December 31, 2005
As s e t s
Current Assets:
Cash
Accounts Receivable (5)
Merchandise Inventory (3)
Total Current Assets (2)
Fixed Assets (8)
Total Assets
P 27,720
28,160
21,120
P 77,000
55,000
P132,000
Liabilities and Equity
Current Liabilities:
Accounts Payable (2)
Equity:
Share Capital (issued 20,000 shares) (6)
Retained Earnings
Total Liabilities and Equity
8-70
P 44,000
P40,000
48,000
88,000
P132,000
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Supporting Computations:
(1) Earnings Per Share
=
Net Income
Ordinary Shares Outstanding
P0.50
=
X
20,000
X (Net Income)
=
P10,000
(2) Current Assets
Pxx
Current Liabilities xx
Working Capital
P33,000
1.75
1
0.75
Current Liabilities
(3) Current Ratio
=
P33,000  0.75
=
P44,000
=
Current Assets
Current Liabilities
X
44,000
1.27
=
X (Current Assets)
=
P77,000
=
Quick Assets
Current Liabilities
1.27
=
X
44,000
X (Current Assets)
=
P55,880
Quick Ratio
Current Assets
Quick Assets
Inventory
P77,000
55,800
P21,120
8-71
Cost of Sales
Ave. Inventory
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
(4) Inventory turnover
=
4
=
X (Cost of Sales)
X
P21,120
P84,480
=
(5) Average age of outstanding
Accounts Receivable
Quick Assets
Current Liabilities
=
365
5
=
73 days (Average age of
receivables)
Net Sales
Average Receivables
=
5
P140,800
X
=
5
X (Receivables)
=
P28,160
Another Method:
P140,800
365
=
73 days
=
P28,160 Accounts receivable
(6) Earnings for the year as a percentage of Share Capital
P10,000
= 25%
Share Capital
Share Capital
=
P40,000
Fixed
Assets
=
Current Liabilities +
Equity
P77,000 + 0.625X
=
P44,000 + X
0.375X
=
P33,000
X
(8) Fixed Assets to Equity
=
P88,000 Equity
(7) Current
Assets
+
Fixed Assets
Equity
X
P140,800
=
8-72
0.625
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
X (Fixed Assets)
=
0.625
=
P55,000
Case 5 (Ethics and the Manager)
Requirement 1
The loan officer stipulated that the current ratio prior to obtaining the loan
must be higher than 2.0, the acid-test ratio must be higher than 1.0, and the
interest on the loan must be no more than four times net operating income.
These ratios are computed below:
Current ratio
=
Current assets
Current liabilities
Current rate
=
P290,000
P164,000
Acid-test ratio =
= 1.8 (rounded)
Cash + Marketable securities + Accounts receivable
Current liabilities
P70,000 + P0 + P50,000
Acid-test ratio =
= 0.70 (rounded)
P164,000
Net operating income
P20,000
=
P80,000 x 0.10 x (6/12) = 5.0
Interest on the loan
The company would fail to qualify for the loan because both its current ratio
and its acid-test ratio are too low.
Requirement 2
By reclassifying the P45 thousand net book value of the old machine as
inventory, the current ratio would improve, but there would be no effect on the
acid-test ratio. This happens because inventory is considered to be a current
asset but is not included in the numerator when computing the acid-test ratio.
Current ratio
=
Current rate
=
Current assets
Current liabilities
P290,000 + P45,000
= 2.0 (rounded)
P164,000
Acid-test ratio =
Cash + Marketable securities + Current receivables
Current liabilities
Acid-test ratio =
P70,000 + P0 + P50,000
P164,000
8-73
= 0.70 (rounded)
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Even if this tactic had succeeded in qualifying the company for the loan, we
strongly advise against it. Inventories are assets the company has acquired for
the sole purpose of selling them to outsiders in the normal course of business.
Used production equipment is not considered to be inventory—even if there is
a clear intention to sell it in the near future. Since the loan officer would not
expect used equipment to be included in inventories, doing so would be
intentionally misleading.
Nevertheless, the old equipment is an asset that could be turned into cash. If
this were done, the company would immediately qualify for the loan since the
P45 thousand in cash would be included in the numerator in both the current
ratio and in the acid-test ratio.
Current ratio
=
Current rate
=
Current assets
Current liabilities
P290,000 + P45,000
= 2.0 (rounded)
P164,000
Acid-test ratio =
Cash + Marketable securities + Current receivables
Current liabilities
Acid-test ratio =
P70,000 + P0 + P50,000 + P45,000
P164,000
= 1.00 (rounded)
However, other options may be available. After all, the old machine is being
used to relieve bottlenecks in the plastic injection molding process and it
would be desirable to keep this standby capacity. We would advise Rome to
fully and honestly explain the situation to the loan officer. The loan officer
might insist that the machine be sold before any loan is approved, but he might
instead grant a waiver of the current ratio and acid-test ratio requirements on
the basis that they could be satisfied by selling the old machine. Or he may
approve the loan on the condition that the equipment is pledged as collateral.
In that case, Rome would only have to sell the machine if he would otherwise
be unable to pay back the loan.
Case 6 (Financial Ratios for Ordinary Shareholders)
[pesos in thousands]
Requirement (1)
Calculation of the gross margin percentage:
Gross margin percentage
=
8-74
=
Gross margin
Sales
P23,000
P66,000
= 34.8%
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Requirement (2)
Calculation of the earnings per share:
Earnings per share
=
=
Net income – Preference dividends
Average number of ordinary shares outstanding
P1,980 – P60
600 shares
= P3.20 per share
Requirement (3)
Calculation of the price-earnings ratio:
Market price per share
Price-earnings ratio
=
Earnings per share
P26
P3.20
=
= 8.1
Requirement (4)
Calculation of the dividend payout ratio:
Dividend payout ratio
Dividends per share
Earnings per share
=
P0.75
P3.20
=
= 23.4%
Requirement (5)
Calculation of the dividend yield ratio:
Dividend yield ratio
=
=
Requirement (6)
Calculation of the return on total assets:
8-75
Dividends per share
Market price per share
P0.75
P26.00
= 2.9%
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Return on total assets
=
Net income + [Interest expense x (1 – Tax rate)]
Average total assets
=
P1,980 + [P800 x (1 – 0.40)]
(P65,810 + P68,480) / 2
= 3.7%
Requirement (7)
Calculation of the return on ordinary shareholders’ equity:
Beginning balance, shareholders’ equity (a)
Ending balance, shareholders’ equity (b)
Average shareholders’ equity [(a) + (b)]/2
Average preference shares
Average ordinary shareholders’ equity
Return on ordinary
shareholders’ equity
Net income – Preference dividends
Average ordinary shareholders’ equity
=
=
P39,610
41,080
40,345
1,000
P39,345
P1,980 – P60
P39,345
= 4.9%
Requirement (8)
Calculation of the book value per share:
Book value
per share
=
Total shareholders’ equity – Preference shares
Number of ordinary shares outstanding
P41,080 – P1,000
= for Short-Term Creditors)= P66.80 per share
Case 7 (Financial Ratios
600 shares
Requirement (1)
Calculation of working capital:
Working capital
Requirement (2)
=
Current assets – Current liabilities
=
P22,680 – P19,400 = P3,280
Calculation of the current ratio:
Current ratio =
=
Current assets
Current liabilities
P22,680
= 1.17
P19,400
8-76
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Requirement (3)
Calculation of the acid-test ratio:
Cash + Marketable securities
+ Accounts receivable + Short-term notes
Current liabilities
Acid-test ratio =
P1,080 + P0 + P9,000 + P0
P19,400
Acid-test ratio =
= 0.52
Requirement (4)
Calculation of accounts receivable turnover:
Accounts receivable
turnover
Sales on account
Average accounts receivable balance
=
P66,000
(P6,500 + P9,000) / 2
Acid-test ratio =
= 8.5
Requirement (5)
Calculation of the average collection period:
Average collection
period
365 days
Accounts receivable turnover
=
365 days
8.5
Acid-test ratio =
= 42.9 days
Requirement (6)
Calculation of inventory turnover:
Inventory
turnover
=
Acid-test ratio =
Cost of goods sold
Average inventory balance
P43,000
(P10,600 + P12,000) / 2
8-77
= 3.8
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Requirement (7)
Calculation of the average sale period:
Average sale
period
365 days
Inventory turnover
=
365 days
3.8
Acid-test ratio =
= 96.1 days
Case 8 (Financial Ratios for Long-Term Creditors)
Requirement (1)
Calculation of the times interest earned ratio:
Earnings before interest expense
and income taxes
Inventory expense
P4,100
= 5.1
P800
Times interest earned
=
ratio
Acid-test ratio =
Requirement (2)
Calculation of the debt-to-equity ratio:
Debt-to-equity
ratio
=
Acid-test ratio =
Total liabilities
Shareholders’ equity
P27,400
P41,080
= 0.67
V. Multiple Choice Questions
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
A
C
D
B
A
D
C
D
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
C
A
C
B
D
B
A
C
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
B
D
A
C
A
C
D
A
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
8-78
C
D
C
A
A
C
A
A
41. C
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
49. A
50. B
47. A
48. C
42. D
43. A
49. C
50. C
CHAPTER 6
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS
I.
Questions
1. Purposes of the Statement of Cash Flows
a. To predict future cash flows
b. To evaluate management decisions
c. To determine the ability to pay dividends to shareholders and
interest and principal to creditors
d. To show the relationship of net income to changes in the
business’s cash.
2. Comparative balance sheets present the financial position of the enterprise
at two points in time. The income statement for the period between the
two balance sheets describes how the income-producing activities affected
the financial position. Because cash flows from operating activities may
differ substantially from net income, and because numerous other
financing and investing activities have an impact on financial position, the
statement of cash flows is necessary. The statement emphasizes changes
in the cash balances that result from changes in assets, liabilities and
equity accounts caused by operating, investing and financing activities.
3. The most important source of cash for many successful companies is from
operating activities. A large positive operating cash flow is a good sign
because it means funds have been internally generated with no fixed
obligations or commitment to return such to anybody.
4. It is possible for cash to decrease during a year when income is high
because cash may be used not only for operating activities but also for
investing and financing activities.
8-79
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
5. Transactions involving accounts payable are not considered to be
financing activities because such transactions are used to obtain goods
and services rather than to obtain cash. Furthermore, purchases of goods
and services relate to a company’s day-to-day operating activities.
6. The loss is added back to net income to avoid double counting since the
entire proceeds from the sale (net book value minus loss on sale) will
appear as a cash inflow from investing activities.
7. Three categories of transactions that may result in increases in cash are
a. Operating activities
b. Investing activities (e.g., sale of investments or other assets).
c. Financing activities (e.g., borrowing or sale of shares).
These activities are sources of cash when cash is increased as a result of
the particular activity.
8. Three categories of transactions that may result in decreases in cash are
a. Operating activities
b. Investing activities (e.g., purchase of investments or other assets).
c. Financing activities (e.g., repayment of debt or retirement of shares).
These activities are uses of cash when cash is decreased as a result of the
particular activity.
9. Noncash transactions do not provide or consume cash even though they
may result in significant changes in financial position. Examples are the
issuance of share capital for plant assets and the conversion of debt or
preference shares into ordinary shares. Such transactions are not
presented in the body of the statement of cash flows but rather disclosed in
a separate schedule as financing or investing activities.
10. While net loss is usually associated with a decrease in cash, it may be a
source of cash if noncash expenses are greater than the amount of the net
loss. For example, if a net loss of P100,000 included amortization and
depreciation of P125,000 and no noncash revenues existed, cash provided
by operating activities would be P25,000, computed as follows:
Net loss
Add: Expenses not requiring cash – depreciation
and amortization
Net cash provided by operating activities
8-80
P(100,000)
P
125,000
25,000
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
11. The change in cash is the difference between cash at the beginning and end
of the accounting period. The net amount of cash provided by or used in
operating, investing and financing activities must equal this change in
cash. For example, if cash increased by P150,000 during the year, total
sources from operating, investing, and financing activities must exceed
total uses by P150,000. Also, if cash decreased by P25,000 during the
year, total uses of cash must exceed total sources by P25,000.
12. (a) The use of cash does not occur until the cash dividend is actually paid
in the next period. The declaration of the dividend does affect
financial position, however, and should be disclosed as a noncash
financing activity in a separate schedule accompanying the statement
of cash flows.
(b) Because the dividend was declared and paid in the same accounting
period, it appears in the statement of cash flows as a cash decrease in
the financing activities category.
13. Disagree. The refunding of 10% debt by the 8% debt represents a
significant financing activity, even though the net impact of the exchange
on the balance sheet or on the amount of cash is not material. The
issuance of 8% bonds and the retirement of 10% bonds should be reported
as noncash financing transactions in a schedule accompanying the
statement of cash flows.
14. The net income figure includes P150,000 as an expense. Only P112,500
of this amount resulted in a decrease in cash, because P37,500 represents
an increase in the deferred income tax liability account. In determining
cash provided by operating activities, the amount of income tax paid is
P112,500 (direct method). Alternatively, under the indirect method,
P37,500 must be added to net income to determine cash flows from
operating activities.
15. The loss is omitted when listing expenses requiring cash payment (direct
approach) or added back to net income (indirect approach) in determining
cash provided by operating activities. This eliminates the impact of the
transaction from cash provided by operating activities. Then, the
proceeds from the sale are included as a source of cash in the investing
activities category of the statement of cash flows. Any tax effects of the
transaction are included in the tax expense figure and remain a part of
cash flows from operating activities.
8-81
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
16. (1) Operating activities: Transactions that affect current assets, current
liabilities, or net income.
(2) Investing activities: Transactions that involve the acquisition or
disposition of noncurrent assets.
(3) Financing activities: Transactions (other than the payment of interest)
involving borrowing from creditors, and any transactions (involving
the owners of a company.
17. Interest is included as an operating activity since it is part of net income.
Financing activities are narrowly defined to include only the principal
amount borrowed or repaid.
18. Since the entire proceeds from a sale of an asset (including any gain)
appear as a cash inflow from investing activities, the gain must be
deducted from net income to avoid double counting.
19. The direct method reconstructs the income statement on a cash basis by
restating revenues and expenses in terms of cash inflows and outflows.
The indirect method starts with net income and adjusts it to a cash basis to
determine the cash provided by operating activities.
20. An increase in the Accounts Receivable account must be deducted from
net income under the indirect method because this is an increase in a
noncash asset.
21. A decrease in the Accounts Payable account must be added to cost of
goods sold under the direct method. The cost of goods sold is increased by
the amount of the decrease in accounts payable. Because the cost of goods
sold is increased, the net cash flow provided by operating activities is
decreased. The effect of a decrease in a liability is a decrease in cash.
22. A sale of equipment for cash would be classified as an investing activity.
Any transaction involving the acquisition or disposition of noncurrent
assets is classified as an investing activity.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1
Net income......................................................................................................................
P84,000
Adjustments to convert net income to a cash basis:
Depreciation charges for the year..............................................................................
P50,000
8-82
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Increase in accounts receivable..................................................................................
(60,000)
Increase in inventory..................................................................................................
(77,000)
Decrease in prepaid expenses....................................................................................
2,000
Increase in accounts payable......................................................................................
30,000
Decrease in accrued liabilities...................................................................................
(4,000)
Increase in deferred income taxes.............................................................................
6,000
(53,000)
Net cash provided by operating activities......................................................................
P31,000
Exercise 2
Sales.................................................................................................
P1,000,000
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Less increase in accounts receivable..........................................
– 60,000
P940,000
Cost of goods sold.............................................................................
580,000
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Plus increase in inventory..........................................................
+ 77,000
Less increase in accounts payable.............................................
– 30,000
627,000
Selling and administrative expenses..................................................
300,000
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Less decrease in prepaid expenses.............................................
–
2,000
Plus decrease in accrued liabilities............................................
+
4,000
Less depreciation charges..........................................................
– 50,000
252,000
Income taxes.....................................................................................
36,000
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Less increase in deferred income taxes......................................
–
6,000
30,000
Net cash provided by operating activities..........................................P 31,000
Note that the P31,000 agrees with the cash provided by operating activities
figure under the indirect method in the previous exercise.
Exercise 3
Item
Amount
Accounts Receivable.........................................
P70,000 decrease
Accrued Interest Receivable..............................
P6,000 increase
Inventory..........................................................
P110,000 increase
Prepaid Expenses..............................................
P3,000 decrease
Accounts Payable.............................................
P40,000 decrease
Accrued Liabilities............................................
P9,000 increase
Deferred Income Taxes Liability.......................
P15,000 increase
8-83
Add
X
Deduct
X
X
X
X
X
X
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Sale of equipment.............................................
P8,000 gain
Sale of long-term investments...........................
P12,000 loss
X
X
Exercise 4
Requirement (1)
Net income................................................................................................. P75
Adjustments to convert net income to a cash basis:
Depreciation charges..............................................................................
P40
Decrease in accounts receivable..............................................................
10
Increase in inventory...............................................................................
(30)
Decrease in prepaid expenses.................................................................
5
Increase in accounts payable..................................................................
20
Decrease in accrued liabilities.................................................................
(10)
Increase in taxes payable........................................................................
10
Increase in deferred taxes.......................................................................
5
Loss on sale of long-term investments....................................................
5
Gain on sale of land................................................................................
(40)
15
Net cash provided by operating activities................................................... P90
Requirement (2)
Swan Company
Statement of Cash Flows
Operating activities:
Net cash provided by operating activities (see above)..........................................
P 90
Investing activities:
Proceeds from sale of long-term investments........................................................
P 45
Proceeds from sale of land...................................................................................
70
Additions to long-term investments......................................................................
(20)
Additions to plant & equipment...........................................................................
(150)
Net cash used for investing activities...................................................................
(55)
Financing activities:
Decrease in bonds payable...................................................................................
(20)
Increase in ordinary shares...................................................................................
40
Cash dividends.....................................................................................................
(35)
Net cash used by financing activities....................................................................
(15)
8-84
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Net increase in cash (net cash flow).....................................................................
20
Cash balance, beginning.......................................................................................
100
Cash balance, ending...........................................................................................
P120
While not a requirement, a worksheet may be helpful.
Change
Assets (except cash and cash equivalents)
Current assets:
Accounts receivable................................................ –10
Inventory................................................................. +30
Prepaid expenses.................................................... –5
Noncurrent assets:
Long-term investments............................................ –30
Plant and equipment............................................... +150
Land........................................................................ –30
Liabilities, Contra assets, and Shareholders’ Equity
Contra assets:
Accumulated depreciation.......................................
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable....................................................
Accrued liabilities....................................................
Taxes payable.........................................................
Noncurrent liabilities:
Bonds payable........................................................
Deferred income taxes............................................
Shareholders’ equity:
Ordinary shares.......................................................
Retained earnings:
Net income.........................................................
Dividends...........................................................
Source Cash
or
Flow Adjust
Use? Effect -ments
Source +10
Use –30
Source +5
Source +30
–
Use 150
Source +30
Adjuste
d Effect
Classification
+10
–30
+5
Operating
Operating
Operating
–50
–20
Investing
–30
–150
0
Investing
Investing
+40
Source +40
+40
Operating
+20
–10
+10
Source +20
Use –10
Source +10
+20
–10
+10
Operating
Operating
Operating
–20
+5
Use –20
Source +5
–20
+5
Financing
Operating
+40
Source +40
+40
Financing
+75
–35
Source +75
Use –35
+75
–35
Operating
Financing
+45
+5
+70
–40
+20
Investing
Operating
Investing
Operating
Additional entries
Proceeds from sale of investments..............................
Loss on sale of investments.........................................
Proceeds from sale of land...........................................
Gain on sale of land.....................................................
Total
+20
+45
+5
+70
–40
0
Exercise 5
Sales...........................................................................................
P600
Adjustments to a cash basis:
8-85
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Decrease in accounts receivable..........................................+10
Cost of goods sold......................................................................250
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Increase in inventory...........................................................+30
Increase in accounts payable...............................................–20
Selling and administrative expenses............................................280
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Decrease in prepaid expenses.............................................. –5
Decrease in accrued liabilities.............................................+10
Depreciation charges...........................................................–40
Income taxes............................................................................... 30
Adjustments to a cash basis:
Increase in taxes payable....................................................–10
Increase in deferred taxes.................................................... –5
Net cash provided by operating activities...................................
Exercise 6
P610
260
245
15
P 90
Requirements (1) and (2)
Stephenie Company
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended December 31, 2008
Operating activities:
Net income..............................................................................................P 56
Adjustments to convert net income to cash basis:
Depreciation charges.......................................................................
25
Increase in accounts receivable........................................................
(80)
Decrease in inventory......................................................................
35
Increase in prepaid expenses............................................................
(2)
Increase in accounts payable...........................................................
75
Decrease in accrued liabilities..........................................................
(10)
Gain on sale of investments.............................................................
(5)
Loss on sale of equipment................................................................
2
Increase in deferred income taxes....................................................
8
48
Net cash provided by operating activities................................................ 104
Investing activities:
Proceeds from sale of long-term investments...........................................
12
Proceeds from sale of equipment.............................................................
18
Additions to plant and equipment............................................................
(110)
Net cash used for investing activities....................................................... (80)
8-86
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Financing activities:
Increase in bonds payable........................................................................
25
Decrease in ordinary shares.....................................................................
(40)
Cash dividends........................................................................................
(16)
Net cash used for financing activities...................................................... (31)
Net decrease in cash................................................................................ (7)
Cash balance, January 1, 2008................................................................ 11
Cash balance, December 31, 2008..........................................................P 4
While not a requirement, a worksheet may be helpful.
Sourc
e or
Use?
Cash
Flow
Effec
t
Use
Source
Use
–80
+35
–2
Use
Source
–80
+7
+15
Source
+15
+75
–10
Source
Use
+25
+8
Adjuste
d Effect
Classification
–80
+35
–2
Operating
Operating
Operating
–30
–7
–110
0
Investing
Investing
+10
+25
Operating
+75
–10
+75
–10
Operating
Operating
Source
Source
+25
+8
+25
+8
Financing
Operating
–40
Use
–40
–40
Financing
+56
–16
Source
Use
+56
–16
+56
–16
Operating
Financing
+18
+2
+12
–5
+18
+2
+12
–5
Investing
Operating
Investing
Operating
0
–7
Change
Assets (except cash and cash equivalents)
Current assets:
Accounts receivable................................................ +80
Inventory................................................................. –35
Prepaid expenses.................................................... +2
Noncurrent assets:
Plant and equipment............................................... +80
Long-term investments............................................ –7
Liabilities, Contra assets, and Shareholders’ Equity
Contra assets:
Accumulated depreciation.......................................
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable....................................................
Accrued liabilities....................................................
Noncurrent liabilities:
Bonds payable........................................................
Deferred income taxes............................................
Shareholders’ equity:
Ordinary shares.......................................................
Retained earnings:
Net income.........................................................
Dividends...........................................................
Adjust
ments
Additional entries
Proceeds from sale of equipment.................................
Loss on sale of equipment............................................
Proceeds from sale of long-term investments...............
Gain on sale of long-term investments.........................
Total
–7
8-87
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
II. Problems
Problem 1
Transaction
Operating Investing Financing
Short-term investment
securities were
purchased
X
.....................................
2. Equipment was
purchased
X
.....................................
3. Accounts payable
increased
X
.....................................
4. Deferred taxes
decreased
X
.....................................
5. Long-term bonds were
issued
X
.....................................
6. Ordinary shares were
sold
X
.....................................
7. Interest was paid to
long-term creditors
X
.....................................
8. A long-term mortgage
was entirely paid off
X
.....................................
9. A cash dividend was
declared and paid
X
.....................................
10. Inventories decreased. . .
X
11. Accounts receivable
increased
X
......................................
12. Depreciation charges
totaled P200,000 for
the year
X
......................................
Source
Use
1.
Problem 2 (Analysis of Cash Flow Transactions)
8-88
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Requirement (a)
The eight items should be presented in the statement of cash flows as follows:
1. Net income is the basis for the calculation of cash flows from operating
activities by starting with that number and adjusting for noncash revenue
and expense transactions (indirect method) or by computing by the direct
method the positive cash flows from revenues, less the negative cash flows
from expenses. The cash flows from the transaction giving rise to the
extraordinary loss is reclassified as an investing activity.
2. The acquisition of intangibles is a negative cash flow from investing
activities. The amortization is a noncash expense in determining cash
flows from operating activities.
3. The payment of a cash dividend is a negative cash flow that is presented
in the financing activities section of the statement.
4. The purchase of treasury share is a negative cash flow in the financing
activities section of the statement.
5. The depreciation expense recognized during the year is a noncash expense
in determining cash flows from operating activities.
6. The conversion of convertible bonds into ordinary shares is a noncash
financing activity that requires disclosure in a separate schedule.
7. The changes in plant asset accounts – land, equipment, and building –
represent activities whose cash flow effects are presented in the investing
activities section of the statement.
8. The increase in working capital also represents the change in cash because
all other current assets and current liabilities remained constant. The net
of all cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities must
reconcile with the change in cash in the statement of cash flows.
Requirement (b)
1. Net cash provided by operating activities
Net income
Noncash expense adjustments:
Depreciation expense
Amortization expense
Reclassification of extraordinary loss
P145,000
46,250
6,000
15,000
P212,250
2. Net cash used in investing activities
Purchase of intangible assets
Purchase of land
8-89
P (34,000)
(130,000)
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Purchase of equipment
Purchase of building
Sale of land
(60,000)
(100,000)
165,000
P(159,000)
3. Net cash used in financing activities
Purchase of treasury shares
Payment of dividends
P(31,000)
(12,500)
P(43,500)
Computations:
Depreciation expense
Change in accumulated depreciation account
Accumulated depreciation on fully depreciated
assets disposed
Purchase of land
Change in land account
Cost of land sold in condemnation proceedings
P35,000
11,250
P46,250
P (50,000)
180,000
P130,000
Problem 3 (Cash Flow from Operating Activities)
Cash received from customers:
Total revenues
Less: Note receivable
Cash disbursed for expenses:
Total expenses (P173,000 + P4,200)
Less: Income taxes deferred
Depreciation
Amortization
Net cash provided by operating activities
P185,000
(15,000)
P177,200
(1,260)
(25,000)
(7,000)
P170,000
(143,940)
P 26,060
Problem 4 (Cash Flow from Operating Activities)
Cash received from customers (1)
Cash paid for expenses:
Cost of goods sold
Selling
Salaries and wages (2)
Interest (3)
Miscellaneous operating
P5,237,000
P3,150,000
246,000
394,400
65,200
5,000
8-90
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Incomes taxes (4)
Net cash provided by operating activities
Computations:
335,000
4,195,600
P1,041,400
1. Revenue from sales
Less: Note receivable
Land
P5,432,000
(120,000)
(75,000)
P5,237,000
2. Salaries and wages expense
Less: Increase in accrued salaries and wages
(P45,600 – P40,000)
P 400,000
3. Interest expense
Less: Discount amortization
P
(5,600)
P 394,400
P
4. Income tax expense
Less: Deferred portion
72,000
(6,800)
65,200
P 445,000
(110,000)
P 335,000
Problem 5 (Statement of Cash Flows Preparation – Indirect)
Green Tea Company
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Cash flows from operating
activities
Net income*
Adjustments to reconcile net income
to net cash flows provided by
operating activities:
Depreciation
Amortization of intangibles
Increase in current assets
Increase in current liabilities
Net cash provided by operating
*
Increase in retained earnings (P20,000 – P13,000)
Dividends declared
Net income
8-91
P8,500
1,000
1,000
(6,000
)
3,000
P7,500
P7,000
1,500
P8,500
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
activities
Cash flows from financing activities
Dividends paid
Retirement of long-term liabilities
(1,500
)
(1,000
)
Net cash used in financing
activities
Net increase in cash
(2,500)
P
5,000
10,000
P15,00
0
Cash, January 1, 2005
Cash, December 31, 2005
Problem 6 (Cash Flow Statement Preparation – Direct)
Requirement (a)
Hundred Acre Company
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Cash flows from operating
activities
Cash received from customers
Cash paid for expense
Net cash provided by operating
activities
Cash flow from investing activities
Sale of equipment
Sale of investments
Acquisition of equipment
Net cash used in investing
activities
Cash flows from financing activities
Sale of ordinary shares
Payment of cash dividends
Net cash used in financing
activities
8-92
P74,00
0
67,000
P7,000
9,500
15,000
(53,000
)
(28,500)
40,000
(8,500
)
31,500
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Net increase in cash
P10,00
0
20,000
P30,00
0
Cash, January 1, 2005
Cash, December 31, 2005
Reconciliation of net income to net cash
provided by operating activities:
Net income
Adjustments to reconcile net income to net
cash provided by operating activities:
Depreciation expense
Amortization expense
Increase in accounts receivable
Decrease in accrued expenses
Net cash provided by operating activities
P15,00
0
24,500*
1,000
(33,000)
(500)
P
7,000
Computations:
Cash received from customers:
Revenues
Deduct: Increase in accounts receivable
(P78,000 – P45,000)
Cash paid for expenses:
Expenses
Add: Decrease in accrued expenses
(P7,500 – P7,000)
Deduct: Depreciation expense
(P33,600 – P27,100 + P18,000)
Amortization
Cash from sale of equipment:
Cost
Deduct: Accumulated depreciation
Cash received on sale at book value
Cash paid to acquire equipment:
*
Net increase during 2005 (P33,600 – P27,100)
Accumulated depreciation on assets sold
Depreciation expense for 2005
8-93
P107,000
33,000
P 74,000
P 92,000
500
(24,500)
(1,000)
P 67,000
P 27,500
(18,000)
P 9,500
P 6,500
18,000
P24,500
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Increase in property, plant and equipment
(P118,100 – P92,600)
Cost of machinery sold
P 25,500
27,500
P 53,000
Cash received on sale of shares:
Increase in ordinary shares amount
(P100,000 – P75,000)
Increase in additional paid-in capital account
(P55,000 – P40,000)
P 25,000
Cash dividends:
Increase in retained earnings (P21,000 – P14,500)
Net income (P107,000 – P92,000)
P
15,000
P 40,000
6,500
(15,000)
P 8,500
Requirement (b)
The reconciliation of net income to net cash provided by or used in operating
activities is required to be disclosed in order to show more clearly the
relationship and emphasize the differences between the two. Users of financial
statements are often not as aware of the accrual concepts, which determine net
income, as are preparers of those statements. The reconciliation of net income
to net cash flows from operating activities clearly demonstrates that the two
are different and details those events and transactions that account for the
difference.
Problem 7 (Interpretation of Cash Flow Statement)
Requirement (a)
The two companies are similar in the following respects:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Overall size.
Industry in which they operate.
Current ratio (2.4 to 1).
Overall peso amounts of cash provided and used:
Range, 2002-2005
Cash
Cash Used
Provided
P125,000 –
P115,000 –
P168,000
P170,000
P135,000 –
P125,000 –
Ebony
Company
Ivory
8-94
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Company
P160,000
P165,000
5. Net increase in working capital is identical for each year, 2002 –
2005.
Requirement (b)
The two companies are dissimilar in the makeup of the sources of cash, as
indicated in the following analysis:
Sources of Cash in Percentages
2002
Cash
provided:
Operations
Long-term debt
Share capital
Asset
disposition
2003
2004
Ebony
Ivory
Ebony
Ivory
Ebony
I
80
8
-12
37
56
-7
77
-16
7
21
10
52
17
70
--30
(
100
100
100
100
100
1
Ebony Company has relied much more heavily on operations to provide cash
and to a very limited extent on debt and equity financing and asset disposition.
On the other hand, Ivory Company has not been able to provide cash from
operations and has been required to rely on the alternatives of debt and equity
financing and asset disposition.
Requirement (c)
Ebony Company is in a considerably stronger position (as determined by the
data given) and thus should be considered the better investment and credit risk.
The following points are significant:
1. Ebony Company has provided 70%-80% of its cash via operating
activities, supplementing with other means to maintain a current ratio
at the industry average. Ebony has not had to rely consistently on any
alternative source of funding.
2. Ivory Company has apparently been forced to rely continuously on
debt financing except in 2005, perhaps because of the inability to
obtain such financing. The year 2004 is particularly weak for Ivory,
with operations resulting in a P60,000 reduction in cash. The ability
8-95
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
of Ivory to sustain its present financial position (i.e., current ratio,
etc.) is questionable in light of its history.
III. Multiple Choice Questions
1. D
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. B
6. D
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. B
11. A
12. D
CHAPTER 7
GROSS PROFIT VARIATION ANALYSIS AND
EARNINGS PER SHARE DETERMINATION
I.
Problems
Problem I
The Dawn Mining Company
Gross Profit Variation Analysis
For 2006
Increase in Sales:
Quantity Factor [(24,000) x P8]
Price Factor (105,000 x P3)
Quantity/Price Factor [(24,000) x P3]
Less: Increase (decrease) in Cost of Sales:
Quantity Factor [(24,000) x P9]
Cost Factor [105,000 x (P.50)]
Quantity/Cost Factor [(24,000) x (P.50)]
Increase in Gross Profit
P(192,000)
315,000
(72,000)
P(216,000)
(52,500)
12,000
P 51,000
(256,500)
P 307,500
Problem II
1. Selling Price Factor
Sales in 2006
Less: Sales in 2006 at 2005 prices
(P210,000  105%)
8-96
P210,000
200,000
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Favorable
P 10,000
2. Cost Factor
Cost of Sales in 2006
Less: Cost of Sales in 2006 at 2005 costs
Favorable
P(12,000)
3. Quantity Factor
Increase in Sales
Sales in 2006 at 2005 prices
Less: Sales in 2005
Favorable
Less: Increase in Cost of Sales
Cost of Sales in 2006 at 2005 costs
(P132,000 x 133-1/3%)
Less: Cost of Sales in 2005
Unfavorable
Net favorable quantity factor
Increase in Gross Profit
P164,000
176,000
P200,000
150,000
P 50,000
P176,000
132,000
P 44,000
6,000*
P 28,000
* This may also be obtained using the following presentation:
Quantity Factor:
Sales in 2006 at 2005 prices
Less: Sales in 2005
Increase in Sales
Multiplied by: Ave. Gross Profit rate in 2005
Net favorable variance
P200,000
150,000
P 50,000
12%
P
6,000
Problem III
Requirement A:
Tony Corporation
Statement Accounting for Gross Profit Variation
For 2006
Increase (Decrease) in Sales accounted for as follows:
Price Factor
Sales this year
Less: Sales this year at last year’s prices
Favorable (Unfavorable)
8-97
P210,210
269,500
P(59,290)
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Quantity Factor
Sales this year at last year’s
prices (P210,210  78%)
Less: Sales last year
Favorable (Unfavorable)
Net Increase (decrease) in sales
P269,500
192,500
P 77,000
P 17,710
Increase (decrease) in Cost of Sales accounted for as follows:
Cost Factor
Cost of Sales this year
Less: Cost of Sales this year at last
year’s costs
(Favorable) Unfavorable
P 165,400
P
161,700
3,700
Quantity Factor
Cost of Sales this year at last year’s
costs (115,500 x 140%)
Less: Cost of Sales last year
(Favorable) Unfavorable
P 161,700
115,500
P 46,200
Net increase (decrease) in Cost of Sales
Net increase (decrease) in Gross Profit
P 49,900
P (32,190)
Gross Profit, this year
Gross Profit, last year
Increase (Decrease) in Gross Profit
P 44,810
77,000
P(32,190)
Requirement B:
(1) Change in Quantity
=
(2) Change in Unit Costs
=
P 77,000
P192,500
P 3,700
P161,700
=
40% increase
=
2.38% increase
Problem IV
Quantity Factor
1.
Decrease in Sales due to decrease in the number
of customers [(1,000) x 18 MCF x P2.50)]
8-98
P(45,000)
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
2.
Increase in Sales due to increase in consumption
rate per customer (26,000 x 2 MCF x P2.50)
Net Increase
130,000
P 85,000
Price Factor
3.
Decrease in Sales due to the decrease in rate per
MCF [P(.05) x 520,000]
Increase in operating revenues
P 59,000
(26,000)
Supporting Computations:
Average Consumption:
(a) 2006 = 520,000  26,000 = 20 MCF/customer
2005 = 486,000  27,000 = 18 MCF/customer
Increase in Consumption
per customer
2 MCF/customer
(b) 27,000 - 26,000 = 1,000 decrease in number of customers
(c) Price
2006
2005
Decrease in rate or
price per MCF sold
P2.45
2.50
P(.05)
Problem V
XYZ Corporation
Gross Profit Variation Analysis
For 2006
Price Factor
Sales in 2006
Less: Sales in 2006 at 2005 prices
A (25 x P10)
B (75 x P20)
Increase (decrease) in gross profit
P 1,750
P 250
1,500
Cost Factor:
Cost of sales in 2006
Less: Cost of sales in 2006 at 2005 costs:
A (25 X P5)
P 125
8-99
P
1,750
-
P
875
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
B (75 x P10)
Increase (decrease) in gross profit
750
P
Quantity Factor:
Increase (decrease) in total quantity
Multiplied by: Average gross profit
per unit in 2005 (P750  100)
875
-
P
Increase (decrease) in gross profit
P
Sales Mix Factor:
Average gross profit per unit in 2006 at
2005 prices
Less: Average gross profit per unit in 2005
Increase (decrease)
7.50
-
P8.75 *
7.50
P1.25
Multiplied by: Total quantity in 2006
Increase (decrease) in gross profit
Increase in Gross Profit
100
P125.00
P125.00
* Sales in 2006 at 2005 prices
Less: Cost of sales in 2006 at 2005 prices
Gross profit in 2006 at 2005 prices
P1,750
875
P 875
Average Gross Profit on 2006 at 2005 prices:
P875
100 (volume in 2006)
=
P8.75
Problem VI (Computation of Weighted Average Number of Ordinary
Shares)
Date
1/1/2006
2/15/2006
4/1/2006
6/1/2006
9/1/2006
Number of Shares
Adjustment
for 25%
stock
As
Unadjusted dividend
Adjusted
16,000
4,000
20,000
3,200
800
4,000
(3,000)
(750)
(3,750)
1,400
350
1,750
6,400
1,600
8,000
8-100
Multiplier
12/12
10.5/12
9/12
7/12
4/12
Weighted
Shares
20,000
3,500
(2,812)
1,020
2,667
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
12/1/2006
Total
6,000
30,000
(6,000)
-
30,000
-
24,375
Problem VII (Computation of Basic EPS and Diluted EPS)
1. Basic EPS
P 90,000
100,000
=
=
2. Diluted EPS
=
=
P0.90
P90,000 + (10% x P500,000 x 65%)
P500,000
100,000 +
P1,000
x 100
P90,000 + P32,500
150,000
=
P0.82 (rounded off)
Problem VIII
Requirements (1) and (2)
Explanation
Earnings
Basic earnings and shares
P122,000a
Stock option share increment
Tentative DEPS1 amounts
P122,000
10% bond interest expense savings e
13,300d
Increment in shares
Tentative DEPS2 amounts
P135,300
7.5% preference dividend savingse
28,500d
Increment in shares
P163,800
5.8% bonds
21,924
Diluted earnings and shares
P185,724
a

Shares


33,333b = P3.66 Basic
293c
33,626 = P3.63 DEPS1

4,400d
38,026 = P3.56 DEPS2


= Per Share
9,310d
47,336 = P3.46 DEPS3
6,264
53,600 = P3.465 Diluted
P122,000 = P150,500 (net income) - P28,500 (preference dividends)
Weighted average shares:
b
Weighted average shares
25,000 x 1.20 = 30,000 x 7/12 = 17,500
32,000 x 1.20 = 38,400 x 4/12 = 12,800
38,400 - 2,000 = 36,400 x 1/12 = 3,033
33,333
8-101
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
c
Increment due to stock options:
Issued
4,000
Reacquired
4,000 x ( P33 + P5 )
P41
= (3,707)
Increment in shares
293
Impact on diluted earnings per share and ranking:
d
Impact
Ranking
[(0.10 x P200,000) – P1,000] x 0.7
=
200 x 22
10% bonds:
(0.058 x P540,000) x 0.7
540 x 11.6
5.8% bonds:
(0.075 x P380,000)
3,800 x 2.45
7.5% preference:
e
P13,300
4,400
P3.02
5
=
P21,924
6,264
P3.50
3
=
P28,500
9,310
P3.06
2
Dilutive effect on diluted earnings per share:
10% bonds:
P3.02 impact < P3.63 (DEPS 1), therefore dilutive
7.5% preference: P3.06 impact < P3.56 (DEPS2), therefore dilutive
5.8% bonds:
P3.50 impact > P3.46 (DEPS3), therefore exclude from EPS
Requirement 3
Fuego Company would report basic earnings per share of P3.66 and diluted
earnings per share of P3.46 on its 2005 income statement.
II. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
B
B
C
D
5.
6.
7.
8.
A
B
B
B
9.
A
10. A
11. D *
12. C
13.
14.
15.
16.
A
D
C
A
17.
18.
19.
20.
A
B
C
D
21. C
22. A
23. B
* Supporting computation for no. 11:
Diluted EPS for 12/31/2006 =
=
P3,500,000 + (P800,000 x 65%)
400,000 + 25,000 + 225,000
P4,020,000
or P6.18
650,000
8-102
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
CHAPTER 8
COST CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
I.
Questions
1. The phrase “different costs for different purposes” refers to the fact that
the word “cost” can have different meanings depending on the context in
which it is used. Cost data that are classified and recorded in a particular
way for one purpose may be inappropriate for another use.
2. Fixed costs remain constant in total across changes in activity, whereas
variable costs change in proportion to the level of activity.
3. Examples of direct costs of the food and beverage department in a hotel
include the money spent on the food and beverages served, the wages of
table service personnel, and the costs of entertainment in the dining room
and lounge. Examples of indirect costs of the food and beverage
department include allocations of the costs of advertising for the entire
hotel, of the costs of the grounds and maintenance department, and of the
hotel general manager’s salary.
4. The cost of idle time is treated as manufacturing overhead because it is a
normal cost of the manufacturing operation that should be spread out
among all of the manufactured products. The alternative to this treatment
would be to charge the cost of idle time to a particular job that happens to
be in process when the idle time occurs. Idle time often results from a
random event, such as a power outage. Charging the cost of the idle time
resulting from such a random event to only the job that happened to be in
process at the time would overstate the cost of that job.
5. a. Uncontrollable cost
b. Controllable cost
c. Uncontrollable cost
6. Product costs are costs that are associated with manufactured goods until
the time period during which the products are sold, when the product costs
become expenses. Period costs are expensed during the time period in
which they are incurred.
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Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
7. The most important difference between a manufacturing firm and a
service industry firm, with regard to the classification of costs, is that the
goods produced by a manufacturing firm are inventoried, whereas the
services produced by a service industry firm are consumed as they are
produced. Thus, the costs incurred in manufacturing products are treated
as product costs until the period during which the goods are sold. Most of
the costs incurred in a service industry firm to produce services are
operating expenses that are treated as period costs.
8. Product costs are also called inventoriable costs because they are assigned
to manufactured goods that are inventoried until a later period, when the
products are sold. The product costs remain in the finished goods
inventory account until the time period when the goods are sold.
9. A sunk cost is a cost that was incurred in the past and cannot be altered by
any current or future decision. A differential cost is the difference in a
cost item under two decision alternatives.
10. a.
b.
c.
d.
Direct cost
Direct cost
Indirect cost
Indirect cost
11. The two properties of a relevant cost are:
1. it differs between the decision options
2. it will be incurred in the future
12. The three types of product costs are:
1. direct materials – the materials used in manufacturing the product,
which become a physical part of the finished product.
2. direct labor – the labor used in manufacturing the product.
3. factory overhead – the indirect costs for materials, labor, and facilities
used to support the manufacturing process, but not used directly in
manufacturing the product.
13. The three types of manufacturing inventories are:
1. materials inventory – the store of materials used in the manufacturing
process or in providing the service.
8-104
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
2. work in process inventory – accounts for all costs put into the
manufacturing of products that are started but not complete at the
financial statement date.
3. finished goods inventory – the cost of goods that are ready for sale.
14. Direct materials include the materials in the product and a reasonable
allowance for scrap and defective units, while indirect materials are
materials used in manufacturing that are not physically part of the finished
product.
15. The income statement of a manufacturing company differs from the
income statement of a merchandising company in the cost of goods sold
section. A merchandising company sells finished goods that it has
purchased from a supplier. These goods are listed as “purchases” in the
cost of goods sold section. Since a manufacturing company produces its
goods rather than buying them from a supplier, it lists “cost of goods
manufactured” in place of “purchases.” Also, the manufacturing company
identifies its inventory in this section as Finished Goods inventory, rather
than as Merchandise Inventory.
16. Yes, costs such as salaries and depreciation can end up as part of assets
on the balance sheet if these are manufacturing costs. Manufacturing costs
are inventoried until the associated finished goods are sold. Thus, if some
units are still in inventory, such costs may be part of either Work in
Process inventory or Finished Goods inventory at the end of a period.
17. No. A variable cost is a cost that varies, in total, in direct proportion to
changes in the level of activity. A variable cost is constant per unit of
product. A fixed cost is fixed in total, but the average cost per unit
changes with the level of activity.
18. Manufacturing overhead is an indirect cost since these costs cannot be
easily and conveniently traced to particular units of products.
19.
20.
Direct labor cost (34 hours  P15 per hour)..........................
Manufacturing overhead cost (6 hours  P15 per hour).........
Total wages earned.................................................................
P510
90
P600
Direct labor cost (45 hours  P14 per hour).........................
Manufacturing overhead cost (5 hours  P7 per hour).........
Total wages earned...............................
P630
35
P665
8-105
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured and Sold; Income
Statement)
Requirement 1
Amazing Aluminum Company
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Direct material:
Raw-material inventory, January 1...................
Add: Purchases of raw material.......................
Raw material available for use.........................
Deduct:
Raw-material
December
Raw
inventory,
31
material
P
60,000
250,000
P310,00
0
70,00
0
used
Direct labor............................................................
Manufacturing overhead:
Indirect
material
P240,00
0
400,000
labor
P
10,000
25,000
Depreciation on plant and equipment
100,000
Utilities
.............................................................
.............................................................
Other
.............................................................
.............................................................
Total
manufacturing
overhead
25,000
Indirect
Total manufacturing costs.......................................
Add: Work-in-process inventory, January 1...........
Subtotal..................................................................
8-106
30,00
0
190,000
P830,00
0
120,000
P950,00
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
0
115,000
Deduct: Work-in-process inventory, December
1.......................................................................
Cost of goods manufactured...................................
P835,00
0
Requirement 2
Amazing Aluminum Company
Schedule of Cost of Goods Sold
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Finished goods inventory, January 1.........................................
Add: Cost of goods manufactured............................................
Cost of goods available for sale................................................
Deduct: Finished goods inventory, December 31......................
Cost of goods sold....................................................................
P150,00
0
835,000
P985,00
0
165,000
P820,00
0
Requirement 3
Amazing Aluminum Company
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Sales revenue............................................................................
Less: Cost of goods sold..........................................................
Gross margin............................................................................
Selling and administrative expenses..........................................
Income before taxes..................................................................
Income tax expense...................................................................
Net income ..............................................................................
Exercise 2
8-107
P1,105,00
0
820,00
0
P
285,000
110,000
P
175,000
70,00
0
P
105,000
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
Cost Item
Transportation-in costs on materials
purchased
Assembly-line workers’ wages
Property taxes on work in process
inventories
Salaries of top executives in the company
Overtime premium for assembly workers
Sales commissions
Sales personnel office rental
Production supervisory salaries
Controller’s office supplies
Cost Item
Executive office heat and air conditioning
Executive office security personnel
Supplies used in assembly work
Factory heat and air conditioning
Power to operate factory equipment
Depreciation on furniture for sales staff
Varnish used for finishing product
Marketing personnel health insurance
Packaging materials for finished product
Salary of the quality control manager
who checks work on the assembly line
Assembly-line workers’ dental insurance
Fixed (F)
Variable (V)
Period (P)
Product (R)
V
V
R
R
V
F
V
V
F
F
F
Fixed (F)
Variable (V)
F
F
V
F
V
F
V
F
V
R
P
R
P
P
R
P
Period (P)
Product (R)
P
P
R
R
R
P
R
P
R
F
F
R
R
Exercise 3 (Cost Classifications; Manufacturer)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
a, d, g, i
a, d, g, j
b, f
b, d, g, k
a, d, g, k
a, d, g, j
b, c, f
b, d, g, k
b, c and d*, e and f and g*, k*
8-108
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
* The building is used for several purposes.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
b, c, f
b, c, h
b, c, f
b, c, e
b, c and d†, e and f and g†, k†
†
The building that the furnace heats is used for several purposes.
15. b, d, g, k
Exercise 4 (Economic Characteristics of Costs)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
marginal cost
sunk cost
average cost
opportunity cost
differential cost
out-of-pocket cost
Exercise 5 (Cost Classifications; Hotel)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a, c, e, k
b, d, e, k
d, e, i
d, e, i
a, d, e, k
a, d, e, k
d, e, k
b, d†, e, k
†
Unless the dishwasher has been used improperly.
9. h
10. a, d, e*, j
* The hotel general manager may have some control over the total space
allocated to the kitchen.
11. i
12. j
13. a, c, e
8-109
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
14. e, k
Exercise 6
Pickup Truck Output
3,000 trucks
P 29,640,000
39,200,000
4,500,000
13,660,000
P 87,000,000
6,000 trucks
P 59,280,000
39,200,000
9,000,000
13,660,000
P121,140,000
9,000 trucks
P 88,920,000
39,200,000
13,500,000
13,660,000
P155,280,000
Selling price per truck
46,000
40,100
35,900
Unit cost
29,000
20,190
17,253
Profit per truck
17,000
19,910
18,647
Variable production costs
Fixed production costs
Variable selling costs
Fixed selling costs
Total costs
Exercise 7
(see next page)
Exercise 8
1. The wages of employees who build the sailboats: direct labor cost.
2. The cost of advertising in the local newspapers: marketing and selling
cost.
3. The cost of an aluminum mast installed in a sailboat: direct materials cost.
4. The wages of the assembly shop’s supervisor: manufacturing overhead
cost.
5. Rent on the boathouse: a combination of manufacturing overhead,
administrative, and marketing and selling cost. The rent would most likely
be prorated on the basis of the amount of space occupied by
manufacturing, administrative, and marketing operations.
6. The wages of the company’s bookkeeper: administrative cost.
7. Sales commissions paid to the company’s salespeople: marketing and
selling cost.
8. Depreciation on power tools: manufacturing overhead cost.
8-110
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Exercise 7
Variable
Cost
1.
2.
3.
4.
Wood used
in a table
(P200 per
table)
Labor cost
to
assemble a
table (P80
per table)
Salary of
the factory
supervisor
(P76,000
per year)
Cost
of
electricity
to produce
tables (P4
per
machinehour)
Fixe
d
Cost
Period
(Selling and
Administrative)
Cost
X
Direct
Material
s
Product Cost
Direc
t
Labor
Manufacturing
Overhead
Sunk
Cost
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
5.
Depreciatio
n
of
machines
used
to
produce
tables
(P20,000
per year)
X
X
8-111
X*
Opportunity
Cost
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
6.
7.
Salary of
the
company
president
(P200,000
per year)
Advertising
expense
(P500,000
per year)
X
X
X
X
8.
9.
*
1
Commissio
ns paid to
salesperso
ns (P60 per
table sold)
Rental
income
forgone on
factory
space
X
X
X1
This is a sunk cost because the outlay for the equipment was made in a previous period.
This is an opportunity cost because it represents the potential benefit that is lost or sacrificed as a result of using the factory space to produce tables. Opportunity cost
is a special category of cost that is not ordinarily recorded in an organization’s accounting books. To avoid possible confusion with other costs, we will not attempt to
classify this cost in any other way except as an opportunity cost.
8-112
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Exercise 9
1.
2.
Cost
The salary of the head chef
The salary of the head chef
3.
4.
5.
6.
Room cleaning supplies
Flowers for the reception desk
The wages of the doorman
Room cleaning supplies
7.
Fire insurance on the hotel
building
Towels used in the gym
8.
Cost Object
The hotel’s restaurant
A particular restaurant
customer
A particular hotel guest
A particular hotel guest
A particular hotel guest
The housecleaning
department
The hotel’s gym
Direc
t
Cost
X
The hotel’s gym
Indirec
t
Cost
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Note: The room cleaning supplies would most likely be considered an indirect
cost of a particular hotel guest because it would not be practical to keep track
of exactly how much of each cleaning supply was used in the guest’s room.
III. Problems
Problem 1
The relevant costs for this decision are the differential costs. These are:
Opportunity cost or lost wages (take home)
[P1,500 x 70% x 12 months]........
P12,600
Tuition.....................................................
2,200
Books and supplies..................................
300
Total differential costs....................... P15,100
Room and board, clothing, car, and incidentals are not relevant because these
are presumed to be the same whether or not Francis goes to school. The
possibility of part-time work, summer jobs, or scholarship assistance could be
considered as reductions to the cost of school. If students are familiar with the
time value of money, then they should recognize that the analysis calls for a
comparison of the present value of the differential after-tax cash inflows with
the present value of differential costs of getting the education (including the
opportunity costs of lost income).
Problem 2
Requirement (a)
8-113
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Only the differential outlay costs need be considered. The travel and other
variable expenses of P22 per hour would be the relevant costs. Any amount
received in excess would be a differential, positive return to Pat.
Requirement (b)
The opportunity cost of the hours given up would be considered in this
situation. Unless Pat receives more than the P100 normal consulting rate, the
contract would not be beneficial.
Requirement (c)
In this situation Pat would have to consider the present value of the contract
and compare that to the present value of the existing consulting business. The
final rate may be more or less than the normal P100 rate depending on the
outcome of Pat’s analysis.
Problem 3
Utilities for the bakery
Paper used in packaging product
Salaries and wages in the bakery
Cookie ingredients
Bakery labor and fringe benefits
Bakery equipment maintenance
Depreciation of bakery plant and equipment
Uniforms
Insurance for the bakery
Boxes, bags, and cups used in the bakery
Bakery overtime premiums
Bakery idle time
Total product costs in pesos
2,100
90
19,500
35,000
1,300
800
2,000
400
900
1,100
2,600
500
66,290
Problem 4
Administrative costs
Rent for administration offices
Advertising
Office manager’s salary
Total period costs in pesos
Problem 5
8-114
1,000
17,200
1,900
13,000
33,100
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Requirement (a)
Sunk costs not shown could include lost book value on traded assets,
depreciation estimates for new investment, and interest costs on capital needed
during facilities construction.
Requirement (b)
The client might be used to differential cost as a decision tool, and believes
(correctly) that use of differential analyses has several advantages --- it is
quicker, requires less data, and tends to give a better focus to the decision. The
banker might suspect the client of hiding some material data in order to make
the proposal more acceptable to the financing agency.
Problem 6
Requirement (1)
EH Corporation
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
For the Year Ended December 31
Direct materials:
Raw materials, inventory, January 1
Add: Purchases of raw materials
Raw materials available for use
Deduct: Raw materials inventory,
December 31
Raw materials used in production
P
45,000
375,0
00
420,00
0
30,0
00
P
390,000
75,000
Direct labor
Manufacturing overhead:
Utilities, factory
Depreciation, factory
Insurance, factory
Supplies, factory
Indirect labor
18,000
81,000
20,000
7,500
150,00
0
43,5
Maintenance, factory
8-115
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
00
Total manufacturing overhead cost
320,0
00
785,000
90,00
0
875,000
50,00
0
P825,00
0
Total manufacturing cost
Add: Work in process inventory, January 1
Deduct: Work in process inventory,
December 31
Cost of goods manufactured
Requirement (2)
The cost of goods sold would be computed as follows:
Finished goods inventory, January 1
P130,00
0
825,00
0
955,000
105,00
0
P850,00
0
Add: Cost of goods manufactured
Goods available for sale
Deduct: Finished goods inventory, December 31
Cost of goods sold
Requirement (3)
EH Corporation
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31
Sales
P1,250,00
0
850,00
0
400,000
Cost of goods sold (above)
Gross margin
Selling and administrative expenses:
Selling expenses
P
70,000
135,0
00
Administrative expenses
Net operating income
8-116
205,00
0
P
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
195,000
8-117
Chapter 8 Cost Concepts and Classifications
Problem 7
Note to the Instructor: Some of the answers below are debatable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Variable or
Cost Item
Fixed
Depreciation, executive jet............................................................................
F
Costs of shipping finished goods to customers..............................................
V
Wood used in manufacturing furniture..........................................................
V
Sales manager’s salary..................................................................................
F
Electricity used in manufacturing furniture...................................................
V
Secretary to the company president...............................................................
F
Aerosol attachment placed on a spray can produced by the company............
V
Billing costs..................................................................................................
V
Packing supplies for shipping products overseas...........................................
V
Sand used in manufacturing concrete............................................................
V
Supervisor’s salary, factory...........................................................................
F
Executive life insurance................................................................................
F
Sales commissions........................................................................................
V
Fringe benefits, assembly line workers..........................................................
V
Advertising costs...........................................................................................
F
Property taxes on finished goods warehouses................................................
F
Lubricants for production equipment............................................................
V
*Could be an administrative cost.
**Could be an indirect cost.
Selling
Cost
Administrative
Cost
X
Manufacturing
(Product) Cost
Direct
Indirect
X
X
X
X
X
X
X*
X
X
X
X
X
X**
X
X
X
Cost Concepts and Classifications Chapter 8
Problem 8
Requirement (1)
Variable
Cost
Name of the Cost
Ling’s present salary of P400,000 per
month...........................................................................
Rent on the garage, P15,000 per month...........................
Rent of production equipment, P50,000 per
month...........................................................................
Materials for producing flyswatters, at
P30.00 each.................................................................
X
Labor cost of producing flyswatters, at
P50.00 each.................................................................
X
Rent of room for a sales office, P7,500 per
month...........................................................................
Answering device attachment, P2,000 per
month...........................................................................
Interest lost on savings account, P100,000
per year........................................................................
Advertising cost, P40,000 per month...............................
Sales commission, at P10.00 per flyswatter.....................
X
Legal and filing fees, P60,000.........................................
Fixed
Cost
Direct
Materials
Product Cost
Direct
Mfg.
Labor
Overhead
Period
(Selling
and
Admin.)
Cost
Opportunity
Cost
Sunk
Cost
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
8-119
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING - Solutions Manual
Requirement (2)
The P60,000 legal and filing fees are not a differential cost. These legal and
filing fees have already been paid and are a sunk cost. Thus, the cost will not
differ depending on whether Ling decides to produce flyswatters or to stay
with the consulting firm. All other costs listed above are differential costs
since they will be incurred only if Ling leaves the consulting firm and
produces the flyswatters.
Problem 9
Requirement (1)
Ms. Rio’s first action was to direct that discretionary expenditures be delayed
until the first of the new year. Providing that these “discretionary
expenditures” can be delayed without hampering operations, this is a good
business decision. By delaying expenditures, the company can keep its cash a
bit longer and thereby earn a bit more interest. There is nothing unethical
about such an action. The second action was to ask that the order for the parts
be cancelled. Since the clerk’s order was a mistake, there is nothing unethical
about this action either.
The third action was to ask the accounting department to delay recognition of
the delivery until the bill is paid in January. This action is dubious. Asking the
accounting department to ignore transactions strikes at the heart of the
integrity of the accounting system. If the accounting system cannot be trusted,
it is very difficult to run a business or obtain funds from outsiders. However,
in Ms. Rio’s defense, the purchase of the raw materials really shouldn’t be
recorded as an expense. He has been placed in an extremely awkward position
because the company’s accounting policy is flawed.
Requirement (2)
The company’s accounting policy with respect to raw materials is incorrect.
Raw materials should be recorded as an asset when delivered rather than as an
expense. If the correct accounting policy were followed, there would be no
reason for Ms. Rio to ask the accounting department to delay recognition of
the delivery of the raw materials. This flawed accounting policy creates
incentives for managers to delay deliveries of raw materials until after the end
of the fiscal year. This could lead to raw materials shortages and poor
relations with suppliers who would like to record their sales before the end of
the year.
13-120
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
The company’s “manage-by-the-numbers” approach does not foster ethical
behavior—particularly when managers are told to “do anything so long as you
hit the target profits for the year.” Such “no excuses” pressure from the top
too often leads to unethical behavior when managers have difficulty meeting
target profits.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
B
D
B
A
C
D
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
C
D
C
C
A
C
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
D
D†
B†
A†
C†
C
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
A
A*
B
B
C
C
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C
B
B
A **
A
B
*
Controllable costs are those costs that can be influenced by a specified
manager within a given time period.
** The answer assumes absorption costing method is used.
†
Supporting Computations
14. P60 + P10 + P18 + P4 = P92
16. P60 + P10 + P18 + P32 = P120
15. P32 + P16 = P48
17. P4 + P16 = P20
CHAPTER 9
COST BEHAVIOR: ANALYSIS AND USE
I. Questions
1. a. Variable cost: A variable cost is one that remains constant on a per
unit basis, but which changes in total in direct relationship to changes
in volume.
b. Fixed cost: A fixed cost is one that remains constant in total amount,
but which changes, if expressed on a per unit basis, inversely with
changes in volume.
c. Mixed cost: A mixed cost is a cost that contains both variable and
fixed cost elements.
2. a. Unit fixed costs will decrease as volume increases.
13-121
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
b. Unit variable costs will remain constant as volume increases.
c. Total fixed costs will remain constant as volume increases.
d. Total variable costs will increase as volume increases.
3. a. Cost behavior: Cost behavior can be defined as the way in which
costs change or respond to changes in some underlying activity, such
as sales volume, production volume, or orders processed.
b. Relevant range: The relevant range can be defined as that range of
activity within which assumptions relative to variable and fixed cost
behavior are valid.
4. Although the accountant recognizes that many costs are not linear in
relationship to volume at some points, he concentrates on their behavior
within narrow bands of activity known as the relevant range. The relevant
range can be defined as that range of activity within which assumptions as
relative to variable and fixed cost behavior are valid. Generally, within
this range an assumption of strict linearity can be used with insignificant
loss of accuracy.
5. The high-low method, the scattergraph method, and the least-squares
regression method are used to analyze mixed costs. The least-squares
regression method is generally considered to be most accurate, since it
derives the fixed and variable elements of a mixed cost by means of
statistical analysis. The scattergraph method derives these elements by
visual inspection only, and the high-low method utilizes only two points in
doing a cost analysis, making it the least accurate of the three methods.
6. The fixed cost element is represented by the point where the regression
line intersects the vertical axis on the graph. The variable cost per unit is
represented by the slope of the line.
7. The two assumptions are:
1. A linear cost function usually approximates cost behavior within the
relevant range of the cost driver.
2. Changes in the total costs of a cost object are traceable to variations
or changes in a single cost driver.
8. No. High correlation merely implies that the two variables move together
in the data examined. Without economic plausibility for a relationship, it
is less likely that a high level of correlation observed in one set of data will
be found similarly in another set of data.
13-122
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
9. Refer to page 312 of the textbook.
10. The relevant range is the range of the cost driver in which a specific
relationship between cost and cost driver is valid. This concept enables
the use of linear cost functions when examining CVP relationships as long
as the volume levels are within that relevant range.
11. A unit cost is computed by dividing some amount of total costs (the
numerator) by the related number of units (the denominator). In many
cases, the numerator will include a fixed cost that will not change despite
changes in the denominator. It is erroneous in those cases to multiply the
unit cost by activity or volume change to predict changes in total costs at
different activity or volume levels.
12. Cost estimation is the process of developing a well-defined relationship
between a cost object and its cost driver for the purpose of predicting the
cost. The cost predictions are used in each of the management functions:
Strategic Management: Cost estimation is used to predict costs of
alternative activities, predict financial impacts of alternative strategic
choices, and to predict the costs of alternative implementation strategies.
Planning and Decision Making: Cost estimation is used to predict costs
so that management can determine the desirability of alternative options
and to budget expenditures, profits, and cash flows.
Management and Operational Control: Cost estimation is used to develop
cost standards, as a basis for evaluating performance.
Product and Service Costing: Cost estimation is used to allocate costs to
products and services or to charge users for jointly incurred costs.
13. The five methods of cost estimation are:
a. Account Classification. Advantages: simplicity and ease of use.
Disadvantages: subjectivity of method and some costs are a mix of
both variable and fixed.
b. Visual fit. The visual fit method is easy to use, and requires only that
the data is graphed. Disadvantages are that the scale of the graph
may limit ability to estimate costs accurately and in both graphical
and tabular form, significant perceptual errors are common.
c. High-Low. Because of the precision in the development of the
equation, it provides a more consistent estimate than the visual fit and
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
is not difficult to use. Disadvantages: uses only two selected data
points and is, therefore, subjective.
d. Work Measurement. The advantage is accurate estimates through
detailed study of the different operations in the product process, but
like regression, it is more complex.
e. Regression. Quantitative, objective measures of the precision and
accuracy and reliability of the model are the advantages of this model;
disadvantages are its complexity: the effort, expense, and expertise
necessary to utilize this method.
14. Implementation problems with cost estimation include:
a. cost estimates outside of the relevant range may not be reliable.
b. sufficient and reliable data may not be available.
c. cost drivers may not be matched to dependent variables properly in
each observation.
d. the length of the time period for each observation may be too long, so
that the underlying relationship between the cost driver and the
variable to be estimated is difficult to isolate from the numerous
variables and events occurring in that period of time; alternatively the
period may be too short, so that the data is likely to be affected by
accounting errors in which transactions are not properly posted in the
period in which they occurred.
e. dependent variables and cost drivers may be affected by trend or
seasonality.
f. when extreme observations (outliers) are used the reliability of the
results will be diminished.
g. when there is a shift in the data, as, for example, a new product is
introduced or when there is a work stoppage, the data will be
unreliable for future estimates.
15. The dependent variable is the cost object of interest in the cost estimation.
An important issue in selecting a dependent variable is the level of
aggregation in the variable. For example, the company, plant, or
department may all be possible levels of data for the cost object. The
choice of aggregation level depends on the objectives for the cost
estimation, data availability, reliability, and cost/benefit considerations. If
a key objective is accuracy, then a detailed level of analysis is often
preferred. The detail cost estimates can then be aggregated if desired.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
16. Nonlinear cost relationships are cost relationships that are not adequately
explained by a single linear relationship for the cost driver(s). In
accounting data, a common type of nonlinear relationship is trend and
seasonality. For a trend example, if sales increase by 8% each year, the
plot of the data for sales with not be linear with the driver, the number of
years. Similarly, sales which fluctuate according to a seasonal pattern
will have a nonlinear behavior. A different type of nonlinearity is where
the cost driver and the dependent variable have an inherently nonlinear
relationship. For example, payroll costs as a dependent variable estimated
by hours worked and wage rates is nonlinear, since the relationship is
multiplicative and therefore not the additive linear model assumed in
regression analysis.
17. The advantages of using regression analysis include that it:
a. provides an estimation model with best fit (least squared error) to the
data
b. provides measures of goodness of fit and of the reliability of the model
which can be used to assess the usefulness of the specific model, in
contrast to the other estimation methods which provide no means of
self-evaluation
c. can incorporate multiple independent variables
d. can be adapted to handle non-linear relationships in the data,
including trends, shifts and other discontinuities, seasonality, etc.
e. results in a model that is unique for a given set of data
18. High correlation exists when the changes in two variables occur together.
It is a measure of the degree of association between the two variables.
Because correlation is determined from a sample of values, there is no
assurance that it measures or describes a cause and effect relationship
between the variables.
19. An activity base is a measure of whatever causes the incurrence of a
variable cost. Examples of activity bases include units produced, units
sold, letters typed, beds in a hospital, meals served in a cafe, service calls
made, etc.
20. (a) Variable cost: A variable cost remains constant on a per unit basis, but
increases or decreases in total in direct relation to changes in activity.
(b) Mixed cost: A mixed cost is a cost that contains both variable and
fixed cost elements.
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
(c) Step-variable cost: A step-variable cost is a cost that is incurred in
large chunks, and which increases or decreases only in response to
fairly wide changes in activity.
Mixed Cost
Variable Cost
Cost
Step-Variable Cost
Activity
21. The linear assumption is reasonably valid providing that the cost formula
is used only within the relevant range.
22. A discretionary fixed cost has a fairly short planning horizon—usually a
year. Such costs arise from annual decisions by management to spend on
certain fixed cost items, such as advertising, research, and management
development. A committed fixed cost has a long planning horizon—
generally many years. Such costs relate to a company’s investment in
facilities, equipment, and basic organization. Once such costs have been
incurred, they are “locked in” for many years.
23. a. Committed
b. Discretionary
c. Discretionary
d. Committed
e. Committed
f. Discretionary
24. The high-low method uses only two points to determine a cost formula.
These two points are likely to be less than typical since they represent
extremes of activity.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
25. The term “least-squares regression” means that the sum of the squares of
the deviations from the plotted points on a graph to the regression line is
smaller than could be obtained from any other line that could be fitted to
the data.
26. Ordinary single least-squares regression analysis is used when a variable
cost is a function of only a single factor. If a cost is a function of more
than one factor, multiple regression analysis should be used to analyze the
behavior of the cost.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Cost Classification)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
b
f
e
i
e
h
l
a
j
k
c or d
g
Exercise 2 (Cost Estimation; High-Low Method)
Requirement (1)
Cost equation using square fee as the cost driver:
Variable costs:
P4,700 – P2,800
4,050 – 2,375
= P1.134
Fixed costs:
P4,700 = Fixed Cost + P1.134 x 4,050
Fixed Cost = P107
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Equation One: Total Cost = P107 + P1.134 x square feet
There are two choices for the High-Low points when using openings for the
cost driver. At 11 openings there is a cost of P2,800 and at 10 openings there
is a cost of P2,875.
Cost equation using 11 openings as the cost driver:
Variable costs:
P4,700 – P2,800
19 – 11
= P237.50
Fixed costs:
P4,700 = Fixed Cost + P237.50 x 19
Fixed Cost = P187.50
Equation Two: Total Cost = P187.50 + P237.50 x openings
Cost equation using 10 openings as the cost driver:
Variable costs:
P4,700 – P2,875
19 – 10
= P202.78
Fixed costs:
P4,700 = Fixed Cost + P202.78 x 19
Fixed Cost = P847.18
Equation Three: Total Cost = P847.18 + P202.78 x openings
Predicted total cost for a 3,200 square foot house with 14 openings using
equation one:
P107 + P1.134 x 3,200 = P3,735.80
Predicted total cost for a 3,200 square foot house with 14 openings using
equation two:
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
P187.50 + P237.50 x 14 = P3,512.50
Predicted total cost for a 3,200 square foot house with 14 openings using
equation three:
P847.18 + P202.78 x 14 = P3,686.10
There is no simple method to determine which prediction is best when using
the High-Low method. In contrast, regression provides quantitative measures
(R-squared, standard error, t-values,…) to help asses which regression
equation is best.
Predicted cost for a 2,400 square foot house with 8 openings, using equation
one:
P107 + P1.134 x 2,400 = P2,828.60
We cannot predict with equation 2 or equation 3 since 8 openings are outside
the relevant range, the range for which the high-low equation was developed.
Requirement 2
Figure 9-A shows that the relationship between costs and square feet is
relatively linear without outliers, while Figure 9-B shows a similar result for
the relationship between costs and number of openings. From this perspective,
both variables are good cost drivers.
Figure 9-A
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Figure 9-B
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Exercise 3 (Cost Estimation; Account Classification)
Requirement 1
Fixed Costs:
Rent
Depreciation
Insurance
Advertising
Utilities
Mr. Black’s salary
Total
Variable Costs:
Wages
CD Expense
Shopping Bags
Total
P10,250
400
750
650
1,250
18,500
P31,800
P17,800
66,750
180
P84,730
Variable Costs Per Unit = P84,730 / 8,900
= P95.20
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Cost Function Equation: y = P31,800 + P95.20 x (CD’s sold)
Requirement 2
New Sales = 8,900 x 1.25
= 11,125 units
= round to 11,130
Total Costs = P31,800 + P95.20 x (11,130)
= P137,760
Per Unit Total Costs = P137,760 / 11,130
= P123.80
Add P1 profit per disc: P123.80 + P10 = P133.80
Requirement 3
Adjusted New Sales = 8,900 x 11.50
= 10,240 units
Revenue = P133.80 x (10,240)
= P137,010
Total Cost = P31,800 + P95.20 x (10,240)
= P129,280
Cost Per Disc = P129,280 / 10,240 = P126.30
Profit Per Disk = P133.80 – P126.30
= P7.50
Exercise 4 (Cost Estimation Using Graphs; Service)
Requirement 1
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement 2
There seems to be a positive linear relationship for the data between P2,500
and P4,000 of advertising expense. Llanes’ analysis is correct within this
relevant range but not outside of it. Notice that the relationship between
advertising expense and sales changes at P4,000 of expense.
Exercise 5 (Fixed and Variable Cost Behavior)
Requirement (1)
Fixed cost
Variable cost
Total cost
Cost per cup of coffee served *
Cups of Coffee Served
in a Week
1,800
1,900
2,000
P11,000 P11,000 P11,000
4,680
4,940
5,200
P15,680 P15,940 P16,200
P8.71
P8.39
P8.10
* Total cost ÷ cups of coffee served in a week
Requirement (2)
The average cost of a cup of coffee declines as the number of cups of coffee
served increases because the fixed cost is spread over more cups of coffee.
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Exercise 6 (Scattergraph Analysis)
Requirement (1)
The completed scattergraph is presented below:
16,000
14,000
12,000
Total Cost
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
Units Processed
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8,000
10,000
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement (2)
(Students’ answers will vary considerably due to the inherent imprecision and
subjectivity of the quick-and-dirty scattergraph method of estimating variable
and fixed costs.)
The approximate monthly fixed cost is P6,000—the point where the straight
line intersects the cost axis.
The variable cost per unit processed can be estimated as follows using the
8,000-unit level of activity, which falls on the straight line:
Total cost at the 8,000-unit level of activity.............................................
P14,000
Less fixed costs........................................................................................6,000
Variable costs at the 8,000-unit level of activity.......................................
P 8,000
P8,000 ÷ 8,000 units = P1 per unit.
Observe from the scattergraph that if the company used the high-low method
to determine the slope of the line, the line would be too steep. This would
result in underestimating the fixed cost and overestimating the variable cost
per unit.
Exercise 7 (High-Low Method)
Requirement (1)
Month
Occupancy-Days
High activity level (August)....................
3,608
Low activity level (October)...................
186
Change....................................................
3,422
Electrical
Costs
P8,111
1,712
P6,399
Variable cost = Change in cost ÷ Change in activity
= P6,399 ÷ 3,422 occupancy-days
= P1.87 per occupancy-day
Total cost (August)...........................................................................................
P8,111
Variable cost element
(P1.87 per occupancy-day × 3,608 occupancy-days)....................................
6,747
Fixed cost element............................................................................................
P1,364
Requirement (2)
Electrical costs may reflect seasonal factors other than just the variation in
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
occupancy days. For example, common areas such as the reception area must
be lighted for longer periods during the winter. This will result in seasonal
effects on the fixed electrical costs.
Additionally, fixed costs will be affected by how many days are in a month. In
other words, costs like the costs of lighting common areas are variable with
respect to the number of days in the month, but are fixed with respect to how
many rooms are occupied during the month.
Other, less systematic, factors may also affect electrical costs such as the
frugality of individual guests. Some guests will turn off lights when they leave
a room. Others will not.
Exercise 8 (Least-Squares Regression)
The least-squares regression estimates of fixed and variable costs can be
computed using any of a variety of statistical and mathematical software
packages or even by hand.
Month
January.........................
February.......................
March...........................
April.............................
May..............................
June..............................
July...............................
August..........................
September.....................
October.........................
November.....................
December......................
Intercept
Rental
Returns
2,310
2,453
2,641
2,874
3,540
4,861
5,432
5,268
4,628
3,720
2,106
2,495
Car Wash
Costs
P10,113
P12,691
P10,905
P12,949
P15,334
P21,455
P21,270
P19,930
P21,860
P18,383
P 9,830
P11,081
P2,29
6
Slope
P3.74
RSQ
0.92
The intercept provides the estimate of the fixed cost element, P2,296 per
month, and the slope provides the estimate of the variable cost element, P3.74
per rental return. Expressed as an equation, the relation between car wash
costs and rental returns is
13-136
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Y = P2,296 + P3.74X
where X is the number of rental returns.
Note that the R2 is 0.92, which is quite high, and indicates a strong linear
relationship between car wash costs and rental returns.
While not a requirement of the exercise, it is always a good to plot the data on
a scattergraph. The scattergraph can help spot nonlinearities or other problems
with the data. In this case, the regression line (shown below) is a reasonably
good approximation to the relationship between car wash costs and rental
returns.
III. Problems
Problem 1
Requirement (a)
Miles
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Total Annual
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
High level of activity..........................
Low level of activity...........................
Difference......................................
Driven
120,000
80,000
40,000
Cost*
P13,920
10,880
P 3,040
* 120,000 miles x P0.116 = P13,920.
80,000 miles x P0.136 = P10,880.
Variable cost per mile:
Change in cost, P3,040
Change in activity,40,000 = P0.076 per mile.
Fixed cost per year:
Total cost at 120,000 miles.................................... P13,920
Less variable cost element: 120,000 x P0.076......
9,120
Fixed cost per year............................................. P 4,800
Requirement (b)
Y = P4,800 + P0.076X
Requirement (c)
Fixed cost..................................................................... P 4,800
Variable cost: 100,000 miles x P0.076........................
7,600
Total annual cost.................................................... P12,400
Problem 2
Requirement 1
Cost of goods sold......................................................
Shipping expense........................................................
Advertising expense....................................................
Salaries and commissions...........................................
Insurance expense.......................................................
Depreciation expense..................................................
Variable
Mixed
Fixed
Mixed
Fixed
Fixed
Requirement 2
Analysis of the mixed expenses:
High level of activity................
13-138
Units
4,500
Shipping
Expense
P56,000
Salaries
and Comm.
Expense
P143,000
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Low level of activity.................
Difference..........................
3,000
1,500
44,000
P12,000
107,000
P 36,000
Variable cost element:
Change in cost
= Variable rate
Change in activity
Shipping expense: P12,000 = P8 per unit.
1,500 units
P36,000
Salaries and comm. expense: 1,500 units = P24 per unit.
Fixed cost element:
Shipping
Expense
Cost at high level of activity................
Less variable cost element:
4,500 units x P8............................
4,500 units x P24..........................
P56,000
Fixed cost element...............................
P20,000
The cost elements are:
Shipping expense:
P20,000 + P8X.
Salaries and
Comm.
Expense
P143,000
36,000
108,000
P 35,000
P20,000 per month plus P8 per unit or Y =
Salaries and comm. expense: P35,000 per month plus P24 per unit or
Y = P35,000 + P24X.
Requirement 3
LILY COMPANY
Income Statement
For the Month Ended June 30
Sales in units...................................................
Sales revenues.................................................
13-139
4,500
P630,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Less variable expenses:
Cost of goods sold (@P56)......................... P252,000
Shipping expense (@P8)............................ 36,000
Salaries and commission expense
(@P24)................................................... 108,000 396,000
Contribution margin........................................
234,000
Less fixed expense:
Shipping expense........................................ 20,000
Advertising................................................. 70,000
Salaries and commissions........................... 35,000
Insurance....................................................
9,000
Depreciation............................................... 42,000 176,000
Net income......................................................
P 58,000
Problem 3
Requirement 1
Number of
Leagues (X)
5
2
4
6
3
20
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
b
a
Total Cost
(Y)
P13,000
7,000
10,500
14,000
10,000
P54,500
=
n (XY) - (X) (Y)
n (X2) - (X)2
=
5 (235,000) - (20) (54,500)
5 (90) - (20)2
=
1,700
=
(Y) - b(X)
n
=
(54,500) - 1,700 (20)
5
=
P4,100
XY
P 65,000
14,000
42,000
84,000
30,000
P235,000
X2
25
4
16
36
9
90
Therefore, the variable cost per league is P1,700 and the fixed cost is
P4,100 per year.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement 2
Y = P4,100 + P1,700X
Requirement 3
The expected value total would be:
Fixed cost.............................................................. P 4,100
Variable cost (7 leagues x P1,700)......................... 11,900
Total cost.......................................................... P16,000
The problem with using the cost formula from (2) to derive this total cost
figure is that an activity level of 7 sections lies outside the relevant range from
which the cost formula was derived. [The relevant range is represented by a
solid line on the graph in requirement 4 below.]
Although an activity figure may lie outside the relevant range, managers will
often use the cost formula anyway to compute expected total cost as we have
done above. The reason is that the cost formula frequently is the only basis
that the manager has to go on. Using the cost formula as the starting point
should not present a problem so long as the manager is alert for any unusual
problems that the higher activity level might bring about.
Requirement 4
Y
P16,000
P14,000
P12,000
P10,000
P8,000
P6,000
P4,000
P2,000
P-
X
0
1
2
3
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4
5
6
7
8
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Problem 4 (Regression Analysis, Service Company)
Requirement 1
Figure 9-C plots the relationship between labor-hours and overhead costs and
shows the regression line.
y = P48,271 + P3.93 X
Economic plausibility. Labor-hours appears to be an economically plausible
driver of overhead cost for a catering company. Overhead costs such as
scheduling, hiring and training of workers, and managing the workforce are
largely incurred to support labor.
Goodness of fit. The vertical differences between actual and predicted costs
are extremely small, indicating a very good fit. The good fit indicates a strong
relationship between the labor-hour cost driver and overhead costs.
Slope of regression line. The regression line has a reasonably steep slope
from left to right. The positive slope indicates that, on average, overhead
costs increase as labor-hours increase.
Requirement 2
The regression analysis indicates that, within the relevant range of 2,500 to
7,500 labor-hours, the variable cost per person for a cocktail party equals:
Food and beverages
P15.00
Labor (0.5 hrs. x P10 per hour)
5.00
Variable overhead (0.5 hrs. x P3.93 per labor-hour)
1.97
Total variable cost per person
P21.97
Requirement 3
To earn a positive contribution margin, the minimum bid for a 200-person
cocktail party would be any amount greater than P4,394. This amount is
calculated by multiplying the variable cost per person of P21.97 by the 200
people. At a price above the variable costs of P4,394, Bobby Gonzales will be
earning a contribution margin toward coverage of his fixed costs.
Of course, Bobby Gonzales will consider other factors in developing his bid
including (a) an analysis of the competition – vigorous competition will limit
Gonzales’ ability to obtain a higher price (b) a determination of whether or not
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
his bid will set a precedent for lower prices – overall, the prices Bobby
Gonzales charges should generate enough contribution to cover fixed costs and
earn a reasonable profit, and (c) a judgment of how representative past
historical data (used in the regression analysis) is about future costs.
Figure 9-C
Regression Line of Labor-Hours on Overhead Costs for Bobby Gonzales’
Catering Company
Problem 5 (Linear Cost Approximation)
Requirement 1
Slope coefficient (b)
=
=
Constant (a)
Difference in cost
Difference in labor-hours
P529,000 – P400,000
7,000 – 4,000
=
P43.00
= P529,000 – P43.00 (7,000)
= P228,000
Cost function
= P228,000 + P43.00 (professional labor-hours)
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
The linear cost function is plotted in Figure 9-D.
No, the constant component of the cost function does not represent the fixed
overhead cost of the ABS Group. The relevant range of professional laborhours is from 3,000 to 8,000. The constant component provides the best
available starting point for a straight line that approximates how a cost
behaves within the 3,000 to 8,000 relevant range.
Requirement 2
A comparison at various levels of professional labor-hours follows. The linear
cost function is based on formula of P228,000 per month plus P43.00 per
professional labor-hours.
Total overhead cost behavior:
Month 1
Actual total
overhead
costs
Linear
approximati
on
Actual minus
linear
approximati
on
Professional
labor-hours
Month 2
P340,000
Month 3
P400,00
0
400,000
357,000
P(17,000
)
P
3,000
Month 4
P435,00
0
443,000
P477,00
0
486,000
0
P (8,000)
P (9,000)
4,000
5,000
6,000
The data are shown in Figure 9-D. The linear cost function overstates costs
by P8,000 at the 5,000-hour level and understates costs by P15,000 at the
8,000-hour level.
Requirement 3
Contribution before deducting
incremental overhead
Incremental overhead
Contribution after incremental
overhead
13-144
Based on
Actual
Based on
Linear
Cost
Function
P38,00
0
35,000
P
3,000
P38,00
0
43,000
P
(5,000)
Month 5
P529,00
0
529,000
P
0
7,000
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
The total contribution margin actually forgone is P3,000.
Figure 9-D
Linear Cost Function Plot of Professional Labor-Hours
on Total Overhead Costs for ABS Consulting Group
Problem 6 (Cost Behavior)
The variable cost per hour can be computed as follows:
P20,000 / 5,000 hours = P4 per hour
Therefore, the missing amounts are as follows:
5,000
13-145
Hours of Operating Time
6,000
7,000
8,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Total costs:
Variable
costs
(@ P4
per hour)
Fixed
costs
Total costs
P
20,000
P24,000
P28,000
P32,000
168,000
P188,000
168,000
P192,000
168,000
P196,000
168,000
P200,000
5,000
Cost
hour:
Hours of Operating Time
6,000
7,000
8,000
per
Variable
cost
Fixed
cost
Total cost
per hour
P4.00
P4.00
P4.00
P4.00
33.60
28.00
24.00
21.00
P37.60
P32.00
P28.00
P25.00
Observe that the total variable costs increase in proportion to the number of
hours of operating time, but that these costs remain constant at P4 if
expressed on a per hour basis.
In contrast, the total fixed costs do not change with changes in the level of
activity. They remain constant at P168,000 within the relevant range. With
increases in activity, however, the fixed cost per hour decreases, dropping
from P33.60 per hour when the boats are operated 5,000 hours a period to
only P21.00 per hour when the boats are operated 8,000 hours a period.
Because of this troublesome aspect of fixed costs, they are most easily (and
most safely) dealt with on a total basis, rather than on a unit basis, in cost
analysis work.
Problem 7 (High-Low Method)
Requirement (1)
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
The first step in the high-low method is to identify the periods of the lowest
and highest activity. Those periods are November (1,100 patients admitted)
and June (1,900 patients admitted).
The second step is to compute the variable cost per unit using those two data
points:
level
Number
of
Patients
Admitted
1,900
level
1,100
Month
High activity
(June)
Low activity
(November)
Change
Variable cost
800
=
=
Admitting
Department
Costs
P15,20
0
12,800
P
2,400
Change in cost
Change in activity
P240,000
800 patients admitted
= P3 per patient admitted
The third step is to compute the fixed cost element by deducting the variable
cost element from the total cost at either the high or low activity. In the
computation below, the high point of activity is used:
Fixed cost element =
=
=
Total cost – Variable cost element
P15,200 – (P3 per patient admitted
x 1,900 patients admitted)
P9,500
Requirement (2)
The cost formula is Y = P9,500 + P3X.
Problem 8 (Scattergraph Analysis; Selection of an Activity Base)
13-147
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Requirement (1)
The completed scattergraph for the number of units produced as the activity
base is presented below:
5,000
4,500
Janitorial Labor Cost
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Units Produced
Requirement (2)
The completed scattergraph for the number of workdays as the activity base is
presented below:
13-148
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement (3)
5,000
4,500
Janitorial Labor Cost
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Number of Janitorial Workdays
The number of workdays should be used as the activity base rather than the
13-149
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
number of units produced. There are several reasons for this. First, the
scattergraphs reveal that there is a much stronger relationship (i.e., higher
correlation) between janitorial costs and number of workdays than between
janitorial costs and number of units produced. Second, from the description of
the janitorial costs, one would expect that variations in those costs have little
to do with the number of units produced. Two janitors each work an eighthour shift—apparently irrespective of the number of units produced or how
busy the company is. Variations in the janitorial labor costs apparently occur
because of the number of workdays in the month and the number of days the
janitors call in sick. Third, for planning purposes, the company is likely to be
able to predict the number of working days in the month with much greater
accuracy than the number of units that will be produced.
Note that the scattergraph in part (1) seems to suggest that the janitorial labor
costs are variable with respect to the number of units produced. This is false.
Janitorial labor costs do vary, but the number of units produced isn’t the cause
of the variation. However, since the number of units produced tends to go up
and down with the number of workdays and since the janitorial labor costs are
driven by the number of workdays, it appears on the scattergraph that the
number of units drives the janitorial labor costs to some extent. Analysts must
be careful not to fall into this trap of using the wrong measure of activity as
the activity base just because it appears there is some relationship between
cost and the measure of activity. Careful thought and analysis should go into
the selection of the activity base.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
D
B
A
B
B
C
D
C
A
11.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
C*
C*
C
A
D
C
D
B
C
C
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C
D
C
A
D
B
D
B
A
D
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
D
B
A
B
A
D
B
C
B
D
41. B
42. D
43. C
* Supporting Computations:
11. (10,000 x 2) – (P3,000 x 2) – P5,000 = P9,000
12. [(P20 + P3 + P6) x 2,000 units] + (P10 x 1,000 units) = P68,000
13-150
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
CHAPTER 10
SYSTEMS DESIGN: JOB-ORDER COSTING AND
PROCESS COSTING
I.
Questions
1. Job-order costing is used in those manufacturing situations where there
are many different products produced each period. Each product or job is
different from all others and requires separate costing. Process costing is
used in those manufacturing situations where a single, homogeneous
product, such as cement, bricks, or gasoline, is produced for long periods
at a time.
2. The job cost sheet is used in accumulating all costs assignable to a
particular job. These costs would include direct materials cost traceable
to the job, and manufacturing overhead cost allocable to the job. When a
job is completed, the job cost sheet is used to compute the cost per
completed unit. The job cost sheet is then used as a control document for:
(1) determining how many units have been sold and determining the cost
of these units; and (2) determining how many units are still in inventory at
the end of a period and determining the cost of these units on the balance
sheet.
3. Many production costs cannot be traced directly to a particular product or
job, but rather are incurred as a result of overall production activities.
Therefore, in order to be assigned to products, such costs must be
allocated to the products in some manner. Examples of such costs would
include utilities, maintenance on machines, and depreciation of the factory
building. These costs are indirect production costs.
4. A firm will not know its actual manufacturing overhead costs until after a
period is over. Thus, if actual costs were used to cost products, it would
be necessary either (1) to wait until the period was over to add overhead
costs to jobs, or (2) to simply add overhead cost to jobs as the overhead
cost was incurred day by day. If the manager waits until after the period
is over to add overhead cost to jobs, then cost data will not be available
13-151
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
during the period. If the manager simply adds overhead cost to jobs as
the overhead cost is incurred, then unit costs may fluctuate from month to
month. This is because overhead cost tends to be incurred somewhat
evenly from month to month (due to the presence of fixed costs), whereas
production activity often fluctuates. For these reasons, most firms use
predetermined overhead rates, based on estimates of overhead cost and
production activity, to apply overhead cost to jobs.
5. An allocation base should act as a cost driver in the incurrence of the
overhead cost; that is, the base should cause the overhead cost. If the
allocation base does not really cause the overhead, then costs will be
incorrectly attributed to products and jobs and their costs will be distorted.
6. A process costing system is appropriate in those situations where a
homogeneous product is produced on a continuous basis.
7. In a process costing system, costs are accumulated by department.
8. First, the activity performed in a department must be performed uniformly
on all units moving through it. Second, the output of the department must
be homogeneous.
9. The reason cost accumulation is simpler is that costs only need to be
identified by department - not by separate job. Usually there will be only
a few departments in a company, whereas there can be hundreds or even
thousands of jobs in a job-order costing system.
10. A quantity schedule shows the physical flow of units through a department
during a period. It serves several purposes. First, it provides the manager
with information relative to activity in his or her department and also
shows the manager the stage of completion of any in-process units.
Second, it serves as an essential guide in computing the equivalent units
and in preparing the other parts of the production report.
11. By definition, manufacturing overhead consists of costs that cannot be
practically traced to products or jobs. Therefore, if these costs are to be
assigned to products or jobs, they must be allocated rather than traced.
12. Assigning manufacturing overhead costs to jobs does not ensure a profit.
The units produced may not be sold and if they are sold, they may not be
sold at prices sufficient to cover all costs. It is a myth that assigning costs
to products or jobs ensures that those costs will be recovered. Costs are
recovered only by selling to customers—not by allocating costs.
13. (a) Job-order costing and process costing have the same basic purposes—
to assign materials, labor, and overhead cost to products and to
provide a mechanism for computing unit product costs.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
(b) Both systems use the same basic manufacturing accounts.
(c) Costs flow through the accounts in basically the same way in both
systems.
14. The company will want to distinguish between the costs of the metals used
to make the medallions, but the medals are otherwise identical and go
through the same production processes. Thus, operation costing is ideally
suited for the company’s needs.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Process Costing and Job Order Costing)
b.
c.
d.
e.
a. Job-order costing
Process costing
Process costing *
Job-order costing
Job-order costing
g.
h.
i.
j.
f. Process costing
Process costing
Job-order costing
Job-order costing
Job-order costing
* Some of the listed companies might use either a process costing or a joborder costing system, depending on how operations are carried out and how
homogeneous the final product is. For example, a plywood manufacturer
might use job-order costing if plywoods are constructed of different woods
or come in markedly different sizes.
Exercise 2 (Applying Overhead with Various Bases)
Requirement 1
Predetermined overhead rates:
Company X:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
=
Estimated total manufacturing overhead cost
Estimated total amount of the allocation base
P432,000
60,000 DLHs
=
P7.20 per DLH
Company Y:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
=
Estimated total manufacturing overhead cost
Estimated total amount of the allocation base
P270,000
90,000 DLHs
13-153
=
P3.00 per MH
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Company Z:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
Estimated total manufacturing overhead cost
Estimated total amount of the allocation base
=
P384,000
P240,000 materials cost
Requirement 2
= 160% of materials cost
Actual overhead costs incurred.........................................
Overhead cost applied to Work in Process:........................
58,000* actual hours × P7.20 per hour.......................
Underapplied overhead cost..............................................
P420,000
P
417,600
2,400
* 7,000 hours + 30,000 hours + 21,000 hours = 58,000 hours
Exercise 3 (Departmental Overhead Rates)
Requirement 1
Milling Department:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
Estimated total manufacturing overhead cost
Estimated total amount of the allocation base
=
P510,000
60,000 machine-hours
= P8.50 per machine-hour
Assembly Department:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
Estimated total manufacturing overhead cost
Estimated total amount of the allocation base
=
P800,000
P640,000 direct labor cost
= 125% of direct labor cost
Requirement 2
Milling Department: 90 MHs × P8.50 per MH
Assembly Department: P160 × 125%
Total overhead cost applied
Requirement 3
13-154
Overhead Applied
P765
200
P965
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Yes; if some jobs required a large amount of machine time and little labor cost,
they would be charged substantially less overhead cost if a plantwide rate
based on direct labor cost were being used. It appears, for example, that this
would be true of job 123 which required considerable machine time to
complete, but required only a small amount of labor cost.
Exercise 4 (Process Costing Journal Entries)
Work in Process—Mixing.......................................................................................
330,000
Raw Materials Inventory.................................................................................
330,000
Work in Process—Mixing.......................................................................................
260,000
Work in Process—Baking........................................................................................
120,000
Wages Payable.................................................................................................
380,000
Work in Process—Mixing.......................................................................................
190,000
Work in Process—Baking........................................................................................
90,000
Manufacturing Overhead.................................................................................
280,000
Work in Process—Baking........................................................................................
760,000
Work in Process—Mixing................................................................................
760,000
Finished Goods........................................................................................................
980,000
Work in Process—Baking................................................................................
980,000
Exercise 5 (Quantity Schedule, Equivalent Units, and Cost per Equivalent
Unit – Weighted Average Method)
Requirement 1
Weighted-Average Method
Quantity
Schedule
Gallons to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 1 (materials 80%
complete, labor and overhead 75%
complete)
Started into production
Total gallons accounted for
80,000
760,000
840,000
Equivalent Units
Materials
Labor
Overhead
Gallons accounted for as follows:
13-155
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Transferred to the next department..............
Work in process, May 31 (materials 60%
complete, labor and overhead 20%
complete)................................................
Total gallons accounted for...............................
790,000
790,000
790,000
790,000
50,000
840,000
30,000
820,000
10,000
800,000
10,000
800,000
Requirement 2
Total Costs Materials
Cost to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 1...............................................
P 146,600
P 68,600
Cost added during the month.......................................
1,869,200
907,200
Total cost to be accounted for (a)......................................
P2,015,800
P975,800
Equivalent units (b)...........................................................
—
820,000
Cost per equivalent unit (a) ÷ (b)......................................
P1.19
Labor
P 30,000
370,000
P400,000
800,000
+ P0.50
Overhead
P 48,000
592,000
P640,000
800,000
+ P0.80
Whole Unit
=
P2.49
Exercise 6 (Quantity Schedule, Equivalent Units, and Cost per Equivalent
Unit – FIFO Method)
Requirement 1
FIFO Method
Quantity
Schedule
Gallons to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 1 (materials 80%
complete, labor and overhead 75%
complete)
Started into production
Total gallons accounted for
80,000
760,000
840,000
Equivalent Units
Materials
Labor
Overhead
Gallons accounted for as follows:
Transferred to the next department:
From the beginning inventory................. 80,000
Started and completed this month**...... 710,000
Work in process, May 31 (materials 60%
complete, labor and overhead 20%
complete)................................................ 50,000
Total gallons accounted for............................... 840,000
16,000*
710,000
20,000*
710,000
20,000*
710,000
30,000
756,000
10,000
740,000
10,000
740,000
* Work required to complete the beginning inventory.
** 760,000 gallons started – 50,000 gallons in ending work in process = 710,000 gallons
started and completed.
Requirement 2
13-156
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Total Costs Materials
Cost to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 31.............................................
P 146,600
Cost added during the month (a)..................................
1,869,200
P907,200
Total cost to be accounted for............................................
P2,015,800
Equivalent units (b)........................................................... 756,000
Cost per equivalent unit (a) ÷ (b)......................................
P1.20
Labor
P370,000
+
740,000
P0.50
Overhead
Whole Unit
P592,000
+
740,000
P0.80
=
P2.50
Exercise 7
Requirement (1)
The direct materials and direct labor costs listed in the exercise would have
been recorded on four different documents: the materials requisition form for
Job KC123, the time ticket for Kristine, the time ticket for Clarisse, and the
job cost sheet for Job KC123.
Requirement (2)
The costs for Job KC123 would have been recorded as follows:
Materials requisition form:
Quantity
Blanks
40
Nibs
960
Unit Cost
P80.00
P6.00
Total Cost
P3,200
5,760
P8,960
Time ticket for Kristine
Started
9:00 AM
Ended
12:15 PM
Time
Completed
3.25
Rate
P120.00
Amount
P390.00
Job
Number
KC123
Time
Completed
2.25
Rate
P140.00
Amount
P315.00
Job
Number
KC123
Time ticket for Clarisse
Started
2:15 PM
Ended
4:30 PM
Job Cost Sheet for Job KC123
Direct materials...............
P8,960.00
Direct labor:
Kristine.....................
390.00
Clarisse.....................
315.00
13-157
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
P9,665.00
Exercise 8
The predetermined overhead rate is computed as follows:
Estimated total manufacturing overhead......................................P586,000
÷ Estimated total direct labor hours (DLHs)................................ 40,000 DLHs
= Predetermined overhead rate..................................................... P14.65 per DLH
Exercise 9
Weighted-Average Method
Materials
Work in process, May 1.................................
P 14,550
Cost added during May.................................88,350
Total cost (a)..................................................
P102,900
Equivalent units of
production (b)............................................ 1,200
Cost per equivalent unit
(a) ÷ (b).....................................................P85.75
Labor
P23,620
14,330
P37,950
Overhead
P118,100
71,650
P189,750
1,100
1,100
P34.50
P172.50
Total
P292.75
Exercise 10
FIFO Method
Materials
Conversion
To complete beginning work in process:
Materials: 400 units x (100% – 75%).............................................................
100
Conversion: 400 units x (100% – 25%)..........................................................
300
Units started and completed during the period
(42,600 units started – 500 units in ending
inventory).........................................................................................................
42,100
42,100
Ending work in process
Materials: 500 units x 80% complete..............................................................
400
Conversion: 500 units x 30% complete...........................................................
150
Equivalent units of production...............................................................................
42,600
42,550
III. Problems
Problem 1
13-158
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement 1
a. Raw Materials Inventory.............................................. 210,000
Accounts Payable.....................................................
210,000
b. Work in Process........................................................... 178,000
Manufacturing Overhead............................................. 12,000
Raw Materials Inventory..........................................
190,000
c. Work in Process........................................................... 90,000
Manufacturing Overhead............................................. 110,000
Salaries and Wages Payable.....................................
200,000
d. Manufacturing Overhead............................................. 40,000
Accumulated Depreciation.......................................
40,000
e. Manufacturing Overhead............................................. 70,000
Accounts Payable.....................................................
70,000
f.
Work in Process........................................................... 240,000
Manufacturing Overhead..........................................
240,000
30,000 MH x P8 per MH = P240,000.
g. Finished Goods............................................................ 520,000
Work in Process.......................................................
520,000
h. Cost of Goods Sold...................................................... 480,000
Finished Goods.........................................................
480,000
Accounts Receivable.................................................... 600,000
Sales.........................................................................
600,000
P480,000 × 1.25 = P600,000
Requirement 2
Manufacturing Overhead
(b) 12,000
240,000(f)
(c) 110,000
(d) 40,000
Work in Process
Bal.
42,000
510,000(g)
(b) 178,000
(c) 90,000
13-159
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
(e) 70,000
(f) 240,000
8,000
(Overapplied
overhea
d)
Bal.
30,000
Problem 2
Requirement 1
The costing problem does, indeed, lie with manufacturing overhead cost, as
suggested. Since manufacturing overhead is mostly fixed, the cost per unit
increases as the level of production decreases. The problem can be solved by
use of predetermined overhead rates, which should be based on expected
activity for the entire year. Many students will use units of product in
computing the predetermined overhead rate, as follows:
Estimated manufacturing overhead cost, P840,000
= P4.20 per unit.
Estimated units to be produced,
200,000
The predetermined overhead rate could also be set on the basis of either direct
labor cost or direct materials cost. The computations are:
Estimated manufacturing overhead cost, P840,000
= 350% of direct
Estimated direct labor cost,
P240,000
labor cost
Estimated manufacturing overhead cost, P840,000
140% of direct
Estimated direct materials cost,
P600,000 = materials cost
Requirement 2
Using a predetermined overhead rate, the unit costs would be:
Direct materials...................
Direct labor.........................
Manufacturing overhead:
Applied at P4.20 per
units; 350% of direct
labor cost, or 140% of
First
P240,000
96,000
13-160
Quarter
Second
Third
P120,000 P 60,000
48,000
24,000
Fourth
P180,000
72,000
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
direct materials cost
Total cost.......................
Number of units
produced...........................
Estimated cost per unit........
336,000
168,000
84,000
252,000
P672,000
P336,000
P168,000
P504,000
80,000
P8.40
40,000
P8.40
20,000
P8.40
60,000
P8.40
Problem 3
Weighted-Average Method
Pounds to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 1
(all materials, 55% labor and
overhead added last month)..........
Started into production during
May................................................
Total pounds.............................
Quantity
Schedule
30,000
480,000
510,000
Equivalent Units
Labor &
Materials
Overhead
Pounds accounted for as follows:
Transferred to Department 2............
Work in process, May 31
(all materials, 90% labor and
overhead added this month)..........
Total pounds.............................
490,000*
490,000
490,000
20,000
510,000
20,000
510,000
18,000
508,000
* 30,000 + 480,000 - 20,000 = 490,000.
Problem 4 (Weighted-Average Method; Interpreting a Production Report)
Requirement 1
Weighted-Average Method
The equivalent units for the month would be:
Units accounted for as follows:
Transferred to next department....
Work in process, April 30
(75% materials, 60%
13-161
Quantity
Schedule
Equivalent Units
Materials Conversion
190,000
190,000
190,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
conversion cost added this
month)......................................
Total units and equivalent units
of production............................
40,000
30,000
24,000
230,000
220,000
214,000
Whole Unit
Requirement 2
Work in process, April 1...
Total Cost
Materials
Conversion
P 98,000
P 67,800
P 30,200
827,00
579,00
248,00
0
0
0
P925,000
P646,800
P278,200
–
220,000
214,000
–
P2.94
+
=
P
P
1
4
.
.
3
2
0
4
Cost added during the
month
Total cost (a)..................
Equivalent units of
production (b)
Cost per EU (a)  (b).......
Requirement 3
Total units transferred.......................................................
Less units in the beginning inventory.................................
Units started and completed during April..........................
190,000
30,000
160,000
Requirement 4
No, the manager should not be rewarded for good cost control. The reason for
the Mixing Department’s low unit cost for April is traceable to the fact that
costs of the prior month have been averaged in with April’s costs in computing
the lower, P2.94 per unit figure. This is a major criticism of the weightedaverage method in that the figures computed for product costing purposes
13-162
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
can’t be used to evaluate cost control or measure performance for the current
period.
Problem 5 (Preparation of Production Report from Analysis of Work in
Process T-account – Weighted-Average Method)
Requirement 1
Weighted-Average Method
Quantity Schedule and Equivalent Units
Quantity
Schedule
Pounds to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 1
(materials all complete, labor
and overhead 4/5 complete)......
Started into production................
Total pounds to be accounted for......
35,000
280,000
315,000
Equivalent Units (EU)
Labor &
Materials
Overhead
Pounds accounted for as follows:
Transferred to Blending*.............
Work in process, May 31
(materials all complete, labor
and overhead 2/3 complete)......
Total pounds accounted for..............
270,000
270,000
270,000
45,000
315,000
45,000
315,000
30,000
300,000
Labor &
Whole
* 35,000 + 280,000 – 45,000 = 270,000.
Cost per Equivalent Unit
Total
Materials
Ov
er
he
ad
Cost to be accounted for:
Work in process, May 1. . .
P 63,700
13-163
P 43,400
P 20,300
Unit
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Cost added during the
month
587,30
397,60
189,70
0
0
0
P651,000
P441,000
P210,000
315,000
300,000
P1.40
+
=
P
P
0
2
.
.
7
1
0
0
Total cost to be
accounted for (a)
Equivalent units (b).........
Cost per equivalent unit
(a)  (b)
Cost Reconciliation
Total
Cost
Cost accounted for as follows:
Transferred to Blending:
270,000 pounds x P2.10
per pound..............................
Work in process, May 31:
Materials, at P1.40 per EU......
Labor and overhead, at P0.70
per EU...................................
Total work in process, May 31....
Total costs accounted for..................
Equivalent Units (EU)
Materials Conversion
P567,000
270,000
63,000
45,000
21,000
84,000
P651,000
270,000
30,000
Requirement 2
In computing unit costs, the weighted-average method mixes costs of the prior
period with current period costs. Thus, under the weighted-average method,
unit costs are influenced to some extent by what happened in a prior period.
This problem becomes particularly significant when attempting to measure
performance in the current period. Good (or bad) cost control in the current
13-164
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
period might be concealed to some degree by the costs that have been brought
forward in the beginning inventory.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
D
D
D
C
D
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
D
A
C
C
B
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
A
D
B
D
C
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
A
D
A
C
D
CHAPTER 11
SYSTEMS DESIGN: ACTIVITY-BASED COSTING
AND MANAGEMENT
I.
Questions
1. The three levels available are: Level 1, in which a company uses a
plantwide overhead rate; Level 2, in which a company uses departmental
overhead rates; and Level 3, in which a company uses activity-based
costing.
2. New approaches to costing are needed because events of the last few
decades have made drastic changes in many organizations. Automation
has greatly decreased the amount of direct labor required to manufacture
products; product diversity has increased in that companies are
manufacturing a wider range of products and these products differ
substantially in volume, lot size, and complexity of design; and total
overhead cost has increased to the point in some companies that a
correlation no longer exists between it and direct labor.
3. The departmental approach to assigning overhead cost to products relies
solely on volume as an assignment base. Where diversity exists between
products (that is, where products differ in terms of number of units
produced, lot size, or complexity of production), volume alone is not
adequate for overhead costing. Overhead costing based on volume will
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
systematically overcost high-volume products and undercost low-volume
products.
4. Process value analysis (PVA) is a systematic approach to gaining an
understanding of the steps associated with a product or service. It
identifies all resource-consuming activities involved in the production
process and labels these activities as being either value-added or nonvalue-added. Thus, it is the beginning point in designing an activity-based
costing system since management must know what activities are involved
with each product before activity centers can be designated and cost
drivers established. Also, PVA helps management to eliminate any nonvalue-added activities and thereby streamline operations and minimize
costs.
5. The four general levels of activities are:
1. Unit-level activities, which are performed each time a unit is
produced.
2. Batch-level activities, which are performed each time a batch of goods
is handled or processed.
3. Product-level activities, which are performed as needed to support
specific products.
4. Facility-level activities, which simply sustain a facility’s general
manufacturing process.
6. First, activity-based costing increases the number of cost pools used to
accumulate overhead costs. Second, it changes the base used to assign
overhead costs to products. And third, it changes a manager’s perception
of many overhead costs in that costs that were formerly thought to be
indirect (such as depreciation or machine setup) are identified with
specific activities and thereby are recognized as being traceable to
individual products.
7. The two chief limitations are: First, the portion of overhead costs that
relate to facility-level activities are still usually allocated to products on
some arbitrary basis, such as machine-hours or direct labor-hours. Critics
of activity-based costing argue that facility-level activities account for the
bulk of all overhead costs in some companies. Second, high measurement
costs are involved in operating an activity-based costing system. That is,
the system requires the tracking of large amounts of detail and the
completion of many separate computations in order to determine the cost
of a unit or product.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
8. Yes, activity-based costing can be used in service organizations. It has
been successfully implemented, for example, in railroads, hospitals, banks
and data service companies.
9. A resource driver is a measure of the quality of resources consumed by an
activity.
10. An activity driver is a measure of frequency and intensity of demands
placed on activities by cost objects.
11. Two-stage allocation is a procedure that first assigns a firm’s resource
costs, namely factory overhead cost, to cost pools, and then to cost
objects.
12. Two major advantages of ABM are:
a. ABM measures the effectiveness of the key business processes and
activities, and identifies how they can be improved to reduce costs and
improve the customer value.
b. ABM improves the management focus by allocating resources to key
value-added activities, key customers, key products, and continuous
improvement methods to maintain the firm’s competitive advantage.
13. When direct labor is used as an allocation base for overhead, it is
implicitly assumed that overhead cost is directly proportional to direct
labor. When cost systems were originally developed in the 1800s, this
assumption may have been reasonably accurate. However, direct labor has
declined in importance over the years while overhead has been increasing.
This suggests that there is no longer a direct link between the level of
direct labor and overhead. Indeed, when a company automates, direct
labor is replaced by machines; a decrease in direct labor is accompanied
by an increase in overhead. This violates the assumption that overhead
cost is directly proportional to direct labor. Overhead cost appears to be
driven by factors such as product diversity and complexity as well as by
volume, for which direct labor has served as a convenient measure.
14. Employees may resist activity-based costing because it changes the “rules
of the game.” ABC changes some of the key measures, such as product
costs, used in making decisions and may affect how individuals are
evaluated. Without top management support, employees may have little
interest in making these changes. In addition, if top managers continue to
make decisions based on the numbers generated by the traditional costing
system, subordinates will quickly conclude that the activity-based costing
system can be ignored.
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
15. Unit-level activities are performed for each unit that is produced. Batchlevel activities are performed for each batch regardless of how many units
are in the batch. Product-level activities must be carried out to support a
product regardless of how many batches are run or units produced.
Customer-level activities must be carried out to support customers
regardless of what products or services they buy. Organization-sustaining
activities are carried out regardless of the company’s precise product mix
or mix of customers.
16. Organization-sustaining costs, customer-level costs, and the costs of idle
capacity should not be assigned to products. These costs represent
resources that are not consumed by the products.
II. True or False
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. True
8. True
III. Exercises
Exercise 1
Activity
Activity
Classification
Examples of
Traceable
Costs
Labor cost;
depreciation
Examples of
Cost
Drivers
a. Materials are moved
from the receiving
dock to product flow
lines by a materialhandling crew
Batch-level
b. Direct labor workers
assemble various
products
Unit-level
Direct labor
cost; indirect
labor cost;
labor benefits
Direct laborhours
c. Ongoing training is
provided to all
employees in the
company
Facility-level*
Space cost;
training costs;
administration
costs
Hours of
training time;
number trained
d. A product is
designed by a
specialized design
team
Product-level
Space cost;
supplies used;
depreciation of
design
equipment
Hours of
design time;
number of
engineering
change orders
of equipment;
space cost
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Number of
receipts;
pounds handled
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
e. Equipment setups
are performed on a
regular basis
Batch-level
Labor cost;
supplies used;
depreciation of
equipment
Number of
setups; hours
or setup time
f. Numerical control
(NC) machines are
used to cut and
shape materials
Unit-level
Power;
supplies used;
maintenance;
depreciation
Machinehours; number
of units
* Personnel administration and training costs might be traceable in part to the
facility-level and in part to other activity centers at the unit-level, productlevel, and batch-level.
Exercise 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
plantwide overhead rate
volume
two stage, stage, stage
Process value analysis
Unit-level
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Batch-level
Product-level
Facility-level
high-volume, low-volume, low-volume
activity centers
Exercise 3
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Various individuals manage the parts inventories.
A clerk in the factory issues purchase orders for a
job.
The personnel department trains new production
workers.
The factory’s general manager meets with other
department heads such as marketing to
coordinate plans.
Direct labor workers assemble products.
Engineers design new products.
The materials storekeeper issues raw materials to
be used in jobs.
The maintenance department performs periodic
preventative maintenance on general-use
equipment.
Product-level
Batch-level
Organizationsustaining
Organizationsustaining
Unit-level
Product-level
Batch-level
Organizationsustaining
Note: Some of these classifications are debatable and may depend on the
specific circumstances found in particular companies.
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Exercise 4
Sales (P1,650 per standard model glider × 10 standard
model gliders + P2,300 per custom designed glider × 2
custom designed gliders)......................................................................................
P21,100
Costs:
Direct materials (P462 per standard model glider × 10
standard model gliders + P576 per custom
designed glider × 2 custom designed gliders).................................................
P5,772
Direct labor (P19 per direct labor-hour × 28.5 direct
labor-hours per standard model glider × 10 standard
model gliders + P19 per direct labor-hour × 32 direct
labor-hours per custom designed glider × 2 custom
designed gliders)..............................................................................................
6,631
Supporting manufacturing (P18 per direct labor-hour ×
28.5 direct labor-hours per standard model glider ×
10 standard model gliders + P18 per direct laborhour × 32 direct labor-hours per custom designed
glider × 2 custom designed gliders).................................................................
6,282
Order processing (P192 per order × 3 orders).....................................................
576
Custom designing (P261 per custom design × 2 custom
designs)............................................................................................................
522
Customer service (P426 per customer ×
1 customer).......................................................................................................
426
20,209
Customer margin......................................................................................................
P 891
Exercise 5
Requirement 1
The predetermined overhead rate is computed as follows:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
P290,000
50,000 DLHs
=
P5.80 per DLH
The unit product costs under the company’s traditional costing system are
computed as follows:
Special
Regular
Direct materials................................................................................................................
P60.00
P45.00
Direct labor......................................................................................................................
9.60
7.20
Manufacturing overhead (0.8 DLH × P5.80 per DLH;
0.6 DLH × P5.80 per DLH)........................................................................................
4.64
3.48
Unit product cost..............................................................................................................
P74.24
P55.68
Requirement 2
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
The activity rates are computed as follows:
(a)
Estimated
Overhead
Activities
Cost
Supporting direct labor...............................
P150,000
Batch setups...............................................
P60,000
Safety testing..............................................
P80,000
(b)
Total
Expected Activity
50,000 DLHs
250 setups
100 tests
(a) ÷ (b)
Activity Rate
P3 per DLH
P240 per setup
P800 per test
Manufacturing overhead is assigned to the two products as follows:
Special
Product:
(a)
Activity Cost Pool
Activity Rate
Supporting direct labor..........................................................
P3 per DLH
Batch setups..........................................................................
P240 per setup
Safety testing.........................................................................
P800 per test
Total
Regular
(b)
Activity
8,000 DLHs
200 setups
80 tests
(a) × (b)
ABC Cost
P24,000
48,000
64,000
P136,000
(b)
Activity
42,000 DLHs
50 setups
20 tests
(a) × (b)
ABC Cost
P126,000
12,000
16,000
P154,000
Product:
(a)
Activity Cost Pool
Activity Rate
Supporting direct labor..........................................................
P3 per DLH
Batch setups..........................................................................
P240 per setup
Safety testing.........................................................................
P800 per test
Total
Activity-based costing unit product costs are computed as follows:
Special
Direct materials...................................................................................................
P60.00
Direct labor.........................................................................................................
9.60
Manufacturing overhead (P136,000 ÷ 10,000 units; P154,000 ÷
70,000 units)..................................................................................................
13.60
Unit product cost.................................................................................................
P83.20
Regular
P45.00
7.20
2.20
P54.40
IV. Problems
Problem 1
Cost
Systems
Traditional cost system
Pool
Rate
350%
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Cost Driver
Consumption
P10,000
Cost
Assignment
P35,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
ABC system
Labor
Machining
Setup
Production order
Material handling
Parts administration
10%
P25/hour
P10/hour
P100/order
P20/requisition
P40/part
P10,000
800 hours
100 hours
12 orders
5 requisitions
18 parts
P 1,000
20,000
1,000
1,200
100
720
P24,020
Problem 2
Requirement 1
(a)
Total overhead = P200,000 + P32,000 + P100,000 + P120,000
= P452,000
Overhead rate
= P452,000 / 50,000 direct labor hours
= P9.04 per direct labor hour
Overhead assigned to proposed job = P9.04 x 1,000 direct labor hours
= P9,040
(b) Total cost of proposed job:
Direct materials
Direct labor 10,000
Overhead applied
Total cost
P 6,000
9,040
P25,040
(c) Company’s bid = Full manufacturing cost x 120% = P25,040 x 120%
= P30,048
Requirement 2
(a) Maintenance :
P200,000 / 20,000
Materials handling: P32,000 / 1,600
=
Setups:
P100,000 / 2,500 =
Inspection:
P120,000 / 4,000 =
= P10 per machine hour
P20 per move
P40 per setup
P30 per inspection
Overhead assigned to proposed job:
Maintenance (P10 x 500)
P5,000
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Material handling (P20 x 12)
Setups (P40 x 2)
Inspection (P30 x 10)
Total overhead assigned to job
240
80
300
P5,620
(b) Total cost of proposed project:
Direct materials
Direct labor 10,000
Overhead applied
Total cost
P 6,000
5,620
P21,620
(c) Company’s bid = Full manufacturing cost x 120% = P21,620 x 120%
= P25,944
The bid price of P25,944 was determined as follows:
Direct materials
Direct labor
Overhead assigned:
Maintenance (P10 x 500)
Material handling (P20 x 12)
Setups (P40 x 2)
Inspections (P30 x 10)
Total overhead assigned to job
Total cost
Markup
Bid price
P6,000
10,000
P5,000
240
80
300
5,620
P21,620
120%
P25,944
Problem 3 (Activity-Based Costing)
Requirement 1
The first-stage allocation of costs to the activity cost pools appears below:
Assemblin
g Units
Manufacturing
overhead
Selling and
administrative
P250,000
30,000
Activity Cost Pools
Processing Supporting
Orders
Customers
Other
P175,000
135,000
13-173
P25,000
75,000
P50,000
60,000
Total
P500,000
300,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
overhead
Total cost
P280,000
P310,000
P100,000
P110,000
P800,000
Requirement 2
The activity rates for the cost pools are:
(a)
Total Cost
P280,000
P310,000
P100,000
Assembling units
Processing orders
Supporting customers
(b)
Total Activity
1,000 units
250 orders
100 customers
(a)  (b)
Activity Rate
P280 per unit
P1,240 per order
P1,000 per customer
Requirement 3
The overhead cost attributable to Lucky Sale would be computed as follows:
(a)
Activity Rate
P280 per unit
P1,240 per order
P1,000 per customer
Activity Cost Pools
Assembling units
Processing orders
Supporting customers
(b)
Activity
80 units
4 orders
1 customer
(a) x (b)
ABC Cost
P22,400
P4,960
P1,000
Requirement 4
The customer margin can be computed as follows:
Sales (P595 per unit x 80 units)
Costs:
Direct materials (P180 per unit x 80 units)
Direct labor (P50 per unit x 80 units)
Unit-related overhead (above)
Order-related overhead (above)
Customer-related overhead (above)
Customer margin
P47,600
P14,400
4,000
22,400
4,960
1,000
P
46,760
840
Problem 4 (Activity-Based Costing as an Alternative to Traditional
Product Costing)
Requirement 1
a. When direct labor-hours are used to apply overhead cost to products, the
company’s predetermined overhead rate would be:
Predetermined
overhead rate
=
=
Manufacturing overhead cost
Direct labor hours
13-174
P1,480,000
20,000 DLHs
=
P74 per DLH
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
b.
Model
HY5
AS2
Direct materials......................................................................
P35.00
P25.00
Direct labor:
P20 per hour × 0.2 DLH, 0.4 DLH....................................
4.00
8.00
Manufacturing overhead:
P74 per hour × 0.2 DLH, 0.4 DLH....................................
14.80
29.60
Total unit product cost............................................................
P53.80
P62.60
Requirement 2
a. Predetermined overhead rates for the activity cost pools:
(a)
Estimated
Activity Cost Pool
Total Cost
Machine setups.................P180,000
Special milling..................P300,000
General factory.................
P1,000,000
(b)
Estimated
Total Activity
250 setups
1,000 MHs
20,000 DLHs
(a) ÷ (b)
Activity Rate
P720 per setup
P300 per MH
P50 per DLH
The overhead applied to each product can be determined as follows:
Model HY5
(a)
Predetermined
Activity Cost Pool
Overhead Rate
Machine setups....................................................................................
P720 per setup
Special milling.....................................................................................
P300 per MH
General factory....................................................................................
P50 per DLH
Total manufacturing overhead cost (a)................................................
Number of units produced (b).............................................................
Overhead cost per unit (a) ÷ (b)..........................................................
(b)
Activity
150 setups
1,000 MHs
4,000 DLHs
(a) × (b)
Overhead
Applied
P108,000
300,000
200,000
P608,000
20,000
P30.40
Model AS2
(a)
Predetermined
Activity Cost Pool
Overhead Rate
Machine setups....................................................................................
P720 per setup
13-175
(b)
Activity
100 setups
(a) × (b)
Overhead
Applied
P 72,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Special milling.....................................................................................
P300 per MH
0 MHs
General factory....................................................................................
P50 per DLH
16,000 DLHs
Total manufacturing overhead cost (a)................................................
Number of units produced (b).............................................................
Overhead cost per unit (a) ÷ (b)..........................................................
0
800,000
P872,000
40,000
P21.80
b. The unit product cost of each model under activitybased costing would be computed as follows:
Model
HY5
AS2
Direct materials........................................................................................................
P35.00
P25.00
Direct labor (P20 per DLH × 0.2 DLH; P20 per DLH × 04.DLH)...........................
4.00
8.00
Manufacturing overhead (above)..............................................................................
30.40
21.80
Total unit product cost..............................................................................................
P69.40
P54.80
Comparing these unit cost figures with the unit costs in Part 1(b), we find
that the unit product cost for Model HY5 has increased from P53.80 to
P69.40, and the unit product cost for Model AS2 has decreased from
P62.60 to P54.80.
Requirement 3
It is especially important to note that, even under activity-based costing, 68%
of the company’s overhead costs continue to be applied to products on the
basis of direct labor-hours:
Machine setups (number of setups)............................P 180,000
Special milling (machine-hours)................................. 300,000
General factory (direct labor-hours)........................... 1,000,000
Total overhead cost.....................................................P1,480,000
12%
20
68
100%
Thus, the shift in overhead cost from the high-volume product (Model AS2) to
the low-volume product (Model HY5) occurred as a result of reassigning only
32% of the company’s overhead costs.
The increase in unit product cost for Model HY5 can be explained as follows:
First, where possible, overhead costs have been traced to the products rather
than being lumped together and spread uniformly over production. Therefore,
the special milling costs, which are traceable to Model HY5, have all been
assigned to Model HY5 and none assigned to Model AS2 under the activity13-176
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
based costing approach. It is common in industry to have some products that
require special handling or special milling of some type. This is especially true
in modern factories that produce a variety of products. Activity-based costing
provides a vehicle for assigning these costs to the appropriate products.
Second, the costs associated with the batch-level activity (machine setups)
have also been assigned to the specific products to which they relate. These
costs have been assigned according to the number of setups completed for
each product. However, since a batch-level activity is involved, another factor
affecting unit costs comes into play. That factor is batch size. Some products
are produced in large batches and some are produced in small batches. The
smaller the batch, the higher the cost per unit of the batch activity. In the
case at hand, the data can be analyzed as shown below.
Model HY5:
Cost to complete one setup [see 2(a)]......................................... P720
Number of units processed per setup
(20,000 units ÷ 150 setups)...................................................133.33
Setup cost per unit (a) ÷ (b)....................................................... P5.40
Model AS2:
Cost to complete one setup (above)............................................ P720
Number of units processed per setup
(40,000 units ÷ 100 setups)................................................... 400
Setup cost per unit (a) ÷ (b)....................................................... P1.80
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Thus, the cost per unit for setups is three times as great for Model HY5, the
low-volume product, as it is for Model AS2, the high-volume product. Such
differences in cost are obscured when direct labor-hours (or any other
volume measure) is used as the basis for applying overhead cost to products.
In sum, overhead cost has shifted from the high-volume product to the lowvolume product as a result of more appropriately assigning some costs to the
products on the basis of the activities involved, rather than on the basis of
direct labor-hours.
V. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
A
D
C
B
11.
12.
13.
14.
B
D
C
A
21.
21.
22.
23.
D
A
B
A
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
D
A
B
D
C
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
C
D
D
C
B
A
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
B
D
B
C
A
C
CHAPTER 12
VARIABLE COSTING
I.
Questions
1. The variable costing technique does not consider fixed costs as
unimportant or irrelevant, but it maintains that the distinction between
behaviors of different costs is crucial for certain decisions.
2. The central issue in variable costing is what is the proper timing for
release of fixed manufacturing overhead as expense: at the time of
incurrence, or at the time the finished units to which the fixed overhead
relates are sold.
3. Direct costing would be more accurately called variable or marginal
costing because in substance it is the inventory costing method which
applies only variable production costs to product; fixed factory overhead
is not assigned to product.
4. Marketing and administrative costs are treated as period costs under both
variable costing and absorption costing methods of product costing.
5. Under absorption costing, as a company manufactures units of product,
the fixed manufacturing overhead costs of the period are added to the
units, along with direct materials, direct labor, and variable manufacturing
overhead. If some of these units are not sold by the end of the period, then
they are carried into the next period as inventory.
The fixed
manufacturing overhead cost attached to the units in ending inventory
follow the units into the next period as part of their inventory cost. When
the units carried over as inventory are finally sold, the fixed
manufacturing overhead cost that has been carried over with the units is
included as part of that period’s cost of goods sold.
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
6. Many accountants and managers believe absorption costing does a better
job of matching costs with revenues than variable costing. They argue
that all manufacturing costs must be assigned to products to properly
match the costs of producing units of product with the revenues from the
units when they are sold. They believe that the fixed costs of depreciation,
taxes, insurance, supervisory salaries, and so on, are just as essential to
manufacturing products as are the variable costs.
7. If fixed manufacturing overhead cost is released from inventory, then
inventory levels must have decreased and therefore production must have
been less than sales.
8. Under absorption costing it is possible to increase net operating income
without increasing sales by increasing the level of production. If
production exceeds sales, units of product are added to inventory. These
units carry a portion of the current period’s fixed manufacturing overhead
costs into the inventory account, thereby reducing the current period’s
reported expenses and causing net operating income to rise.
9. Generally speaking, variable costing cannot be used externally for
financial reporting purposes nor can it be used for tax purposes.
10. If production exceeds sales, absorption costing will show higher net
operating income than variable costing. The reason is that inventories will
increase and therefore part of the fixed manufacturing overhead cost of
the current period will be deferred in inventory to the next period under
absorption costing. By contrast, all of the fixed manufacturing overhead
cost of the current period will be charged immediately against revenues as
a period cost under variable costing.
11. Absorption and variable costing differ in how they handle fixed
manufacturing overhead. Under absorption costing, fixed manufacturing
overhead is treated as a product cost and hence is an asset until products
are sold. Under variable costing, fixed manufacturing overhead is treated
as a period cost and is expensed on the current period’s income statement.
12. Advocates of variable costing argue that fixed manufacturing costs are not
really the cost of any particular unit of product. If a unit is made or not,
the total fixed manufacturing costs will be exactly the same. Therefore,
how can one say that these costs are part of the costs of the products?
These costs are incurred to have the capacity to make products during a
particular period and should be charged against that period as period costs
according to the matching principle.
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Variable and Absorption Costing Unit Product Costs and
Income Statements)
Requirement 1
a. The unit product cost under absorption costing would be:
Direct materials..........................................................................
Direct labor.................................................................................
Variable manufacturing overhead................................................
Total variable manufacturing costs.............................................
Fixed manufacturing overhead (P160,000 ÷ 20,000 units)..........
Unit product cost........................................................................
P18
7
2
27
8
P35
b. The absorption costing income statement:
Sales (16,000 units × P50 per unit)........................
Less cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory...........................................
Add cost of goods manufactured
(20,000 units × P35 per unit).........................
Goods available for sale.....................................
Less ending inventory
(4,000 units × P35 per unit)...........................
Gross margin..........................................................
Less selling and administrative expenses................
Net operating income.............................................
P800,000
P
0
700,000
700,000
140,000
560,000
240,000
190,000*
P 50,000
*(16,000 units × P5 per unit) + P110,000 = P190,000.
Requirement 2
a. The unit product cost under variable costing would be:
Direct materials...............................................................................
Direct labor.....................................................................................
Variable manufacturing overhead.....................................................
Unit product cost.............................................................................
b. The variable costing income statement:
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P18
7
2
P27
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Sales (16,000 units × P50 per unit)......................
Less variable expenses:
Variable cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory......................................
Add variable manufacturing costs
(20,000 units × P27 per unit)....................
Goods available for sale................................
Less ending inventory
(4,000 units × P27 per unit)......................
Variable cost of goods sold...............................
Variable selling expense
(16,000 units × P5 per unit)..........................
Contribution margin.............................................
Less fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead..........................
Fixed selling and administrative........................
Net operating income............................................
P800,000
P
0
540,000
540,000
108,000
432,000 *
80,000
160,000
110,000
512,000
288,000
270,000
P 18,000
* The variable cost of goods sold could be computed more simply as:
16,000 units × P27 per unit = P432,000.
Exercise 2 (Variable and Absorption Costing Unit Product Costs)
Requirement 1
Sales (40,000 units × P33.75 per unit)....................................
P1,350,000
Less variable expenses:
Variable cost of goods sold
(40,000 units × P16 per unit*).........................................
P640,000
Variable selling and administrative expenses
(40,000 units × P3 per unit).............................................
120,000
760,000
Contribution margin................................................................
590,000
Less fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead.............................................
250,000
Fixed selling and administrative expenses............................
300,000
550,000
Net operating income...............................................................
P 40,000
*Direct materials.......................................................................................................
P10
Direct labor.............................................................................................................
4
Variable manufacturing overhead.............................................................................
2
Total variable manufacturing cost............................................................................
P16
Requirement 2
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Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
The difference in net operating income can be explained by the P50,000 in
fixed manufacturing overhead deferred in inventory under the absorption
costing method:
Variable costing net operating income..........................................
Add: Fixed manufacturing overhead cost
deferred in inventory under absorption
costing: 10,000 units × P5 per unit in
fixed manufacturing overhead cost............................................
Absorption costing net operating income......................................
P40,000
50,000
P90,000
Exercise 3 (Variable Costing Unit Product Cost and Income Statement;
Break-even)
Requirement 1
Under variable costing, only the variable manufacturing costs are included in
product costs.
Direct materials............................................................................
Direct labor..................................................................................
Variable manufacturing overhead.................................................
Unit product cost..........................................................................
P 600
300
100
P1,000
Note that selling and administrative expenses are not treated as product costs;
that is, they are not included in the costs that are inventoried. These expenses
are always treated as period costs and are charged against the current period’s
revenue.
Requirement 2
The variable costing income statement appears below:
Sales.......................................................................
P18,000,000
Less variable expenses:
Variable cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory....................................... P
0
Add variable manufacturing costs
(10,000 units × P1,000 per unit)................. 10,000,000
Goods available for sale................................. 10,000,000
Less ending inventory (1,000 units × P1,000
1,000,000
13-182
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
per unit)...................................................
Variable cost of goods sold*................................
Variable selling and administrative (9,000 units ×
P200 per unit).....................................................
Contribution margin................................................
Less fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead................................
Fixed selling and administrative..............................
Net operating loss....................................................
9,000,000
1,800,000 10,800,000
7,200,000
3,000,000
4,500,000
7,500,000
P (300,000)
* The variable cost of goods sold could be computed more simply as: 9,000 units
sold × P1,000 per unit = P9,000,000.
Requirement 3
The break-even point in units sold
can be computed using the
contribution margin per unit as follows:
Selling price per unit................................................................................................
P2,000
Variable cost per unit...............................................................................................
1,200
Contribution margin per unit...................................................................................
P 800
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
Exercise
4 (Absorption
Break-even
unit Costing
sales Unit
= Product Cost and Income Statement)
Requirement 1
=
P7,500,000
P800 per unit
=
9,375 units
Under absorption costing, all manufacturing
costs (variable and fixed) are
included in product costs.
Direct materials.................................................................
Direct labor.......................................................................
Variable manufacturing overhead......................................
Fixed manufacturing overhead
(P3,000,000 ÷ 10,000 units)..........................................
Unit product cost...............................................................
P 600
300
100
300
P1,300
Requirement 2
The absorption costing income statement appears below:
Sales (9,000 units × P2,000 per unit)...................................
13-183
P18,000,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory.........................................................
P
0
Add cost of goods manufactured
(10,000 units × P1,300 per unit)..................................
13,000,000
Goods available for sale...................................................
13,000,000
Less ending inventory
(1,000 units × P1,300 per unit)....................................
1,300,000
Gross margin........................................................................
Selling and administrative expenses:
Variable selling and administrative (9,000 units
× P200 per unit)...........................................................
1,800,000
Fixed selling and administrative.......................................
4,500,000
Net operating income...........................................................
11,700,000
6,300,000
P
6,300,000
0
Note: The company apparently has exactly zero net operating income even
though its sales are below the break-even point computed in Exercise 3. This
occurs because P300,000 of fixed manufacturing overhead has been deferred
in inventory and does not appear on the income statement prepared using
absorption costing.
Exercise 5 (Variable Costing Income Statement; Explanation of Difference in Net
Operating Income)
Requirement 1
2,000 units × P60 per unit fixed manufacturing overhead = P120,000
Requirement 2
The variable costing income statement appears below:
Sales..............................................................................
P4,000,000
Variable expenses:
Variable cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory...............................................
P
0
Add variable manufacturing costs
(10,000 units × P310 per unit)........................3,100,000
Goods available for sale.........................................3,100,000
Less ending inventory
(2,000 units × P310 per unit)............................. 620,000
Variable cost of goods sold*.......................................2,480,000
13-184
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Variable selling and administrative
(8,000 units × P20 per unit)................................... 160,000 2,640,000
Contribution margin.......................................................
1,360,000
Fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead................................... 600,000
Fixed selling and administrative................................. 400,000 1,000,000
Net operating income.....................................................
P 360,000
* The variable cost of goods sold could be computed more simply as: 8,000
units sold × P310 per unit = P2,480,000.
The difference in net operating income between variable and absorption
costing can be explained by the deferral of fixed manufacturing overhead cost
in inventory that has taken place under the absorption costing approach. Note
from part (1) that P120,000 of fixed manufacturing overhead cost has been
deferred in inventory to the next period. Thus, net operating income under the
absorption costing approach is P120,000 higher than it is under variable
costing.
Exercise 6 (Evaluating Absorption and Variable Costing as Alternative
Costing Methods)
Requirement 1
a. By assumption, the unit selling price, unit variable costs, and total fixed
costs are constant from year to year. Consequently, variable costing net
operating income will vary with sales. If sales increase, variable costing
net operating income will increase. If sales decrease, variable costing net
operating income will decrease. If sales are constant, variable costing net
operating income will be constant. Because variable costing net operating
income was P16,847 each year, unit sales must have been the same in
each year.
The same is not true of absorption costing net operating income. Sales and
absorption costing net operating income do not necessarily move in the
same direction because changes in inventories also affect absorption
costing net operating income.
b. When variable costing net operating income exceeds absorption costing
net operating income, sales exceeds production. Inventories shrink and
fixed manufacturing overhead costs are released from inventories. In
contrast, when variable costing net operating income is less than
absorption costing net operating income, production exceeds sales.
Inventories grow and fixed manufacturing overhead costs are deferred in
13-185
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
inventories. The year-by-year effects are shown below.
Year 1
Variable costing NOI =
Absorption costing
NOI
Production = Sales
Inventories remain the
same
Year 2
Variable costing NOI <
Absorption costing
NOI
Production > Sales
Year 3
Variable costing NOI >
Absorption costing
NOI
Production < Sales
Inventories grow
Inventories shrink
Requirement 2
a. As discussed in part (1 a) above, unit sales and variable costing net
operating income move in the same direction when unit selling prices and
the cost structure are constant. Because variable costing net operating
income declined, unit sales must have also declined. This is true even
though the absorption costing net operating income increased. How can
that be? By manipulating production (and inventories) it may be possible
to maintain or increase the level of absorption costing net operating
income even though unit sales decline. However, eventually inventories
will grow to be so large that they cannot be ignored.
b. As stated in part (1 b) above, when variable costing net operating income
is less than absorption costing net operating income, production exceeds
sales. Inventories grow and fixed manufacturing overhead costs are
deferred in inventories. The year-by-year effects are shown below.
Year 1
Variable costing NOI =
Absorption costing
NOI
Production = Sales
Inventories remain the
same
Year 2
Variable costing NOI <
Absorption costing NOI
Production > Sales
Year 3
Variable costing NOI
< Absorption costing
NOI
Production > Sales
Inventories grow
Inventories grow
Requirement 3
Variable costing appears to provide a much better picture of economic reality
than absorption costing in the examples above. In the first case, absorption
costing net operating income fluctuates wildly even though unit sales are the
same each year and unit selling prices, unit variable costs, and total fixed
costs remain the same. In the second case, absorption costing net operating
income increases from year to year even though unit sales decline. Absorption
13-186
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
costing is much more subject to manipulation than variable costing. Simply by
changing production levels (and thereby deferring or releasing costs from
inventory) absorption costing net operating income can be manipulated
upward or downward.
Note: This exercise is based on the following data:
Common data:
Annual fixed manufacturing costs...............................
Contribution margin per unit......................................
Annual fixed SGA costs...............................................
P153,153
P35,000
P180,000
Part 1:
Year 1
Beginning inventory.............................................................
1
Production.............................................................................
10
Sales......................................................................................
10
Ending...................................................................................
1
Year 2
1
11
10
2
Year 3
2
9
10
1
Variable costing net operating income.................................P16,84
7
P16,84
7
P16,84
7
Fixed manufacturing overhead in beginning
P15,31
inventory*......................................................................
5
Fixed manufacturing overhead in ending inventory............P15,31
5
Absorption costing net operating income............................P16,84
7
P15,31
5
P27,84
6
P29,37
8
P27,84
6
P17,01
7
P6,018
* Fixed manufacturing overhead in beginning inventory is assumed in both parts 1 and
2 for Year 1. A FIFO inventory flow assumption is used.
Part 2:
Year 1
Beginning inventory...................................................
1
Production..................................................................
10
Sales...........................................................................
10
Ending........................................................................
1
Year 2
1
12
9
4
4
20
8
16
Variable costing net operating income (loss)............
P16,847
(P18,153
)
(P53,153)
Fixed manufacturing overhead in beginning
inventory*...........................................................P15,315
P15,315
P51,051
13-187
Year 3
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Fixed manufacturing overhead in ending
inventory.............................................................P15,315
Absorption costing net operating income.................P16,847
P51,051
P17,583
P122,522
P18,318
* Fixed manufacturing overhead in beginning inventory is assumed in both parts 1 and
2 for Year 1. A FIFO inventory flow assumption is used.
III. Problems
Problem 1
Requirement 1: Variable Costing Method
Romero Parts, Inc.
Income Statement - Manufacturing
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Sales
Less: Variable Cost of Sales
Inventory, Jan. 1
Current Production
Total Available for Sale
Inventory, Dec. 31
Contribution Margin
Less Fixed Costs and Expenses
Net Income
P20,700,000
P1,155,000
7,700,000
P8,855,000
805,000
8,050,000
P12,650,000
6,000,000
P 6,650,000
Requirement 2: Absorption Costing Method
Romero Parts, Inc.
Income Statement - Manufacturing
For the Year Ending December 31, 2006
Sales
Less Cost of goods sold:
Inventory, Jan. 1
Current Production
Total Available for Sale
Inventory, Dec. 31
Cost of Sales - Standard
Favorable Capacity Variance
Income from Manufacturing
13-188
P26,100,000
P 1,380,000
16,100,000
P17,480,000
747,500
P16,732,500
900,000
15,832,500
P10,267,500
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement 3: Variable Costing Method
Romero Parts, Inc.
Income Statement - Manufacturing
For the Year Ending December 31, 2006
Sales
Less Variable Cost of Sales:
Inventory, Jan. 1
Production
Total Available for Sale
Inventory, Dec. 31
Contribution Margin - Manufacturing
Less Fixed Cost
Income from Manufacturing
P26,100,000
P
805,000
9,800,000
P10,605,000
455,000
10,150,000
P15,950,000
5,400,000
P10,550,000
Reconciliation
Net Income, absorption costing
Add Fixed Factory Overhead Inventory, 1/1
Total
Less Fixed Factory Overhead Inventory, 12/31
Net Income, direct costing
P10,267,500
575,000
P10,842,500
292,500
P10,550,000
Problem 2
Requirement 1
Honey Company
Income Statement - Direct Costing
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Sales
Less Variable Cost of Sales:
Finished Goods Inventory, 1/1
Current Production
Total Available for Sale
Finished Goods Inventory, 12/31
Variable Cost of Sale - Standard
Unfavorable Variance
13-189
P280,000
P 4,000
120,000
P124,000
12,000
P112,000
5,000
117,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Contribution Margin - Manufacturing
Less Variable Marketing Expenses
Contribution Margin - Final
Less Fixed Costs and Expenses:
Fixed Factory Overhead
Fixed Marketing and
Administrative Expenses
Net Income
P163,000
28,000
P135,000
P 54,000
20,000
74,000
P 61,000
Requirement 2
Honey Company
Income Statement - Absorption Costing
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Sales
P280,000
Less: Cost of Sales
Finished goods inventory, Jan. 1 (1,000 x P5.50)
Current production costs
Variable (30,000 x P4.00)
P120,000
Fixed (30,000 x P1.50)
45,000
Less: Finished goods inventory, Dec. 31
(3,000 x P5.50)
Cost of Sales - at Standard
Add (Deduct) Variance
Unfavorable variable manufacturing
costs variances
Underapplied fixed factory overhead
(6,000 x P1.50)
Cost of Sales - Actual
Gross Profit
Less: Selling and administrative expenses
Variable
Fixed
Net Income
Problem 3 (Variable Costing Income Statement; Reconciliation)
Requirement 1
13-190
P
5,500
165,000
P170,500
16,500
P154,000
5,000
9,000
P168,000
P112,000
28,000
20,000
P 48,000
P 64,000
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
The unit product cost under the variable costing
approach would be computed as follows:
Direct materials.......................................................................................................
P 8
Direct labor.............................................................................................................
10
Variable manufacturing overhead.............................................................................
2
Unit product cost.....................................................................................................
P20
With this figure, the variable costing income statements can be prepared:
Year 1
Year 2
Sales........................................................................................................................
P1,000,000 P1,500,000
Less variable expenses:
Variable cost of goods sold @ P20 per unit..........................................................
400,000
600,000
Variable selling and administrative
@ P3 per unit...................................................................................................
60,000
90,000
Total variable expenses............................................................................................
460,000
690,000
Contribution margin................................................................................................
540,000
810,000
Less fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead.............................................................................
350,000
350,000
Fixed selling and administrative...........................................................................
250,000
250,000
Total fixed expenses................................................................................................
600,000
600,000
Net operating income (loss).....................................................................................
P (60,000) P 210,000
Requirement 2
Variable costing net operating income (loss).................
P (60,000) P 210,000
Add: Fixed manufacturing overhead cost deferred
in inventory under absorption costing (5,000
units × P14 per unit)................................................ 70,000
Deduct: Fixed manufacturing overhead cost
released from inventory under absorption
costing (5,000 units × P14 per unit)........................
(70,000)
Absorption costing net operating income......................
P 10,000 P 140,000
Problem 4 (Prepare and Interpret Statements; Changes in Both Sales and
Production; JIT)
Requirement 1
Year 1
P1,000,000
Sales
Less variable expenses:
13-191
Year 2
Year 3
P 800,000 P1,000,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Variable cost of goods sold
@ P4 per unit
Variable selling and administrative
@ P2 per unit
Total variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead
Fixed selling and administrative
Total fixed expenses
Net operating income (loss)
200,000
160,000
200,000
100,000
300,000
700,000
80,000
240,000
560,000
100,000
300,000
700,000
600,000
70,000
670,000
P 30,000
600,000
600,000
70,000
70,000
670,000
670,000
P(110,000) P 30,000
Requirement 2
a.
Year 1
P 4
Variable manufacturing cost
Fixed manufacturing cost:
P600,000 ÷ 50,000 units
P600,000 ÷ 60,000 units
P600,000 ÷ 40,000 units
Unit product cost
Year 2
P 4
Year 3
P 4
12
10
P16
P14
15
P19
b.
Variable costing net operating income
(loss)
Add (Deduct): Fixed manufacturing
overhead cost deferred in inventory
from Year 2 to Year 3 under
absorption costing (20,000 units ×
P10 per unit)
Add: Fixed manufacturing overhead
cost deferred in inventory from Year
3 to the future under absorption
costing (10,000 units × P15 per unit)
P30,000 P(110,000)
200,000
P 30,000
(200,000)
150,000
Absorption costing net operating income
(loss)
P30,000
P 90,000
P(20,000)
Requirement 3
Production went up sharply in Year 2 thereby reducing the unit product cost,
as shown in (2a). This reduction in cost, combined with the large amount of
13-192
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
fixed manufacturing overhead cost deferred in inventory for the year, more
than offset the loss of revenue. The net result is that the company’s net
operating income rose even though sales were down.
Requirement 4
The fixed manufacturing overhead cost deferred in inventory from Year 2 was
charged against Year 3 operations, as shown in the reconciliation in (2b). This
added charge against Year 3 operations was offset somewhat by the fact that
part of Year 3’s fixed manufacturing overhead costs was deferred in inventory
to future years [again see (2b)]. Overall, the added costs charged against Year
3 were greater than the costs deferred to future years, so the company reported
less income for the year even though the same number of units was sold as in
Year 1.
Requirement 5
a. Several things would have been different if the company had been using
JIT inventory methods. First, in each year production would have been
geared to sales so that little or no inventory of finished goods would have
been built up in either Year 2 or Year 3. Second, unit product costs
probably would have been the same in all three years, since these costs
would have been established on the basis of expected sales (50,000 units)
for each year. Third, since only 40,000 units were sold in Year 2, the
company would have produced only that number of units and therefore
would have had some underapplied overhead cost for the year. (See the
discussion on underapplied overhead in the following paragraph.)
b. If JIT had been in use, the net operating income under absorption costing
would have been the same as under variable costing in all three years.
The reason is that with production geared to sales, there would have been
no ending inventory on hand, and therefore there would have been no fixed
manufacturing overhead costs deferred in inventory to other years.
Assuming that the company expected to sell 50,000 units in
each year and that unit product costs were set on
the basis of that level of expected activity, the
income statements under absorption costing would
have appeared as follows:
Year 1
P1,000,000
Sales
Less cost of goods sold:
13-193
Year 2
Year 3
P 800,000 P1,000,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Cost of goods manufactured @ P16 per unit
Add underapplied overhead
Cost of goods sold
Gross margin
Selling and administrative expenses
Net operating income (loss)
800,000
800,000
200,000
170,000
P 30,000
640,000 *
120,000 **
760,000
40,000
150,000
P(110,000) P
800,000
800,000
200,000
170,000
30,000
* 40,000 units × P16 per unit = P640,000.
** 10,000 units not produced × P12 per unit fixed manufacturing overhead cost =
P120,000 fixed manufacturing overhead cost not applied to products.
Problem 5 (Contrasting Variable and Absorption Costing)
Requirement 1 (a)
Under absorption costing, all manufacturing costs, variable and fixed, are
included in unit product costs:
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable manufacturing overhead
Fixed manufacturing overhead
(P120,000  10,000 units)
(P120,000  6,000 units)
Unit product cost
Year 1
P11
6
3
Year 2
P11
6
3
12
20
P40
P32
Requirement 1 (b)
The absorption costing income statements follow:
Year 1
Sales (8,000
units x P50
per unit)
Cost of goods
sold:
Beginning
inventory
Year 2
P400,00
0
P
0
P400,00
0
P
64,000
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Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Add cost of
goods
manufactur
ed (10,000
units x P32
per unit;
6,000 units
x P40 per
unit)
Goods
available for
sale
Less ending
inventory
(2,000 units
x P32 per
unit; 0 units
x P40 per
unit)
Gross margin
Selling and
administrativ
e expenses
(8,000 units
x P4 per unit
+ P70,000)
Net operating
income
320,0
00
240,00
0
320,00
0
304,00
0
64,00
0
256,00
0
144,000
102,00
0
P
42,000
Requirement 2 (a)
13-195
0
304,00
0
96,000
102,00
0
P
(6,000)
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Under variable costing, only the variable manufacturing costs are included in
unit product costs:
Year 1
P11
6
3
P20
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable manufacturing overhead
Unit product cost
Year 2
P11
6
3
P20
Requirement 2 (b)
The variable costing income statements follow. Notice that the variable cost
of goods sold is computed in a simpler, more direct manner than in the
examples provided earlier. On a variable costing income statement, this
simple approach or the more complex approach illustrated earlier is
acceptable for computing the cost of goods sold.
Year 1
Sales (8,000
units x P50
per unit)
Variable
expenses:
Variable cost
of goods sold
(8,000 units
x P20 per
unit)
Variable
selling and
administrati
ve (8,000
units x P4
per unit)
Year 2
P400,00
0
P160,00
0
32,00
0
13-196
P400,00
0
P160,00
0
192,00
0
32,00
0
192,00
0
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Contribution
margin
Fixed
expenses:
Fixed
manufacturin
g overhead
Fixed selling
and
administrati
ve expenses
Net operating
income
208,000
120,000
70,00
0
208,000
120,000
190,00
0
P
18,000
70,00
0
190,00
0
P
18,000
Requirement 3
The reconciliation of the variable and absorption costing net operating incomes
follows:
Variable costing net operating income
Add fixed manufacturing overhead costs
deferred in inventory under absorption
costing (2,000 units x P12 per unit)
Deduct fixed manufacturing overhead
costs released from inventory under
absorption costing (2,000 units x P12
per unit)
Absorption costing net operating income
Year 1
P18,000
Year 2
P18,000
24,000
P42,000
(24,000)
P(6,000)
Problem 6 (Variable Costing Income Statement; Reconciliation)
Requirement 1
Sales (40,000 units × P33.75 per unit).......................................... P1,350,000
Variable expenses:
Variable cost of goods sold
(40,000 units × P16 per unit*)...............................................
P640,000
13-197
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Variable selling and administrative expenses
(40,000 units × P3 per unit)...................................................
120,000
Contribution margin......................................................................
760,000
590,000
Fixed expenses:
Fixed manufacturing overhead...................................................
250,000
Fixed selling and administrative expenses..................................
300,000
550,000
Net operating income..................................................................... P 40,000
* Direct materials........................................................
Direct labor..............................................................
Variable manufacturing overhead..............................
Total variable manufacturing cost.............................
P10
4
2
P16
Requirement 2
The difference in net operating income can be explained by the P50,000 in
fixed manufacturing overhead deferred in inventory under the absorption
costing method:
Variable costing net operating income..................................................................
P40,000
Add: Fixed manufacturing overhead cost deferred in inventory
under absorption costing: 10,000 units × P5 per unit in fixed
manufacturing overhead cost............................................................................
50,000
Absorption costing net operating income..............................................................
P90,000
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
D
B
B
B
B
C
A
B
A
A
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
B
A
C
D
B
A
C
C
B
C
13-198
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
CHAPTER 13
COST-VOLUME-PROFIT RELATIONSHIPS
I.
Questions
1. The total “contribution margin” is the excess of total revenue over total
variable costs. The unit contribution margin is the excess of the unit price
over the unit variable costs.
2. Total contribution margin:
Selling price - manufacturing variable costs expensed - nonmanufacturing
variable costs expensed = Total contribution margin.
Gross margin:
Selling price - variable manufacturing costs expensed - fixed
manufacturing costs expensed = Gross margin.
3. A company operating at “break-even” is probably not covering costs
which are not recorded in the accounting records. An example of such a
cost is the opportunity cost of owner-invested capital. In some small
businesses, owner-managers may not take a salary as large as the
opportunity cost of forgone alternative employment.
Hence, the
opportunity cost of owner labor may be excluded.
4. In the short-run, without considering asset replacement, net operating cash
flows would be expected to exceed net income, because the latter includes
depreciation expense, while the former does not. Thus, the cash basis
break-even would be lower than the accrual break-even if asset
replacement is ignored. However, if asset replacement costs are taken into
account, (i.e., on a “cradle to grave” basis), the long-run net cash flows
equal long-run accrual net income, and the long-run break-even points are
the same.
5. Both unit price and unit variable costs are expressed on a per product
basis, as:
 = (P1 - V1) X1 + (P2 - V2) X2 +  + (Pn - Vn) Xn - F,
for all products 1 to n where:

P
=
=
operating profit,
average unit selling price,
13-199
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
V =
X =
F =
average unit variable cost,
quantity of units,
total fixed costs for the period.
6. If the relative proportions of products (i.e., the product “mix”) is not held
constant, products may be substituted for each other. Thus, there may be
almost an infinite number of ways to achieve a target operating profit. As
shown from the multiple product profit equation, there are several
unknowns for one equation:
 = (P1 - V1) X1 + (P2 - V2) X2 +  + (Pn - Vn) Xn - F,
for all products 1 to n.
7. A constant product mix is assumed to simplify the analysis. Otherwise,
there may be no unique solution.
8. Operating leverage measures the impact on net operating income of a
given percentage change in sales. The degree of operating leverage at a
given level of sales is computed by dividing the contribution margin at that
level of sales by the net operating income.
9. Three approaches to break-even analysis are (a) the equation method, (b)
the contribution margin method, and (c) the graphical method. In the
equation method, the equation is: Sales = Variable expenses + Fixed
expenses + Profits, where profits are zero at the break-even point. The
equation is solved to determine the break-even point in units or peso sales.
10. The margin of safety is the excess of budgeted (or actual) sales over the
break-even volume of sales. It states the amount by which sales can drop
before losses begin to be incurred.
11. The sales mix is the relative proportions in which a company’s products
are sold. The usual assumption in cost-volume-profit analysis is that the
sales mix will not change.
12. A higher break-even point and a lower net operating income could result if
the sales mix shifted from high contribution margin products to low
contribution margin products. Such a shift would cause the average
contribution margin ratio in the company to decline, resulting in less total
contribution margin for a given amount of sales. Thus, net operating
income would decline. With a lower contribution margin ratio, the breakeven point would be higher since it would require more sales to cover the
same amount of fixed costs.
13. The contribution margin (CM) ratio is the ratio of the total contribution
margin to total sales revenue. It can be used in a variety of ways. For
example, the change in total contribution margin from a given change in
13-200
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
total sales revenue can be estimated by multiplying the change in total
sales revenue by the CM ratio. If fixed costs do not change, then a peso
increase in contribution margin will result in a peso increase in net
operating income. The CM ratio can also be used in break-even analysis.
Therefore, knowledge of a product’s CM ratio is extremely helpful in
forecasting contribution margin and net operating income.
14. Incremental analysis focuses on the changes in revenues and costs that
will result from a particular action.
15. All other things equal, Company B, with its higher fixed costs and lower
variable costs, will have a higher contribution margin ratio than Company
A. Therefore, it will tend to realize a larger increase in contribution
margin and in profits when sales increase.
16. (a) If the selling price decreased, then the total revenue line would rise less
steeply, and the break-even point would occur at a higher unit volume. (b)
If the fixed cost increased, then both the fixed cost line and the total cost
line would shift upward and the break-even point would occur at a higher
unit volume. (c) If the variable cost increased, then the total cost line
would rise more steeply and the break-even point would occur at a higher
unit volume.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Using a Contribution Format Income Statement)
Requirement 1
Total
Per Unit
Sales (30,000 units × 1.15 = 34,500 units)..............................................................
P172,500
P5.00
Less variable expenses.............................................................................................
103,500
3.00
Contribution margin................................................................................................
69,000
P2.00
Less fixed expenses.................................................................................................
50,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
P 19,000
Requirement 2
Sales (30,000 units × 1.20 = 36,000 units)..............................................................
P162,000
P4.50
Less variable expenses.............................................................................................
108,000
3.00
Contribution margin................................................................................................
54,000
P1.50
Less fixed expenses.................................................................................................
50,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
P 4,000
13-201
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Requirement 3
Sales (30,000 units × 0.95 = 28,500 units)..............................................................
P156,750
P5.50
Less variable expenses.............................................................................................
85,500
3.00
Contribution margin................................................................................................
71,250
P2.50
Less fixed expenses (P50,000 + P10,000)...............................................................
60,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
P 11,250
Requirement 4
Sales (30,000 units × 0.90 = 27,000 units)..............................................................
P151,200
P5.60
Less variable expenses.............................................................................................
86,400
3.20
Contribution margin................................................................................................
64,800
P2.40
Less fixed expenses.................................................................................................
50,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
P 14,800
Exercise 2 (Break-even Analysis and CVP Graphing)
Requirement 1
The contribution margin per person would be:
Price per ticket.........................................................................................................
P30
Less variable expenses:
Dinner..................................................................................................................
P7
Favors and program.............................................................................................
3
10
Contribution margin per person...............................................................................
P20
The fixed expenses of the Extravaganza total P8,000; therefore, the breakeven point would be computed as follows:
Sales
= Variable expenses + Fixed expense + Profits
P30Q
P20Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
P10Q + P8,000 + P0
P8,000
P8,000 ÷ P20 per person
400 persons; or, at P30 per person, P12,000
Alternative solution:
13-202
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
=
P8,000
P20 per person
=
400 persons
or, at P30 per person, P12,000.
Requirement 2
Variable cost per person (P7 + P3)..........................................................................
P10
Fixed cost per person (P8,000 ÷ 250 persons).........................................................
32
Ticket price per person to break even.......................................................................
P42
Requirement 3
Cost-volume-profit graph:
13-203
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Total Sales
Break-even point: 400 persons,
or P12,000 in sales
Total Expenses
Fixed Expenses
Exercise 3 (Break-even and Target Profit Analysis)
Requirement 1
Sales
P900Q
P270Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P630Q + P1,350,000 + P0
P1,350,000
P1,350,000 ÷ P270 per lantern
5,000 lanterns, or at P900 per lantern, P4,500,000 in sales
Alternative solution:
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
=
P1,350,000
P270 per lantern
=
5,000 lanterns
13-204
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
or at P900 per lantern, P4,500,000 in sales
Requirement 2
An increase in the variable expenses as a percentage of the selling price would
result in a higher break-even point. The reason is that if variable expenses
increase as a percentage of sales, then the contribution margin will decrease as
a percentage of sales. A lower CM ratio would mean that more lanterns would
have to be sold to generate enough contribution margin to cover the fixed
costs.
Requirement 3
Present:
Proposed:
8,000 Lanterns
10,000 Lanterns*
Total
Per Unit
Total
Per Unit
P7,200,000 P900
P8,100,000 P810 **
5,040,000
630
6,300,000 630
2,160,000 P270
1,800,000 P180
1,350,000
1,350,000
P 810,000
P 450,000
Sales
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less fixed expenses
Net operating income
* 8,000 lanterns × 1.25 = 10,000 lanterns
** P900 per lantern × 0.9 = P810 per lantern
As shown above, a 25% increase in volume is not enough to offset a 10%
reduction in the selling price; thus, net operating income decreases.
Requirement 4
Sales
P810Q
P180Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P630Q + P1,350,000 + P720,000
P2,070,000
P2,070,000 ÷ P180 per lantern
11,500 lanterns
Alternative solution:
Unit sales to attain
target profit
=
=
=
Fixed expenses + Target profit
Unit contribution margin
P1,350,000 + P720,000
P180 per lantern
11,500 lanterns
13-205
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Exercise 4 (Operating Leverage)
Requirement 1
Sales (30,000 doors)................................................................................................
P18,000,000
P600
Less variable expenses.............................................................................................
12,600,000
420
Contribution margin................................................................................................
5,400,000
P180
Less fixed expenses.................................................................................................
4,500,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
P 900,000
Degree of
operating leverage
=
Contribution margin
Net operating income
=
P5,400,000
P900,000
=
6
Requirement 2
a. Sales of 37,500 doors represents an increase of 7,500 doors, or 25%, over
present sales of 30,000 doors. Since the degree of operating leverage is 6,
net operating income should increase by 6 times as much, or by 150% (6
× 25%).
b. Expected total peso net operating income for the next year is:
Present net operating income...................................................................................
P 900,000
Expected increase in net operating income next year
(150% × P900,000).............................................................................................
1,350,000
Total expected net operating income........................................................................
P2,250,000
Exercise 5 (Multiproduct Break-even Analysis)
Requirement 1
Sales
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less fixed expenses
Net operating income
Model E700
Model J1500
Total Company
Amount
%
Amount
%
Amount
%
P700,000 100 P300,000 100 P1,000,000 100
280,000
P420,000
40
90,000
60 P210,000
13-206
30
70
370,000
630,000
598,500
P 31,500
37
63 *
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
* 630,000 ÷ P1,000,000 = 63%.
Requirement 2
The break-even point for the company as a whole would be:
Break-even point
Fixed expenses
=
in total peso sales
Overall CM ratio
P598,500
=
0.63
=
P950,000 in sales
Requirement 3
The additional contribution margin from the additional sales can be computed
as follows:
P50,000 × 63% CM ratio = P31,500
Assuming no change in fixed expenses, all of this additional contribution
margin should drop to the bottom line as increased net operating income.
This answer assumes no change in selling prices, variable costs per unit, fixed
expenses, or sales mix.
Exercise 6 (Break-even Analysis; Target Profit; Margin of Safety)
Requirement 1
Sales
P40Q
P12Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P28Q + P150,000 + P0
P150,000
P150,000 ÷ P12 per unit
12,500 units, or at P40 per unit, P500,000
Alternatively:
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
=
P150,000
P12 per unit
=
12,500 units
13-207
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
or, at P40 per unit, P500,000.
Requirement 2
The contribution margin at the break-even point is P150,000 since at that
point it must equal the fixed expenses.
Requirement 3
Unit sales to attain
target profit
=
Fixed expenses + Target profit
Unit contribution margin
=
P150,000 + P18,000
P12 per unit
=
14,000 units
Total
Unit
Sales (14,000 units × P40 per unit).........................................................................
P560,000
P40
Less variable expenses
(14,000 units × P28 per unit)...............................................................................
392,000
28
Contribution margin
(14,000 units × P12 per unit)...............................................................................
168,000
P12
Less fixed expenses.................................................................................................
150,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
P 18,000
Requirement 4
Margin of safety in peso terms:
Margin of safety in pesos
=
Total sales –
Break-even sales
=
P600,000
P500,000
–
Margin of safety in percentage terms:
Margin of safety
percentage
=
=
Margin of safety in pesos
Total sales
P100,000
P600,000
= 16.7% (rounded)
13-208
=
P100,000
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement 5
The CM ratio is 30%.
Expected total contribution margin: P680,000 × 30%.............................................
P204,000
Present total contribution margin: P600,000 × 30%................................................
180,000
Increased contribution margin..................................................................................
P 24,000
Alternative solution:
P80,000 incremental sales × 30% CM ratio = P24,000
Since in this case the company’s fixed expenses will not change, monthly net
operating income will increase by the amount of the increased contribution
margin, P24,000.
Exercise 7 (Changes in Variable Costs, Fixed Costs, Selling Price, and
Volume)
Requirement (1)
The following table shows the effect of the proposed change in monthly
advertising budget:
Sales With
Additional
Current
Advertising
Sales
Budget
Difference
Sales.............................................. P225,000
P240,000
P15,000
Variable expenses.......................... 135,000
144,000
9,000
Contribution margin......................
90,000
96,000
6,000
Fixed expenses..............................
75,000
83,000
8,000
Net operating income..................... P 15,000
P 13,000
P(2,000)
Assuming that there are no other important factors to be considered, the
increase in the advertising budget should not be approved since it would lead
to a decrease in net operating income of P2,000.
Alternative Solution 1
Expected total contribution margin:
13-209
P96,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
P240,000 × 40% CM ratio...........................................
Present total contribution margin:
P225,000 × 40% CM ratio...........................................
Incremental contribution margin.......................................
Change in fixed expenses:
Less incremental advertising expense............................
Change in net operating income........................................
90,000
6,000
8,000
P(2,000)
Alternative Solution 2
Incremental contribution margin:
P15,000 × 40% CM ratio............................................
Less incremental advertising expense................................
Change in net operating income........................................
P 6,000
8,000
P(2,000)
Requirement (2)
The P3 increase in variable costs will cause the unit contribution margin to
decrease from P30 to P27 with the following impact on net operating income:
Expected total contribution margin with the higher-quality
components:
3,450 units × P27 per unit................................................................P93,150
Present total contribution margin:
3,000 units × P30 per unit................................................................ 90,000
Change in total contribution margin.....................................................P 3,150
Assuming no change in fixed costs and all other factors remain the same, the
higher-quality components should be used.
Exercise 8 (Compute the Margin of Safety)
Requirement (1)
To compute the margin of safety, we must first compute the break-even unit
sales.
Sales
P25Q
P10Q
Q
Q
= Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
= P15Q + P8,500 + P0
= P8,500
= P8,500 ÷ P10 per unit
= 850 units
13-210
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Sales (at the budgeted volume of 1,000 units)................................... P25,000
Break-even sales (at 850 units)......................................................... 21,250
Margin of safety (in pesos)............................................................... P 3,750
Requirement (2)
The margin of safety as a percentage of sales is as follows:
Margin of safety (in pesos)......................................................
P3,750
÷ Sales....................................................................................
P25,000
Margin of safety as a percentage of sales................................
15.0%
Exercise 9 (Compute and Use the Degree of Operating Leverage)
Requirement (1)
The company’s degree of operating leverage would be computed as follows:
Contribution margin...................................
÷ Net operating income..............................
Degree of operating leverage......................
P36,000
P12,000
3.0
Requirement (2)
A 10% increase in sales should result in a 30% increase in net operating
income, computed as follows:
Degree of operating leverage.........................................................................
3.0
× Percent increase in sales.............................................................................
10%
Estimated percent increase in net operating income.......................................
30%
Requirement (3)
The new income statement reflecting the change in sales would be:
Sales..............................................
Variable expenses..........................
Contribution margin......................
Fixed expenses..............................
Net operating income.....................
Amount
P132,000
92,400
39,600
24,000
P 15,600
Percent of
Sales
100%
70%
30%
Net operating income reflecting change in sales..........................................
P15,600
13-211
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Original net operating income.....................................................................
P12,000
Percent change in net operating income......................................................30%
Exercise 10 (Compute the Break-Even Point for a Multiproduct
Company)
Requirement (1)
The overall contribution margin ratio can be computed as follows:
Overall CM ratio
Total contribution margin
Total sales
=
P120,000
P150,000
=
Requirement (2)
= 80%
The overall break-even point in sales pesos can be computed as follows:
Overall break-even
Total fixed expenses
=
Overall CM ratio
P90,000
80%
=
= P112,500
Requirement (3)
To construct the required income statement, we must first determine the
relative sales mix for the two products:
Original peso sales........................
Percent of total..............................
Sales at break-even........................
Sales..............................................
Variable expenses*........................
Contribution margin......................
Fixed expenses..............................
Net operating income.....................
Ping
P100,000
67%
P75,000
Pong
P50,000
33%
P37,500
Total
P150,000
100%
P112,500
Ping
P75,000
18,750
P56,250
Pong
P37,500
3,750
P33,750
Total
P112,500
22,500
90,000
90,000
P
0
13-212
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
*Ping variable expenses: (P75,000/P100,000) × P25,000 = P18,750
Pong variable expenses: (P37,500/P50,000) × P5,000 = P3,750
Exercise 11 (Break-Even and Target Profit Analysis)
Requirement (1)
Variable expenses: P60 × (100% – 40%) = P36.
Requirement (2)
Selling price...............................................
Variable expenses.......................................
Contribution margin...................................
P60
36
P24
100%
60%
40%
Let Q = Break-even point in units.
Sales
P60Q
P24Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P36Q + P360,000 + P0
P360,000
P360,000 ÷ P24 per unit
15,000 units
In sales pesos: 15,000 units × P60 per unit = P900,000
Alternative solution:
Let X
X
0.40X
X
X
=
=
=
=
=
Break-even point in sales pesos.
0.60X + P360,000 + P0
P360,000
P360,000 ÷ 0.40
P900,000
In units: P900,000 ÷ P60 per unit = 15,000 units
P60Q = P36Q + P360,000 + P90,000
P24Q = P450,000
Q = P450,000 ÷ P24 per unit
Q = 18,750 units
In sales pesos: 18,750 units × P60 per unit = P1,125,000
Alternative solution:
X = 0.60X + P360,000 + P90,000
0.40X = P450,000
13-213
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
X = P450,000 ÷ 0.40
X = P1,125,000
In units: P1,125,000 ÷ P60 per unit = 18,750 units
c. The company’s new cost/revenue relationships will be:
Selling price..................................................................
Variable expenses (P36 – P3)........................................
Contribution margin......................................................
P60Q
P27Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
P60
33
P27
P33Q + P360,000 + P0
P360,000
P360,000 ÷ P27 per unit
13,333 units (rounded).
In sales pesos: 13,333 units × P60 per unit = P800,000 (rounded)
Alternative solution:
X
0.45X
X
X
=
=
=
=
0.55X + P360,000 + P0
P360,000
P360,000 ÷ 0.45
P800,000
In units: P800,000 ÷ P60 per unit = 13,333 units (rounded)
Requirement (3)
a.
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
= P360,000  P24 per unit = 15,000 units
In sales pesos: 15,000 units × P60 per unit = P900,000
Alternative solution:
Break-even point
in sales pesos
=
Fixed expenses
CM ratio
= P360,000  0.40 = P900,000
In units: P900,000 ÷ P60 per unit = 15,000 units
13-214
100%
55%
45%
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
b.
Unit sales to attain
target profit
=
Fixed expenses + Target profit
Unit contribution margin
= (P360,000 + P90,000)  P24 per unit
= 18,750 units
In sales pesos: 18,750 units × P60 per unit = P1,125,000
Alternative solution:
Peso sales to
attain target profit
=
Fixed expenses + Target profit
CM ratio
= (P360,000 + P90,000)  0.40
= P1,125,000
In units: P1,125,000 ÷ P60 per unit = 18,750 units
c.
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
= P360,000  P27 per unit
= 13,333 units (rounded)
In sales pesos: 13,333 units × P60 per unit = P800,000 (rounded)
Alternative solution:
Break-even point
in sales pesos
=
Fixed expenses
CM ratio
= P360,000  0.45
= P800,000
In units: P800,000 ÷ P60 per unit = 13,333 (rounded)
13-215
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Exercise 12 (Operating Leverage)
Requirement (1)
Sales (30,000 doors)...............................
P1,800,000
Variable expenses....................................
1,260,000
Contribution margin................................
540,000
Fixed expenses........................................
450,000
Net operating income..............................
P 90,000
Degree of operating
Contribution margin
=
leverage
Net operating income
P60
42
P18
= P540,000  P90,000 = 6
Requirement (2)
a. Sales of 37,500 doors represents an increase of 7,500 doors, or 25%, over
present sales of 30,000 doors. Since the degree of operating leverage is 6,
net operating income should increase by 6 times as much, or by 150% (6 ×
25%).
b. Expected total peso net operating income for the next year is:
Present net operating income................................................................
P 90,000
Expected increase in net operating income next year (150%
× P90,000)........................................................................................
135,000
Total expected net operating income.....................................................
P225,000
III. Problems
Problem 1 (CVP Relationships)
Requirement 1
CM ratio
Variable expense ratio
=
Contribution margin
Selling price
=
P15
P60
=
Variable expense
Selling price
=
P45
P60
Requirement 2
Sales = Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P60Q = P45Q + P240,000 + P0
13-216
=
25%
=
75%
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
P15Q = P240,000
Q = P240,000 ÷ P15 per unit
Q = 16,000 units, or at P60 per unit, P960,000
Alternative solution:
X
0.25X
X
X
=
=
=
=
0.75X + P240,000 + P0
P240,000
P240,000 ÷ 0.25
P960,000; or at P60 per unit, 16,000 units
Requirement 3
Increase in sales...................................................
Multiply by the CM ratio.....................................
Expected increase in contribution margin.............
P400,000
x 25%
P100,000
Since the fixed expenses are not expected to change, net operating income will
increase by the entire P100,000 increase in contribution margin computed
above.
Requirement 4
Sales
P60Q
P15Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P45Q + P240,000 + P90,000
P330,000
P330,000 ÷ P15 per unit
22,000 units
Contribution margin method:
Fixed expenses + Target profit
Contribution margin per unit
=
P240,000 + P90,000
P15 per unit
= 22,000 units
Requirement 5
Margin of safety in pesos
Margin of safety
=
percentage
=
Total sales – Break-even sales
=
P1,200,000 – P960,000
Margin of safety in pesos
Total sales
13-217
=
P240,000
P240,000
= P1,200,000 = 20%
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Requirement 6
a.
b.
Degree of operating leverage = Contribution margin = P300,000
P60,000
Net operating income
Expected increase in sales...........................................
Degree of operating leverage......................................
Expected increase in net operating income..................
= 5
8%
x 5
40%
c. If sales increase by 8%, then 21,600 units (20,000 x
1.08 = 21,600) will be sold next year. The new
income statement will be as follows:
Sales (21,600 units)...............
Less variable expenses...........
Contribution margin..............
Less fixed expenses................
Net operating income.............
Total
P1,296,000
972,000
324,000
240,000
P 84,000
Per Unit
P60
45
P15
Percent of
Sales
100%
75%
25%
Thus, the P84,000 expected net operating income for next year represents
a 40% increase over the P60,000 net operating income earned during the
current year:
P24,000
P60,000
P84,000 – P60,000
=
P60,000
= 40% increase
Note from the income statement above that the increase in sales from
20,000 to 21,600 units has resulted in increases in both total sales and
total variable expenses. It is a common error to overlook the increase in
variable expense when preparing a projected income statement.
Requirement 7
a. A 20% increase in sales would result in 24,000 units being sold next year:
20,000 units x 1.20 = 24,000 units.
Total
13-218
Per Unit
Percent of
Sales
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Sales (24,000 units)...............
Less variable expenses...........
Contribution margin..............
Less fixed expenses................
Net operating income.............
P1,440,000
1,152,000
288,000
210,000†
P 78,000
P60
48*
P12
100%
80%
20%
* P45 + P3 = P48; P48  P60 = 80%.
†
P240,000 – P30,000 = P210,000.
Note that the change in per unit variable expenses results in a change in
both the per unit contribution margin and the CM ratio.
b.
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
=
Fixed expenses
Contribution margin per unit
P210,000
P12 per unit
17,500
units be made. The changes will
Break-even
Fixedshould
expenses
c. Yes, based
on these point
data =
the changes
=
in
peso
sales
CM
ratiofrom the present P60,000 to
increase the company’s net operating income
P78,000 per year. Although the changes
will also result in a higher breakP210,000
even point (17,500 units as =compared
to
0.20 the present 16,000 units), the
company’s margin of safety will actually be wider than before:
= P1,050,000
Margin of safety in pesos = Total sales – Break-even sales
= P1,440,000 – P1,050,000 = P390,000
As shown in requirement (5) above, the company’s present margin of
safety is only P240,000. Thus, several benefits will result from the
proposed changes.
Problem 2 (Basics of CVP Analysis; Cost Structure)
Requirement 1
The CM ratio is 30%.
Total
P270,000
189,000
P 81,000
Sales (13,500 units)
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
13-219
Per Unit
P20
14
P 6
Percentage
100 %
70
30 %
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
The break-even point is:
Sales
P20Q
P 6Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P14Q + P90,000 + P0
P90,000
P90,000 ÷ P6 per unit
15,000 units
15,000 units × P20 per unit = P300,000 in sales
Alternative solution:
Break-even point
in unit sales
=
=
Break-even point
in sales pesos
=
=
=
Requirement 2
=
Fixed expenses
Contribution margin per unit
P90,000
P6 per unit
15,000
units
Fixed
expenses
CM ratio
P90,000
0.30
P300,000 in sales
Incremental contribution margin:
P70,000 increased sales × 30% CM ratio............................................................
P21,000
Less increased fixed costs:
Increased advertising cost....................................................................................
8,000
Increase in monthly net operating income................................................................
P13,000
Since the company presently has a loss of P9,000 per month, if the changes
are adopted, the loss will turn into a profit of P4,000 per month.
Requirement 3
13-220
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Sales (27,000 units × P18 per unit*)........................................................................
P486,000
Less variable expenses
(27,000 units × P14 per unit)...............................................................................
378,000
Contribution margin................................................................................................
108,000
Less fixed expenses (P90,000 + P35,000)...............................................................
125,000
Net operating loss....................................................................................................
P(17,000)
*P20 – (P20 × 0.10) = P18
Requirement 4
Sales
P 20Q
P5.40Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Variable expenses + Fixed expenses + Profits
P14.60Q* + P90,000 + P4,500
P94,500
P94,500 ÷ P5.40 per unit
17,500 units
* P14.00 + P0.60 = P14.60.
Alternative solution:
Unit sales to attain
target profit
=
=
=
Fixed expenses + Target profit
CM per unit
P90,000 + P4,500
P5.40 per unit**
17,500 units
** P6.00 – P0.60 = P5.40.
Requirement 5
a. The new CM ratio would be:
Per Unit
P20
7
P13
Sales
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
13-221
Percentage
100 %
35
65 %
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
The new break-even point would be:
Break-even point
in unit sales
Break-even point
in sales pesos
=
Fixed expenses
Contribution margin per unit
=
P208,000
P13 per unit
=
16,000 units
=
Fixed expenses
CM ratio
=
P208,000
0.65
= P320,000 in sales
b. Comparative income statements follow:
Sales (20,000 units)
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less fixed expenses
Net operating income
Not Automated
Automated
Total
Per Unit %
Total
Per Unit
P400,000
P20
100 P400,000
P20
280,000
14
70 140,000
7
120,000
P 6
30 260,000
P13
90,000
208,000
P 30,000
P 52,000
%
100
35
65
c. Whether or not one would recommend that the company automate its
operations depends on how much risk he or she is willing to take, and
depends heavily on prospects for future sales. The proposed changes
would increase the company’s fixed costs and its break-even point.
However, the changes would also increase the company’s CM ratio (from
30% to 65%). The higher CM ratio means that once the break-even point
is reached, profits will increase more rapidly than at present. If 20,000
units are sold next month, for example, the higher CM ratio will generate
P22,000 more in profits than if no changes are made.
The greatest risk of automating is that future sales may drop back down to
present levels (only 13,500 units per month), and as a result, losses will be
even larger than at present due to the company’s greater fixed costs.
(Note the problem states that sales are erratic from month to month.) In
sum, the proposed changes will help the company if sales continue to
13-222
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
trend upward in future months; the changes will hurt the company if sales
drop back down to or near present levels.
Note to the Instructor: Although it is not asked for in the problem, if time
permits you may want to compute the point of indifference between the
two alternatives in terms of units sold; i.e., the point where profits will be
the same under either alternative. At this point, total revenue will be the
same; hence, we include only costs in our equation:
Let Q
P14Q + P90,000
P7Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
=
=
Point of indifference in units sold
P7Q + P208,000
P118,000
P118,000 ÷ P7 per unit
16,857 units (rounded)
If more than 16,857 units are sold, the proposed plan will yield the greatest
profit; if less than 16,857 units are sold, the present plan will yield the greatest
profit (or the least loss).
Problem 3 (Sales Mix; Multiproduct Break-even Analysis)
Requirement 1
Percentage of total sales
Sales
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less fixed expenses
Net operating income (loss)
Products
Sinks
Mirrors
Vanities
Total
32%
40%
28%
100%
P160,000 100 % P200,000 100 % P140,000 100 % P500,000 100%
48,000 30
160,000 80
77,000 55
285,000 57
P112,000 70 % P 40,000 20 % P 63,000 45 % 215,000 43%*
223,600
P ( 8,600)
* P215,000 ÷ P500,000 = 43%.
Requirement 2
Break-even sales:
Break-even point
in total peso sales
=
Fixed expenses
CM ratio
13-223
=
=
P223,600
0.43
P520,000 in sales
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Requirement 3
Memo to the president:
Although the company met its sales budget of P500,000 for the month, the
mix of products sold changed substantially from that budgeted. This is the
reason the budgeted net operating income was not met, and the reason the
break-even sales were greater than budgeted. The company’s sales mix was
planned at 48% Sinks, 20% Mirrors, and 32% Vanities. The actual sales mix
was 32% Sinks, 40% Mirrors, and 28% Vanities.
As shown by these data, sales shifted away from Sinks, which provides our
greatest contribution per peso of sales, and shifted strongly toward Mirrors,
which provides our least contribution per peso of sales. Consequently,
although the company met its budgeted level of sales, these sales provided
considerably less contribution margin than we had planned, with a resulting
decrease in net operating income. Notice from the attached statements that the
company’s overall CM ratio was only 43%, as compared to a planned CM
ratio of 52%. This also explains why the break-even point was higher than
planned. With less average contribution margin per peso of sales, a greater
level of sales had to be achieved to provide sufficient contribution margin to
cover fixed costs.
Problem 4 (Basic CVP Analysis)
Requirement 1
The CM ratio is 60%:
Selling price
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Requirement 2
Break-even point
in total sales pesos
Requirement 3
P150
60
P 90
=
Fixed expenses
CM ratio
=
P1,800,000
0.60
=
P3,000,000 in sales
13-224
100%
40
60%
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
P450,000 increased sales × 60% CM ratio = P270,000 increased contribution
margin. Since fixed costs will not change, net operating income should also
increase by P270,000.
Requirement 4
a.
Degree of operating leverage = Contribution margin = P2,160,000 = 6
P360,000
Net operating income
b. 6 × 15% = 90% increase in net operating income.
Requirement 5
Sales
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less fixed expenses
Net operating income
Last Year:
28,000 units
Total
Per Unit
P4,200,000
P150.00
Proposed:
42,000 units*
Total
Per Unit
P5,670,000 P135.00**
1,680,000
2,520,000
1,800,000
P 720,000
2,520,000
3,150,000
2,500,000
P 650,000
60.00
P 90.00
60.00
P 75.00
* 28,000 units × 1.5 = 42,000 units
** P150 per unit × 0.90 = P135.00 per unit
No, the changes should not be made.
Requirement 6
Expected total contribution margin:
28,000 units × 200% × P70 per unit*..................................................................
P3,920,000
Present total contribution margin:
28,000 units × P90 per unit.................................................................................
2,520,000
Incremental contribution margin, and the amount by which
advertising can be increased with net operating income
remaining unchanged...........................................................................................
P1,400,000
* P150 – (P60 + P20) = P70
Problem 5 (Break-Even and Target Profit Analysis)
Requirement 1
The contribution margin per patch would be:
13-225
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Selling price.............................................................................................................
P30
Less variable expenses:
Purchase cost of the patches................................................................................
P15
Commissions to the student salespersons.............................................................
6
21
Contribution margin................................................................................................
P 9
Since there are no fixed costs, the number of unit sales needed to yield the
desired P7,200 in profits can be obtained by dividing the target profit by the
unit contribution margin:
P7,200
Target profit
=
P9 per patch = 800 patches
Unit contribution margin
800 patches x P30 per patch =
P24,000 in total sales
Requirement 2
Since an order has been placed, there is now a “fixed” cost associated with the
purchase price of the patches (i.e., the patches can’t be returned). For
example, an order of 200 patches requires a “fixed” cost (investment) of
P3,000 (200 patches × P15 per patch = P3,000). The variable costs drop to
only P6 per patch, and the new contribution margin per patch becomes:
Selling price.............................................................................................................
P30
Less variable expenses (commissions only).............................................................
6
Contribution margin................................................................................................
P24
Since the “fixed” cost of P3,000 must be recovered before Ms. Morales shows
any profit, the break-even computation would be:
Break-even point
=
in unit sales
Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
P3,000
= P24 per patch
= 125 patches
125 patches x P30 per patch = P3,750 in total sales
If a quantity other than 200 patches were ordered, the answer would change
accordingly.
Problem 6
13-226
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Requirement 1: Break-even chart
TR
600,000
500,000
TC
400,000
(P)
300,000
Break-even
point
200,000
FC
100,000
5,000
10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
(units)
Requirement 2: Profit-volume graph
13-227
250,000
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
P 200,000
R
O
F 150,000
I
T
100,000
50,000
Break-even
point
0
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
50,000
100,000
L
O
S
S
150,000
200,000
250,000
Problem 7 (Sales Mix; Break-Even Analysis; Margin of Safety)
Requirement (1)
Hun
Pesos
%
Sales...............................................
P80,000 100
Variable expenses..........................
48,000 60
Contribution margin......................
P32,000 40
Fixed expenses...............................
Net operating income....................
13-228
Yun
P
%
P48,000 100
9,600 20
P38,400 80
Total
Euros
%
P128,000 100
57,600 45
70,400 55
66,000
P 4,400
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
b. Break-even sales
=
=
Margin of safety
=
in pesos
Fixed expenses ÷ CM ratio
P66,000 ÷ 0.55 = P120,000
Actual sales – Break-even sales
=
P128,000 – P120,000
=
P8,000
Margin of safety in pesos  Actual sales
Margin of safety
=
percentage
Requirement (2)
Sales
Variable expenses
Contribution margin
Fixed expenses
Net operating income
=
P8,000  P128,000
=
6.25%
Hun
Pesos
%
P80,000 100
48,000
60
P32,000
40
b. Break-even sales
=
=
Margin of safety
=
in pesos
Yun
Pesos
%
P48,000 100
9,600
20
P38,400
80
HY143
Pesos
%
P32,000
100
2,4000
75
P 8,000
25
Total
Pesos
%
P160,000
100
81,600
51
78,400
49
66,000
P 12,400
Fixed expenses ÷ CM ratio
P66,000 ÷ 0.49 = P134,700 (rounded)
Actual sales – Break-even sales
=
P160,000 – P134,700
=
P25,300
Margin of safety in pesos  Actual sales
Margin of safety
=
percentage
=
P25,300  P160,000
=
15.81%
13-229
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
Requirement (3)
The reason for the increase in the break-even point can be traced to the
decrease in the company’s average contribution margin ratio when the third
product is added. Note from the income statements above that this ratio drops
from 55% to 49% with the addition of the third product. This product, called
HY143, has a CM ratio of only 25%, which causes the average contribution
margin ratio to fall.
This problem shows the somewhat tenuous nature of break-even analysis
when more than one product is involved. The manager must be very careful of
his or her assumptions regarding sales mix when making decisions such as
adding or deleting products.
It should be pointed out to the president that even though the break-even point
is higher with the addition of the third product, the company’s margin of safety
is also greater. Notice that the margin of safety increases from P8,000 to
P25,300 or from 6.25% to 15.81%. Thus, the addition of the new product
shifts the company much further from its break-even point, even though the
break-even point is higher.
13-230
Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships Chapter 13
Problem 8 (Break-Even Analysis with Step Fixed Costs)
Requirement (1)
The total annual fixed cost of the Pediatric Ward can be computed as follows:
Annual
Patient-Days
10,000-12,000
12,001-13,750
13,751-16,500
16,501-18,250
18,251-20,750
20,751-23,000
Aides
@ P360,000
P2,520,000
P2,880,000
P3,240,000
P3,600,000
P3,600,000
P3,960,000
Nurses
@ P580,000
P8,700,000
P8,700,000
P9,280,000
P9,280,000
P9,860,000
P10,440,000
Supervising
Nurses
@ P760,000
P2,280,000
P2,280,000
P3,040,000
P3,040,000
P3,800,000
P3,800,000
Total
Personnel
Other Fixed Cost
P13,500,000
P13,860,000
P15,560,000
P15,920,000
P17,260,000
P18,200,000
P27,400,000
P27,400,000
P27,400,000
P27,400,000
P27,400,000
P27,400,000
Total Fixed
Cost
P40,900,000
P41,260,000
P42,960,000
P43,320,000
P44,660,000
P45,600,000
Requirement (2)
The “break-even” can be computed for each range of activity by dividing the total fixed cost for that range of activity by the contribution margin
per patient-day, which is P3,000 (=P4,800 revenue − P1,800 variable cost).
Annual
(a)
Patient-Days
Total Fixed Cost
10,000-12,000
P40,900,000
12,001-13,750
P41,260,000
13,751-16,500
P42,960,000
16,501-18,250
P43,320,000
18,251-20,750
P44,660,000
20,751-23,000
P45,600,000
(b)
Contribution
Margin
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
“Break-Even”
(a) ÷ (b)
13,633
13,753
14,320
14,440
14,887
15,200
Within Relevant
Range?
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
While a “break-even” can be computed for each range of activity (i.e., relevant range), all but one of these break-evens is bogus. For example,
within the range of 10,000 to 12,000 patient-days, the computed break-even is 13,633 (rounded) patient-days. However, this level of activity is
outside this relevant range. To serve 13,633 patient-days, the fixed costs would have to be increased from P40,900,000 to P41,260,000 by
13-231
Chapter 13 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships
adding one more aide. The only “break-even” that occurs within its own relevant range is 14,320. This is the only legitimate break-even.
Requirement (3)
The level of activity required to earn a profit of P7,200,000 can be computed as follows:
Annual
Patient-Days
Total Fixed Cost Target Profit
10,000-12,000
P40,900,000 P7,200,000
12,001-13,750
P41,260,000 P7,200,000
13,751-16,500
P42,960,000 P7,200,000
16,501-18,250
P43,320,000 P7,200,000
18,251-20,750
P44,660,000 P7,200,000
20,751-23,000
P45,600,000 P7,200,000
(a)
Total Fixed Cost +
Target Profit
P48,100,000
P48,460,000
P50,160,000
P50,520,000
P51,860,000
P52,800,000
(b)
Contribution
Margin
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
P3,000
In this case, the only solution that is within the appropriate relevant range is 16,840 patient-days.
13-232
Activity to
Attain Target
Profit
(a) ÷ (b)
16,033
16,153
16,720
16,840
17,287
17,600
Within Relevant
Range?
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING - Solutions Manual
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B
B
B
C
C
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
B
D
B
A
D
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
B
A
A
C
D
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
D
D
D
C
D
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
A
D
C
B
C
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
A
B
C
B
A
CHAPTER 14
RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING AND
TRANSFER PRICING
I.
Questions
1. Cost centers are evaluated by means of performance reports. Profit
centers are evaluated by means of contribution income statements
(including cost center performance reports), in terms of meeting sales and
cost objectives. Investment centers are evaluated by means of the rate of
return which they are able to generate on invested assets.
2. Overall profitability can be improved (1) by increasing sales, (2) by
reducing expenses, or (3) by reducing assets.
3. ROI may lead to dysfunctional decisions in that divisional managers may
reject otherwise profitable investment opportunities simply because they
would reduce the division’s overall ROI figure. The residual income
approach overcomes this problem by establishing a minimum rate of
return which the company wants to earn on its operating assets, thereby
motivating the manager to accept all investment opportunities promising a
return in excess of this minimum figure.
4. A cost center manager has control over cost, but not revenue or investment
funds. A profit center manager, by contrast, has control over both cost
and revenue. An investment center manager has control over cost and
revenue and investment funds.
5. The term transfer price means the price charged for a transfer of goods or
services between units of the same organization, such as two departments
18-233
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
or divisions.
purposes.
Transfer prices are needed for performance evaluation
6. The use of market price for transfer purposes will create the actual
conditions under which the transferring and receiving units would be
operating if they were completely separate, autonomous companies. It is
generally felt that the creation of such conditions provides managerial
incentive, and leads to greater overall efficiency in operations.
7. Negotiated transfer prices should be used (1) when the volume involved is
large enough to justify quantity discounts, (2) when selling and/or
administrative expenses are less on intracompany sales, (3) when idle
capacity exists, and (4) when no clear-cut market price exists (such as a
sister division being the only supplier of a good or service).
8. Suboptimization can result if transfer prices are set in a way that benefits
a particular division, but works to the disadvantage of the company as a
whole. An example would be a transfer between divisions when no
transfers should be made (e.g., where a better overall contribution margin
could be generated by selling at an intermediate stage, rather than
transferring to the next division). Suboptimization can also result if
transfer pricing is so inflexible that one division buys from the outside
when there is substantial idle capacity to produce the item internally. If
divisional managers are given full autonomy in setting, accepting, and
rejecting transfer prices, then either of these situations can be created,
through selfishness, desire to “look good”, pettiness, or bickering.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Evaluation of a Profit Center)
No. Although Department 3 does not cover all of the cost allocated to it. It
contributes P21,000 to the total operations over and above its direct costs.
Without Department 3, the company would earn P21,000 less as compared
with the original over-all income of P47,000.
Revenue
Direct cost of department
Contribution of the
department
Allocated cost
Net income
Department
1
2
4
Total
P132,000 P168,000 P98,000 P398,000
82,000
108,000
61,000
251,000
P 50,000
18-234
P 60,000
P37,000 P147,000
121,000
P 26,000
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
With the discontinuance of Department 3, the revenue and direct cost of the
department are eliminated, but there is no reduction in the total allocated cost.
Exercise 2 (Evaluation of an Investment Center)
Requirement 1
ROI
P400,000
P100,000
25%
Operating assets
Operating income
ROI (P100,000  P400,000)
Minimum required income
(16% x P400,000)
RI (P100,000 - P64,000)
RI
P400,000
P100,000
P64,000
P36,000
Requirement 2
The manager of the Cling Division would not accept this project under the ROI
approach since the division is already earning 25%. Accepting this project would
reduce the present divisional performance, as shown below:
Operating assets
Operating income
ROI
Present
P400,000
P100,000
25%
New Project
P60,000
P12,000*
20%
Overall
P460,000
P112,000
24.35%
* P60,000 x 20% = P12,000
Under the RI approach, on the other hand, the manager would accept this project
since the new project provides a higher return than the minimum required rate of
return (20 percent vs. 16 percent). The new project would increase the overall
divisional residual income, as shown below:
Operating assets
Operating income
Minimum required
return at 16%
RI
Present
P400,000
P100,000
New Project
P60,000
P12,000
Overall
P460,000
P112,000
64,000
P 36,000
9,600*
P 2,400
73,600
P 38,400
* P60,000 x 16% = P9,600
18-235
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Exercise 3 (ROI, Comparison of Three Divisions)
Requirement 1
ROI:
Division X
Division Y
Division Z
P10,000
P12,600
P 28,800
= 25%
= 18%
= 16%
P40,000
P70,000
P180,000
Requirement 2
Division X would reject this investment opportunity since the addition would
lower the present divisional ROI. Divisions Y and Z would accept it because
they would look better in terms of their divisional ROI.
Exercise 4 (ROI, RI, Comparisons of Two Divisions)
Requirement 1
Net Operating income X
Sales
Division A :
Division B :
Sales
Average Operating Assets
P630,000
P9,000,000 X P9,000,000
P3,000,000
X
7%
3
P1,800,000 X
P20,000,000
9%
X
= ROI
= ROI
= 21%
P20,000,000
P10,000,000 = ROI
2
= 18%
Requirement 2
Average operating assets (a)..........
Net operating income....................
Minimum required return on average
operating assets - 16% x (a).....
Residual income............................
18-236
Division A
P3,000,000
P 630,000
Division B
P10,000,000
P 1,800,000
480,000
P 150,000
P
1,600,000
200,000
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Requirement 3
No, Division B is simply larger than Division A and for this reason one would
expect that it would have a greater amount of residual income. As stated in
the text, residual income can’t be used to compare the performance of
divisions of different sizes. Larger divisions will almost always look better,
not necessarily because of better management but because of the larger peso
figures involved. In fact, in the case above, Division B does not appear to be
as well managed as Division A. Note from Part (2) that Division B has only
an 18 percent ROI as compared to 21 percent for Division A.
Exercise 5 (Evaluation of a Cost Center)
(1) Controllable Costs by supervisor of Department 10 are as follows:
a. Supplies, Department 10
b. Repairs and Maintenance, Department 10
c. Labor Cost, Department 10
(2) Direct Costs of Department 10 are
a. Salary, supervisor of Department 10
b. Supplies, Department 10
c. Repairs and Maintenance, Department 10
d. Labor Cost, Department 10
(3) Costs allocated to Factory Department are:
a. Factory, heat and light
b. Depreciation, factory
c. Factory insurance
d. Salary of factory superintendent
(4) Costs which do not pertain to factory operations are:
a. Sales salaries and commissions
b. General office salaries
Exercise 6 (Evaluating New Investments Using Return on Investment
(ROI) and Residual Income)
Requirement 1
18-237
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Computation of ROI
Division A:
ROI
=
P300,000
P6,000,000
x
P6,000,000
P1,500,000
= 5% x 4 = 20%
P900,000
P10,000,000
x
P10,000,000
P5,000,000
= 9% x 2 = 18%
P180,000
P8,000,000
x
P8,000,000
P2,000,000
= 2.25% x 4 = 9%
Division B:
ROI
=
Division C:
ROI
=
Requirement 2
Average operating assets
Required rate of return
Required operating income
Actual operating income
Required operating income (above)
Residual income
Division A
P1,500,000
×
15%
P 225,000
P 300,000
225,000
P 75,000
Division B
P5,000,000
×
18%
P 900,000
P 900,000
900,000
P
0
Division C
P2,000,000
×
12%
P 240,000
P 180,000
240,000
P (60,000)
Division A
20%
Division B
18%
Division C
9%
Reject
Reject
Accept
15%
18%
12%
Accept
Reject
Accept
Requirement 3
a. and b.
Return on investment (ROI)
Therefore, if the division is
presented with an investment
opportunity yielding 17%, it
probably would
Minimum required return for
computing residual income
Therefore, if the division is
presented with an investment
opportunity yielding 17%, it
probably would
18-238
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
If performance is being measured by ROI, both Division A and Division B
probably would reject the 17% investment opportunity. The reason is that
these companies are presently earning a return greater than 17%; thus, the
new investment would reduce the overall rate of return and place the divisional
managers in a less favorable light. Division C probably would accept the
17% investment opportunity, since its acceptance would increase the
Division’s overall rate of return.
If performance is being measured by residual income, both Division A and
Division C probably would accept the 17% investment opportunity. The 17%
rate of return promised by the new investment is greater than their required
rates of return of 15% and 12%, respectively, and would therefore add to the
total amount of their residual income. Division B would reject the
opportunity, since the 17% return on the new investment is less than B’s 18%
required rate of return.
Exercise 7 (Transfer Pricing from Viewpoint of the Entire Company)
Requirement 1
Sales
Less expenses:
Added by the division
Transfer price paid
Total expenses
Net operating income
1
2
3
Division A
P3,500,000
1
2,600,000
—
2,600,000
P 900,000
Division B
P2,400,000
1,200,000
700,000
1,900,000
P 500,000
2
Total Company
P5,200,000
3
3,800,000
—
3,800,000
P1,400,000
20,000 units × P175 per unit = P3,500,000.
4,000 units × P600 per unit = P2,400,000.
Division A outside sales (16,000 units × P175 per unit).......................................................
P2,800,000
Division B outside sales (4,000 units × P600 per unit)........................................................
2,400,000
Total outside sales..................................................................................................................
P5,200,000
Observe that the P700,000 in intracompany sales has been eliminated.
Requirement 2
Division A should transfer the 1,000 additional units to Division B. Note that
Division B’s processing adds P425 to each unit’s selling price (B’s P600
selling price, less A’s P175 selling price = P425 increase), but it adds only
P300 in cost. Therefore, each tube transferred to Division B ultimately yields
P125 more in contribution margin (P425 – P300 = P125) to the company than
can be obtained from selling to outside customers. Thus, the company as a
whole will be better off if Division A transfers the 1,000 additional tubes to
Division B.
18-239
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Exercise 8 (Transfer Pricing Situations)
Requirement 1
The lowest acceptable transfer price from the perspective of the selling
division is given by the following formula:
Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Variable cost
+
Transfer price 
Number
of units transferred
per unit
.
There is no idle capacity, so each of the 20,000 units transferred from
Division X to Division Y reduces sales to outsiders by one unit. The
contribution margin per unit on outside sales is P20 (= P50 – P30).
P20 x 20,000
Transfer price  (P30 – P2) +
20,000
Transfer price
=
P28 + P20
= P48
The buying division, Division Y, can purchase a similar unit from an outside
supplier for P47. Therefore, Division Y would be unwilling to pay more than
P47 per unit.
Transfer price  Cost of buying from outside supplier = P47
The requirements of the two divisions are incompatible and no transfer will
take place.
Requirement 2
In this case, Division X has enough idle capacity to satisfy Division Y’s
demand. Therefore, there are no lost sales and the lowest acceptable price as
far as the selling division is concerned is the variable cost of P20 per unit.

P20 +
P0
20,000
=
P20
The buying division, Division Y, can purchase a similar unit from an outside
supplier for P34. Therefore, Division Y would be unwilling to pay more than
P34 per unit.
Transfer price
Transfer price  Cost of buying from outside supplier = P34
18-240
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
In this case, the requirements of the two divisions are compatible and a
transfer will hopefully take place at a transfer price within the range:
P20  Transfer price  P34
Exercise 9 (Transfer Pricing: Decision Making)
Requirement 1
Division A’s purchase decision from the overall firm perspective:
Purchase costs from outside
10,000 x P150 = P1,500,000
Less: Savings of Divisions B’s variable costs 10,000 x P140 = 1,400,000
Net Cost (Benefit) for A to buy outside
P 100,000
Assuming Division B has no outside sales, Division A should buy inside from
Division B for the benefit of the entire firm.
Requirement 2
As above, but in addition, if Division A buys outside, Division B saves an
additional P200,000.
Purchase costs from outside
Less: Savings in variable costs
Less: Savings of B material assignment
Net Cost (Benefit) for A to buy outside
10,000 x P150 = P1,500,000
10,000 x P140 = 1,400,000
200,000
P (100,000)
The additional savings in Division B means that now Division A should buy
outside.
Requirement 3
Assuming the outside price drops from P150 to P130:
Purchase costs from outside
Less: Savings in variable costs
Net Cost (Benefit) for A to buy outside
18-241
10,000 x P130 = P1,300,000
10,000 x P140 = 1,400,000
P (100,000)
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Division A should buy outside.
Exercise 10 (Compute the Return on Investment (ROI))
Requirement (1)
Net operating income
Sales
Margin =
=
P5,400,000
P18,000,000
= 30%
Requirement (2)
Sales
Average operating assets
Turnover =
=
P18,000,000
P36,000,000
= 0.5
Requirement (3)
ROI
=
Margin x Turnover
=
30% x 0.5 = 15%
Exercise 11 (Residual Income)
Average operating assets (a)..............................................
Net operating income........................................................
Minimum required return: 16% × (a)................................
Residual income................................................................
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Evaluation of Profit Centers)
Requirement (a)
Jadlow Manufacturing Corporation
Income Statement
18-242
P2,200,000
P400,000
352,000
P 48,000
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
For the Year Ended December 31, 2005
Sales
Less: Variable Costs
Contribution Margin
Less: Controllable fixed
expenses
Contribution to the recovery
of non-controllable fixed
expenses
Total
P5,100,000
3,330,000
P1,770,000
Product S
P2,700,000
1,890,000
P 810,000
Product T
P2,400,000
1,440,000
P 960,000
501,000
66,000
435,000
P1,269,000
P 744,000
P 525,000
Requirement (b)
The complaint of the manager of Product T is justified on the ground that his
product line shows a positive contribution margin and therefore, contributes to
the recovery of non-controllable fixed expenses. This observation is, of
course, made under the assumption that the preceding year’s figures (which
are not given) were less favorable than the current year.
Problem 2 (Evaluation of Profit Centers)
Requirement 1
Incremental sales
Less: Incremental costs
Net income
A
P71,000
42,000
P29,000
Product
B
P46,000
15,000
P31,000
C
P117,000
96,000
P 21,000
Product B seems to offer the best profit potential.
Requirement 2
The sunk costs are:
Depreciation of equipment
Operating cost of the equipment
Total
Requirement 3
18-243
P 6,400
4,600
P11,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Opportunity cost of selling Product B is
From Product A
From Product C
Total
P29,000
21,000
P50,000
Problem 3 (Evaluation of Performance)
Ranjie Tool Company
Performance Report
For the Year 2005
Budgeted Labor Hours
Actual Labor Hours
4,000
4,200
Budget
Based on
4,200
Hours
Variance
U (F)
P 3,600
7,400
5,300
P16,300
P 3,360
7,560
5,040
P15,960
P240
(160)
260
P340
P 1,600
2,200
6,000
5,400
1,200
P16,400
P32,700
P 1,600
2,200
6,000
5,400
1,200
P16,400
P32,360
-
Actual
4,200
Hours
Cost-Volume
Formula
Variable Overhead Costs:
Utilities
P0.80 per hour
Supplies
1.80
Indirect labor
1.20
Total
P3.80
Fixed Overhead Costs:
Utilities
Supplies
Depreciation
Indirect labor
Insurance
Total
Total Factory Overhead Costs
Problem 4 (Evaluation of Performance)
Requirement 1
Performance Report for the Production Manager
Controllable costs:
Direct material
Direct labor
Supplies
Maintenance
Total
Actual
Cost
Flexible
Budget Cost
Variance
(U) or (F)
P24,000
48,000
4,000
3,000
P79,000
P20,000
50,000
6,000
4,000
P80,000
P4,000 (U)
2,000 (F)
2,000 (F)
1,000 (F)
P1,000 (F)
18-244
P340
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
The cost of raw materials rose significantly, possibly because of (1) deficient
machinery due to the cutback in maintenance expenditures and/or (2) to the
lower labor cost, possibly due to the use of less-skilled workers. Supplies
decreased, indicating possible inadequacies for next period’s production run.
Requirement 2
Performance Report for the Vice President
Actual
Cost
Flexible
Budget Cost
Variance
(U) or (F)
Controllable costs:
Marketing division
P104,000
P102,000
P2,000 (U)
Production division
79,000
80,000
1,000 (F)
Personnel division
72,000
76,000
4,000 (F)
Other costs
68,800
70,000
1,200 (F)
Total
P323,800
P328,000
P4,200 (F)
The marketing division is behind its cost allotment. The personnel division
came in somewhat under its budgeted costs. Perhaps there has been a cutback
in hiring, indicating possible reduction in future production.
Problem 5 (Target Sales Price; Return on Investment)
Requirement 1
Return on investment = Operating income / Investment
20% = X / P800,000
Target Operating Income = P160,000
Target revenues, calculated as follows:
Fixed overhead
Variable costs
Desired operating income
Revenues
1,500,000 x P300
The selling price per units is P540 = P810,000 / 1,500
Requirement 2
Data are in thousands.
18-245
P200,000
450,000
160,000
P810,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Units
Revenues
1,500
P810
2,000
P1,080
1,000
P540
450
200
650
600
200
800
300
200
500
P160
20%
P280
35%
P 40
5%
= P160 /
P800
= P280 /
P800
= P40 /
P800
Variable costs
Fixed costs
Total costs
Operating income
Return
on
investment
Note how the change in income follows the change in revenues, as predicted
by operating leverage. Operating leverage multiplied times the percentage
change in sales gives the percentage change in income. Thus, the greater the
operating leverage ratio, the larger the effect on income and ROI of a given
percentage change in sales. This exercise provides an opportunity to review
the relationship between volume and profit. See the illustration below:
Operating leverage = contribution margin / operating income
= (P810 – P450) / P160 = 2.25
% change in income =
=
operating leverage x % change in revenues
2.25 x 33.33% = 75%
% change in income
If volume goes to 2,000 units: (P280 – P160) / P160 = 75%
If volume goes to 1,000 units: (P160 – P40) / P160 = 75%
% change in ROI
If volume goes to 2,000 units: (35% - 20%) / 20% = 75%
If volume goes to 1,000 units: (20% - 5%) / 20% = 75%
Problem 6 (Contrasting Return on Investment (ROI) and Residual
Income)
Requirement 1
ROI computations:
Net operating income
Sales
18-246
Sales
Average operating assets
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
ROI
x
=
Pasig:
P630,000
P9,000,000
x
P9,000,000
P3,000,000
= 7% x 3 = 21%
Quezon:
P1,800,000
P20,000,000
x
P20,000,000
P10,000,000
= 9% x 2 = 18%
Requirement 2
Average operating assets (a)
Net operating income
Minimum required return on average
operating assets—16% × (a)
Residual income
Pasig
P3,000,000
P 630,000
Quezon
P10,000,000
P 1,800,000
480,000
P 150,000
P 1,600,000
P 200,000
Requirement 3
No, the Quezon Division is simply larger than the Pasig Division and for this
reason one would expect that it would have a greater amount of residual
income. Residual income can’t be used to compare the performance of
divisions of different sizes. Larger divisions will almost always look better,
not necessarily because of better management but because of the larger peso
figures involved. In fact, in the case above, Quezon does not appear to be as
well managed as Pasig. Note from Part (1) that Quezon has only an 18% ROI
as compared to 21% for Pasig.
Problem 7 (Transfer Pricing)
Requirement 1
Since the Valve Division has idle capacity, it does not have to give up any
outside sales to take on the Pump Division’s business. Applying the formula
18-247
Transfer price

Variable cost
+
per unit
Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Number of units transferred
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
for the lowest acceptable transfer price from the viewpoint of the selling
division, we get:
P16 +
P0
10,000
=
P16
The Pump Division would be unwilling to pay more than P29, the price it is
currently paying an outside supplier for its valves. Therefore, the transfer
price must fall within the range:

Transfer price
P16  Transfer price  P29
Requirement 2
Since the Valve Division is selling all of the valves that it can produce on the
outside market, it would have to give up some of these outside sales to take on
the Pump Division’s business. Thus, the Valve Division has an opportunity
cost, which is the total contribution margin on lost sales:
Variable cost
+
per unit

Transfer price
P16 +

Transfer price
Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Number of units transferred
(P30 – P16) x 10,000
10,000
=
P16
+ P14 =
P30
Since the Pump Division can purchase valves from an outside supplier at only
P29 per unit, no transfers will be made between the two divisions.
Requirement 3
Applying the formula for the lowest acceptable price from the viewpoint of the
selling division, we get:
Transfer price

Variable cost
+
per unit
Transfer price

Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Number of units transferred
(P16
– P3) +
18-248
=
P27
P13
(P30 – P16) x 10,000
10,000
+ P14
=
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
In this case, the transfer price must fall within the range:
P27  Transfer price  P29
Problem 8 (Transfer Pricing)
To produce the 20,000 special valves, the Valve Division will have to give up
sales of 30,000 regular valves to outside customers. Applying the formula for
the lowest acceptable price from the viewpoint of the selling division, we get:
Transfer price

Variable cost
+
per unit
Transfer price

P20 +
Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Number of units transferred
(P30 – P16) x 30,000
20,000
=
P20
+ P21 =
P41
Problem 9 (Effects of Changes in Sales, Expenses, and Assets in ROI)
1.
Margin =
=
2.
Turnover =
=
Net operating income
Sales
P800,000
P8,000,000
= 10%
Sales
Average operating assets
P8,000,000
P3,200,000
3.
18-249
= 2.5
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
ROI
=
Margin x Turnover
=
10% x 2.5 = 25%
Problem 10 (Transfer Pricing Basics)
Requirement (1)
a. The lowest acceptable transfer price from the perspective of the selling
division, the Electrical Division, is given by the following formula:
Transfer price =
Variable cost
per unit
+
Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Number of units transferred
Because there is enough idle capacity to fill the entire order from the
Motor Division, there are no lost outside sales. And because the variable
cost per unit is P21, the lowest acceptable transfer price as far as the
selling division is concerned is also P21.
Transfer price = P21 +
P0
10,000
= P21
b. The Motor Division can buy a similar transformer from an outside
supplier for P38. Therefore, the Motor Division would be unwilling to pay
more than P38 per transformer.
Transfer price: Cost from buying from outside supplier = P38
c. Combining the requirements of both the selling division and the buying
division, the acceptable range of transfer prices in this situation is:
P21 : Transfer price : P38
Assuming that the managers understand their own businesses and that they
are cooperative, they should be able to agree on a transfer price within this
range and the transfer should take place.
d. From the standpoint of the entire company, the transfer should take place.
The cost of the transformers transferred is only P21 and the company
saves the P38 cost of the transformers purchased from the outside
supplier.
Requirement (2)
18-250
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
a. Each of the 10,000 units transferred to the Motor Division must displace a
sale to an outsider at a price of P40. Therefore, the selling division would
demand a transfer price of at least P40. This can also be computed using
the formula for the lowest acceptable transfer price as follows:
(P40 – P21) x 10,000
Transfer price = P21 +
10,000
= P21 + (P40 – P21) = P40
b. As before, the Motor Division would be unwilling to pay more than P38
per transformer.
c. The requirements of the selling and buying divisions in this instance are
incompatible. The selling division must have a price of at least P40
whereas the buying division will not pay more than P38. An agreement to
transfer the transformers is extremely unlikely.
d. From the standpoint of the entire company, the transfer should not take
place. By transferring a transformer internally, the company gives up
revenue of P40 and saves P38, for a loss of P2.
Problem 11 (Transfer Pricing with an Outside Market)
Requirement (1)
The lowest acceptable transfer price from the perspective of the selling
division is given by the following formula:
Total contribution margin
Variable cost +
on lost sales
Transfer price =
per unit
Number of units transferred
The Tuner Division has no idle capacity, so transfers from the Tuner Division
to the Assembly Division would cut directly into normal sales of tuners to
outsiders. The costs are the same whether a tuner is transferred internally or
sold to outsiders, so the only relevant cost is the lost revenue of P200 per tuner
that could be sold to outsiders. This is confirmed below:
Transfer price = P110 +
(P200 – P110) x 30,000
30,000
= P110 + (P200 – P110) = P200
Therefore, the Tuner Division will refuse to transfer at a price less than P200
per tuner.
18-251
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
The Assembly Division can buy tuners from an outside supplier for P200, less
a 10% quantity discount of P20, or P180 per tuner. Therefore, the Division
would be unwilling to pay more than P180 per tuner.
Transfer price : Cost of buying from outside supplier = P180
The requirements of the two divisions are incompatible. The Assembly
Division won’t pay more than P180 and the Tuner Division will not accept
less than P200. Thus, there can be no mutually agreeable transfer price and no
transfer will take place.
Requirement (2)
The price being paid to the outside supplier, net of the quantity discount, is
only P180. If the Tuner Division meets this price, then profits in the Tuner
Division and in the company as a whole will drop by P600,000 per year:
Lost revenue per tuner.......................................................
Outside supplier’s price.....................................................
Loss in contribution margin per tuner................................
Number of tuners per year.................................................
Total loss in profits............................................................
P200
P180
P20
× 30,000
P600,000
Profits in the Assembly Division will remain unchanged, since it will be
paying the same price internally as it is now paying externally.
Requirement (3)
The Tuner Division has idle capacity, so transfers from the Tuner Division to
the Assembly Division do not cut into normal sales of tuners to outsiders. In
this case, the minimum price as far as the Assembly Division is concerned is
the variable cost per tuner of P11. This is confirmed in the following
calculation:
P0
Transfer price = P110 +
= P110
30,000
The Assembly Division can buy tuners from an outside supplier for P180 each
and would be unwilling to pay more than that in an internal transfer. If the
managers understand their own businesses and are cooperative, they should
agree to a transfer and should settle on a transfer price within the range:
P110 : Transfer price : P180
18-252
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Requirement (4)
Yes, P160 is a bona fide outside price. Even though P160 is less than the
Tuner Division’s P170 “full cost” per unit, it is within the range given in Part
3 and therefore will provide some contribution to the Tuner Division.
If the Tuner Division does not meet the P160 price, it will lose P1,500,000 in
potential profits:
Price per tuner.................................................. P160
Variable costs................................................... 110
Contribution margin per tuner.......................... P 50
30,000 tuners × P50 per tuner = P1,500,000 potential increased profits
This P1,500,000 in potential profits applies to the Tuner Division and to the
company as a whole.
Requirement (5)
No, the Assembly Division should probably be free to go outside and get the
best price it can. Even though this would result in lower profits for the
company as a whole, the buying division should probably not be forced to
purchase inside if better prices are available outside.
Requirement (6)
The Tuner Division will have an increase in profits:
Selling price...................................................... P200
Variable costs................................................... 110
Contribution margin per tuner.......................... P 90
30,000 tuners × P90 per tuner = P2,700,000 increased profits
18-253
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
The Assembly Division will have a decrease in profits:
Inside purchase price........................................ P200
Outside purchase price..................................... 160
Increased cost per tuner.................................... P 40
30,000 tuners × P40 per tuner = P1,200,000 decreased profits
The company as a whole will have an increase in profits:
Increased contribution margin in the Tuner Division............................................
P 90
Decreased contribution margin in the Assembly Division.....................................
40
Increased contribution margin per tuner...............................................................
P 50
30,000 tuners × P50 per tuner = P1,500,000 increased profits
So long as the selling division has idle capacity and the transfer price is
greater than the selling division’s variable costs, profits in the company as a
whole will increase if internal transfers are made. However, there is a question
of fairness as to how these profits should be split between the selling and
buying divisions. The inflexibility of management in this situation damages the
profits of the Assembly Division and greatly enhances the profits of the Tuner
Division.
Problem 12 (Transfer Pricing; Divisional Performance)
Requirement (1)
The Electronics Division is presently operating at capacity; therefore, any
sales of the KK8 circuit board to the Clock Division will require that the
Electronics Division give up an equal number of sales to outside customers.
Using the transfer pricing formula, we get a minimum transfer price of:
Transfer price =
Variable cost
per unit
+
Total contribution margin
on lost sales
Number of units transferred
Transfer price =
P82.50 + (P125.00 – P82.50)
Transfer price =
P82.50 + P42.50
Transfer price =
P125.00
Thus, the Electronics Division should not supply the circuit board to the Clock
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18
Division for P90 each. The Electronics Division must give up revenues of
P125.00 on each circuit board that it sells internally. Since management
performance in the Electronics Division is measured by ROI and dollar
profits, selling the circuit boards to the Clock Division for P9 would adversely
affect these performance measurements.
Requirement (2)
The key is to realize that the P100 in fixed overhead and administrative costs
contained in the Clock Division’s P697.50 cost per timing device is not
relevant. There is no indication that winning this contract would actually
affect any of the fixed costs. If these costs would be incurred regardless of
whether or not the Clock Division gets the oven timing device contract, they
should be ignored when determining the effects of the contract on the
company’s profits. Another key is that the variable cost of the Electronics
Division is not relevant either. Whether the circuit boards are used in the
timing devices or sold to outsiders, the production costs of the circuit boards
would be the same. The only difference between the two alternatives is the
revenue on outside sales that is given up when the circuit boards are
transferred within the company.
Selling price of the timing devices.................................................................
P700.00
Less:
The cost of the circuit boards used in the timing devices
(i.e. the lost revenue from sale of circuit boards to
outsiders)...............................................................................................
P125.00
Variable costs of the Clock Division excluding the circuit
board (P300.00 + P207.50)...................................................................
507.50 632.50
Net positive effect on the company’s profit....................................................
P 67.50
Therefore, the company as a whole would be better off by P67.50 for each
timing device that is sold to the oven manufacturer.
Requirement (3)
As shown in part (1) above, the Electronics Division would insist on a transfer
price of at least P125.00 for the circuit board. Would the Clock Division make
any money at this price? Again, the fixed costs are not relevant in this decision
since they would not be affected. Once this is realized, it is evident that the
Clock Division would be ahead by P67.50 per timing device if it accepts the
P125.00 transfer price.
Selling price of the timing devices................................................................
P700.00
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Less:
Purchased parts (from outside vendors)....................................................
P300.00
Circuit board KK8 (assumed transfer price).............................................
125.00
Other variable costs.................................................................................
207.50 632.50
Clock Division contribution margin.............................................................
P 67.50
In fact, since the contribution margin is P62.50, any transfer price within the
range of P125.00 to P192.50 (= P125.00 + P67.50) will improve the profits of
both divisions. So yes, the managers should be able to agree on a transfer
price.
Requirement (4)
It is in the best interests of the company and of the divisions to come to an
agreement concerning the transfer price. As demonstrated in part (3) above,
any transfer price within the range P125.00 to P192.50 would improve the
profits of both divisions. What happens if the two managers do not come to an
agreement?
In this case, top management knows that there should be a transfer and could
step in and force a transfer at some price within the acceptable range.
However, such an action, if done on a frequent basis, would undermine the
autonomy of the managers and turn decentralization into a sham.
Our advice to top management would be to ask the two managers to meet to
discuss the transfer pricing decision. Top management should not dictate a
course of action or what is to happen in the meeting, but should carefully
observe what happens in the meeting. If there is no agreement, it is important
to know why. There are at least three possible reasons. First, the managers
may have better information than the top managers and refuse to transfer for
very good reasons. Second, the managers may be uncooperative and unwilling
to deal with each other even if it results in lower profits for the company and
for themselves. Third, the managers may not be able to correctly analyze the
situation and may not understand what is actually in their own best interests.
For example, the manager of the Clock Division may believe that the fixed
overhead and administrative cost of P100 per timing device really does have to
be covered in order to avoid a loss.
If the refusal to come to an agreement is the result of uncooperative attitudes
or an inability to correctly analyze the situation, top management can take
some positive steps that are completely consistent with decentralization. If the
problem is uncooperative attitudes, there are many training companies that
would be happy to put on a short course in team building for the company. If
the problem is that the managers are unable to correctly analyze the
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alternatives, they can be sent to executive training courses that emphasize
economics and managerial accounting.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
C
D
A
A
C
A
D
A
C
A
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
E
D
C
C
B
C
B
A
B
A
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C
B
A
D
B
A
A
B
D
A
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
B
D
D
D
C
D
B
D
B
D
CHAPTER 15
FUNCTIONAL AND ACTIVITY-BASED BUDGETING
I.
Questions
1. No. Planning and control are different, although related, concepts.
Planning involves developing objectives and formulating steps to achieve
those objectives. Control, by contrast, involves the means by which
management ensures that the objectives set down at the planning stage are
attained.
2. Budgets have a dual purpose, for planning and for following up the
implementation of the plan. The great benefits from budgeting lie in the
quick investigation of deviations and in the subsequent corrective action.
Budgets should not be prepared in the first place if they are ignored,
buried in files, or improperly interpreted.
3. Two major features of a budgetary program are (1) the accounting
techniques which developed it and (2) the human factors which administer
it. The human factors are far more important. The success of a
budgetary system depends upon its acceptance by the company members
who are affected by the budget. Without a thoroughly educated and
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cooperative management group at all levels of responsibility, budgets are a
drain on the funds of the business and are a hindrance instead of help to
efficient operations.
4. Manufacturing overhead costs are budgeted at normal operating capacity,
and the costs are applied to the products using a predetermined rate. The
predetermined rate is computed by dividing a factor that can be identified
with both the products and the overhead into the overhead budgeted at the
normal operating capacity. Budgets may also be used in costing products
in a standard cost accounting system.
5. The production division operates to produce the products that are sold.
Production and sales must be coordinated.
Products must be
manufactured so that they will be available to meet sales delivery dates.
Activity of the production division will depend upon the sales that can be
made. Also, the sales division is limited by the capabilities of the
production department in manufacturing products. Successful operations
depend upon a coordination of sales and production.
6. Labor hour required for production can be translated into labor pesos by
multiplying the number of hours budgeted by the appropriate labor rates.
The rates to be used will depend upon the rates established for job
classifications and the policy with respect to premium pay for overtime or
shift differences.
7. A long-range plan for the acquisition of plant assets is broken down and
entered in the current budget as the plan unfolds. The portion of the plan
which is to be executed in the next year is included in the budget for that
year.
8. A budget period is not limited to any particular unit of time. At a
minimum, a budget should cover at least one operating cycle. For
example, a budget should not cover a period when purchasing activity is
high and omit the period when sales volume and cash collection are
relatively high. The budget period should encompass the entire cycle
extending from the purchasing operation to the subsequent sale of the
products and the realization of the sales in cash. Ordinarily, a budget of
operations is prepared for a year which in turn is divided into quarters and
months. Long-term budgets, such as budgets for projects or capital
investments, may extend five to ten years or more into the future.
9. A rolling budget or a progressive budget or sometimes called continuous
budget, is a budget which is prepared throughout the year. As one month
elapses, a budget is prepared for one more month in the future. At any
one time for example, the company will have a budget for one year into
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the future, when July of one year is over, a budget for the following July
will be added at the other end of the budget. This process of adding a new
month as a month expires is continuous.
10. Variances that are revealed by a comparison of actual results with a
budget are investigated if it appears that an investigation is warranted.
The investigation may show that stricter control measures are needed or
that some weaknesses in the operation should be corrected. It may also
reveal that the budget plan should be revised. The comparison is one step
in the control and direction of business operations.
11. A comparison of actual results with a budget can contribute information
that can be applied in the preparation of better budgets in the future.
Subsequent investigation of variances provides management with a better
knowledge of operations. This knowledge can be applied in the
preparation of more realistic budgets for subsequent fiscal periods.
12. A self-imposed budget is one in which persons with responsibility over
cost control prepare their own budgets, i.e., the budget is not imposed
from above. The major advantages are: (1) the views and judgments of
persons from all levels of an organization are represented in the final
budget document; (2) budget estimates generally are more accurate and
reliable, since they are prepared by those who are closest to the problems;
(3) managers generally are more motivated to meet budgets which they
have participated in setting; (4) self-imposed budgets reduce the amount
of upward “blaming” resulting from inability to meet budget goals. One
caution must be exercised in the use of self-imposed budgets. The budgets
prepared by lower-level managers should be carefully reviewed to prevent
too much slack.
13. No, although this is clearly one of the purposes of the cash budget. The
principal purpose is to provide information on probable cash needs during
the budget period, so that bank loans and other sources of financing can
be anticipated and arranged well in advance of the actual time of need.
14. Zero-based budgeting requires that managers start at zero levels every
year and justify all costs as if all programs were being proposed for the
first time. In traditional budgeting, by contrast, budget data are usually
generated on an incremental basis, with last year’s budget being the
starting point.
15. A budget is a detailed quantitative plan for the acquisition and use of
financial and other resources over a given time period. Budgetary control
involves the use of budgets to control the actual activities of a firm.
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16. 1. Budgets communicate management’s plans throughout the
organization.
2. Budgets force managers to think about and plan for the future.
3. The budgeting process provides a means of allocating resources to
those parts of the organization where they can be used most
effectively.
4. The budgeting process can uncover potential bottlenecks before they
occur.
5. Budgets coordinate the activities of the entire organization by
integrating the plans of its various parts. Budgeting helps to ensure
that everyone in the organization is pulling in the same direction.
6. Budgets define goals and objectives that can serve as benchmarks for
evaluating subsequent performance.
17. A master budget represents a summary of all of management’s plans and
goals for the future, and outlines the way in which these plans are to be
accomplished. The master budget is composed of a number of smaller,
specific budgets encompassing sales, production, raw materials, direct
labor, manufacturing overhead, selling and administrative expenses, and
inventories. The master budget generally also contains a budgeted income
statement, budgeted balance sheet, and cash budget.
18. The flow of budgeting information moves in two directions—upward and
downward. The initial flow should be from the bottom of the organization
upward. Each person having responsibility over revenues or costs should
prepare the budget data against which his or her subsequent performance
will be measured. As the budget data are communicated upward, higherlevel managers should review the budgets for consistency with the overall
goals of the organization and the plans of other units in the organization.
Any issues should be resolved in discussions between the individuals who
prepared the budgets and their managers.
All levels of an organization should participate in the budgeting process—
not just top management or the accounting department. Generally, the
lower levels will be more familiar with detailed, day-to-day operating
data, and for this reason will have primary responsibility for developing
the specifics in the budget. Top levels of management should have a better
perspective concerning the company’s strategy.
19. Budgeting can assist a company forecast its workforce staffing needs
through direct labor and other budgets. By careful planning through the
budget process, a company can often smooth out its activities and avoid
erratic hiring and laying off employees.
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18
II. Matching Type
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
C
H
E
F
I
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
B
J
D
G
III. Exercises
Exercises 1 (Schedule of Expected Cash Collections)
Requirement 1
July
May sales:
P430,000 × 10%
June sales:
P540,000 × 70%, 10%
July sales:
P600,000 × 20%,
70%, 10%
August sales:
P900,000 × 20%, 70%
September sales:
P500,000 × 20%
Total cash collections
August
September
P 43,000
Total
P
43,000
378,000
P54,000
432,000
120,000
420,000 P 60,000
600,000
180,000
630,000
810,000
100,000
P654,000 P790,000
100,000
P1,985,000
P541,000
Notice that even though sales peak in August, cash collections peak in
September. This occurs because the bulk of the company’s customers pay in
the month following sale. The lag in collections that this creates is even more
pronounced in some companies. Indeed, it is not unusual for a company to
have the least cash available in the months when sales are greatest.
Requirement 2
Accounts receivable at September 30:
From August sales: P900,000 × 10%......................................................................
P 90,000
From September sales: P500,000 × (70% + 10%)...................................................
400,000
Total accounts receivable.........................................................................................
P490,000
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Exercise 2 (Production Budget)
July
30,000
4,500
34,500
3,000
31,500
Budgeted sales in units
Add desired ending inventory*
Total needs
Less beginning inventory
Required production
August
45,000
6,000
51,000
4,500
46,500
Septembe
r
60,000
5,000
65,000
6,000
59,000
Quarter
135,000
5,000
140,000
3,000
137,000
* 10% of the following month’s sales
Exercise 3 (Materials Purchase Budget)
First
60,000
× 3
180,000
Required production of calculators
Number of chips per calculator
Total production needs—chips
Production needs—chips
Add desired ending inventory—
chips
Total needs—chips
Less beginning inventory—chips
Required purchases—chips
Cost of purchases at P2 per chip
Quarter – Year 2
Second
Third
90,000 150,000
× 3
× 3
270,000 450,000
First
180,000
Second
270,000
Year 2
Third
450,000
54,000
234,000
36,000
198,000
P396,000
90,000
360,000
54,000
306,000
P612,000
60,000
510,000
90,000
420,000
P840,000
Fourth
100,000
× 3
300,000
Fourth
300,000
Year 3
First
80,000
× 3
240,000
Year
1,200,000
48,000
48,000
348,000 1,248,000
60,000
36,000
288,000 1,212,000
P576,000 P2,424,000
Exercise 4 (Direct Labor Budget)
Requirement 1
Assuming that the direct labor workforce is
adjusted each quarter, the direct labor
budget would be:
Units to be produced
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Quarter Quarter Quarter Quarter
5,000
4,400
4,500
4,900
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Year
18,800
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Direct labor time per unit (hours)
× 0.40 × 0.40 × 0.40 × 0.40 × 0.40
Total direct labor hours needed
2,000
1,760
1,800
1,960
7,520
Direct labor cost per hour
× P11.00 × P11.00 × P11.00 × P11.00 × P11.00
Total direct labor cost
P 22,000 P 19,360 P 19,800 P 21,560 P 82,720
Requirement 2
Assuming that the direct labor workforce is not adjusted each quarter and that
overtime wages are paid, the direct labor budget would be:
Units to be produced
Direct labor time per unit
(hours)
Total direct labor hours needed
Regular hours paid
Overtime hours paid
Wages for regular hours
(@ P11.00 per hour)
Overtime wages
(@ P11.00 per hour × 1.5)
Total direct labor cost
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Quarter Quarter Quarter Quarter
5,000
4,400
4,500
4,900
Year
18,800
× 0.40
× 0.40
× 0.40
× 0.40
× 0.40
2,000
1,800
200
1,760
1,800
-
1,800
1,800
-
1,960
1,800
160
7,520
7,200
360
P19,800
P19,800
P19,800
P19,800
P79,200
3,300
P23,100
P19,800
P19,800
2,640
P22,440
5,940
P85,140
Exercise 5 (Manufacturing Overhead Budget)
Requirement 1
Kiko Corporation
Manufacturing Overhead Budget
Budgeted direct labor-hours
Variable overhead rate
Variable manufacturing overhead
Fixed manufacturing overhead
Total manufacturing overhead
Less depreciation
Cash disbursements for
manufacturing overhead
1st
Quarter
5,000
x P1.75
P 8,750
35,000
43,750
15,000
2nd
Quarter
4,800
x P1.75
P 8,400
35,000
43,400
15,000
3rd
Quarter
5,200
x P1.75
P 9,100
35,000
44,100
15,000
4th
Quarter
5,400
x P1.75
P 9,450
35,000
44,450
15,000
Year
20,400
x P1.75
P 35,700
140,000
175,700
60,000
P28,750
P28,400
P29,100
P29,450
P115,700
Requirement 2
Total budgeted manufacturing overhead for the year (a)
Total budgeted direct labor-hours for the year (b)
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Predetermined overhead rate for the year (a) ÷ (b)
P
8.61
Exercise 6 (Selling and Administrative Budget)
Helene Company
Selling and Administrative Expense Budget
Budgeted unit sales
Variable selling and
administrative expense per
unit
Variable expense
Fixed selling and administrative
expenses:
Advertising
Executive salaries
Insurance
Property taxes
Depreciation
Total fixed selling and
administrative expenses
Total selling and administrative
expenses
Less depreciation
Cash disbursements for selling
and administrative expenses
1st
Quarter
12,000
2nd
Quarter
14,000
3rd
Quarter
11,000
4th
Quarter
10,000
Year
47,000
x P2.75
P33,000
x P2.75
P 38,500
x P2.75
P 30,250
x P2.75
P 27,500
x P2.75
P129,250
12,000
40,000
12,000
40,000
6,000
12,000
40,000
12,000
40,000
6,000
16,000
16,000
6,000
16,000
16,000
48,000
160,000
12,000
6,000
64,000
68,000
74,000
74,000
74,000
290,000
101,000
16,000
112,500
16,000
104,250
16,000
101,500
16,000
419,250
64,000
P 85,000
P 96,500
P 88,250
P 85,500
P355,250
Exercise 7 (Cash Budget Analysis)
Cash balance, beginning
Add collections from customers
Total cash available
Less disbursements:
Purchase of inventory
Operating expenses
Equipment purchases
Dividends
Total disbursements
Excess (deficiency) of cash
available over disbursements
Quarter (000 omitted)
1
2
3
4
P 9 * P 5 P 5
P 5
76
85 *
90
95
125 *
130
40 *
36
10 *
2 *
88
58
42
8
2
110
* 36
* 54 *
*
8 *
*
2 *
* 100
(3)*
18-264
(15)
30 *
100
105
32 *
48
10
2 *
92
13
Year
P 9
391 *
400
166
180 *
36 *
8
390
10
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Financing:
Borrowings
Repayments (including
interest)
Total financing
Cash balance, ending
8
0
8
P5
20 *
0
20
P 5
—
—
28
(25)
(25)
P 5
(7)*
(7)
P 6
(32)
(4)
P 6
*Given.
IV. Problems
Problem 1 (Schedule of Expected Cash Collections and Disbursements)
Requirement 1
September cash sales...............................................................................................
P 7,400
September collections on account:
July sales: P20,000 × 18%...................................................................................
3,600
August sales: P30,000 × 70%..............................................................................
21,000
September sales: P40,000 × 10%.........................................................................
4,000
Total cash collections...............................................................................................
P36,000
Requirement 2
Payments to suppliers:
August purchases (accounts payable)..................................................................
P16,000
September purchases: P25,000 × 20%.................................................................
5,000
Total cash payments................................................................................................
P21,000
Requirement 3
COOKIE PRODUCTS
Cash Budget
For the Month of September
Cash balance, September 1......................................................................................
P 9,000
Add cash receipts:
Collections from customers..................................................................................
36,000
Total cash available before current financing...........................................................
45,000
Less disbursements:
Payments to suppliers for inventory.....................................................................
P21,000
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Selling and administrative expenses.....................................................................
9,000 *
Equipment purchases...........................................................................................
18,000
Dividends paid.....................................................................................................
3,000
Total disbursements.................................................................................................
51,000
Excess (deficiency) of cash available over
disbursements......................................................................................................
(6,000)
Financing:
Borrowings..........................................................................................................
11,000
Repayments.........................................................................................................
0
Interest.................................................................................................................
0
Total financing.........................................................................................................
11,000
Cash balance, September 30....................................................................................
P 5,000
* P13,000 – P4,000 = P9,000.
Problem 2 (Production and Purchases Budget)
Requirement 1
Production budget:
Budgeted sales (units)
Add desired ending inventory
Total needs
Less beginning inventory
Required production
July
40,000
20,000
60,000
17,000
43,000
August
50,000
26,000
76,000
20,000
56,000
Septembe
r
70,000
15,500
85,500
26,000
59,500
October
35,000
11,000
46,000
15,500
30,500
Requirement 2
During July and August the company is building inventories in anticipation of
peak sales in September. Therefore, production exceeds sales during these
months. In September and October inventories are being reduced in
anticipation of a decrease in sales during the last months of the year.
Therefore, production is less than sales during these months to cut back on
inventory levels.
Requirement 3
Raw materials purchases budget:
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Septembe
Third
July
August
r
Quarter
Required production (units)
43,000
56,000
59,500
158,500
Material P214 needed per unit
× 3 lbs. × 3 lbs. × 3 lbs.
× 3 lbs.
Production needs (lbs.)
129,000 168,000 178,500
475,500
Add desired ending inventory (lbs.)
84,000
89,250
45,750 *
45,750
Total Material P214 needs
213,000 257,250 224,250
521,250
Less beginning inventory (lbs.)
64,500
84,000
89,250
64,500
Material P214 purchases (lbs.)
148,500 173,250 135,000
456,750
* 30,500 units (October production) × 3 lbs. per unit= 91,500 lbs.; 91,500 lbs. ×
0.5 = 45,750 lbs.
As shown in requirement (1), production is greatest in September. However,
as shown in the raw material purchases budget, the purchases of materials is
greatest a month earlier because materials must be on hand to support the
heavy production scheduled for September.
Problem 3 (Cash Budget; Income Statement; Balance Sheet)
Requirement 1
Schedule of cash receipts:
Cash sales—June.....................................................................................................
P 60,000
Collections on accounts receivable:
May 31 balance...................................................................................................
72,000
June (50% × 190,000).........................................................................................
95,000
Total cash receipts...................................................................................................
P227,000
Schedule of cash payments for purchases:
May 31 accounts payable balance...........................................................................
P 90,000
June purchases (40% × 200,000).............................................................................
80,000
Total cash payments................................................................................................
P170,000
PICTURE THIS, INC.
Cash Budget
For the Month of June
Cash balance, beginning..........................................................................................
P 8,000
Add receipts from customers (above).......................................................................
227,000
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Total cash available.................................................................................................
235,000
Less disbursements:
Purchase of inventory (above)..............................................................................
170,000
Operating expenses..............................................................................................
51,000
Purchases of equipment.......................................................................................
9,000
Total cash disbursements.........................................................................................
230,000
Excess of receipts over disbursements.....................................................................
5,000
Financing:
Borrowings—note................................................................................................
18,000
Repayments—note...............................................................................................
(15,000)
Interest.................................................................................................................
(500)
Total financing.........................................................................................................
2,500
Cash balance, ending...............................................................................................
P 7,500
Requirement 2
PICTURE THIS, INC.
Budgeted Income Statement
For the Month of June
Sales........................................................................................................................
P250,000
Cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory.............................................................................................
P 30,000
Add purchases.....................................................................................................
200,000
Goods available for sale.......................................................................................
230,000
Ending inventory..................................................................................................
40,000
Cost of goods sold...............................................................................................
190,000
Gross margin...........................................................................................................
60,000
Operating expenses (P51,000 + P2,000)..................................................................
53,000
Net operating income...............................................................................................
7,000
Interest expense.......................................................................................................
500
Net income..............................................................................................................
P 6,500
Requirement 3
PICTURE THIS, INC.
Budgeted Balance Sheet
June 30
Assets
Cash........................................................................................................................
P 7,500
Accounts receivable (50% × 190,000).....................................................................
95,000
Inventory.................................................................................................................
40,000
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Buildings and equipment, net of depreciation
(P500,000 + P9,000 – P2,000)............................................................................
507,000
Total assets..............................................................................................................
P649,500
Liabilities and Equity
Accounts payable (60% × 200,000)........................................................................
P120,000
Note payable............................................................................................................
18,000
Share capital............................................................................................................
420,000
Retained earnings (P85,000 + P6,500)....................................................................
91,500
Total liabilities and equity........................................................................................
P649,500
Problem 4 (Sales, Production and Materials Purchases Budget)
Requirement 1
Nikko Manufacturing Company
Sales Budget
For the year ending December 31, 2005
Units
16,000
20,000
22,000
22,000
80,000
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Total
Amount
P 480,000
600,000
660,000
660,000
P2,400,000
Requirement 2
Nikko Manufacturing Company
Statement of Production Required
For 2005
Units to be sold
Add: Desired ending inventory (20%)
Total units required
Less: Beginning inventory
Units to be produced
1st
16,000
4,000
20,000
3,000
17,000
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Quarter
2nd
3rd
20,000 22,000
4,400
4,400
24,400 26,400
4,000
4,400
20,400 22,000
4th
22,000
5,000
27,000
4,400
22,600
Total
80,000
5,000
85,000
3,000
82,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement 3
Nikko Manufacturing Company
Statement of Raw Materials Purchase Requirements
For 2005
Units required for production
Add: Desired ending inventory
Total units
Less: Beginning inventory
Raw Materials to be Purchased
1st
51,000
12,240
63,240
12,500
50,740
Quarter
2nd
3rd
61,200 66,000
13,200 13,560
74,400 79,560
12,240 13,200
62,160 66,360
4th
Total
67,800 246,000
15,000 15,000
82,800 261,000
13,560 12,500
69,240 248,500
Problem 5 (Schedule of Expected Cash Collections; Cash Budget)
Requirement 1
Schedule of expected cash collections:
From accounts receivable
From April sales:
20% × 200,000
75% × 200,000
4% × 200,000
From May sales:
20% × 300,000
75% × 300,000
From June sales:
20% × 250,000
Total cash collections
April
P141,000
Month
May
P 7,200
June
40,000
Quarter
P148,200
P 8,000
40,000
150,000
8,000
225,000
60,000
225,000
50,000
P181,000 P217,200 P283,000
50,000
P681,200
Month
May
June
P 27,000 P 20,200
Quarter
P 26,000
150,000
60,000
Requirement 2
Cash budget:
Cash balance, beginning
Add receipts:
April
P 26,000
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Collections from
customers
Total available
Less disbursements:
Merchandise purchases
Payroll
Lease payments
Advertising
Equipment purchases
Total disbursements
Excess (deficiency) of
receipts over
disbursements
Financing:
Borrowings
Repayments
Interest
Total financing
Cash balance, ending
181,000
207,000
217,200
244,200
283,000
303,200
681,200
707,200
108,000
9,000
15,000
70,000
8,000
210,000
120,000
9,000
15,000
80,000
—
224,000
180,000
8,000
15,000
60,000
—
263,000
408,000
26,000
45,000
210,000
8,000
697,000
(3,000)
20,200
40,200
10,200
—
—
—
(30,000)
—
(1,200)
—
(31,200)
P 20,200 P 9,000
30,000
(30,000)
(1,200)
(1,200)
P 9,000
30,000
—
—
30,000
P 27,000
Requirement 3
If the company needs a minimum cash balance of P20,000 to start each
month, the loan cannot be repaid in full by June 30. If the loan is repaid in
full, the cash balance will drop to only P9,000 on June 30, as shown above.
Some portion of the loan balance will have to be carried over to July, at which
time the cash inflow should be sufficient to complete repayment.
Problem 6 (Flexible Budget)
Summer Machine Company
Flexible Overhead Budget
Department 1
Machine Hours
Variable Overhead
Fixed Overhead
Total
100%
200,000
P1,300,000
300,000
P1,600,000
90%
180,000
P1,170,000
300,000
P1,470,000
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Capacity
80%
160,000
P1,040,000
300,000
P1,340,000
70%
140,000
P 910,000
300,000
P1,210,000
60%
120,000
P 780,000
300,000
P1,080,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Manufacturing Overhead rate per machine hour
P8.00
Summer Machine Company
Flexible Overhead Budget
Department 2
Direct Labor Hours
Machine Hours
Variable Overhead
Fixed Overhead
Total
100%
200,000
400,000
P1,400,000
500,000
P1,900,000
90%
180,000
360,000
P1,260,000
500,000
P1,760,000
Manufacturing Overhead rate per machine hour
Capacity
80%
160,000
320,000
P1,120,000
500,000
P1,620,000
70%
140,000
280,000
P 980,000
500,000
P1,480,000
60%
120,000
240,000
P 840,000
500,000
P1,340,000
P4.75
Problem 7 (Cash Budget with Supporting Schedules)
1. Collections on sales:
July
August
Sept.
Quarter
Cash sales.....................................................
P 8,000 P14,000 P10,000 P 32,000
Credit sales:
May: P30,000 × 80% × 20%.....................
4,800
4,800
June: P36,000 × 80% × 70%,
20%.......................................................
20,160
5,760
25,920
July: P40,000 × 80% × 10%,
70%, 20%..............................................
3,200 22,400
6,400
32,000
Aug.: P70,000 × 80% × 10%,
70%.......................................................
5,600 39,200
44,800
Sept.: P50,000 × 80% × 10%....................
4,000
4,000
Total cash collections....................................
P36,160 P47,760 P59,600 P143,520
2. a. Merchandise purchases budget:
July
August
Sept.
Oct.
Budgeted cost of goods sold..........................
P24,000 P42,000 P30,000 P27,000
Add desired ending inventory*.......................
31,500
22,500
20,250
Total needs....................................................
55,500
64,500
50,250
Less beginning inventory...............................
18,000
31,500
22,500
Required inventory purchases........................
P37,500 P33,000 P27,750
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
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*75% of the next month’s budgeted cost of goods sold.
b. Schedule of expected cash disbursements for merchandise purchases:
Quarte
July
August
Sept.
r
Accounts payable, June 30............................
P11,700
P11,700
July purchases...............................................18,750 P18,750
37,500
August purchases..........................................
16,500 P16,500 33,000
September purchases.....................................
13,875 13,875
Total cash disbursements...............................
P30,450 P35,250 P30,375 P96,075
3.
Ju Products, Inc.
Cash Budget
For the Quarter Ended September 30
July
P
Cash balance, beginning.............................8,000
Add collections from sales..........................
36,160
Total cash available................................
44,160
Less disbursements:
For inventory purchases.........................
30,450
For selling expenses...............................7,200
For administrative expenses...................3,600
For land..................................................4,500
For dividends..........................................
0
Total disbursements....................................
45,750
Excess (deficiency) of cash available
over disbursements.................................(1,590)
Financing:
Borrowings.............................................
10,000
Repayment.............................................
0
Interest...................................................
0
Total financing...........................................
10,000
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August Sept.
P
P
8,410 8,020
47,760 59,600
56,170 67,620
Quarter
P 8,000
143,520
151,520
35,250 30,375
11,700 8,500
5,200 4,100
0
0
0 1,000
52,150 43,975
96,075
27,400
12,900
4,500
1,000
141,875
4,020 23,645
9,645
4,000
0 (14,000)
0
(380)
4,000 (14,380)
14,000
(14,000)
(380)
(380)
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
P
Cash balance, ending..................................8,410
* P10,000 × 1% × 3 =
P4,000 × 1% × 2 =
P
8,020
P
9,265
P 9,265
P300
80
P380
V. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
B
B
C
E
C
C
D
C
A
D
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
C
B
C
B
D
C
A
B
E
B
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C
C
D
C
C
C
D
A
C
D
Supporting computations:
Questions 16 to 20:
January
Cost of sales
P1,400,000
Add: Desired Minimum Inventory
492,000
Total
1,892,000
Less: Beginning Inventory (1,400,000 x 0.3) (17)
420,000
Gross Purchases
(16)
1,472,000
Less: Cash discount
14,720
Net cost of purchases
P1,457,280
Payments of Purchases
60% - month of purchase
40% - following month
Total
(19)
18-274
P874,368
(18)
February
P1,640,000
456,000
2,096,000
492,000
1,604,000
16,040
P1,587,960
P 952,776
582,912
P1,535,688
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Gross
Current month’s sales (with
discount) 35%
Current month’s sales (without
discount) 15%
Previous month’s sales (with
discount) 4.5%
Previous month’s sales (without
discount) 40.5%
February
Cash
Discount
Net
P595,000
P11,900
P583,100
255,000
0
255,000
67,500
1,350
66,150
607,500
P1,525,000
607,500
P13,250
(20)Total Collections in February
Add: Cash sales
Total
P1,511,750
P1,511,750
350,000
P1,861,750
(21)Estimated cash receipts
Collections from customers
Proceeds from issuance of common stock
Proceeds from short-term borrowing
Total
Less: Estimated cash disbursements
For cost and expenses
For income taxes
Purchase of fixed asset
Payment on short-term borrowings
Total
Cash balance, Dec. 31
(22)Net income
P120,000
Add: Depreciation
65,000
Working capital provided from operations
Add: Increase in income taxes payable P 80,000
Increase in provision for doubtful
accounts receivable
45,000
Total
Less: Increase in accounts receivable
P 35,000
Decrease in accounts payable
25,000
Increase in cash
18-275
P1,350,000
500,000
100,000
P1,950,000
P1,200,000
90,000
400,000
50,000
1,740,000
P 210,000
P185,000
125,000
P310,000
60,000
P250,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
(23)Cash Receipts for February 2005
From February sales (60% x 110,000)
From January sales
Total
P 66,000
38,000
P104,000
(24)Pro-forma Income Statement, February 2005
Sales
Cost of sales (75%)
Gross profit
P110,000
82,500
P
27,500
Less:
Operating expenses
Depreciation
Bad debts
Net operating income
16,500
5,000
2,200
23,700
P 3,800
(25)Accounts Payable on February 28, 2005 will be the unpaid purchases in
February - (75% x P120,000) = P90,000.
Questions 26 to 29:
Net sales
Less: Cost of sales
Finished goods inventory, Jan. 1
Add: Cost of goods manufactured (Sch. I)
Total available for sale
Less: Finished goods inventory, Dec. 31
Gross Profit
Less: Operating and financial expenses
Selling
Administrative
Finance
Net income before taxes
*
P2,000,000
P 350,000
1,350,000 *
P1,700,000
400,000 1,300,000 (26)
P 700,000
P 300,000
180,000
20,000
500,000
P 200,000
Determined by working back from net income to sales.
Schedule I
Raw materials used
Raw materials inventory, Jan. 1
Add: Purchases
Total available
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P 250,000
491,000 (29)
741,000
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Less: Raw materials inventory, Dec. 31
Raw materials used
Direct labor
Manufacturing overhead
Total Manufacturing Cost
Add: Work-in-process inventory, Jan. 1
Total P1,670,000
Less: Work-in-process inventory, Dec. 31
Cost of goods manufactured
300,000
P 441,000
588,000
441,000 (28)
P1,470,000 (27)
200,000
320,000
P1,350,000
(30)Variable factory overhead
P150,000
48,000
P3.125
Fixed factory overhead
P240,000
48,000
5.000
Total factory overhead
P8.125
CHAPTER 16
STANDARD COSTS AND OPERATING
PERFORMANCE MEASURES
I.
Questions
1. Standard costs are superior to past data for comparison with actual costs
because they ask the question “Is present performance better than the
past?”.
2. No. Cost control and cost reduction are not the same, but cost reduction
does affect the standards which are used as basis for cost control. Cost
reduction means finding ways to achieve a given result through improved
design, better methods, new layouts and so forth. Cost reduction results
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
in setting new standards. On the other hand, cost control is a process of
maintaining performance at or as new existing standards as is possible.
3. Managerial judgment is the basis for deciding whether a given variance is
large enough to warrant investigation. For some items, a small amount of
variance may spark scrutiny. For some items, 5%, 10% or 25% variances
from standard may call for follow-up. Management may also derive the
standard deviation based on past cost data.
4. The techniques for overhead control differ because
1) The size of individual overhead costs usually does not justify
elaborate individual control systems;
2) The behavior of individual overhead item is either impossible or
difficult to trace to specific lots or operations; and
3) Various overhead items are the responsibility of different people.
5. In the year-to-year planning of fixed costs, managers must consider:
1) the projected maximum and minimum levels of activity,
2) prices of cost factors, and
3) changes in facilities and organization.
6. Four criteria for selecting a volume base are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Cause of cost variability.
Adequacy of control over the base.
Independence of activity unit.
Ease of understanding.
7. Non-volume factors which cause costs to vary are:
1) Changes in plant and equipment.
2) Changes in products made, materials used, or methods of
manufacturing.
3) Changes in prices paid for cost factors.
4) Changes in managerial policy toward costs.
5) Lag between cost incurrence and measurement of volume.
8. A budget is usually expressed in terms of total pesos, whereas a standard
is expressed on a per unit basis. A standard might be viewed as the
budgeted cost for one unit.
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
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9. Under management by exception, managers focus their attention on
operating results that deviate from expectations. It is assumed that results
that meet expectations do not require investigation.
10. Separating an overall variance into a price variance and a quantity
variance provides more information. Moreover, prices and quantities are
usually the responsibilities of different managers.
11. The materials price variance is usually the responsibility of the purchasing
manager. The materials quantity variance is usually the responsibility of
the production managers and supervisors. The labor efficiency variance
generally is also the responsibility of the production managers and
supervisors.
12. If used as punitive tools, standards can breed resentment in an
organization and undermine morale. Standards must never be used as an
excuse to conduct witch-hunts, or as a means of finding someone to blame
for problems.
13. Several factors other than the contractual rate paid to workers can cause a
labor rate variance. For example, skilled workers with high hourly rates
of pay can be given duties that require little skill and that call for low
hourly rates of pay, resulting in an unfavorable rate variance. Or
unskilled or untrained workers can be assigned to tasks that should be
filled by more skilled workers with higher rates of pay, resulting in a
favorable rate variance. Unfavorable rate variances can also arise from
overtime work at premium rates.
14. Poor quality materials can unfavorably affect the labor efficiency
variance. If the materials create production problems, a result could be
excessive labor time and therefore an unfavorable labor efficiency
variance. Poor quality materials would not ordinarily affect the labor rate
variance.
15. If labor is a fixed cost and standards are tight, then the only way to
generate favorable labor efficiency variances is for every workstation to
produce at capacity. However, the output of the entire system is limited
by the capacity of the bottleneck. If workstations before the bottleneck in
the production process produce at capacity, the bottleneck will be unable
to process all of the work in process. In general, if every workstation is
attempting to produce at capacity, then work in process inventory will
build up in front of the workstations with the least capacity.
16. A quantity standard indicates how much of an input should be used to
make a unit of output. A price standard indicates how much the input
should cost.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
17. Chronic inability to meet a standard is likely to be demoralizing and may
result in decreased productivity.
18. A variance is the difference between what was planned or expected and
what was actually accomplished. A standard cost system has at least two
types of variances. A price variance focuses on the difference between the
standard price and the actual price of an input. A quantity variance is
concerned with the difference between the standard quantity of the input
allowed for the actual output and the actual amount of the input used.
II. Matching Type
1. E
2. G
3. C
4. H
5. A
6. D
7. J
8. B
9. I
10. F
III. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Setting Standards; Preparing a Standard Cost Card)
Requirement 1
Cost per 2 kilogram container..................................................................................
P6,000.00
Less: 2% cash discount............................................................................................
120.00
Net cost...................................................................................................................
P5,880.00
Add freight cost per 2 kilogram container
(P1,000 ÷ 10 containers).....................................................................................
100.00
Total cost per 2 kilogram container (a)....................................................................
P5,980.00
Number of grams per container
(2 kilograms × 1000 grams per kilogram) (b)......................................................
2,000
Standard cost per gram purchased (a) ÷ (b).............................................................
P
2.99
Requirement 2
Beta ML12 required per capsule as per bill of materials..........................................
6.00 grams
Add allowance for material rejected as unsuitable
(6 grams ÷ 0.96 = 6.25 grams;
6.25 grams – 6.00 grams = 0.25 grams)..............................................................
0.25 grams
Total........................................................................................................................
6.25 grams
Add allowance for rejected capsules
(6.25 grams ÷ 25 capsules)..................................................................................
0.25 grams
Standard quantity of Beta ML12 per salable capsule...............................................
6.50 grams
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
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Requirement 3
Item
Beta ML12
Standard Quantity
per Capsule
6.50 grams
Standard Price
per Gram
P2.99
Standard Cost
per Capsule
P19.435
Exercise 2 (Material Variances)
Requirement 1
Number of chopping blocks.....................................................................................
4,000
Number of board feet per chopping block................................................................
× 2.5
Standard board feet allowed....................................................................................
10,000
Standard cost per board foot....................................................................................
× P1.80
Total standard cost...................................................................................................
P18,000
Actual cost incurred.................................................................................................
P18,700
Standard cost above.................................................................................................
18,000
Total variance—unfavorable....................................................................................
P 700
Requirement 2
Actual Quantity of Inputs, at
Actual Price
(AQ × AP)
P18,700
Actual Quantity of Inputs, at
Standard Price
(AQ × SP)
11,000 board feet ×
P1.80 per board foot
= P19,800
Price Variance,
P1,100 F
Standard Quantity Allowed for
Output, at Standard Price
(SQ × SP)
10,000 board feet ×
P1.80 per board foot
= P18,000
Quantity Variance,
P1,800 U
Total Variance, P700 U
Alternatively:
Materials Price Variance = AQ (AP – SP)
11,000 board feet (P1.70 per board foot* – P1.80 per board foot) =
P1,100 F
* P18,700 ÷ 11,000 board feet = P1.70 per board foot.
Materials Quantity Variance = SP (AQ – SQ)
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
P1.80 per board foot (11,000 board feet – 10,000 board feet) = P1,800 U
Exercise 3 (Labor and Variable Overhead Variances)
Requirement 1
Number of units manufactured................................................................................
20,000
Standard labor time per unit....................................................................................
× 0.4*
Total standard hours of labor time allowed..............................................................
8,000
Standard direct labor rate per hour..........................................................................
×
P6
Total standard direct labor cost................................................................................
P48,000
*24 minutes ÷ 60 minutes per hour = 0.4 hour
Actual direct labor cost............................................................................................
P49,300
Standard direct labor cost........................................................................................
48,000
Total variance—unfavorable....................................................................................
P 1,300
Requirement 2
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Actual Rate
(AH × AR)
P49,300
Actual Hour of Input, at
Standard Rate
(AH × SR)
8,500 hours × P6 per hour
Standard Hours Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Rate
(SH × SR)
8,000 hours* × P6 per hour
= P51,000
= P48,000
Rate Variance,
P1,700 F
Efficiency Variance,
P3,000 U
Total Variance, P1,300 U
*20,000 units × 0.4 hour per unit = 8,000 hours
Alternative Solution:
Labor Rate Variance = AH (AR – SR)
8,500 hours (P5.80 per hour* – P6.00 per hour) = P1,700 F
*P49,300 ÷ 8,500 hours = P5.80 per hour
Labor Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P6 per hour (8,500 hours – 8,000 hours) = P3,000 U
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
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Requirement 3
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Actual Rate
(AH × AR)
P39,100
Actual Hour of Input, at
Standard Rate
(AH × SR)
8,500 hours × P4 per hour
Standard Hours Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Rate
(SH × SR)
8,000 hours × P4 per hour
= P34,000
= P32,000
Spending Variance,
P5,100 U
Efficiency Variance,
P2,000 U
Total Variance, P7,100 U
Alternative Solution:
Variable Overhead Spending Variance = AH (AR – SR)
8,500 hours (P4.60 per hour* – P4.00 per hour) = P5,100 U
*P39,100 ÷ 8,500 hours = P4.60 per hour
Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P4 per hour (8,500 hours – 8,000 hours) = P2,000 U
Exercise 4 (Working Backwards from Labor Variances)
Requirement 1
If the total variance is P330 unfavorable, and if the rate variance is P150
favorable, then the efficiency variance must be P480 unfavorable, since the
rate and efficiency variances taken together always equal the total variance.
Knowing that the efficiency variance is P480 unfavorable, one approach to the
solution would be:
Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P6 per hour (AH – 420 hours*) = P480 U
P6 per hour × AH – P2,520 = P480**
P6 per hour × AH = P3,000
AH = 500 hours
* 168 batches × 2.5 hours per batch = 420 hours
** When used with the formula, unfavorable variances are positive and
favorable variances are negative.
Requirement 2
18-283
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Knowing that 500 hours of labor time were used during the week, the actual
rate of pay per hour can be computed as follows:
Rate Variance = AH (AR – SR)
500 hours (AR – P6 per hour) = P150 F
500 hours × AR – P3,000 = –P150*
500 hours × AR = P2,850
AR = P5.70 per hour
*
When used with the formula, unfavorable variances are positive and
favorable variances are negative.
Exercise 5 (Direct Labor Variances)
1.
Number of meals prepared...................................................
Standard direct labor-hours per meal...................................
Total direct labor-hours allowed...........................................
Standard direct labor cost per hour......................................
Total standard direct labor cost............................................
6,000
× 0.20
1,200
× P9.50
P11,400
Actual cost incurred.............................................................
Total standard direct labor cost (above)...............................
Total direct labor variance...................................................
P11,500
11,400
P 100 Unfavorable
2.
Actual Hours of
Input, at the Actual Rate
(AH×AR)
1,150 hours ×
P10.00 per hour
= P11,500

Actual Hours of Input, at the
Standard Rate
(AH×SR)
1,150 hours ×
P9.50 per hour
= P10,925
Rate Variance,
P575 U

Standard Hours
Allowed for Output, at the
Standard Rate
(SH×SR)
1,200 hours ×
P9.50 per hour
= P11,400
Efficiency Variance,
P475 F
Total Variance, P100 U
Alternatively, the variances can be computed using the formulas:
Labor rate variance = AH(AR – SR)
= 1,150 hours (P10.00 per hour – P9.50 per hour)
= P575 U
18-284

Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Labor efficiency variance = SR(AH – SH)
= P9.50 per hour (1,150 hours – 1,200 hours)
= P475 F
Exercise 6 (Variable Overhead Variances)
1.
Number of items shipped..................................................................
Standard direct labor-hours per item.................................................
Total direct labor-hours allowed.......................................................
Standard variable overhead cost per hour.........................................
Total standard variable overhead cost...............................................
140,000
× 0.04
5,600
× P2.80
P15,680
Actual variable overhead cost incurred.............................................
Total standard variable overhead cost (above)..................................
Total variable overhead variance.......................................................
P15,950
15,680
P 270 Unfavorable
2.
Actual Hours of
Input, at the Actual Rate
(AH×AR)
5,800 hours ×
P2.75 per hour*
= P15,950

Actual Hours of Input, at the
Standard Rate
(AH×SR)
5,800 hours ×
P2.80 per hour
= P16,240
Variable overhead spending
variance, P290 F

Standard Hours
Allowed for Output, at the
Standard Rate
(SH×SR)
5,600 hours ×
P2.80 per hour
= P15,680
Variable overhead
efficiency variance, P560 U
Total variance, P270 U
*P15,950÷ 5,800 hours =P2.75 per hour
Alternatively, the variances can be computed using the formulas:
Variable overhead spending variance:
AH(AR – SR) = 5,800 hours (P2.75 per hour – P2.80 per hour)
= P290 F
Variable overhead efficiency variance:
SR(AH – SH) = P2.80 per hour (5,800 hours – 5,600 hours)
18-285

Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
= P560 U
IV. Problems
Problem 1 (Comprehensive Variance Analysis)
Requirement 1
a.
Actual Quantity of Inputs, at
the Actual Price
(AQ × AP)
25,000 pounds x
P2.95 per pound
Actual Quantity of Inputs, at
Standard Price
(AQ × SP)
25,000 pounds x
P2.50 per pound
Standard Quantity Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Price
(SQ × SP)
20,000 pounds* x
P2.50 per pound
= P73,750
= P62,500
= P50,000
Price Variance,
P11,250 U
19,800 pounds x P2.50 per pound
= P49,500
Quantity Variance,
P500 F
* 5,000 metal molds × 4.0 pounds per metal mold = 20,000 pounds
Alternatively:
Materials Price Variance = AQ (AP – SP)
25,000 pounds (P2.95 per pound – P2.50 per pound) = P11,250 U
Materials Quantity Variance = SP (AQ – SQ)
P2.50 per pound (19,800 pounds – 20,000 pounds) = P500 F
b.
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Actual Rate
(AH × AR)
3,600 hours x
P8.70 per hour
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Standard Rate
(AH × SR)
3,600 hours x
P9.00 per hour
Standard Hours Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Rate
(SH × SR)
3,000 hours* x
P9.00 per hour
= P31,320
= P32,400
= P27,000
Rate Variance,
P1,080 F
Efficiency Variance,
P5,400 U
Total Variance, P4,320 U
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
* 5,000 metal molds × 0.6 hour per metal mold = 3,000 hours
Alternatively:
Labor Rate Variance = AH (AR – SR)
3,600 hours (P8.70 per hour – P9.00 per hour) = P1,080 F
Labor Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P9.00 per hour (3,600 hours – 3,000 hours) = P5,400 U
c.
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Actual Rate
(AH × AR)
P4,320
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Standard Rate
(AH × SR)
1,800 hours × P2 per hour
Standard Hours Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Rate
(SH × SR)
1,500 hours* × P2 per hour
= P3,600
= P3,000
Spending Variance,
P720 U
Efficiency Variance,
P600 U
Total Variance, P1,320 U
*5,000 metal molds × 0.3 hours per metal mold = 1,500 hours
Alternatively:
Variable Overhead Spending Variance = AH (AR – SR)
1,800 hours (P2.40 per hour* – P2.00 per hour) = P720 U
* P4,320 ÷ 1,800 hours = P2.40 per hour
Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P2.00 per hour (1,800 hours – 1,500 hours) = P600 U
Requirement 2
Summary of variances:
Material price variance............................................................................................
P11,250 U
Material quantity variance.......................................................................................
500 F
Labor rate variance..................................................................................................
1,080 F
Labor efficiency variance........................................................................................
5,400 U
Variable overhead spending variance.......................................................................
720 U
Variable overhead efficiency variance......................................................................
600 U
Net variance............................................................................................................
P16,390 U
18-287
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
The net unfavorable variance of P16,390 for the month caused the plant’s
variable cost of goods sold to increase from the budgeted level of P80,000 to
P96,390:
Budgeted cost of goods sold at P16 per metal mold.................................................
P80,000
Add the net unfavorable variance (as above)...........................................................
16,390
Actual cost of goods sold.........................................................................................
P96,390
This P16,390 net unfavorable variance also accounts for the difference
between the budgeted net operating income and the actual net loss for the
month.
Budgeted net operating income................................................................................
P15,000
Deduct the net unfavorable variance added to cost of goods sold
for the month.......................................................................................................
16,390
Net operating loss....................................................................................................
P(1,390)
Requirement 3
The two most significant variances are the materials price variance and the
labor efficiency variance. Possible causes of the variances include:
Materials Price
Variance:
Outdated standards, uneconomical quantity
purchased, higher quality materials, highcost method of transport.
Labor Efficiency
Variance:
Poorly trained workers, poor quality materials,
faulty equipment, work interruptions,
inaccurate standards, insufficient demand.
Problem 2
1. 1,000 units
2. 25,000 lbs.
3. P2.01 per lb.
4. 14,900 lbs.
5. 3,100 hours
6. P3.98 per hour
Problem 3
Material mix variance:
Actual quantity x Standard price
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Material A (8,000 x P0.30)
P2,400
Material B (2,400 x P0.20)
480
Material C (2,800 x P0.425)
1,190
Less: Total actual input x Average
Standard price (13,200 x 0.30*)
Unfavorable Mix Variance
P 720
* Average Standard price = 2,400
=
P4,070
3,960
P 110
P0.30
Material yield variance:
Total actual input at Average Standard price
Less: Total actual output at Standard raw material cost
(10,000 x 0.36**)
Unfavorable yield variance
** Standard Material Cost
=
P 720
2,000
=
P3,960
3,600
P 360
P0.36
Problem 4 (Comprehensive Variance Analysis; Journal Entries)
Requirement 1
a.
Actual Quantity of Inputs, at
Actual Price
(AQ × AP)
21,120 yards x
P3.35 per yard
= P70,752
Actual Quantity of Inputs, at
Standard Price
(AQ × SP)
21,120 yards x
P3.60 per yard
= P76,032
Price Variance,
P5,280 F
Standard Quantity Allowed for
Output, at Standard Price
(SQ × SP)
19,200 yards* x
P3.60 per yard
= P69,120
Quantity Variance,
P6,912 U
Total Variance, P1,632 U
* 4,800 units × 4.0 yards per unit = 19,200 yards
Alternatively:
Materials Price Variance = AQ (AP – SP)
21,120 yards (P3.35 per yard – P3.60 per yard) = P5,280 F
Materials Quantity Variance = SP (AQ – SQ)
P3.60 per yard (21,120 yards – 19,200 yards) = P6,912 U
18-289
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Raw Materials (21,120 yards @ P3.60 per yard)....................................................
76,032
Materials Price Variance
(21,120 yards @ P0.25 per yard F).............................................................
5,280
Accounts Payable
(21,120 yards @ P3.35 per yard).................................................................
70,752
Work in Process (19,200 yards @ P3.60 per
yard)....................................................................................................................
69,120
Materials Quantity Variance
(1,920 yards U @ P3.60 per yard).......................................................................
6,912
Raw Materials (21,120 yards @ P3.60 per
yard)............................................................................................................
76,032
Requirement 2
a.
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Actual Rate
(AH × AR)
6,720 hours* x
P4.85 per hour
= P32,592
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Standard Rate
(AH × SR)
6,720 hours x
P4.50 per hour
= P30,240
Rate Variance,
P2,352 U
Standard Hours Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Rate
(SH × SR)
7,680 hours** x
P4.50 per hour
= P34,560
Efficiency Variance,
P4,320 F
Total Variance, P1,968 F
* 4,800 units × 1.4 hours per unit = 6,720 hours
** 4,800 units × 1.6 hours per unit = 7,680 hours
Alternatively:
Labor Rate Variance = AH (AR – SR)
6,720 hours (P4.85 per hour – P4.50 per hour) = P2,352 U
Labor Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P4.50 per hour (6,720 hours – 7,680 hours) = P4,320 F
Work in Process (7,680 hours @ P4.50 per hour)....................................................
34,560
Labor Rate Variance
(6,720 hours @ P0.35 per hour U)......................................................................
2,352
Labor Efficiency Variance
(960 hours F @ P4.50 per hour)..................................................................
4,320
18-290
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Wages Payable (6,720 hours @ P4.85 per
hour)............................................................................................................
32,592
Requirement 3
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Actual Rate
(AH × AR)
6,720 hours x
P2.15 per hour
Actual Hours of Input, at
the Standard Rate
(AH × SR)
6,720 hours x
P1.80 per hour
Standard Hours Allowed for
Output, at the Standard Rate
(SH × SR)
7,680 hours x
P1.80 per hour
P14,448
= P12,096
= P13,824
Spending Variance,
P2,352 U
Efficiency Variance,
P1,728 F
Total Variance, P624 U
Alternatively:
Variable Overhead Spending Variance = AH (AR – SR)
6,720 hours (P2.15 per hour – P1.80 per hour) = P2,352 U
Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance = SR (AH – SH)
P1.80 per hour (6,720 hours – 7,680 hours) = P1,728 F
Requirement 4
No. This total variance is made up of several quite large individual variances,
some of which may warrant investigation. A summary of variances is shown
on the next page.
Materials:
Price variance
Quantity variance
Labor:
Rate variance
Efficiency variance
Variable overhead:
Spending variance
Efficiency variance
Net unfavorable variance
P5,280 F
6,912 U
P1,632 U
2,352 U
4,320 F
1,968 F
2,352 U
1,728 F
Requirement 5
18-291
624 U
P 288 U
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
The variances have many possible causes. Some of the more likely causes
include:
Materials variances:
Favorable price variance: Fortunate buy, inaccurate standards, inferior quality
materials, unusual discount due to quantity purchased, drop in market price.
Unfavorable quantity variance: Carelessness, poorly adjusted machines,
unskilled workers, inferior quality materials, inaccurate standards.
Labor variances:
Unfavorable rate variance: Use of highly skilled workers, change in wage
rates, inaccurate standards, overtime.
Favorable efficiency variance: Use of highly skilled workers, high quality
materials, new equipment, inaccurate standards.
Variable overhead variances:
Unfavorable spending variance: Increase in costs, inaccurate standards, waste,
theft, spillage, purchases in uneconomical lots.
Favorable efficiency variance: Same as for labor efficiency variance.
V. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
C
C
A
B
A
B
C
C
B
B
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
B
A
B
C
A
D
D
A
D
B
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
A
C
C
C
C
D
E
B
B
A
CHAPTER 17
18-292
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
A
B
B
D
B
B
C
D
D
A
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
B
C
D
A
B
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
APPLICATION OF QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES IN
PLANNING, CONTROL AND DECISION MAKING - I
I.
Questions
1. a. Decision tree analysis provides a systematic framework for analyzing
a sequence of interrelated decisions which may be made over time.
Decision making is formulated in terms of the consequence of acts,
events and consequences because it is believed that present decisions
affect future profitability. The study and understanding of alternative
scenarios is encouraged with the use of decision tree analysis.
b. Advantages of Decision Tree Analysis
1. Clarifies the choices, risks, and monetary gains involved in an
investment problem.
2. Presents the relevant information more clearly.
3. Combines action choices with different possible events or results
of action which are partially affected by chance or other
uncontrollable circumstances.
4. Encourages the focus on the relationship between current and
future decisions.
5. Utilizes such analytical techniques as present value and
discounted cash flow.
6. Considers various alternatives with greater ease.
Weaknesses of Decision Tree Analysis
1. Not all events that can happen can be/are identified.
2. Not all the decisions that must be made on a subject under
analysis are listed because choices are usually not restricted to
two or three.
3. If a large number of choices is involved, decision tree analysis by
hand becomes complicated.
4. Uncertain alternatives are generally treated as if they were
discrete, well-defined possibilities.
2. Refer to page 665 of the textbook.
II. Multiple Choice Questions
6.
7.
8.
9.
A
A
B
B
6.
7.
8.
9.
C
B
D
A
31.
32.
33.
34.
B
D
C
B
18-293
41.
42.
43.
44.
B
C
D
D
46.
47.
48.
49.
B
D
B
B
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
10. B
10.
D
35.
A
45.
A
50.
D
CHAPTER 18
APPLICATION OF QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES IN
PLANNING, CONTROL AND DECISION MAKING - II
I.
Questions
1. PERT is superior to Gantt Charts in complex projects because:
a. PERT charts are flexible and can reflect slippage or changes in plans,
but Gantt charts simply plot a bar chart against a calendar scale.
b. PERT charts reflect interdependencies among activities; Gantt charts
do not.
c. PERT charts reflect uncertainties or tolerances in the time estimates
for various activities; Gantt charts do not.
2. The use of PERT provides a structured foundation for planning complex
projects in sufficient detail to facilitate effective control.
A workable sequence of events that comprise the project are first
identified. Each key event should represent a task; then the interdependent
relationships between the events are structured.
After the network of events is constructed, cost and time parameters are
established for each package. Staffing plans are reviewed and analyzed.
The “critical path” computation identifies sequence of key events with
total time equal to the time allotted for the project’s completion. Jobs
which are not on the critical path can be slowed down and the slack
resources available on these activities reallocated to activities on the
critical path.
Use of PERT permits sufficient scheduling of effort by functional areas
and by geographic location. It also allows for restructuring scheduling
efforts and redeployment of workers as necessary to compensate for
delays or bottlenecks. The probability of completing this complex project
on time and within the allotted budget is increased.
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Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
3. Time slippage in noncritical activities may not warrant extensive
managerial analysis because of available slack, but activity cost usually
increases with time and should be monitored.
4. The critical path is the network path with the longest cumulative expected
activity time. It is critical because a slowdown along this path delays the
entire project.
5. Crashing the network means finding the minimum cost for completing the
project in minimum time in order to achieve an optimum tradeoff between
cost and time. The differential crash cost of an activity is the additional
cost of that activity for each period of time saved.
6. Slack is the amount of time an event can be delayed without affecting the
project’s completion date. Slack can be utilized by management as a
buffer against bottlenecks that may occur on the critical path.
7. Unit gross margin are typically computed with an allocation of fixed
costs. Total fixed costs generally will not change with a change in volume
within the relevant range. Unitizing the fixed costs results in treating them
as though they are variable costs when, in fact, they are not. Moreover,
when multiple products are manufactured, the relative contribution
becomes the criterion for selecting the optimal product mix. Fixed costs
allocations can distort the relative contributions and result in a suboptimal
decision.
8. This approach will maximize profits only if there are no constraints on
production or sales, or if both products use all scarce resources at an
equal rate. Otherwise management would want to maximize the
contribution per unit of scarce resource.
9. The opportunity cost of a constraint is the cost of not having additional
availability of the constrained resources. This is also called a shadow
price.
10. The feasible production region is the area which contains all possible
combinations of production outputs. It is bounded by the constraints
imposed on production possibilities. The production schedule which
management chooses must come from the feasible production region.
11. The accountant usually supplies the contribution margin data that is used
in formulating a profit-maximizing objective function. In addition, the
accountant participates in the analysis of linear programming outputs by
assessing the costs of additional capacity or of changes in product mix.
12. a. Hourly fee for inventory audit
b. Salary of purchasing supervisor
18-295
(C)
(N)
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Costs to audit purchase orders and invoices
(P)
Taxes on inventory
(C)
Stockout costs
(P)
Storage costs charged per unit in inventory
(C)
Fire insurance on inventory
(C)
Fire insurance on warehouse
(N)
Obsolescence costs on inventory
(C)
Shipping costs per shipment
(P)
13. Although the inventory models are developed by operations researchers,
statisticians and computer specialists, their areas of expertise do not
extend to the evaluation of the differential costs for the inventory models.
Generally, discussions of inventory models take the costs as given. It is
the role of the accountant to determine which costs are appropriate for
inclusion in an inventory model.
14. Cost of capital represents the interest expense on funds if they were
borrowed or opportunity cost if funds were provided internally or by
owners. It is included as carrying cost of inventory because funds are tied
up in inventory.
15. Costs that vary with the average number of units in inventory:
Inventory insurance
Inventory tax
Total
P 2.80
2.05 (P102.25 x 2%)
P 4.85
Costs that vary with the number of units purchased:
Purchase price
Insurance on shipment
Total
P102.25
1.50
P103.75
Total carrying cost = (25% x P103.75) cost of capital + P4.85 = P25.94 +
P4.85 = P30.79
Order costs:
Shipping permit
Costs to arrange for the shipment
Unloading
Stockout costs
Total
II. Problems
18-296
P201.65
21.45
80.20
122.00
P425.30
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter
18
Problem 1 (Solution is found on the next page.)
Problem 2
Requirement (a)
The critical path through each of the three alternative paths calculated as the
longest is 0 - 1 - 6- 7- 8.
0-1-2-5-8
0-1-3-4-7-8
0-1-6-7-8
________
2 + 8 + 10 + 14
2+8+7+5+3
2 + 26 + 9 + 3
=
=
=
34
25
40*
* critical
Requirement (b)
40 - 3 - 5 = 32
Requirement (c)
If path 4 - 7 has an unfavorable time variance of 10, this means it takes a total
time of 15 to finish this activity rather than 5. This gives the path 0 - 1 - 3 - 4
- 7 - 8 a total time of 35, but since this is less than the critical path of 40, it
has no effect.
Requirement (d)
The earliest time for reaching event 5 via 0 - 1 - 2 - 5 is 20, the sum of the
expected times.
Problem 3
No, they didn’t make a right decision, since they included fixed costs which do
not differ in the short run. If they had used contribution margin instead of
gross margin, they would have had P5 for G1 and P6.50 for G2, therefore
they would have decided to produce G2 exclusively.
18-297
Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making – II Chapter 18
Problem 1
Requirement (a)
TASKS
1
2
Order 1
Ma X X X X
chi
nin
g
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Order 3
Order 1
X X
12
13
14
15
16
Order 4
Order 3
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Order 2
X
___________
X Dead Time
Requirement (b)
28 days are required for the four orders.
18-298
X
X
Order 4
Order 2
Chapter 1 Management Accounting: An Overview
Problem 4
Order costs
P
Carrying costs
S
=
Insurance
+
Other order costs
=
P860
+
=
Out-of-pocket
costs
+
Cost of capital
on inventory
=
P65
+
20% x P222
P18
=
P878
=
P119.40
a. Carrying costs:
QS
2
=
Order costs:
AP
=
Q
250 x P109.40
2
=
1,500 x P878
250
=
P13,675.00
P 5,268.00
P18,943.00
Total
b. Economic order quantity:
Q* =

2 x 1,500 x P878
P109.40
=  24,077
=
155 units
Carrying costs:
QS
2
=
155 x P109.40
2
=
Order costs:
AP
=
Q
1,500 x P878
155
=
P 8,478.50
P 8,496.77
P16,975.27
Total
Problem 5
It is necessary to evaluate the annual carrying costs and expected stockout
costs at each safety-stock level. The carrying cost will be P24.40 for each
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
unit in safety stock. With the given order size, there are 15 orders placed a
year (i.e., 39,000/2,600 = 15). Based on these computations, we prepare the
following schedule:
Safety
Stock
0
150
175
250
Carrying Costs
of Safety Stock
0
150 x P24.40 = P3,660
175 x P24.40 = P4,270
250 x P24.40 = P6,100 b
Expected Stockout
Costs
0.50 x 15a x P1,650 = P12,375
0.20 x 15a x P1,650 = P 4,950
0.05 x 15a x P1,650 = P 1,273.5
0.01 x 15a x P1,650 = P 247.5
Total
Costs
P12,375
8,610
5,507.5 (optional)
6,347.5
Additional computations:
a
b
15 is the number of orders per year.
It should be evident that at this level the carrying costs alone exceed the total
costs at a safety stock of 175 units. Therefore, it is not possible for this or any
safety-stock level larger than 250 to be less costly than 175 units. Indeed, given a
total cost at 175 units of P5,507.5, stockout costs would have to occur with
probability zero for any safety stock greater than 225.72 units (i.e., P5,507.5 /
P24.40 = P225.72).
III. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
C
B
D
B
D
C
A
A
A
C
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
D
C
A
A
A
C
C
D
C
D
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
D
C
C
D
D
B
D
E
B
A
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
C
D
A
C
D
C
D
D
CHAPTER 19
RELEVANT COSTS FOR DECISION MAKING
I.
Questions
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
1. Quantitative factors are those which may more easily be reduced in terms
of pesos such as projected costs of materials, labor and overhead.
Qualitative factors are those whose measurement in pesos is difficult and
imprecise; yet a qualitative factor may be easily given more weight than
the measurable cost savings. It can be seen that the accountant’s role in
making decisions deals with the quantitative factors.
2. Relevant costs are expected future costs that will differ between
alternatives. In view of the definition of relevant costs, historical costs are
always irrelevant because they are not future costs. They may be helpful
in predicting relevant costs but they are always irrelevant costs per se.
3. The differential costs in any given situation is commonly defined as the
change in total cost under each alternative. It is not relevant cost, but it is
the algebraic difference between the relevant costs for the alternatives
under consideration.
4. Analysis:
Future costs:
New Truck
Less: Proceeds from
disposal, net
Replace
P10,200
Rebuild
1,000
P 9,200
Advantage of rebuilding
P8,500
P700
The original cost of the old truck is irrelevant but its disposal value is
relevant. It is recommended that the truck should be rebuilt because it
will involve lesser cash outlay.
5. No. Variable costs are relevant costs only if they differ in total between the
alternatives under consideration.
6. Only those costs that would be avoided as a result of dropping the product
line are relevant in the decision. Costs that will not differ regardless of
whether the product line is retained or discontinued are irrelevant.
7. Not necessarily. An apparent loss may be the result of allocated common
costs or of sunk costs that cannot be avoided if the product line is
dropped. A product line should be discontinued only if the contribution
margin that will be lost as a result of dropping the line is less than the
fixed costs that would be avoided. Even in that situation the product line
may be retained if its presence promotes the sale of other products.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
8. Allocations of common fixed costs can make a product line (or other
segment) appear to be unprofitable, whereas in fact it may be profitable.
9. In cost-plus pricing, prices are set by applying a markup percentage to a
product’s cost.
10. The price elasticity of demand measures the degree to which a change in
price affects unit sales. The unit sales of a product with inelastic demand
are relatively insensitive to the price charged for the product. In contrast,
the unit sales of a product with elastic demand are sensitive to the price
charged for the product.
11. The profit-maximizing price should depend only on the variable
(marginal) cost per unit and on the price elasticity of demand. Fixed costs
do not enter into the pricing decision at all. Fixed costs are relevant in a
decision of whether to offer a product or service, but are not relevant in
deciding what to charge for the product or service. Because price affects
unit sales, total variable costs are affected by the pricing decision and
therefore are relevant.
12. The markup over variable cost depends on the price elasticity of demand.
A product whose demand is elastic should have a lower markup over cost
than a product whose demand is inelastic. If demand for a product is
inelastic, the price can be increased without cutting as drastically into unit
sales.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Identifying Relevant Costs)
Case 1
a.
b.
c.
d.
Item
Relevant
Sales revenue...................................
X
Direct materials...............................
X
Direct labor......................................
X
Variable manufacturing
overhead..........................................
e.
Case 2
Not
Relevant
X
X
X
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Not
Relevant
X
X
Book value – Model E7000
Relevant
X
X
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
machine...........................................
f.
Disposal value – Model E7000
machine...........................................
g.
X
Depreciation – Model E7000
machine...........................................
h.
X
X
Market value – Model F5000
machine (cost).................................
i.
X
Fixed manufacturing
X
overhead..........................................
j.
Variable selling expense..................
k.
Fixed selling expense......................
l.
General administrative
overhead..........................................
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Exercise 2 (Identification of Relevant Costs)
Requirement 1
Fixed cost per mile (P3,500* ÷ 10,000 miles)..........................................................
P0.35
Variable operating cost per mile...............................................................................
0.08
Average cost per mile...............................................................................................
P0.43
* Depreciation............................................................................................................
P2,000
Insurance.................................................................................................................
960
Garage rent.............................................................................................................
480
Automobile tax and license.....................................................................................
60
Total........................................................................................................................
P3,500
Requirement 2
The variable operating costs would be relevant in this situation. The
depreciation would not be relevant since it relates to a sunk cost. However,
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
any decrease in the resale value of the car due to its use would be relevant.
The automobile tax and license costs would be incurred whether Ingrid decides
to drive her own car or rent a car for the trip during summer break and are
therefore irrelevant. It is unlikely that her insurance costs would increase as a
result of the trip, so they are irrelevant as well. The garage rent is relevant
only if she could avoid paying part of it if she drives her own car.
Requirement 3
When figuring the incremental cost of the more expensive car, the relevant
costs would be the purchase price of the new car (net of the resale value of the
old car) and the increases in the fixed costs of insurance and automobile tax
and license. The original purchase price of the old car is a sunk cost and is
therefore irrelevant. The variable operating costs would be the same and
therefore are irrelevant. (Students are inclined to think that variable costs are
always relevant and fixed costs are always irrelevant in decisions. This
requirement helps to dispel that notion.)
Exercise 3 (Make or Buy a Component)
Requirement 1
Cost of purchasing
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable manufacturing overhead
Fixed manufacturing overhead, traceable1
Per Unit
Differential
Costs
15,000 units
Make
Buy
Make
Buy
P200
P3,000,000
P 60
P 900,000
80
1,200,000
10
150,000
20
Fixed manufacturing overhead, common
Total costs
Difference in favor of continuing to make
the parts
1
0
P170
P30
300,000
0
0
0
P200 P2,550,000 P3,000,000
P450,000
Only the supervisory salaries can be avoided if the parts are purchased. The
remaining book value of the special equipment is a sunk cost; hence, the P3 per
unit depreciation expense is not relevant to this decision. Based on these data, the
company should reject the offer and should continue to produce the parts internally.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Requirement 2
Make
Buy
Cost of purchasing (part 1)...................................................................................................
P3,000,000
Cost of making (part 1)........................................................................................................
P2,550,000
Opportunity cost—segment margin forgone on a
potential new product line................................................................................................
650,000
Total cost...............................................................................................................................
P3,200,000 P3,000,000
Difference in favor of purchasing from the outside
supplier..............................................................................................................................
P200,000
Thus, the company should accept the offer and purchase the parts from the outside
supplier.
Exercise 4 (Evaluating Special Order)
Only the incremental costs and benefits are relevant. In particular, only the
variable manufacturing overhead and the cost of the special tool are relevant
overhead costs in this situation. The other manufacturing overhead costs are
fixed and are not affected by the decision.
Per
Unit
P3,499.50
Total
10 bracelets
P34,995.00
Incremental revenue
Incremental costs:
Variable costs:
Direct materials
1,430.00
14,300.00
Direct labor
860.00
8,600.00
Variable manufacturing overhead
70.00
700.00
Special filigree
60.00
600.00
Total variable cost
P2,420.00
24,200.00
Fixed costs:
Purchase of special tool
4,650.00
Total incremental cost
28.850.00
Incremental net operating income
P 6.145.00
Even though the price for the special order is below the company’s regular
price for such an item, the special order would add to the company’s net
operating income and should be accepted. This conclusion would not
necessarily follow if the special order affected the regular selling price of
bracelets or if it required the use of a constrained resource.
Exercise 5 (Utilization of a Constrained Resource)
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement 1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
X
Y
Z
Contribution margin per unit................................................................................................
P18 P36 P20
Direct labor cost per unit.......................................................................................................
P12 P32 P16
Direct labor rate per hour......................................................................................................
8
8
8
Direct labor-hours required per unit (2) ÷ (3).......................................................................
1.5
4.0
2.0
Contribution margin per direct labor-hour (1) ÷ (4).............................................................
P12 P 9 P10
Requirement 2
The company should concentrate its labor time on producing product X:
Contribution margin per direct labor-hour
X
P12
× 3,000
P36,000
Direct labor-hours available
Total contribution margin
Y
P9
× 3,000
P27,000
Z
P10
× 3,000
P30,000
Although product X has the lowest contribution margin per unit and the
second lowest contribution margin ratio, it has the highest contribution margin
per direct labor-hour. Since labor time seems to be the company’s constraint,
this measure should guide management in its production decisions.
Requirement 3
The amount Jaycee Company should be willing to pay in overtime wages for
additional direct labor time depends on how the time would be used. If there
are unfilled orders for all of the products, Jaycee would presumably use the
additional time to make more of product X. Each hour of direct labor time
generates P12 of contribution margin over and above the usual direct labor
cost. Therefore, Jaycee should be willing to pay up to P20 per hour (the P8
usual wage plus the contribution margin per hour of P12) for additional labor
time, but would of course prefer to pay far less. The upper limit of P20 per
direct labor hour signals to managers how valuable additional labor hours are
to the company.
If all the demand for product X has been satisfied, Jaycee Company would
then use any additional direct labor-hours to manufacture product Z. In that
case, the company should be willing to pay up to P18 per hour (the P8 usual
wage plus the P10 contribution margin per hour for product Z) to manufacture
more product Z.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Likewise, if all the demand for both products X and Z has been satisfied,
additional labor hours would be used to make product Y. In that case, the
company should be willing to pay up to P17 per hour to manufacture more
product Y.
Exercise 6 (Sell or Process Further)
Sales value after further processing
Sales value at split-off point
Incremental revenue
Cost of further processing
Incremental profit (loss)
Product A
P80,000
50,000
30,000
35,000
P(5,000)
Product B
P150,000
90,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
Product C
P75,000
60,000
15,000
12,000
3,000
Products B and C should be processed further, but not Product A.
Exercise 7 (Identification of Relevant Costs)
Requirement 1
The relevant costs of a fishing trip would be:
Fuel and upkeep on boat per trip.............................
Junk food consumed during trip*.............................
Snagged fishing lures...............................................
Total........................................................................
P25
8
7
P40
* The junk food consumed during the trip may not be completely relevant.
Even if Shin were not going on the trip, he would still have to eat. The
amount by which the cost of the junk food exceeds the cost of the food he
would otherwise consume would be the relevant amount.
The other costs are sunk at the point at which the decision is made to go on
another fishing trip.
Requirement 2
If he fishes for the same amount of time as he did on his last trip, all of his
costs are likely to be about the same as they were on his last trip. Therefore, it
really doesn’t cost him anything to catch the last fish. The costs are really
incurred in order to be able to catch fish and would be the same whether one,
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
two, three, or a dozen fish were actually caught. Fishing, not catching fish,
costs money. All of the costs are basically fixed with respect to how many fish
are actually caught during any one fishing trip, except possibly the cost of
snagged lures.
Requirement 3
In a decision of whether to give up fishing altogether, nearly all of the costs
listed by Shin’s wife are relevant. If he did not fish, he would not need to pay
for boat moorage, new fishing gear, a fishing license, fuel and upkeep, junk
food, or snagged lures. In addition, he would be able to sell his boat, the
proceeds of which would be considered relevant in this decision. The original
cost of the boat, which is a sunk cost, would not be relevant.
These three requirements illustrate the slippery nature of costs. A cost that is
relevant in one situation can be irrelevant in the next. None of the costs are
relevant when we compute the cost of catching a particular fish; some of them
are relevant when we compute the cost of a fishing trip; and nearly all of them
are relevant when we consider the cost of not giving up fishing. What is even
more confusing is that CG is correct; the average cost of a salmon is P167,
even though the cost of actually catching any one fish is essentially zero. It
may not make sense from an economic standpoint to have salmon fishing as a
hobby, but as long as Shin is out in the boat fishing, he might as well catch as
many fish as he can.
Exercise 8 (Dropping or Retaining a Segment)
Requirement 1
No, the housekeeping program should not be discontinued. It is actually
generating a positive program segment margin and is, of course, providing a
valuable service to seniors. Computations to support this conclusion follow:
Contribution margin lost if the housekeeping program
is dropped............................................................................................
P(80,000)
Fixed costs that can be avoided:
Liability insurance...............................................................................
P15,000
Program administrator’s salary...........................................................
37,000
52,000
Decrease in net operating income for the organization
as a whole...........................................................................................
P(28,000)
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Depreciation on the van is a sunk cost and the van has no salvage value since
it would be donated to another organization. The general administrative
overhead is allocated and none of it would be avoided if the program were
dropped; thus it is not relevant to the decision.
The same result can be obtained with the alternative analysis below:
Current
Total
Revenues......................................................................
P900,000
Variable expenses.........................................................
490,000
Contribution margin....................................................
410,000
Fixed expenses:
Depreciation*..........................................................
68,000
Liability insurance...................................................
42,000
Program administrators’ salaries............................
115,000
General administrative overhead............................
180,000
Total fixed expenses.....................................................
405,000
Net operating income (loss).........................................
P 5,000
Difference:
Total If
Net Operating
HouseIncome
keeping Is
Increase or
Dropped
(Decrease)
P660,000
P(240,000)
330,000
160,000
330,000
(80,000)
68,000
27,000
78,000
180,000
353,000
P(23,000)
0
15,000
37,000
0
52,000
P (28,000)
*Includes pro-rated loss on disposal of the van if it is donated to a charity.
Requirement 2
To give the administrator of the entire organization a clearer picture of the
financial viability of each of the organization’s programs, the general
administrative overhead should not be allocated. It is a common cost that
should be deducted from the total program segment margin. Fol lowing the
format for a segmented income statement, a better
income statement would be:
Total
Revenues........................................................
P900,000
Variable expenses..........................................
490,000
Contribution margin......................................
410,000
Traceable fixed expenses:
Depreciation..............................................
68,000
Liability insurance....................................
42,000
Program administrators’
salaries..................................................
115,000
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Home
Nursing
P260,000
120,000
140,000
Meals on
Wheels
P400,000
210,000
190,000
Housekeeping
P240,000
160,000
80,000
8,000
20,000
40,000
7,000
20,000
15,000
40,000
38,000
37,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Total traceable fixed expenses.......................
225,000
Program segment margins............................
185,000
General administrative overhead..................
180,000
Net operating income (loss)..........................
P 5,000
68,000
P 72,000
85,000
P105,000
P
72,000
8,000
Exercise 9 (Special Order)
Requirement 1
Monthly profits would be increased by P9,000:
Total for
Per
2,000
Unit
Units
Incremental revenue.........................................................................
P12.00 P24,000
Incremental costs:
Variable costs:
Direct materials........................................................................
2.50
5,000
Direct labor..............................................................................
3.00
6,000
Variable manufacturing overhead.............................................
0.50
1,000
Variable selling and administrative...........................................
1.50
3,000
Total variable cost........................................................................
P 7.50 15,000
Fixed costs:
None affected by the special order............................................
Total incremental cost......................................................................
Incremental net operating income.....................................................
0
15,000
P 9,000
Requirement 2
The relevant cost is P1.50 (the variable selling and administrative costs). All
other variable costs are sunk, since the units have already been produced. The
fixed costs would not be relevant, since they would not be affected by the sale
of leftover units.
Exercise 10 (Make or Buy a Component)
The costs that are relevant in a make-or-buy decision
are those costs that can be avoided as a result of
purchasing from the outside. The analysis for this
exercise is:
Per Unit
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20,000 Units
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Differential
Costs
Make
Buy
Cost of purchasing.......................................................
P23.50
Cost of making:
Direct materials.......................................................
P 4.80
Direct labor..............................................................
7.00
Variable manufacturing overhead...........................
3.20
Fixed manufacturing overhead................................
4.00 *
Total cost..................................................................
P19.00 P23.50
Make
Buy
P470,000
P 96,000
140,000
64,000
80,000
P380,000
P470,000
* The remaining P6 of fixed manufacturing overhead cost would not be relevant, since
it will continue regardless of whether the company makes or buys the parts.
The P150,000
rental value of the space being used to
produce part R-3 represents an opportunity cost of
continuing to produce the part internally. Thus, the
completed analysis would be:
Make
Buy
Total cost, as above..........................................................................................
P380,000 P470,000
Rental value of the space (opportunity cost)...................................................
150,000
Total cost, including opportunity cost.............................................................
P530,000 P470,000
Net advantage in favor of buying....................................................................
P60,000
Profits would increase by P60,000 if the outside supplier’s offer is accepted.
Exercise 11 (The Economists’ Approach to Pricing)
Requirement (1)
Cecile makes more money selling the ice cream cones at the lower price, as
shown below:
P17.90 Price P13.90 Price
Unit sales........................................................
860
1,340
Sales...............................................................P15,394.00
Cost of goods sold @ P4.10............................ 3,526.00
Contribution margin........................................ 11,868.00
Fixed expenses................................................
425.00
Net operating income...................................... P11,443.00
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P18,626.00
5,494.00
13,132.00
425.00
P12,707.00
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement (2)
The price elasticity of demand is computed as follows:
d
In(1 + % change in quantity sold)
In(1 + % change in price)
=
In(1 +
1,340 – 860
)
860
In(1 +
13.90 – 17.90
)
17.90
=
=
In(1 + 0.55814)
In(1 – 0.22346)
=
In(1.55814)
In(0.77654)
=
0.44349
–0.25291
=
–1.75
Requirement (3)
The profit-maximizing price can be estimated using the following formulas:
Profit-maximizing
markup on variable cost
=
=
Profit-maximizing
price
=
–1
1 + d
–1
1 + (–1.75)
1 +
=
1.333
Profit-maximizing
markup on variable cost
x
Variable cost
per unit
= (1 + 1.3333) x P4.10 = P9.60
This price is much lower than the prices Cecile has been charging in the past.
Rather than immediately dropping the price to P9.60, it would be prudent to
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
drop the price a bit and see what happens to unit sales and to profits. The
formula assumes that the price elasticity is constant, which may not be the
case.
Exercise 12 (Target Costing)
Sales (50,000 batteries × P65 per battery).....................................P3,250,000
Less desired profit (20% × P2,500,000)........................................ 500,000
Target cost for 50,000 batteries.....................................................P2,750,000
Target cost per battery
= (P2,750,000 ÷ 50,000 batteries)
= P55 per battery
Exercise 13 (Pricing a New Product)
The selling price of the new amaretto cappuccino product should at least cover
its variable cost and its opportunity cost. The variable cost of the new product
is P4.60 and its opportunity cost can be computed by multiplying the
opportunity cost of P34 per minute of order filling time by the amount of time
required to fill an order for the new product:
Selling price of
the new product

Variable cost of
the new product
+
Opportunity cost
per unit of the
x
constrained resource
Amounts of the constrained
resource required by a unit
of the new product
Selling price of
the new product

P4.60 + P34 per minute
+
Selling price of
the new product

P4.60 + P34 per minute
+ 0.75 minute
Selling price of
the new product

P4.60 + P25.50 =
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45 seconds
60 seconds per minute
P30.10
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Hence, the selling price of the new product should at least cover both its variable
cost of P4.60 and its opportunity cost of P25.50, for a total of P30.10.
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Accept or Reject an Order)
Selling price per unit
Less Variable costs/unit:
Materials
Labor
Factory overhead (25%)
Contribution margin/unit
Multiplied by number of units to be sold
Total contribution margin
Product A
P1.20
Product B
P1.40
0.50
0.20
0.10
0.80
P0.40
21,000 units
P8,400
0.70
0.24
0.14
1.08
P0.32
30,000 units
P9,600
Product B should be accepted because its total contribution margin is higher
than that of Product A.
Problem 2 (Eliminate or Retain a Product Line)
Requirement 1
No, production and sale of the round trampolines should not be discontinued.
Computations to support this answer follow:
Contribution margin lost if the round trampolines
are discontinued.............................................
Less fixed costs that can be avoided:
Advertising – traceable..................................
Line supervisors’ salaries...............................
Decrease in net operating income for the
company as a whole.......................................
P(80,000)
P41,000
6,000
47,000
P(33,000)
The depreciation of the special equipment represents a sunk cost, and
therefore it is not relevant to the decision. The general factory overhead is
allocated and will presumably continue regardless of whether or not the round
trampolines are discontinued; thus, it is not relevant.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Requirement 2
If management wants a clear picture of the profitability of the segments, the
general factory overhead should not be allocated. It is a common cost and
therefore should be deducted from the total product-line segment margin. A
more useful income statement format would be as follows:
Trampoline
Round
Rectangular
P140,000
P500,000
60,000
200,000
80,000
300,000
Total
Sales...................................... P1,000,000
Less variable expenses..........
410,000
Contribution margin.............
590,000
Less fixed expenses:
Advertising – traceable.....
216,000
Depreciation of special
equipment......................
95,000
Line supervisors’
salaries...........................
19,000
Total traceable fixed
expenses............................
330,000
Product-line segment
margin...............................
260,000
Less common fixed
expenses............................
200,000
Net operating income
(loss).................................. P 60,000
Octagonal
P360,000
150,000
210,000
41,000
110,000
65,000
20,000
40,000
35,000
6,000
7,000
6,000
67,000
157,000
106,000
P 13,000
P143,000
P104,000
Problem 3 (Product Mix)
Requirement 1
Selling price per unit
Variable cost per unit
Contribution margin / unit
Divided by no. of hours required
for each unit
Contribution per hour
Product ranking:
1. D
2. B
Product Line
B
C
P25
P10
10
5
P15
P 5
A
P30
25
P5
5 hrs.
P1
3. C
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10 hrs.
P1.5
4. A
4 hrs.
P1.25
D
P8
4
P4
1 hr.
P4
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Based on the above analysis, first priority should be given to Product D. The
company should use 4,000 out of the available 96,000 hrs. to produce 4,000
units of product D. The remaining 92,000 hrs. should be used to produce
9,200 units of Product B. Hence, the best product combination is 4,000 units
of Product D and 9,200 units of Product B.
Requirement 2
If there were no market limitations on any of the products, the company
should use all the available 96,000 hours in producing 96,000 units of product
D only.
The difference in profit between the two alternatives is computed as follows:
Contribution margin of combination (1)
Product D (4,000 x P 4.00)
Product B (9,200 x P15.00)
Total contribution margin of D and B
Less contribution margin of D only
(96,000 x P4)
Difference, excess over profit in combination (1)
Problem 4 (Accept or Reject a Special Order)
P 16,000
138,000
P154,000
384,000
P230,000
Requirement 1
The company should accept the special order of 4,000 @ P10 each because
this selling price is still higher than the additional variable cost to be incurred.
Whether or not variable marketing expenses will be incurred, the decision is
still to accept the order.
Supporting computations:
(a) Assume no additional variable marketing cost will be incurred.
Selling price per unit
Less variable manufacturing costs:
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable overhead
Contribution margin/unit
Multiplied by number of units of order
Total increase in profit
P10.00
P5.00
3.00
0.75
8.75
P 1.25
4,000 units
P5,000
(b) Assume additional variable marketing cost will be incurred.
Selling price per unit
P10.00
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Less variable costs (P8.75 + P0.25)
Contribution margin / unit
Multiplied by number of units of order
Total increase in contribution margin
9.00
P 1.00
4,000 units
P4,000
Requirement 2
P8.75, the total variable manufacturing cost.
Requirement 3
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable factory overhead
Total cost of inventory under direct costing
P5.00
3.00
0.75
P8.75
Requirement 4
Present contribution margin
[10,000 units x (P15 - P9)]
Less proposed contribution margin
[(P14 - P9) x 11,000 units]
Decrease in contribution margin
P60,000
55,000
P 5,000
The company should not reduce the selling price from P15 to P14 even if
volume will go up because total contribution margin will decrease.
Problem 5 (CVP Analysis used for Decision Making)
Requirement (a)
Units sold per month
4,000
5,000
6,000
No. of months
6
15
9
30
Probability
20%
50%
30%
100%
Requirement (b)
Sales (4,000 x P40)
Less variable costs
Production cost @ P25
Purchase cost @ P45
4,000 units
P160,000
Production
5,000 units
P160,000
6,000 units
P160,000
100,000
-
125,000
-
150,000
-
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Total
Contribution margin
P100,000
P 60,000
P125,000
P 35,000
P150,000
P 10,000
Sales (5,000 x P40)
Less variable costs
Production cost @ P25
Purchase cost @ P45
P200,000
P200,000
P200,000
100,000
45,000
125,000
-
150,000
-
Total
Contribution margin
P145,000
P 55,000
P125,000
P 75,000
P150,000
P 50,000
Sales (6,000 x P40)
Less variable costs
Production cost @ P25
Purchase cost @ P45
Total
Contribution margin
P240,000
P240,000
P240,000
100,000
90,000
P190,000
P 50,000
125,000
45,000
P170,000
P 70,000
150,000
0
P150,000
P 90,000
Requirement (c)
Sales Order
Contribution Margin
4,000
P35,000
5,000
75,000
6,000
70,000
Average Contribution Margin
Probability
0.20
0.50
0.30
Expected Value
P 7,000
37,500
21,000
P65,500
Problem 6 (Pricing)
Requirement A:
Sales
Less Variable cost
Contribution margin
Less Fixed cost
Net income (loss)
2005
P 100,000
130,000
(P 30,000)
40,000
(P 70,000)
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2006
P 400,000
520,000
(P120,000)
40,000
(P160,000)
Operating
Result at Full
Capacity
P 480,000
624,000
(P144,000)
40,000
(P184,000)
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
The company had been operating at a loss because the product had been
selling with a negative contribution margin. Hence, the more units are sold,
the higher the loss will be.
Requirement B: P60.14
Requirement C: P74.29
Requirement D: P56.58
Problem 7 (Make or Buy)
Cost of Making
Outside purchase
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable manufacturing overhead
Fixed manufacturing overhead*
Total cost
Cost of Buying
P90,000
P15,000
30,000
10,000
15,000
P70,000
P90,000
* 1/3 x P45,000 = P15,000
Therefore, the annual advantage to make the parts is P20,000.
Problem 8 (Close or Retain a Store)
Requirement 1
The simplest approach to the solution is:
Gross margin lost if the store is closed.............................................
Less costs that can be avoided:
Direct advertising..........................................................................P36,000
Sales salaries................................................................................. 45,000
Delivery salaries............................................................................ 7,000
Store rent....................................................................................... 65,000
Store management salaries (new employee would not be
hired to fill vacant position at another store)........................... 15,000
General office salaries................................................................... 8,000
Utilities.......................................................................................... 27,200
Insurance on inventories (2/3 × P9,000)...................................... 6,000
Employment taxes*....................................................................... 9,000
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P(228,000)
218,200
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Decrease in company net operating income if the Ortigas
Store is closed................................................................................
P( 9,800)
*Salaries avoided by closing the store:
Sales salaries..........................................................................................................
P45,000
Delivery salaries.................................................................................................... 7,000
Store management salaries....................................................................................15,000
General office salaries........................................................................................... 8,000
Total salaries..........................................................................................................75,000
Employment tax rate..............................................................................................× 12%
Employment taxes avoided....................................................................................
P 9,000
Requirement 2
The Ortigas Store should not be closed. If the store is closed, overall company
net operating income will decrease by P9,800 per quarter.
Requirement 3
The Ortigas Store should be closed if P200,000 of its sales are picked up by
the Makati Store. The net effect of the closure will be an increase in overall
company net operating income by P76,200 per quarter:
Gross margin lost if the Ortigas Store is closed.......................................................................
P(228,000)
Gross margin gained at the Makati Store:
P200,000 × 43%...................................................................................................................
86,000
Net loss in gross margin...........................................................................................................
(142,000)
Costs that can be avoided if the Ortigas Store is closed (part 1)..............................................
218,200
Net advantage of closing the Ortigas Store..............................................................................
P 76,200
Problem 9 (Shutting Down or Continuing to Operate a Plant)
Requirement 1
Product KK-8 yields a contribution margin of P14 per gallon (P35 – P21 =
P14). If the plant closes, this contribution margin will be lost on the 22,000
gallons (11,000 gallons per month × 2 = 22,000 gallons) that could have been
sold during the two-month period. However, the company will be able to avoid
certain fixed costs as a result of closing down. The analysis is:
Contribution margin lost by closing the plant for two
months (P14 per gallon × 22,000 gallons).................................................P(308,000)
Costs avoided by closing the plant for two months:
Fixed manufacturing overhead cost
(P60,000 × 2 months = P120,000)..........................................................
P120,000
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Fixed selling costs
(P310,000 × 10% × 2 months)...............................................................
62,000
182,000
Net disadvantage of closing, before start-up costs.......................................... (126,000)
Add start-up costs............................................................................................ (14,000)
Disadvantage of closing the plant...................................................................P(140,000)
No, the company should not close the plant; it should continue to operate at
the reduced level of 11,000 gallons produced and sold each month. Closing
will result in a P140,000 greater loss over the two-month period than if the
company continues to operate. Additional factors are the potential loss of
goodwill among the customers who need the 11,000 gallons of KK-8 each
month and the adverse effect on employee morale. By closing down, the needs
of customers will not be met (no inventories are on hand), and their business
may be permanently lost to another supplier.
Alternative Solution:
Plant Kept
Open
Plant Closed
Sales (11,000 gallons × P35 per gallon × 2)............................
P 770,000
P
0
Less variable expenses (11,000
gallons × P21 per gallon × 2)..............................................
462,000
0
Contribution margin.................................................................
308,000
0
Less fixed costs:
Fixed manufacturing overhead cost
(P230,000 × 2;
P170,000 × 2)................................................................
460,000
340,000
Fixed selling cost (P310,000 × 2; P310,000 ×
90% × 2).........................................................................
620,000
558,000
Total fixed cost.........................................................................
1,080,000
898,000
Net operating loss before start-up costs...................................
(772,000)
(898,000)
Start-up costs...........................................................................
(14,000)
Net operating loss....................................................................
P (772,000) P(912,000)
Difference—
Net
Operating
Income
Increase
(Decrease)
P(770,000)
462,000
(308,000)
120,000
62,000
182,000
(126,000)
(14,000)
P(140,000)
Requirement 2
Ignoring the additional factors cited in part (1) above, Kristin Company
should be indifferent between closing down or continuing to operate if the level
of sales drops to 12,000 gallons (6,000 gallons per month) over the two-month
period. The computations are:
Cost avoided by closing the plant for two months (see above)...............................
P182,000
Less start-up costs....................................................................................................
14,000
Net avoidable costs..................................................................................................
P168,000
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Net avoidable costs
Contribution margin per gallon
P168,000
P14 per gallon
=
=
12,000 gallons
Verification:
Operate at
12,000
Close for
Gallons for
Two
Two Months
Months
Sales (12,000 gallons × P35 per gallon)...............................................
P 420,000 P
0
Less variable expenses (12,000 gallons × P21 per gallon)...................
252,000
0
Contribution margin..............................................................................
168,000
0
Less fixed expenses:
Manufacturing overhead (P230,000 and P170,000 × 2
months).........................................................................................
460,000
340,000
Selling (P310,000 and P279,000 × 2 months).................................
620,000
558,000
Total fixed expenses..............................................................................
1,080,000
898,000
Start-up costs.........................................................................................
0
14,000
Total costs..............................................................................................
1,080,000
912,000
Net operating loss..................................................................................
P (912,000) P(912,000)
Problem 10 (The Economists’ Approach to Pricing)
Requirement (1)
The postal service makes more money selling the
souvenir sheets at the lower price, as shown below:
Unit sales...................................................
P500 Price
50,000
P600 Price
40,000
Sales..........................................................
Cost of goods sold @ P60 per unit............
Contribution margin..................................
P25,000,000
3,000,000
P22,000,000
P24,000,000
2,400,000
P21,600,000
Requirement (2)
The price elasticity of demand, as defined in the text, is computed as follows:
d
=
In(1 + % change in quantity sold)
In(1 + % change in price)
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
40,000 – 50,000
)
50,000
600.00 – 500.00
In(1 +
)
500.00
In(1 – 0.2000)
In(1 + 0.2000)
In(1 +
=
=
=
=
=
In(0.8000)
In(1.2000)
–0.2231
0.1823
–1.2239
Requirement (3)
The profit-maximizing price can be estimated using the following formulas:
Profit-maximizing
markup on variable cost
Profit-maximizing
price
–1
1 + d
=
=
–1
=
1 + (–1.2239)
=
1 +
4.4663
Profit-maximizing
markup on variable cost
x
= (1 + 4.4663) x P60 = P328
This price is much lower than the price the postal service has been charging in
the past. Rather than immediately dropping the price to P328, it would be
prudent for the postal service to drop the price a bit and observe what happens
to unit sales and to profits. The formula assumes that the price elasticity of
demand is constant, which may not be true.
The critical assumption in the calculation of the profit-maximizing price is
that the percentage increase (decrease) in quantity sold is al ways the
same for a given percentage decrease (increase) in
price. If this is true, we can estimate the demand
schedule for souvenir sheets as follows:
Price*
Quantity Sold§
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Variable cost
per unit
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
P600
P500
P417
P348
P290
P242
P202
P168
P140
P117
40,000
50,000
62,500
78,125
97,656
122,070
152,588
190,735
238,419
298,024
*
The price in each cell in the table is computed by taking 5/6 of the price just
above it in the table. For example, P500 is 5/6 of P600 and P417 is 5/6 of
P500.
§
The quantity sold in each cell of the table is computed by multiplying the
quantity sold just above it in the table by 50,000/40,000. For example, 62,500
is computed by multiplying 50,000 by the fraction 50,000/40,000.
The profit at each price in the above demand schedule can be computed as
follows:
Price
(a)
P600
P500
P417
P348
P290
P242
P202
P168
P140
P117
Quantity
Sold (b)
40,000
50,000
62,500
78,125
97,656
122,070
152,588
190,735
238,419
298,024
Sales
(a) × (b)
P24,000,000
P250,00,000
P26,062,500
P27,187,500
P28,320,200
P29,540,900
P30,822,800
P32,043,500
P33,378,700
P34,868,800
18-324
Cost of Sales
P60 × (b)
P2,400,000
P3,000,000
P3,750,000
P4,687,500
P5,859,400
P7,324,200
P9,155,300
P11,444,100
P14,305,100
P17,881,400
Contribution
Margin
P21,600,000
P22,000,000
P22,312,500
P22,500,000
P22,460,800
P22,216,700
P21,667,500
P20,599,400
P19,073,600
P16,987,400
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
The contribution margin is plotted below as a function of the selling price:
23,000,000
Contribution Margin
22,000,000
21,000,000
20,000,000
19,000,000
18,000,000
17,000,000
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
500.00
600.00
Selling Price
The plot confirms that the profit-maximizing price is about P328.
Requirement (4)
If the postal service wants to maximize the contribution margin and profit
from sales of souvenir sheets, the new price should be:
Profit-maximizing price = 5.4663 × P70 = P383
Note that a P100 increase in cost has led to a P55 (P383 – P328) increase in
the profit-maximizing price. This is because the profit-maximizing price is
computed by multiplying the variable cost by 5.4663. Since the variable cost
has increased by P100, the profit-maximizing price has increased by P100 ×
5.4663, or P55.
Some people may object to such a large increase in price as “unfair” and some
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
may even suggest that only the P10 increase in cost should be passed on to the
consumer. The enduring popularity of full-cost pricing may be explained to
some degree by the notion that prices should be “fair” rather than calculated to
maximize profits.
Problem 11 (Ranking Alternatives and Managing with a Constraint)
Requirement (1)
This problem can be solved by first computing the profitability index of each
customer and then ranking the customers based on that profitability index:
Ji Eun’s
Time
Required
(B)
4
4
5
3
5
8
3
4
6
6
Incremental
Profit
Customer
(A)
Lalaine...........................
P1,400
Emily.............................
1,240
Anna..............................
1,600
Catherine.......................
960
Gee Ann.........................
1,900
Lily
2,880
Lourdes.........................
930
Ma. Cecilia.....................
1,360
Sheila Raya....................
2,340
Jane..............................
2,040
Customer
Sheila Raya......
Gee Ann...........
Lily
Lalaine.............
Jane
Ma. Cecilia......
Anna................
Profitability
Index
P390
P380
P360
P350
P340
P340
P320
Ji Eun’s
Time
Required
6
5
8
4
6
4
5
18-326
Profitability
Index
(A) ÷ (B)
P350
P310
P320
P320
P380
P360
P310
P340
P390
P340
Cumulative
Amount of Ji
Eun’s Time
Required
6
11
19
23
29
27
38
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Catherine..........
P320
3
41
Emily...............
P310
4
45
Lourdes............
P310
3
48
Given that Ji Eun should not be asked to work more than 33 hours, the four
customers below the line in the above table should be told that their
reservations have to be cancelled.
Requirement (2)
The total profit on wedding cakes for the weekend after canceling the four
reservations would be:
Sheila Raya......
Gee Ann............
Lily
Lalaine..............
Jane
Ma. Cecilia.......
Total.................
P 2,34
0
1,900
2,880
1,400
2,040
1,360
P11,92
0
Notes:
● Both Ji Eun’s time and the cakes would have to be very carefully
scheduled to make sure that all cakes are completed on time. We have
assumed that the 33 hours of Ji Eun’s time that are available for cake
decorating do not include hours that have been set aside as a buffer to
provide protection from inevitable disruptions in the schedule.
● If the cumulative amount of Ji Eun’s time required did not exactly
consume the total amount of time available, some adjustment might be
required in which reservations are cancelled to ensure that the most
profitable plan is selected.
Requirement (3)
To avoid disappointing customers, reservations should probably not be
accepted for any particular weekend after 33 hours of Ji Eun’s time have been
committed for that weekend’s cakes. To ensure that only the most profitable
cake reservations are accepted, a reservation for any cake with a profitability
index of less than P340 should probably not be accepted. This was the cutoff
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
point for the cakes in the first weekend in June. This cutoff may need to be
adjusted upward or downward over time—the cakes that were reserved for the
first weekend in June may not be representative of the cakes that would be
reserved for other weekends. If too many reservations are turned down and Ji
Eun’s time is not fully utilized, then the cutoff should be adjusted downward.
If too few reservations are turned down and Ji Eun’s time is once again
overbooked or profitable cake orders are turned away, then the cutoff should
be adjusted upward.
Requirement (4)
Ms. Hye Young should consider changing the way prices are set so that they
include a charge for Ji Eun’s time. On average, the prices may be the same,
but they should be based not only on the size of the cakes, but also on the
amount of cake decorating that the customer desires. The charge for Ji Eun’s
time should be her hourly rate of pay (including any fringe benefits) plus the
opportunity cost of at least P340 per hour. Because Ji Eun will not be working
more than 33 hours per week, if another cake reservation is accepted, some
other cake reservation will have to be cancelled. Ms. Hye Young would have
to give up at least P34 profit per hour to accept another cake reservation.
Requirement (5)
Making Ji Eun happy involves not asking her to work more than 33 hours per
week decorating cakes. Making customers happy involves not canceling their
reservations, not raising prices, and providing top quality wedding cakes. Ms.
Hye Young can accomplish both of these objectives and increase her profits by
clever management of the constraint—Ji Eun’s time. The possibilities include:

Ms. Hye Young should make sure that none of Ji Eun’s time is wasted on
unnecessary tasks. For example, Ji Eun should not be asked to cream
butter by hand for frostings if a machine could do the job as well with less
labor time.

Ms. Hye Young should make sure that none of Ji Eun’s time is wasted on
tasks that can be done by other persons. For example, an assistant can be
assigned to prepare frosting and to clean up, relieving Ji Eun of those
tasks. As long as the cost of the assistant’s time is less than P34 per hour,
the result will be higher profits and more pleased customers.

Ms. Hye Young should consider assigning an apprentice to Ji Eun. The
apprentice could relieve Ji Eun of some of her workload while learning the
skills to eventually expand the company’s cake decorating capacity.

Ms. Hye Young might consider subcontracting some of the less demanding
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
cake decorating to another baker. This would be profitable as long as the
charge is less than P340 per hour.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
C
C
B
B
A
B
C
B
A
B
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
D
A
D
A
D
C
A
C
B
C
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
D
A
D
E
B
D
D
C
A
A
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
A
D
C
A
C
Supporting computations for nos. 16 - 29:
16. Sales [(100,000 x 90%) x (P5.00 x 120%)]
Less: Variable costs (P300,000 x 90%)
Contribution margin
Less: Fixed costs
Operating income
P540,000
270,000
P270,000
150,000
P120,000
17. Direct materials
Direct labor
Overhead
Selling cost
Minimum selling price per unit
18. Relevant cost to make (10,000 x P24)
Purchase cost
Less: Savings in manufacturing cost
Avoidable fixed overhead
Net purchase price
Difference in favor of “buy” alternative
P 4
5
2
3
P14
P240,000
P300,000
P45,000
50,000
95,000
P205,000
P 35,000
19. Increase in sales (60,000 x P3)
P180,000
Less: Increase in variable cost (60,000 x P2.50)
150,000
Net increase in income
P 30,000
20.
R
S
T
Sales (10,000 x P20)
P200,000
P200,000
P200,000
Less: Variable costs
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
R (P12 x 10,000)
S (P 8 x 10,000)
T (P 4 x 10,000)
120,000
80,000
40,000
Contribution margin
21.
Sales (P16 x 15,000)
Less: Variable costs
R (P12 x 15,000)
S (P 8 x 15,000)
T (P 4 x 15,000)
P 80,000
P120,000
P160,000
R
P240,000
S
P240,000
T
P240,000
180,000
120,000
60,000
Contribution margin
Less: Fixed costs
Operating income
P 60,000
40,000
P 20,000
P120,000
80,000
P 40,000
22. Old operating income:
Contribution margin
Less: Fixed cost
P180,000
120,000
P 60,000
P80,000
40,000
P40,000
20,000
P20,000
New operating income
Difference - decrease
23. Sales
Less: Variable costs
Direct materials
Direct labor
Factory overhead
Marketing expenses
Administrative expenses
Contribution margin
Less: Fixed costs
Factory overhead
Marketing expenses
Administrative expenses
Increase in fixed costs
Profit
24. Sales
Less: Variable costs
P1,200,000
P300,000
400,000
80,000
70,000
50,000
P 50,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
900,000
P 300,000
110,000
P 190,000
P1,200,000
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Direct materials
Direct labor
Factory overhead
Marketing expenses
Administrative expenses
Contribution margin
Less: Fixed costs
Factory overhead
Marketing expenses
Administrative expenses
Decrease in fixed costs
(P25,000  4)
Profit
P275,000
375,000
80,000
70,000
50,000
P 50,000
30,000
20,000
(6,250)
25. Direct materials
(P2 x 5,000)
Direct labor
(P8 x 5,000)
Variable overhead
(P4 x 5,000)
Total variable costs
Add: Avoidable fixed overhead
Total
26. Avoidable fixed overhead
Direct materials
Direct labor
Variable overhead
Total
Multiplied by: Number of units to be produced
Total relevant costs to make the part
27. Purchase cost (P1.25 x 10,000)
Variable costs to make
Savings of making the blade
28. Selling price per unit
Less: Variable costs of goods sold per unit
([P320,000 - P80,000]  20,000 units)
Contribution margin per unit
Multiplied by units to be sold under Special Order
Increase in operating income
29. Budgeted operating income:
Contribution margin (P2,000,000 x 30%)
Less fixed costs
18-331
850,000
P 350,000
93,750
P 256,250
P10,000
40,000
20,000
P70,000
10,000
P80,000
P 4
4
16
18
P42
20,000
P840,000
P12,500
10,000
P 2,500
P17
12
P 5
2,000
P10,000
P600,000
400,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Net operating income
Operating income under the proposal:
Sales
P2,000,000
Less Variable costs
([70% x P2,000,000] x 80%) 1,120,000
Contribution margin
P 880,000
Less fixed costs
520,000
Increase in budgeted operating profit
P200,000
360,000
P160,000
CHAPTER 20
CAPITAL BUDGETING DECISIONS
I.
Questions
1. A capital investment involves a current commitment of funds with the
expectation of generating a satisfactory return on these funds over a
relatively extended period of time in the future.
2. Cost of capital is the weighted minimum desired average rate that a
company must pay for long-term capital while discounted rate of return is
the maximum rate of interest that could be paid for the capital employed
over the life of an investment without loss on the project.
3. The basic principles in capital budgeting are:
1. Capital investment models are focused on the future cash inflows and
outflows - rather than on net income.
2. Investment proposals should be evaluated according to their
differential effects on the company’s cash flows as a whole.
3. Financing costs associated with the project are excluded in the
analysis of incremental cash flows in order to avoid the “doublecounting” of the cost of money.
4. The concept of the time value of money recognizes that a peso of
present return is worth more than a peso of future return.
5. Choose the investments that will maximize the total net present value
of the projects subject to the capital availability constraint.
4. The major classifications as to purpose are:
18-332
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
1. Replacement projects
- those involving replacements of worn-out assets to avoid
disruption of normal operations, or to improve efficiency.
2. Product or process improvement
- projects that aim to produce additional revenue or to realize cost
savings.
3. Expansion
- projects that enhance long-term returns due to increased profitable
volume.
5. Greater amounts of capital may be used in projects whose combined
returns will exceed any alternate combination of total investment.
6. No. This implies that any equity funds are cost free and this is a
dangerous position because it ignores the opportunity cost or alternative
earnings that could be had from the fund.
7. Yes, if there are alternative earnings foregone by stockholders.
8. Capital budgeting screening decisions concern whether a proposed
investment project passes a preset hurdle, such as a 15% rate of return.
Capital budgeting preference decisions are concerned with choosing from
among two or more alternative investment projects, each of which has
passed the hurdle.
9. The “time value of money” refers to the fact that a peso received today is
more valuable than a peso received in the future. A peso received today
can be invested to yield more than a peso in the future.
10. Discounting is the process of computing the present value of a future cash
flow. Discounting gives recognition to the time value of money and makes
it possible to meaningfully add together cash flows that occur at different
times.
11. Accounting net income is based on accruals rather than on cash flows.
Both the net present value and internal rate of return methods focus on
cash flows.
12. One simplifying assumption is that all cash flows occur at the end of a
period. Another is that all cash flows generated by an investment project
are immediately reinvested at a rate of return equal to the discount rate.
13. No. The cost of capital is not simply the interest paid on long-term debt.
The cost of capital is a weighted average of the individual costs of all
sources of financing, both debt and equity.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
14. The internal rate of return is the rate of return on an investment project
over its life. It is computed by finding that discount rate that results in a
zero net present value for the project.
15. The project profitability index is computed by dividing the net present
value of the cash flows from an investment project by the investment
required. The index measures the profit (in terms of net present value)
provided by each peso of investment in a project. The higher the project
profitability index, the more desirable is the investment project.
16. Neither the payback method nor the simple rate of return method
considers the time value of money. Under both methods, a peso received in
the future is weighed the same as a peso received today. Furthermore, the
payback method ignores all cash flows that occur after the initial
investment has been recovered.
II. Matching Type
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
C
F
B
I
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
H
D
G
J
E
III. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Simple Rate of Return Method)
The annual incremental net operating income is determined by comparing the
operating cost of the old machine to the operating cost of the new machine and
the depreciation that would be taken on the new machine:
Operating cost of old machine......................................................
Less operating cost of new machine.............................................
Less annual depreciation on the new machine (P80,000 ÷
10 years)..................................................................................
Annual incremental net operating income.....................................
P33,000
10,000
Cost of the new machine..............................................................
Less scrap value of old machine...................................................
Initial investment..........................................................................
P80,000
5,000
P75,000
Simple rate
of return
=
Annual incremental net operating income
Initial investment
=
P15,000 18-334
=
P75,000
20%
8,000
P15,000
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Exercise 2 (Basic Present Value Concepts)
1. a. P400,000 × 0.794 = P317,600.
b. P400,000 × 0.712 = P284,800.
2. a. P5,000 × 4.355 = P21,775.
b. P5,000 × 3.685 = P18,425.
3. The factor for 10% for 20 years is 8.514. Thus, the present value of
Tom’s winnings would be:
P50,000 × 8.514 = P425,700.
Whether or not Tom really won a million pesos depends on your point of
view. She will receive a million pesos over the next 20 years; however, in
terms of its value right now she won much less than a million pesos as
shown by the present value computation above.
Exercise 3 (After-Tax Costs)
a.
Management consulting fee..............................
Multiply by 1 – 0.30........................................
After-tax cost...................................................
P100,000
× 0.70
P 70,000
b.
Increased revenues...........................................
Multiply by 1 – 0.30........................................
After-tax cash flow (benefit)............................
P40,000
× 0.70
P28,000
c.
The depreciation deduction is P210,000 ÷ 7 years = P30,000 per year,
which has the effect of reducing taxes by 30% of that amount, or P9,000
per year.
Exercise 4 (Basic Net Present Value Analysis)
Year(s)
Purchase of the stock.....................
Now
Annual dividends*.........................
1-4
Sale of the stock............................4
Amount of
Cash Flows
P(18,000)
P720
P22,500
18-335
12%
Present Value
Factor of Cash Flows
1.000 P(18,000)
3.037
2,187
0.636
14,310
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Net present value...........................
*900 shares × P0.80 per share per year = P720 per year.
P( 1,503)
No, Ms. Cruz did not earn a 12% return on the share. The negative net present
value indicates that the rate of return on the investment is less than the
discount rate of 12%.
Exercise 5 (Internal Rate of Return and Net Present Value)
1.
Factor of the internal
=
rate of return
Required investment
Annual cash inflow
P136,700
= anP25,000
= return
5.468of 16%.
A factor of 5.468 represents
internal rate of
2.
Item
Year(s)
Initial investment...........................
Now
Net annual cash inflows................
1-14
Net present value...........................
Amount of
16%
Present Value
Cash Flows Factor of Cash Flows
P(136,700) 1.000
P(136,700)
P25,000
5.468
136,700
P
0
The reason for the zero net present value is that 16% (the discount rate)
represents the machine’s internal rate of return. The internal rate of return is
the rate that causes the present value of a project’s cash inflows to just equal
the present value of the investment required.
3.
Factor of the internal
=
rate of return
Required investment
Annual cash inflow
P136,700
The 6.835 factor is closest to 6.982,
the factor for the 11% rate of return.
= the
6.835is 11%.
P20,000
Thus, to the nearest whole percent,
internal rate =of return
Exercise 6 (Basic Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return Analysis)
1.
Item
Year(s)
Amount of
Cash Flows
18-336
15% Present Value of
Factor
Cash Flows
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Initial investment.....................
Now
Annual cash inflows................1-4
Net present value....................
P(40,350)
P15,000
1.000
2.855
P(40,350)
42,825
P 2,475
Yes, this is an acceptable investment. Its net present value is positive, which
indicates that its rate of return exceeds the minimum 15% rate of return
required by the company.
2.
Factor of the internal
=
rate of return
=
Investment required
Net annual cash inflow
P111,500
P20,000
=
5.575
A factor of 5.575 represents an internal rate of return of 16%.
3.
Factor of the internal
=
rate of return
Investment required
Net annual cash inflow
P14,125
A factor of 5.650 represents
internal rate =of 5.650
return of 12%. The
= an P2,500
company did not make a wise investment because the return promised by
the machine is less than the required rate of return
IV. Problems
Problem 1 (Equipment Replacement Sensitivity Analysis)
Requirement 1
Total Present Value
A.
B.
New Situation:
Recurring cash operating costs (P26,500 x 2.69)
Cost of new equipment
Disposal value of old equipment now
Present value of net cash outflows
Present Situation:
Recurring cash operating costs (P45,000 x 2.69)
Disposal value of old equipment four years hence
(P2,600 x 0.516)
Present value of net cash inflows
18-337
P 71,285
44,000
(5,000)
P110,285
P121,050
(1,342)
P119,708
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Difference in favor of replacement
P
9,423
Requirement 2
Payback period for the new equipment =
=
P44,000 – P5,000
P18,500
2.1 years
Requirement 3
Let X = annual cash savings
Let O = net present value
X (2.69) + P5,000 - P44,000 - P1,342 = O
2.69X = P40,342
X = P14,997
If the annual cash savings decrease from P18,850 to P14,997 or by P3,503,
the point of indifference will be reached.
Another alternative way to get the same answer would be to divide the net
present value of P9,423 by 2.690.
Problem 2
Annual cash expenses of the manual bookkeeping
machine system, P9,800 x 12
Annual cash expenses of computerized data processing
Annual cash savings before taxes
Annual cash savings (a)
Depreciation
Inflow before tax
Income tax (50%) (b)
Cash inflow after tax (a - b)
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 3 Salvage
P117,600
53,600
P 64,000
Year 1
P64,000
20,000
P44,000
22,000
P42,000
Year 2
P64,000
16,000
P48,000
24,000
P40,000
Year 3
P64,000
12,800
P51,200
25,600
P38,400
After Tax
Cash Inflows
P42,000
40,000
38,400
20,000
PV Factor
x 0.909
x 0.826
x 0.750
x 0.750
PV
P 38,178
33,040
28,800
15,000
18-338
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Year 3 Tax loss
15,600*
x 0.750
Investment (I)
Net present value (NPV)
_________________
*
11,700
P126,718
100,000
P 26,718
The P15,600 tax benefit of the loss on the disposal of the computer at the end of
year 3 is computed as follows:
Estimated salvage value
Estimated book value:
Historical cost
Accumulated depreciation
Estimated loss
P 20,000
P100,000
48,800
Tax rate
Tax effect of estimated loss
51,200
P(31,200)
50%
P(15,600)
Since the net present value is positive, the computer should be purchased
replacing the manual bookkeeping system.
Problem 3
Requirement 1
(a) Purchase price of new equipment
Disposal of existing equipment:
Selling price
Book value
Loss on disposal
Tax rate
Tax benefit of loss on disposal
Required investment (I)
P(300,000)
P
0
60,000
P60,000
0.4
(b) Increased cash flows resulting from
change in contribution margin:
Using new equipment [18,000 (P20 - P7)] *
Using existing equipment [11,000 (P20 - P9)]
Increased cash flows
Less: Taxes (0.40 x P113,000)
Increased cash flows after taxes
Depreciation tax shield:
Depreciation on new equipment
(P300,000  5)
P60,000
18-339
24,000
P(276,000)
P234,000
121,000
113,000
45,200
P 67,800
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Depreciation on existing equipment
(P60,000  5)
12,000
Increased depreciation charge P48,000
Tax rate
0.40
Depreciation tax shield
Recurring annual cash flows
_________________
*
19,200
P 87,000
The new equipment is capable of producing 20,000 units, but ETC Products
can sell only 18,000 units annually.
The sales manager made several errors in his calculations of required
investment and annual cash flows. The errors are as follows:
Required investment:
- The cost of the market research study (P44,000) is a sunk cost because it
was incurred last year and will not change regardless of whether the
investment is made or not.
- The loss on the disposal of the existing equipment does not result in an
actual cash cost as shown by the sales manager. The loss on disposal
results in a reduction of taxes, which reduces the cost of the new
equipment.
Annual cash flows:
- The sales manager considered only the depreciation on the new equipment
rather than just the additional depreciation which would result from the
acquisition of the new equipment.
- The sales manager also failed to consider that the depreciation is a noncash
expenditure which provides a tax shield.
- The sales manager’s use of the discount rate (i.e., cost of capital) was
incorrect. The discount rate should be used to reduce the value of future
cash flows to their current equivalent at time period zero.
Requirement 2
Present value of future cash flows (P87,000 x 3.36)
Required investment (I)
Net present value
Problem 4
Requirement 1: P(507,000)
Requirement 2: P(466,200)
Requirement 3: P(23,400)
18-340
P292,320
276,000
P 16,320
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Problem 5
1. The net annual cost savings is computed as follows:
Reduction in labor costs........................................................................
P240,000
Reduction in material costs....................................................................96,000
Total cost reductions..............................................................................
336,000
Less increased maintenance costs (P4,250 × 12)...................................51,000
Net annual cost savings.........................................................................
P285,000
2. Using this cost savings figure, and other data
provided in the text, the net present value analysis
is:
Year(s)
Cost of the machine.....................................
Now
Installation and software..............................
Now
Salvage of the old machine..........................
Now
Annual cost savings.....................................
1-10
Overhaul required........................................
6
Salvage of the new machine........................
10
Net present value.........................................
Amount of
18%
Cash Flows Factor
P(900,000) 1.000
P(650,000) 1.000
P70,000
1.000
P285,000
4.494
P(90,000) 0.370
P210,000
0.191
Present
Value of
Cash Flows
P (900,000)
(650,000)
70,000
1,280,790
(33,300)
40,110
P (192,400)
No, the etching machine should not be purchased. It has a negative net
present value at an 18% discount rate.
3. The intangible benefits would have to be worth at least P42,813 per year
as shown below:
Required increase in net present value
P192,400
=
Factor for 10 years
4.494 = P42,813
Thus, the new etching machine should be purchased if management
believes that the intangible benefits are worth at least P42,813 per year to
the company.
Problem 6
Items and Computations
Year(s)
(1)
Amount
18-341
(2)
Tax
Effect
(1) × (2)
After-Tax
Cash
12%
Factor
Present
Value of
Cash
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Investment in new trucks..........................................
Now P(450,000)
Salvage from sale of the old trucks..........................
Now
P30,000 1 – 0.30
Net annual cash receipts..........................................
1-8
P108,000 1 – 0.30
Depreciation deductions*..........................................
1-8
P56,250
0.30
Overhaul of motors...................................................
5
P(45,000) 1 – 0.30
Salvage from the new trucks....................................
8
P20,000 1 – 0.30
Net present value.....................................................
Flows
P(450,000)
P21,000
P75,600
P16,875
P(31,500)
P14,000
1.000
1.000
4.968
4.968
0.567
0.404
Flows
P(450,000)
21,000
375,581
83,835
(17,861)
5,656
P 18,211
* P450,000 ÷ 8 years = P56,250 per year
Since the project has a positive net present value, the contract should be
accepted.
Problem 7
1.
Factor of the internal
=
rate of return
Required investment
Annual cash inflow
P142,950
P37,500
=
=
3.812
A factor of 3.812 equals an 18% rate of return.
Verification of the 18% rate of return:
Amount of
Cash
Item
Year(s)
Flows
Investment in equipment..........................
Now P(142,950)
Annual cash inflows................................
1-7
P37,500
Net present value....................................
2.
Factor of the internal
=
rate of return
18%
Factor
1.000
3.812
Present Value
of Cash
Flows
P(142,950)
142,950
P
0
Required investment
Annual cash inflow
We know that the investment is P142,950, and we can determine the factor for
an internal rate of return of 14% by looking at the PV table along the 7-period
line. This factor is 4.288. Using these figures in the formula, we get:
P142,950
Annual cash inflow
=
4.288
Therefore, the annual cash inflow would have to be:
P142,950 ÷ 4.288 = P33,337.
18-342
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
3. a. 5-year life for the equipment:
The factor for the internal rate of return would still be 3.812 [as computed
in (1) above]. Reading along the 5-period line of the PV table, a factor of
3.812 is closest to 3.791, the factor for 10%. Thus, to the nearest whole
percent, the internal rate of return is 10%.
b. 9-year life for the equipment:
The factor of the internal rate of return would again be 3.812. From the
PV table, reading along the 9-period line, a factor of 3.812 is closest to
3.786, the factor for 22%. Thus, to the nearest whole percent, the internal
rate of return is 22%.
The 10% return in part (a) is less than the 14% minimum return that Dr.
Blue wants to earn on the project. Of equal or even greater importance, the
following diagram should be pointed out to Dr. Blue:
As this illustration shows, a decrease in years has a much greater impact
on the rate of return than an increase in years. This is because of the time
value of money; added cash inflows far into the future do little to enhance
the rate of return, but loss of cash inflows in the near term can do much to
reduce it. Therefore, Dr. Blue should be very concerned about any
potential decrease in the life of the equipment, while at the same time
realizing that any increase in the life of the equipment will do little to
enhance her rate of return.
4. a. The expected annual cash inflow would be:
P37,500 x 120% = P45,000
P142,950
P45,000
=
3.177
18-343
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Reading along the 7-period line of the PV table, a factor of 3.177 is closest
to 3.161, the factor for 25%, and is between that factor and the factor for
24%. Thus, to the nearest whole percent, the internal rate of return is 25%.
b. The expected annual cash inflow would be:
P37,500 x 80% = P30,000
P142,950
P30,000
=
4.765
Reading along the 7-period line of the PV table, a factor of 4.765 is closest
to 4.712, the factor for 11%. Thus, to the nearest whole percent, the
internal rate of return is 11%.
Unlike changes in time, increases and decreases in cash flows at a given
point in time have basically the same impact on the rate of return, as
shown below:
5. Since the cash flows are not even over the five-year period (there is an extra
P61,375 cash inflow from sale of the equipment at the end of the fifth year),
some other method must be used to compute the internal rate of return. Using
trial-and-error or more sophisticated methods, it turns out that the actual
internal rate of return will be 12%:
Item
Year(s)
Investment in the equipment............................
Now
Annual cash inflow...........................................
1-5
Sale of the equipment.......................................
5
Net present value..............................................
18-344
Amount of
Cash
12%
Flows
Factor
P(142,950) 1.000
P30,000
3.605
P61,375
0.567
Present
Value of
Cash Flows
P(142,950)
108,150
34,800
P
0
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Problem 8
1. The income statement would be:
Sales revenue.............................................................
Less commissions (40% × P200,000)........................
Contribution margin...................................................
Less fixed expenses:
Maintenance........................................................... P50,000
Insurance................................................................ 10,000
Depreciation*......................................................... 36,000
Total fixed expenses...................................................
Net operating income.................................................
P200,000
80,000
120,000
96,000
P 24,000
*P180,000 ÷ 5 years = P36,000 per year
2. The initial investment in the simple rate of return calculations is net of the
salvage value of the old equipment as shown below:
Simple
rate of return
=
Annual incremental net operating income
Initial investment
P24,000
Yes, the games=would be P24,000
purchased. The return
exceeds
the 14% =threshold
=
16% set
P180,000
–
P30,000
P150,000
by the company.
3. The payback period would be:
Payback
period
=
Investment required
Net annual cash inflow
P180,000 – P30,000
P150,000
=
= 2.5 years
P60,000*
P60,000
*Net annual cash inflow = Net operating income + Depreciation
= P24,000 + P36,000 = P60,000.
=
Yes, the games would be purchased. The payback period is less than the 3
years.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
1. D
11. D
21. C
18-345
31. D
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
C
B
B
A
C
D
B
B
A
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
D
D
C
C
D
D
B
A
A
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
B
C
D
C
C
D
B
D
A
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
C
C
D
D
B
B
B
D
B
CHAPTER 21
I.
DECENTRALIZED OPERATIONS AND
SEGMENT REPORTING
Questions
1. Decentralization means that decision making in an organization isn’t
confined to a few top executives, but rather is spread throughout the
organization with managers at various levels making key operating
decisions relating to their sphere of responsibility.
2. The benefits include: (1) a spreading of decision-making responsibility
among managers, thereby relieving top management from day-to-day
problem solving and allowing them to focus their time on long-range
planning; (2) training in decision making for lower-level managers,
thereby preparing them to assume greater responsibility; (3) greater job
satisfaction and greater incentive for lower-level managers; (4) better
decisions, since decisions are made at the level where the problem is best
understood; and (5) a more effective basis for measuring managerial
performance through the creation of profit and investment centers.
3. The three business practices are (a) omission of some costs in the
assignment process, (b) the use of inappropriate allocation methods, and
(c) allocation of common costs to segments.
4. The contribution margin represents the portion of sales revenue
remaining after deducting variable expenses. The segment margin
represents the margin still remaining after deducting traceable fixed
expenses from the contribution margin. Generally speaking, the
contribution margin is most useful as a planning tool in the short run,
18-346
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
when fixed costs don’t change. The segment margin is most useful as a
planning tool in the long run, when fixed costs will be changing, and as a
tool for evaluating long-run segment performance. One concept is no
more useful to management than the other; the two concepts simply relate
to different planning horizons.
5. A segment is any part or activity of an organization about which a
manager seeks cost, revenue, or profit data. Examples of segments
include departments, operations, sales territories, divisions, product lines,
and so forth.
6. Under the contribution approach, costs are assigned to a segment if and
only if the costs are traceable to the segment (i.e., could be avoided if the
segment were eliminated). Common costs are not allocated to segments
under the contribution approach.
7. A traceable cost of a segment is a cost that arises specifically because of
the existence of that segment. If the segment were eliminated, the cost
would disappear. A common cost, by contrast, is a cost that supports
more than one segment, but is not traceable in whole or in part to any one
of the segments. If the departments of a company are treated as
segments, then examples of the traceable costs of a department would
include the salary of the department’s supervisor, depreciation of
machines used exclusively by the department, and the costs of supplies
used by the department. Examples of common costs would include the
salary of the general counsel of the entire company, the lease cost of the
headquarters building, corporate image advertising, and periodic
depreciation of machines shared by several departments.
II. Problems
Problem 1 (Working with a Segmented Income Statement)
Requirement 1
P75,000 × 40% CM ratio = P30,000 increased contribution margin in Cebu.
Since the fixed costs in the office and in the company as a whole will not
change, the entire P30,000 would result in increased net operating income for
the company.
It is incorrect to multiply the P75,000 increase in sales by Cebu’s 25%
segment margin ratio. This approach assumes that the segment’s traceable
fixed expenses increase in proportion to sales, but if they did, they would not
be fixed.
18-347
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement 2
a. The segmented income statement follows:
Segments
Total Company
Manila
Cebu
Amount
%
Amount
%
Amount
%
Sales.............................................
P800,000 100.0% P200,000 100% P600,000 100%
Less variable expenses.................
420,000
52.5
60,000 30
360,000 60
Contribution margin....................
380,000
47.5
140,000 70
240,000 40
Less traceable fixed
expenses....................................
168,000
21.0
78,000 39
90,000 15
Office segment margin................
212,000
26.5
P 62,000 31% P150,000 25%
Less common fixed
expenses not traceable to
segments...................................
120,000
15.0
Net operating income..................
P 92,000
11.5%
b. The segment margin ratio rises and falls as sales rise and fall due to the
presence of fixed costs. The fixed expenses are spread over a larger base
as sales increase.
In contrast to the segment ratio, the contribution margin ratio is a stable
figure so long as there is no change in either the variable expenses or the
selling price of a unit of service.
Problem 2 (Segmented Income Statement)
Requirement 1
Sales
Less variable expenses
Contribution margin
Less traceable fixed expenses
Geographic market segment margin
Less common fixed expenses not
traceable to geographic markets*
Total Company
Amount
%
P1,500,000 100.0
588,000
39.2
912,000
60.8
770,000
51.3
142,000
9.5
175,000
11.7
18-348
East
Amount
%
P400,000 100
208,000
52
192,000
48
240,000
60
Geographic Market
Central
West
Amount
%
Amount
P600,000 100 P500,000
180,000 30
200,000
420,000 70
300,000
330,000 55
200,000
P(48,000) (12) P 90,000
15
P100,000
%
100
40
60
40
20
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Net operating income (loss)
P (33,000)
(2.2)
* P945,000 – P770,000 = P175,000.
Requirement 2
Incremental sales (P600,000 × 15%).......................................................................
P90,000
Contribution margin ratio........................................................................................
× 70%
Incremental contribution margin..............................................................................
63,000
Less incremental advertising expense.......................................................................
25,000
Incremental net operating income............................................................................
P38,000
Yes, the advertising program should be initiated.
Problem 3 (Basic Segmented Income Statement)
Total
Sales*............................................................................
P750,000
Variable expenses**.......................................................
435,000
Contribution margin.......................................................
315,000
Traceable fixed expenses...............................................
183,000
Product line segment margin..........................................
132,000
Common fixed expenses not traceable to
products.....................................................................
105,000
Net operating income.....................................................
P 27,000
* CD: 37,500 packs × P8.00 per pack = P300,000;
DVD: 18,000 packs × P25.00 per pack= P450,000.
** CD: 37,500 packs × P3.20 per pack = P120,000;
DVD: 18,000 packs × P17.50 per pack= P315,000.
III. Multiple Choice Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B
C
B
B
B
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
C
B
D
C
11. A
12. B
CHAPTER 22
18-349
CD
P300,000
120,000
180,000
138,000
P 42,000
DVD
P450,000
315,000
135,000
45,000
P 90,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
BUSINESS PLANNING
I.
Questions
1. Strategy, plans, and budgets are interrelated and affect one another.
Strategy describes how an organization matches its own capabilities with
the opportunities in the marketplace to accomplish its overall objectives.
Strategy analysis underlies both long-run and short-run planning. In
turn, these plans lead to the formulation of budgets. Budgets provide
feedback to managers about the likely effects of their strategic plans.
Managers use this feedback to revise their strategic plans.
2. Budgeted performance is better than past performance for judging
managers. Why? Mainly because the inefficiencies included in past
results can be detected and eliminated in budgeting. Also, new
opportunities in the future, which did not exist in the past, may be
ignored if past performance is used.
3. A company that shares its own internal budget information with other
companies can gain multiple benefits. One benefit is better coordination
with suppliers, which can reduce the likelihood of supply shortages.
Better coordination with customers can result in increased sales as
demand by customers is less likely to exceed supply. Better coordination
across the whole supply chain can also help a company reduce
inventories and thus reduce the costs of holding inventories.
4. The sales forecast is typically the cornerstone for budgeting, because
production (and, hence, costs) and inventory levels generally depend on
the forecasted level of sales.
5. Sensitivity analysis adds an extra dimension to budgeting. It enables
managers to examine how budgeted amounts change with changes in the
underlying assumptions. This assists managers to monitor those
assumptions that are most critical to a company attaining its budget or
make timely adjustments to plans when appropriate.
6. Factors reducing the effectiveness of budgeting of companies include:
1. Lack of a well-defined strategy,
2. Lack of a clear linkage of strategy to operational plans,
3. Lack of individual accountability for results, and
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
4. Lack of meaningful performance measures.
II. Problems
Problem 1 (Budgeted Income Statement)
Globalcom Company
Budgeted Income Statement for 2006
(in thousands)
Net sales
P6,996
Equipment (P6,000 x 1.06 x 1.10)
1,908
Maintenance contracts (P1,800 x 1.06)
Total net sales
Cost of goods sold (P4,600 x 1.03 x 1.06)
Gross margin
Operating costs:
Marketing costs (P600 + P250)
850
Distribution costs (P150 x 1.06)
159
Customer maintenance costs (P1,000 + P130) 1,130
Administrative costs
900
Total operating costs
Operating income
P8,904
5,022
3,882
3,039
P
843
Problem 2 (Comprehensive Operating Budget)
Requirement 1
Schedule 1: Revenue Budget
For the Year Ended December 31, 2006
Skateboards
Total
Units
1,000
Selling Price
P450
Total Revenues
P450,000
Requirement 2
Schedule 2: Production Budget (in Units)
for the Year Ended December 31, 2006
Skateboards
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Budgeted unit sales (Schedule 1)
Add target ending finished goods inventory
Total requirements
Deduct beginning finished goods inventory
Units to be produced
1,000
200
1,200
100
1,100
Requirement 3
Schedule 3A: Direct Materials Usage Budget
For the Year Ended December 31, 2006
Wood
Physical Budget
To be used in production
(Wood: 1,100 x 5.00 b.f.
Fiberglass: 1,100 x 6.00 yards)
Fiberglass
Total
5,500
6,600
5,500
Cost Budget
Available from beginning inventory
(Wood: 2,000 b.f. x P28.00
Fiberglass: 1,000 b.f. x 4.80)
To be used from purchases this period
(Wood: (5,500 – 2,000) x P30.00
Fiberglass: (6,600 – 1,000) x P5.00)
Total cost of direct materials to be used
6,600
56,000
4,800
105,000
28,000
P161,000
P32,800
P193,800
Schedule 3B: Direct Materials Purchases Budget
For the Year Ended December 31, 2006
Wood
Physical Budget
Production usage (from Schedule 3A)
Add target ending inventory
Total requirements
Deduct beginning inventory
Purchases
Cost Budget
(Wood: 5,000 x P30.00
Fiberglass: 7,600 x P5.00)
5,500
1,500
7,000
2,000
5,000
Total
6,600
2,000
8,600
1,000
7,600
P150,000
P38,000
P150,000
Requirement 4
Schedule 4: Direct Manufacturing Labor Budget
For the Year Ended December 31, 2006
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Fiberglass
P38,000
P188,000
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Labor Category
Manufacturing labor
Cost Driver
Units
1,100
DML Hours per
Driver Unit
5.00
Total
Hours
5,500
Wage
Rate
P25.00
Total
P137,500
Requirement 5
Schedule 5: Manufacturing Overhead Budget
For the Year Ended December 31, 2006
At Budgeted Levels of 5,500
Direct Manufacturing Labor-Hours
Variable manufacturing overhead
costs (P7.00 x 5,500)
Fixed manufacturing overhead costs
Total manufacturing overhead costs
P 38,500
66,000
P104,500
Requirement 6
Budgeted manufacturing overhead rate:
P104,500
5,500
= P19.00 per hour
Requirement 7
Budgeted manufacturing overhead cost per output unit:
P104,500
=
1,100
= P95.00 per output unit
Requirement 8
Schedule 6A:
Computation of Unit
Manufacturing Finished Goods in 2006
Cost per Unit
of Inputa
Direct materials
Wood
Fiberglass
Direct manufacturing labor
Total manufacturing overhead
P30.00
5.00
25.00
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Inputsb
5.00
6.00
5.00
Costs
of
Total
P150.00
30.00
125.00
95.00
P400.00
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
a
b
cost is per board foot, yard or per hour
inputs is the amount of input per board
Requirement 9
Schedule 6B: Ending Inventory Budget
December 31, 2006
Units
Direct materials
Wood
Fiberglass
Finished goods
Skateboards
Total Ending Inventory
Cost per Unit
Total
1,500
2,000
P 30.00
5.00
P 45,000
10,000
200
400.00
80,000
P135,000
Requirement 10
Schedule 7: Cost of Goods Sold Budget
for the year Ended December 31, 2006
From
Schedule
Beginning finished goods
inventory, January 1,
2006
Direct materials used
Direct manufacturing labor
Manufacturing overhead
Cost of goods manufactured
Cost of goods available for
sale
Deduct ending finished
goods inventory,
December 31, 2006
Cost of goods sold
Given
3A
4
5
Total
P 37,480
P193,800
137,500
104,500
435,800
473,280
6B
80,000
P393,280
Requirement 11
Budgeted Income Statement for Pacific
for the Year Ended December 31, 2006
Revenues
Costs
Schedule 1
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P450,000
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Cost of goods sold
Gross margin
Operating costs
Marketing costs
(P250 x 30)
Other costs
Operating income
Schedule 7
393,280
56,720
P 7,500
30,000
37,500
P 19,220
III. Multiple Choice Questions
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
B
C
D
D
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
A
B
D
A
C
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
D
D
B
C
A
CHAPTER 23
STRATEGIC COST MANAGEMENT;
BALANCED SCORECARD
I.
Questions
1.
Strategy
Weakness
Cost leadership
The tendency to cut costs in a way that
undermines demand for the product or
service.
Differentiation
The firm’s tendency to undermine its strength
by attempting to lower costs or by lacking a
continual and aggressive marketing plan to
reinforce the perceived difference.
Focus
The market niche may suddenly disappear due
to technological change in the industry or
change in consumer tastes.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
2. The balanced scorecard is an accounting report that includes the firm’s
critical success factors in four areas: customer satisfaction, financial
performance, internal business processes, and innovation and learning
(human resources). The primary objective of the balanced scorecard is to
serve as an action plan, a basis for implementing the strategy expressed in
the critical success factors.
3. The balanced scorecard is important to integrate both financial and nonfinancial information into management reports. Financial measures
reflect only a partial- and short-term measure of the firm’s progress.
Without strategic non-financial information, the firm is likely to stray
from its competitive course and to make strategically wrong product
decisions – to choose the wrong products, the wrong customers. The
balanced scorecard provides a basis for a more complete analysis than is
possible with financial data alone.
4. An analyst can incorporate other factors such as the growth in the overall
market and reductions in selling prices resulting from productivity gains
into a strategic analysis of operating income. To do so, the analyst
attributes the sources of operating income changes to the particular
factors of interests. For example, the analyst will combine the operating
income effects of strategic price reductions and any resulting growth with
the productivity component to evaluate a company’s cost leadership
strategy.
5. A company’s balanced scorecard should be derived from and support its
strategy. Since different companies have different strategies, their
balanced scorecards should be different.
6. The difference between the delivery cycle time and the throughput time is
the waiting period between when an order is received and when
production on the order is started. The throughput time is made up of
process time, inspection time, move time, and queue time. These four
elements can be classified between value-added time (process time) and
non-value-added time (inspection time, move time, and queue time).
7. The balanced scorecard is constructed to support the company’s strategy,
which is a theory about what actions will further the company’s goals.
Assuming that the company has financial goals, measures of financial
performance must be included in the balanced scorecard as a check on the
reality of the theory. If the internal business processes improve, but the
financial outcomes do not improve, the theory may be flawed and the
strategy should be changed.
8. If a company has an MCE of less than 1, it means the production process
includes non-value-added time. An MCE of 0.40, for example, would
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
mean that 40% of the throughput time consists of actual processing, and
that the other 60% consists of moving, inspection, and other non-valueadded activities.
II. Problem (Measures of Internal Business Process Performance)
Requirement 1
a, b, and c
Month
1
Throughput time in days:
Process time...................................................
0.6
Inspection time...............................................
0.7
Move time......................................................
0.5
Queue time.....................................................
3.6
Total throughput time.....................................
5.4
2
3
4
0.5
0.7
0.5
3.6
5.3
0.5
0.4
0.4
2.6
3.9
0.4
0.3
0.5
1.7
2.9
12.8%
13.8%
5.3
3.9
9.2
4.7
2.9
7.6
Manufacturing cycle efficiency
(MCE):
11.1%
9.4%
Process time  Throughput
time................................................................
Delivery cycle time in days:
Wait time........................................................
9.6
8.7
Total throughput time.....................................
5.4
5.3
Total delivery cycle time.................................
15.0
14.0
Requirement 2
The general trend is favorable in all of the performance measures except for
total sales. On-time delivery is up, process time is down, inspection time is
down, move time is basically unchanged, queue time is down, manufacturing
cycle efficiency is up, and the delivery time is down. Even though the
company has improved its operations, it has not yet increased its sales. This
may have happened because management attention has been focused on the
factory – working to improve operations. However, it may be time now to
exploit these improvements to go after more sales – perhaps by increased
product promotion and better marketing strategies. It will ultimately be
necessary to increase sales so as to translate the operational improvements
into more profits.
Requirement 3
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
a and b
Month
Throughput time in days:
Process time...................................................
Inspection time...............................................
Move time......................................................
Queue time.....................................................
Total throughput time.....................................
Manufacturing cycle efficiency (MCE):
Process time  Throughput time..................
5
6
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.4
1.2
0.9
33.3%
44.4%
0.5
As a company pares away non-value-added activities, the manufacturing cycle
efficiency improves. The goal, of course, is to have an efficiency of 100%.
This will be achieved when all non-value-added activities have been eliminated
and process time equals throughput time.
III. Multiple Choice Questions
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
D
D
C
A
A
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
C
D
C
D
A
CHAPTER 24
ADVANCED ANALYSIS AND
APPRAISAL OF PERFORMANCE:
FINANCIAL AND NONFINANCIAL
I.
Questions
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
1. Return on investment (ROI) is the ratio of profit to amount invested for
the business unit.
2. The measurement issues for ROI are:
a. The effect of accounting policies, which affect the determination of
net income.
b. Other measurement issues for income, which include the handling of
non-recurring items in the income statement, differences in the effect
of income taxes across units, differential effect of foreign currency
exchange, and the effect of cost allocation when two or more units
share a facility or cost.
c. Measuring investment: which assets to include.
d. Measuring investment: allocating the cost of shared assets.
3. The advantages of return on investment are:
a. It is intuitive and easily understood.
b. It provides a useful basis for comparison among SBUs.
c. It is widely used.
The limitations of return on investment are:
a. It has an excessive short-term focus.
b. Investment planning uses discounted cash flow analysis while
managers are evaluated on ROI.
c. It contains a disincentive for new investment by the most profitable
units.
4. The key advantage of residual income is that it deals effectively with the
limitation of ROI, that is ROI has a disincentive for the managers of the
most profitable units to make new investments. With residual income, no
matter how profitable the unit, there is still an incentive for new profitable
investment. In contrast, a key limitation is that since residual income is
not a percentage, it suffers the same problem of profit SBUs in that it is
not useful for comparing units of significantly difference sizes. It favors
larger units that would be expected to have larger residual incomes, even
with relatively poor performance. Moreover, relatively small changes in
the desired minimum rate of return can dramatically affect the residual
income for different size units. And, in contrast to ROI, some managers
do not find residual income to be as intuitive and as easily understood.
5. Economic value added (EVA) is a business unit’s income after taxes and
after deducting the cost of capital. The idea is very similar to what we
have explained as residual income. The objectives of the measures are the
same – to effectively motivate investment SBU managers and to properly
measure their performance. In contrast to residual income, EVA uses the
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
firm’s cost of capital instead of a desired rate of return. For many firms
the desired rate of return and the cost of capital will be nearly the same,
with small differences due to adjustments for risk and for strategic goals
such as the desired growth rate for the firm. Also, while residual income
is intended to deal with the undesirable effects of ROI, EVA is used to
focus managers’ attention on creating value for shareholders, by earning
profits greater than the firm’s cost of capital.
6. Examples of financial and nonfinancial measures of performance are:
Financial:
Nonfinancial:
ROI, residual income, and return on sales.
Manufacturing lead time, on-time performance, number
of new product launches, and number of new patents
filed.
7. The six steps in designing an accounting-based performance measure are:
a. Choose performance measures that align with top management’s
financial goal(s).
b. Choose the time horizon of each performance measure in Step 1.
c. Choose a definition of the components in each performance measure
in Step 1.
d. Choose a measurement alternative for each performance measure in
Step 1.
e. Choose a target level of performance.
f. Choose the timing of feedback.
8. Yes. Residual income (RI) is not identical to return on investment (ROI).
ROI is a percentage with investment as the denominator of the
computation. RI is an absolute amount in which investment is used to
calculate an imputed interest charge.
9. Economic value added (EVA) is a specific type of residual income
measure that is calculated as follows:
Economic
value added =
(EVA)
After tax
operating
income

Weighted
Average Cost x
of Capital
Total Assets
minus Current
Liabilities
10. Definitions of investment used in practice when computing ROI are:
a. Total assets available.
b. Total assets employed.
c. Working capital (current assets minus current liabilities) plus other
assets.
d. Equity.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
11. Present value is the asset measure based on DCF estimates. Current cost
is the cost of purchasing an asset today identical to the one currently held
if identical assets can currently be purchased; it is the cost of purchasing
the services provided by that asset if identical assets cannot currently be
purchased. Historical-cost-based measures of ROI compute the asset
base as the original purchase cost of an asset minus any accumulated
depreciation.
Some commentators argue that present value is future-oriented and
current cost is oriented to current prices, while historical cost is pastoriented.
12. Special problems arise when evaluating the performance of divisions in
multinational companies because
a. The economic, legal, political, social, and cultural environments differ
significantly across countries.
b. Governments in some countries may impose controls and limit selling
prices of products.
c. Availability of materials and skilled labor, as well as costs of
materials, labor, and infrastructure may differ significantly across
countries.
d. Divisions operating in different countries keep score of their
performance in different currencies.
13. a. Consider each activity and the organization itself from the customer’s
perspective,
b. Evaluate each activity using customer-validated measures of
performance,
c. Consider all facets of activity performance that affect customers and
are comprehensive, and
d. Provide feedback to help organization members identify problems and
opportunities for improvement.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (ROI and Residual Income)
Requirement 1
A quick inspection of the data shows mortgage loans with a higher ROI to be
more successful. But see requirement 2 below.
Requirement 2
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Division A
(Mortgage Loans)
Total Assets
Operating Income
Return
on
Investment
Residual Income:
(a) * at 11%
(b) ** at 15%
(c) ***at 17%
P2,000
400
25%
P180
100
60
*
P400 – (P2,000 x 0.11) =
P180
** P400 – (P2,000 x 0.15) =
P100
*** P400 – (P2,000 x 0.17) = P
60
Division B
(Consumer Loans)
P10,000
1,500
15%
P400
0
(200)
P1,500 – (P10,000 x 0.11) = P
400
P1,500 – (P10,000 x 0.15) = P
0
P1,500 – (P10,000 x 0.17) =
P(200)
There is no simple answer to which is more successful in terms of residual
income. Division B is more successful at low rates, while A is more
successful at high rates. This reflects an important limitation of residual
income; larger divisions (Division B in this case) are favored when the desired
return used to determine residual income is relatively low.
Exercise 2 (Return on Investment; Comparisons of Three Companies)
Sales
Income
Investment (assets)
Return on sales
Asset turnover
Return on investment
Companies in the Same Industry
A
B
C
P1,500,000
P 750,000
P3,750,000
200,000
75,000
18,750
500,000
7,500,000
2,500,000
13%
10%
0.5%
3
0.1
1.5
40%
1%
0.75%
Exercise 3 (ROI, RI, ROS, Management Incentives)
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Requirement 1
If Magic Industries uses return on investment to measure the Jump-Start
Division’s (JSD’s) performance, Tan may be reluctant to invest in the new
plant because, as shown below, return on investment for the plant of 19.2% is
lower than JSD’s current ROI of 24%.
Operating income for new plant
New investment
Return on investment for new plant
P480,000
P2,500,000
19.2%
Investing in the new plant would lower JSD’s ROI and, hence, limit Tan’s
bonus.
Requirement 2
The residual income computation for the new plant is as follows:
Residual income = Income - (Imputed interest x Investment)
Investment
Operating income for new plant
Charge for funds
(Investment, P2,500,000 x 15%)
Residual income
P2,500,000
P 480,000
375,000
P 105,000
Investing in the new plant would add P105,000 to JSD’s residual income.
Consequently, if Magic Industries could be persuaded to use residual income
to measure performance, Tan would be more willing to invest in the new plant.
Requirement 3
Return on Sales (ROS) =
Operating income
Sales
=
480,000
2,400,000
=
20%
If Magic Industries uses ROS to determine Tan’s bonus, Tan will be more
willing to invest in the new plant because ROS for the new plant of 20%
exceeds the current ROS of 19%.
The advantages of using ROS are (a) that it is simpler to calculate and (b)
that it avoids the negative short-run effects of ROI measures that may induce
Tan to not make the investment in the new plant. Tan may favor ROS because
she believes that eventually increases in ROS will increase ROI and RI.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
The main disadvantage of using ROS is that it ignores the amount of
investment needed to earn a return. For example, ROS may be high but not
high enough to justify the level of investment needed to earn the required
return on an investment.
III. Problems
Problem 1 (RI, EVA)
Requirement 1
Total assets
Current liabilities
Investment
(Total assets – current
liabilities)
Required
return
(12%
x
Investment)
Operating income before tax
Residual income
(Operating income before tax
–
required return)
Truck Rental
Division
P650,000
120,000
Transportation
Division
P950,000
200,000
530,000
750,000
63,600
90,000
75,000
160,000
11,400
70,000
Requirement 2
After-tax cost of debt financing = (1 – 0.4) x 10% = 6%
After-tax cost of equity financing = 15%
Weighted average =
cost of capital
P900,000 x 6% + 600,000 x 15%
P900,000 + 600,000
Required return for EVA
9.6% x Investment
(9.6% x P530,000; 9.6% x
P750,000)
P50,880
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=
9.6%
P72,000
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Operating income after tax
0.6 x operating income before
tax
EVA (Operating income after tax
– required return)
45,000
96,000
(5,880)
24,000
Requirement 3
Both the residual income and the EVA calculations indicate that the
Transportation Division is performing better than the Truck Rental Division.
The Transportation Division has a higher residual income (P70,000 versus
P11,400) and a higher EVA [P24,000 versus P(5,880)]. The negative EVA for
the Truck Rental Division indicates that, on an after-tax basis, the division is
destroying value – the after-tax economic return from the Truck Rental
Division’s assets is less than the required return. If EVA continues to be
negative, Lighthouse may have to consider shutting down the Truck Rental
Division.
Problem 2 (ROI, RI, Measurement of Assets)
The method for computing profitability preferred by each manager follows:
Manager of
S
P
F
Method Chosen
Residual income based on net book value
Residual income based on gross book value
ROI based on either gross or net book value
Supporting Calculations:
Division
S
P
F
Return on Investment Calculations
Operating Income
Operating Income
Gross Book Value
Net Book Value*
P94,700  P800,000 = 11.84% (3) P94,700  P370,000 = 25.59% (3)
P91,700  P760,000 = 12.07% (2) P91,700  P350,000 = 26.20% (2)
P61,400  P500,000 = 12.28% (1) P61,400  P220,000 = 27.91% (1)
Division
S
P
Residual Income Calculations
Operating Income – 10% Gross BV Operating Income – 10% Net BV*
P94,700 – P80,000 = P14,700 (2) P94,700 – P37,000 = P57,700 (1)
P91,700 – P76,000 = P15,700 (1) P91,700 – P35,000 = P56,700 (2)
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
F
P61,400 – P50,000 = P11,400 (3)
P61,400 – P22,000 = P39,400 (3)
* Net book value is gross book value minus accumulated depreciation.
The biggest weakness of ROI is the tendency to reject projects that will lower
historical ROI even though the prospective ROI exceeds the required ROI. RI
achieves goal congruence because subunits will make investments as long as
they earn a rate in excess of the required return for investments. The biggest
weakness of residual income is it favors larger divisions in ranking
performance. The greater the amount of the investment (the size of the
division), the more likely that larger divisions will be favored assuming that
income grows proportionately.
Problem 3 (Multinational Performance Measurement, ROI, RI)
Requirement 1
(a)
Phil. Division’s ROI in 2005 =
Operating income
Total assets
=
Operating income
P8,000,000
=
15%
Hence, operating income = 15% x P8,000,000 = P1,200,000.
(b)
Swedish Division’s ROI in 2005 in kronas =
9,180,000 kronas
60,000,000 kronas
=
15.3%
Requirement 2
Convert total assets into pesos at December 31, 2004 exchange rate, the rate
prevailing when the assets were acquired (8 kronas = P1)
24,000,000 kronas =
60,000,000 kronas
=
8 kronas per peso
P7,500,000
Convert operating income into pesos at the average exchange rate prevailing
when during 2005 when operating income was earned equal to
9,180,000 kronas
8.5 kronas per peso = P1,080,000
Comparable ROI for Swedish Division =
18-366
P1,080,000
P7,500,000
=
14.4%
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
The Swedish Division’s ROI calculated in kronas is helped by the inflation
that occurs in Sweden in 2005. Inflation boosts the division’s operating
income. Since the assets are acquired at the start of the year on 1-1-2005, the
asset values are not increased by the inflation that occurs during the year. The
net effect of inflation on ROI calculated in kronas is to use an inflated value
for the numerator relative to the denominator. Adjusting for inflationary and
currency differences negates the effects of any differences in inflation rates
between the two countries on the calculation of ROI. After these adjustments,
the Phil. Division shows a higher ROI than the Swedish Division.
Requirement 3
Phil. Division’s RI in 2005 =
=
P1,200,000 – 12% x P8,000,000
P1,200,000 – P960,000 = P240,000
Swedish Division’s RI in 2005 (in Phil. pesos) is
P1,080,000 – 12% x P7,500,000 = P1,080,000 – P900,000 = P180,000.
The Phil. Division’s RI also exceeds the Swedish Division’s RI in 2005 by
P60,000 (P240,000 – P180,000).
Problem 4 (ROI Performance Measures Based on Historical Cost and
Current Cost)
Requirement 1
ROI using historical cost measures:
Luzon Division
P130,000
P340,000
=
38.24%
Visayas Division
P220,000
P1,150,000
=
19.13%
Mindanao Division
P380,000
P1,620,000
=
23.46%
The Luzon Division appears to be considerably more efficient than the
Visayas and Mindanao Divisions.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement 2
The gross book values (i.e., the original costs of the plants) under historical
cost are calculated as the useful life of each plant (12) x the annual
depreciation:
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
12 x P 70,000
12 x P100,000
12 x P120,000
=
=
=
P 840,000
P1,200,000
P1,440,000
Step 1: Restate long-term assets from gross book value at historical costs to
gross book value at current cost as of the end of 2005.
Gross book value of
long-term assets at
historical cost
x
Construction cost index in 2005
Construction cost index in year of construction
Luzon
P 840,000 x (170  100) = P1,428,000
Visayas
P1,200,000 x (170  136) = P1,500,000
Mindanao
P1,440,000 x (170  160) = P1,530,000
Step 2: Derive net book value of long-term assets at current cost as of the
end of 2005. (Estimated useful life of each plant is 12 years).
Gross book value of
long-term assets at
current cost at the
end of 2005
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
x
Estimated useful life remaining
Estimated total useful life
P1,428,000 x (2  12)
P1,500,000 x (9  12)
P1,530,000 x (11  12)
=
=
=
P 238,000
P1,125,000
P1,402,500
Step 3: Compute current cost of total assets at the end of 2005. (Assume
current assets of each plant are expressed in 2005 pesos.)
Current assets at the end
Net book value of long-term assets at
+ current cost at the end of 2005 (Step 2)
of 2005 (given)
Luzon
P200,000 + P238,000
= P 438,000
Visayas
P250,000 + P1,125,000
= P1,375,000
Mindanao
P300,000 + P1,402,500
= P1,702,500
Step 4: Compute current-cost depreciation expense in 2005 pesos.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Gross book value of long-term assets at current cost at the end of 2005
(from Step 1) x (1  12)
P1,428,000 x (1  12)
P1,500,000 x (1  12)
P1,530,000 x (1  12)
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
=
=
=
P119,000
P125,000
P127,500
Step 5:
Compute 2005 operating income using 2005 current-cost
depreciation.
Historical-cost
operating income
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
–
Current-cost depreciation
–
in 2005 pesos (Step 4)
P130,000 – (P119,000 – P70,000)
P220,000 – (P125,000 – P100,000)
P380,000 – (P127,500 – P120,000)
Historical-cost
depreciation
=
=
=
P 81,000
P195,000
P372,500
Step 6: Compute ROI using current-cost estimate for long-term assets and
depreciation.
Operating income for 2005 using 2005 current cost depreciation (Step 5)
Current cost of total assets at the end of 2005 (Step 3)
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
P 81,000  P 438,000
P195,000  P1,375,000
P372,500  P1,702,500
ROI: Historical Cost
38.24%
19.13%
23.46%
=
=
=
18.49%
14.18%
21.88%
ROI: Current Cost
18.49%
14.18%
21.88%
Use of current cost results in the Mindanao Division appearing to be the most
efficient. The Luzon ROI is reduced substantially when the ten-year-old plant
is restated for the 70% increase in construction costs over the 1995 to 2005
period.
Requirement 3
Use of current costs increases the comparability of ROI measures across
divisions’ operating plants built at different construction cost price levels. Use
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
of current cost also will increase the willingness of managers, evaluated on the
basis of ROI, to move from divisions with assets purchased many years ago to
division with assets purchased in recent years.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
A
B
C
C
D
B
A
C
B
A
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
B
D
C
A
C
C
A
C
B
A
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C
D
C
A
C
D
A
C
D
D
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
A
A
B
A
C
B
D
CHAPTER 25
MANAGING PRODUCTIVITY AND
MARKETING EFFECTIVENESS
I.
Questions
1. Productivity is the relationship between the output and the input resources
required for generating the output.
2. A critical success factor for a firm that competes as a cost leader is to be
the low cost provider. A low cost provider needs to perform the required
tasks for the same output with fewer resources than its competitors.
3. Among criteria that often are used in assessing productivity and their
advantages and disadvantages are:
Using a prior year’s productivity as the criterion
Advantages:


Data readily available
Facilitates monitoring of continuous improvements
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Disadvantages:


Difficult to assess adequacy of productivity improvements
Hard to compare productivity improvements between the years
Using the best performance as the criterion
Advantages:


Provides as the benchmark the utmost performance
Motivates people to strive for the maximum potential
Disadvantages:



The standard can be too high for the operation and frustrating to
workers
Data may be difficult to obtain
The criteria on which the operation is based may not be comparable
4. An operational productivity is the ratio of the output to the number of
units of an input resource.
A financial productivity measures the relationship between the output and
the cost of one or more of the input resources.
5. A partial productivity is a productivity measure that focuses only on the
relationship between the amount of one of the input resources and the
output attained.
A total productivity measures the relationship between the output and the
total input costs of all the required input resources for the output.
6. Manufacturing personnel often prefer operational productivity measures
over financial productivity measures because all the input data for
computing operational productivity measures are either results of their
activities or resources consumed for these activities.
Financial
productivity measures use costs of resources that often are results of
activities by personnel outside of manufacturing functions.
7. Measurements of marketing effectiveness include market share, sales
price, sales mix, and sales quantity variances.
8. Sales quantity variance is a component of sales volume variance. A sales
volume variance can be the result of both sales mix and sales quantity
variances.
9. A market size variance measures the effect on the contribution margin and
operating income of a firm because of changes in the total market size for
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
all firms in the same industry or product segment. A market share
variance examines the effect on the contribution margin and operating
income of a firm because of deviations of the firm’s actual market shares
from its budgeted market shares.
10. a. No. A multi-product firm can still have an unfavorable sales volume
variance even if it sells more than the budgeted units of sales. The
unfavorable sales volume variance is a result of selling more of less
profitable products and less of more profitable products.
b. A favorable sales quantity variance reflects the marketing manager’s
excellent performances only if there is no adverse change in selling
prices, sales mix, or market size. A favorable sales quantity variance
is hardly favorable to the firm if the firm has lowered its selling prices
or sold more of low-priced, low-margin and less of high-priced, highmargin products. Increases in the total market size in which the firm
operates often also leads to a favorable sales quantity variance. A
favorable sales quantity variance in an expanding total market may
not be favorable to the firm strategically if the firm also has an
unfavorable market share variance.
A firm can have a favorable market size variance and an unfavorable
market share variance if the proportional increase of the firm’s total
sales is less than those of the total market.
c. Yes. The Wall Street Journal reported on April 14, 1994 (p. B4) that
Colgate-Palmolive had slashed marketing spending to reach its
ambitious target of 15 percent annual earnings growth. The firm, for
example, spent P88.8 million on advertising in 1993, compared with
P97.5 million in 1992. The firm met the goal of a 15 percent increase
in per share earnings and its CEO, Mr. Mark, expected the company
to announce a similar increase for first quarter earnings soon. The
market share of the firm, however, have decreased in all categories.
11. The sales volume variance is the sum of sales quantity and sales mix
variances. The sales quantity variance is the sum of market size and
market share variances.
II. Problems
Problem 1 (Operational and Financial Partial Productivity)
Requirement 1
Star Company
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Comparative Income Statement
For the years 2005 and 2006
2005
Sales
2006
15,000 x P40
P600,00
18,000 x P40
P720,000
=
0
=
12,000 x P 8
P
12,600 x P10
=
96,000
=
Labor
6,000 x P20 =
120,000
5,000 x P25 =
125,000
Power
1,000 x P 2
2,00
2,000 x P 2
4,00
=
0
=
0
Variable cost of sales:
Materials
Total variable costs of
P218,00
sales
P126,000
P255,000
0
Contribution margin
P382,00
P465,000
0
Change in profits from 2005: P465,000 – P382,000 = P83,000 increase
Requirement 2
Operational Partial Productivity
DM
DL
Power
2006
2005
18,000 / 12,600 =
1.4286
18,000 / 5,000 = 3.6
18,000 / 2,000 = 9
15,000 / 12,000 =
1.25
15,000 / 6,000 = 2.5
15,000 / 1,000 = 15
Requirement 3
Total cost of production factors
2006
DM
2005
12,600 x P10 = P126,000 12,000 x P 8
P 96,000
18-373
=
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
DL
Power
5,000 x P25 = P125,000 6,000 x P20 = P120,000
2,000 x P 2 = P 4,000 1,000 x P 2 = P 2,000
Financial Partial Productivity
DM
DL
Power
2006
2005
18,000 / 126,000 =
0.1429
18,000 / 125,000 =
0.144
18,000 /
4,000 = 4.5
15,000 / 96,000 =
0.15625
15,000 / 120,000 =
0.125
15,000 /
2,000 = 7.5
Requirement 4
Both direct materials and direct labor operation partial productivity improved
from 2005 to 2006. In 2006 the firm was able to manufacture more output
units for each unit of materials placed into production and for each hour spent
on production. The operational productivity of power in 2006 deteriorated
from 2005. It is likely that the firm used more equipment in production in
2006 that reduced consumption of materials and production hours.
The financial partial productivity for both direct materials and power
deteriorated from 2005 to 2006. Increases in direct materials costs were more
than the improvements in operational partial productivity for direct materials.
Like the operational partial productivity, the financial partial productivity for
direct labor also improved. The extent of improvements, however, is much
lower in financial partial productivity. The direct labor operational partial
productivity improved 44 percent in 2006 over those of 2005. The financial
partial productivity, however, improved only 15.2 percent between the two
years. The decrease in financial partial productivity is likely a result of
increases in direct labor wages.
Requirement 5
Operating Data for Decomposing Financial Productivity Measure
2006
Output,
2006 Output 2006 Output 2005 Output
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
1/2006
Productivity
2006 Input
cost
1/2005
Productivity
2006 Input
cost
1/2005
Productivity
2005 Input
cost
1/2005
Productivity
2005 Input
cost
(1) Output
(unit):
18,000
18,000
18,000
15,000
(2) 1/Productivity
DM:
12,000/15,0 12,000/15,0 12,000/15,0
12,600/18,0
00
00
00
00 = 0.7
= 0.8
= 0.8
= 0.8
DL:
6,000/15,00 6,000/15,00 6,000/15,00
5,000/18,00
0
0
0
0 = 0.2778
= 0.4
= 0.4
= 0.4
Power:
1,000/15,00 1,000/15,00 1,000/15,00
2,000/18,00
0
0
0
0 = 0.1111
= 0.0667
= 0.0667
= 0.0667
(3) Cost per unit of input
DM: P10
P10
DL: P25
P25
Power: P 2
P 2
P 8
P20
P 2
P 8
P20
P 2
(4) Output x (1/Productivity) x Input cost
DM: 18,000 x 0.7 x 10
18,000 x 0.8 x 10
18,000 x 0.8 x 8
15,000 x 0.8 x 8
= P126,000
= P144,000
= P115,200
= P96,000
DL: 18,000 x 0.2778 x
18,000 x 0.4 x 25
18,000 x 0.4 x 20
15,000 x 0.4 x 20
25
= P180,000
= P144,000
= P120,000
= P125,010
Power: 18,000 x 0.1111
18,000 x 0.0667 x 18,000 x 0.0667 x 2 15,000 x 0.0667 x 2
18-375
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
x 2 = P4,000
2
= P2,401
= P2,001
P326,401
P261,601
P218,001
18,000 /
144,000
= 0.125
18,000 /
180,000
= 0.1
18,000 /
2,401
= 7.4969
18,000 /
115,200
= 0.15625
18,000 /
144,000 =
0.125
18,000 /
2,401
= 7.4969
15,000 /
96,000
= 0.15625
15,000 /
120,000
= 0.125
15,000 /
2,001
= 7.4963
= P2,401
Total P255,010
Decompositi
on
DM: 18,000 /
126,000
= 0.1429
DL: 18,000 /
125,010
= 0.1440
Power:
18,000 /
4,000
= 4.5
Productivity
change
Input price
change
Output change
DM: 0.1429 –
0.125
= 0.0179 F
DL: 0.144 – 0.1
= 0.044 F
Power: 4.5 –
7.4969
0.125 – 0.15625
= 0.03125 U
0.15625 –
0.15625
=0
0.125 – 0.125
=0
7.4969 – 7.4963
= 0.0006
0.1 – 0.125
= 0.025 U
7.4969 – 7.4969
=0
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
= 2.9969 U
Summary
Result
(rounding)
of
Change as % of 2005 Productivity
Productivity Input Price
DM:
DL:
Productivity Input Price
Change
Change
Change
0.0179 F
0.03125
0.01335
11.46%
U
U
F
0.025
0.019
35.2%
U
F
F
0
2.9969
39.98%
U
U
0.044 F
Power:
Total
2.9969 U
Change
Total
Change
20% U
Change
8.54%
U
20% U
15.2%
F
0
39.98%
U
Requirement 6
Productivity for both direct materials and direct labor improved in 2006. The
percentages of improvements in productivity are 11.46 and 35.2 for direct
materials and direct labor, respectively, of the 2005 productivity. However,
cost increases in direct materials and direct labor reduced the gains in
productivity on these two manufacturing factors
Problem 2 (Direct Labor Rate and Efficiency Variances, Productivity
Measures, and Standard Costs)
Requirement 1
Assembly Department Direct Labor Variances
2005:
Total actual direct labor hours:
Total standard direct labor hours:
P30 x 500,000
= P15,000,000
25 x 20,000 = 500,000
24 x 20,000 = 480,000
P28 x 500,000
= P14,000,000
18-377
P28 x 480,000
= P13,440,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Rate variance
= P1,000,000 U
Efficiency variance
= P560,000 U
2006:
Total actual direct labor hours:
Total standard direct labor hours:
P36 x 400,000
= P14,400,000
20 x 20,000 = 400,000
21 x 20,000 = 420,000
P35 x 400,000
= P14,000,000
Rate variance
= P400,000 U
P35 x 420,000
= P14,700,000
Efficiency variance
= P700,000 F
Testing Department Direct Labor Variances
2005:
Total actual direct labor hours:
Total standard direct labor hours:
P20 x 240,000
= P4,800,000
12 x 20,000 = 240,000
14 x 20,000 = 280,000
P21 x 240,000
= P5,040,000
Rate variance
= P240,000 F
Efficiency variance
= P840,000 F
2006:
Total actual direct labor hours:
Total standard direct labor hours:
P24 x 200,000
= P4,800,000
P21 x 280,000
= P5,880,000
10 x 20,000 = 200,000
11 x 20,000 = 220,000
P25 x 200,000
= P5,000,000
Rate variance
P25 x 220,000
= P5,500,000
Efficiency variance
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
= P200,000 F
= P500,000 F
Recap:
Assembly
Testing Department
Department
2005
2006
2005
2006
Rate
P1,000,000 P400,00 P240,00 P200,00
variance
U
0U
0F
0F
Efficiency
P560,00 P700,00 P840,00 P500,00
variance
0U
0F
0F
0F
Requirement 2
Assembly Department Operational Partial Productivity
2005:
2006:
20,000 / 500,000 = 0.04
20,000 / 400,000 = 0.05
Testing Department Operational Partial Productivity
2005:
2006:
20,000 / 240,000 = 0.0833
20,000 / 200,000 = 0.1
Requirement 3
Assembly Department Financial Partial Productivity
2005:
2006:
20,000 / P15,000,000 = 0.001333
20,000 / P14,400,000 = 0.001389
Testing Department Financial Partial Productivity
2005:
20,000 / P4,800,000 = 0.004167
2006:
20,000 / P4,800,000 = 0.004167
Requirement 4
Operational partial productivity
Assembly
2005
0.04
2006
0.05
18-379
Change
0.01 F
25% F
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Testing
0.083
3
0.1
0.0167
F
20% F
Financial partial productivity
2005
2006
Assembly 0.001333 0.001389
Testing
0.004167 0.004167
Change
0.00005
4.2%
6
F
F
-0-0-
Operational partial productivity improved in both departments from 2005 to
2006. The financial partial productivity in the Assembly also improved while
the Testing remains unchanged.
Requirement 5
The standards in a standard costing system often are determined independently
and incorporate changes in operating factors. The standard for the operation
of a year may change because of changes in, for example, technology, quality
of materials, experience of production workers, designs, or processes.
Productivity measures use as the criterion the productivity of a prior year
without adjusting for changes occurred or the expected changes for the current
year. As a result, assessments of productivity may depict an entirely different
picture than those of variance analyses in a standard costing system.
Problem 3 (Sales Variance)
Requirement 1
Selling price variances (in 000)
Flexible budget sales:
Master Budget for 2005
Total
Sales
Premium
P36,000
Units

240 =
18-380
Budgeted
Total Units
Flexible
Selling Price
Sold in
Budget
Per Unit
2005
Sales
P150
x
180 =
P27,000
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Regular
P43,200

360 =
P120
x
Premium
540 =
P64,800
Regular
Selling
Actual
Barrels
Sales
Selling
Flexible
Price
Budget
Variance
180
180
P28,800
P27,000
P1,800 F
Actual
Flexible
Price
Budget
Variance
540
540
P62,100
P64,800
P2,700
U
Total selling price variance of the firm = P1,800 F + P2,700 U = P900 U
Requirement 2
Sales volume variances for the period for each of the products and for the firm
Flexible budget variable expenses:
Master Budget for 2005
Total
Budgeted
Total
Flexible
Variable
Units
Budget
Variable
Number of
Expenses
Sold in
Variable
Expenses
Units
Per Unit
2005
Expenses
Premium
P21,600

240 =
P90
x
180 =
P16,200
Regular
P27,000

360 =
P75
x
540 =
P40,500
Premium
Regular
Sales
Barrels
Sales
Sales
Flexible
Master
Volume
Flexible
Master
Volume
Budget
Budget
Variance
Budget
Budget
Variance
180
180
540
360
P27,000
P36,000
P64,800
P43,200
16,200
21,600
40,500
27,000
P10,800
P14,400
P24,300
P16,200
Variable
expenses
Contribution
margin
P3,600
18-381
P8,100 F
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
U
Fixed
expenses
10,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
–
–
Operating
income
P
800
P 4,400
P3,600
P19,300
P11,200
P8,100 F
U
Total sales volume variance of the firm = P3,600 U + P8,100 F = P4,500 F
Requirement 3
Sales quantity variances for the firm and for each of the products. (See next
page.)
Requirement 4
Sales mix variances for the period for each of the products and for the firm
(000 omitted).
Calculation for sales mixes:
Budgeted
Actual
Total Sales
Sales
Total Sales
Sales
in Units
Mix
in Units
Mix
Premium
240
0.40
180
0.25
Regular
360
0.60
540
0.75
600
1.00
720
1.00
Flexible Budget
Master Budget
Total actual units of all products
Total actual units
Total budgeted units of
sold x Actual sales mix x
of all products sold
sales for all products x
Standard contribution margin
x Budgeted sales
Budgeted sales mix x
per unit
mix x Standard
Standard contribution
contribution margin
margin per unit
per unit
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Premium
720 x 0.25 x P60 =
720 x 0.40 x P60 =
P10,800
P17,280
600 x 0.40 x P60 = P14,400
Sales mix variance
Sales quantity variance
= P6,480 U
= P2,880 F
Sales volume variance
= P10,800 – P14,400
= P3,600 U
To verify: Sales volume variance
= Sales mix variance
=
P6,480 U
=
P3,600 U
+ Sales quantity variance
+
P2,880 F
Regular
720 x 0.75 x P45 =
720 x 0.60 x P45 =
P24,300
P19,440
600 x 0.60 x P45 = P16,200
Sales mix variance
Sales quantity variance
= P4,860 F
= P3,240 F
Sales volume variance
= P24,300 – P16,200
= P8,100 F
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
To verify: Sales volume variance
= Sales mix variance
=
P4,860 F
=
P8,100 F
+ Sales quantity variance
+
P3,240 F
Total
Sales mix variance
= P6,480 U + P4,860 F = P1,620 U
Sales quantity variance = P2,880 U + P3,240 F = P6,120 F
Requirement 5
Verification
Sales mix variance
+
Sales quantity variance
=
Sales
volume variance
Premium
P6,480 U
P2,880 F
P3,600 U
Regular
P4,860 F
P3,240 F
P8,100 F
Total
P1,620 U
P6,120 F
P4,500 F
Requirement 6
Market size variances. (See below.)
Requirement 7
Market share variances (000 omitted. See below.)
Weighted average budgeted contribution margin per
unit
Master budget total contribution margin P30,600
Master budget total sales units

600
Weighted-average budgeted contribution margin
per unit
P
51
Calculation for market shares:
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Budgeted:Total sales in units 600  Total sales of
the industry 1,500 = 0.40
Actual: Total sales in units 720  Total sales of the
industry 1,600 = 0.45
Calculation for variances:
Actual total
Actual total
market size x market x
Actual market Budgeted
share x
market share
Average
x Average
budgeted
budgeted
contribution
contribution
margin per
margin per
unit
unit
1,600 x 0.45 x 1,600 x 0.40 x
P51
P51
= P36,720
= P32,640
Market share
variance
= P4,080 F
Budgeted total
market size x
Budgeted market
share x Average
budgeted
contribution margin
per unit
1,500 x 0.40 x P51
= P30,600
Market size variance
= P2,040 F
Sales quantity variance
= P4,080 F + P2,040 F
= P6,120 F
Requirement 8
The sum of market size variance and market share variance and verification
that this total equals the sales quantity variance.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Total market size variance Total
+
market
variance
P2,040 F
share
Total quantity variance
=
P4,080 F
P6,120 F
Problem 4 (Productivity and Ethics)
Requirement 1
The operational partial productivity deteriorates slightly from 0.0051 in 2005
(500/99,000) to 0.005 in 2006 (560/112,000). Manipulating accounting
numbers in order to show a desirable result is an unethical behavior regardless
the intention.
Requirement 2
Tan should not follow the order without following a consistent accounting
method. If the firm believes that certain cost items should be reclassified as
indirect costs, the same procedure should be followed for all years. Tan
should then go back and revise operating results of previous years.
Problem 5 (Small Business Market Size and Share Variances)
Requirement 1
Empress
’
Designs
WS
50
DH
25
Budget
Industr
y
500
200
Share
10.0
%
12.5
%
Empress
’
Designs
45
35
Actual
Industr
y
425
150
Requirement 2
Weighted Average Budgeted Contribution Margin Per Unit:
(50 welcome signs x P2) + (25 doghouses x P5.20) / 75 = P3.07
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Share
45/42
5
35/15
0
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Market Share Variance
Welcome Signs: (45/425 – 0.1) x 425 x P3.07 = P7.68 F
Doghouses: (35/150 – 25/200) x 150 x P3.07 = P49.89 F
Requirement 3
Market Size Variance
Welcome Signs: (45 – 500) x 50/500 x P3.07 = P23.03 U
Doghouses: (150 – 200) x 25/200 x P3.07 = P19.19 U
Requirement 4
Among possible reasons are quality changes, pricing changes, less producers
due to seasonal variations, and market no longer there.
Requirement 5
Among alternatives are improving costs through adopting activity based
costing, making different signs, using less expensive wood, finding competitive
advantage.
III. Multiple Choice Questions
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
A
C
B
D
A
C
C
B
C
D
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
A
B
A
B
C
D
B
C
A
D
31.
32.
33.
34.
A
D
C
D
Supporting Computations:
Operational partial productivity
2005
Output
Input
2006
Partial
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Output
Input
Partial
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Resource
Used
X-45
60,000 
75,000 =
Resource
Productivity
Used
64,000 
0.8
Productivity
89,600 =
0.7143
10,847 =
5.9002
(1)
Direct
labor
60,000 
10,000 =
64,000 
6.0
(2)
Financial partial productivity
X-45
2005
2006
Cost of
Cost of
Input
Input
Units of
Resource
Partial
Units of
Resource
Partial
Output
Used
Productivity
Output
Used
Productivity
60,000  P540,000=
0.1111
64,000  P609,280=
0.1050
(3)
Direct
labor
60,000  300,000 =
0.2
64,000  P347,104=
0.1844
(4)
Total productivity in units
2005
60,000
2006
64,000
(a)Total
units
manufactured
(b) Total
variable
manufacturing costs
P840,000 P956,384
incurred
(c)Total productivity (a)
0.071429 0.066919
 (b)
(5)
(d) Decrease
in
0.071429 –
0.00451
productivity
0.066919 =
(6)
Total productivity in sales pesos
2005
P1,500,000
(a)Total sales
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2006
P1,600,00
0
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
(b) Total
variable
manufacturing costs
P840,000 P956,384
incurred
(c)Total productivity (a)
P1.7857
P1.6730
 (b)
(5)
(d) Decrease
in
P1.7857 – P0.1127 (6)
productivity
P1.6730
=
(7) Operational partial productivity:
Operational Partial Productivity =
Actual Production
Actual Input
=
9,500
8,950
(8) Financial partial productivity:
(1) Output
(2) Direct materials:
Quantity
Unit cost
Total direct materials cost
(3) DM financial partial
productivity (1) (2)
(4) Direct labor:
Hour spent
Hourly wage
Total direct labor cost
(5) DL financial partial
productivity (1) (4)
2005
400,000
2006
486,000
160
x P3,375
P540,000
180
x P3,125
P562,500
0.7407
0.864
10,000
x
P26
P260,000
13,500
x
P25
P337,500
1.5385
1.44
(9) Total productivity:
2005
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2006
= 1.06
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
(1) Output
Total cost:
Direct materials cost
Direct labor cost
(2) Total cost
(3) Total productivity (1) (2)
400,000
486,000
P540,000
260,000
P800,000
0.5
P562,500
337,500
P900,000
0.54
Market Share
Actual
Budget
1.
2.
3.
Firm
100,000
90,000
/
/
Total Market
2,000,000 =
1,500,000 =
Market Share
5%
6%
Market size variance: (2,000,000 – 1,500,000) x 0.06 x P8 = P240,000 F (10)
Market share variance: (5% - 6%) x 2,000,000 x P8
= P160,000 U (11)
Sales quantity variance: (100,000 – 90,000) x P8
= P 80,000 F (12)
(13)
Budgeted sales
unit
Budgeted
contribution
margin per unit
Budgeted total
contribution
margin
Budgeted average
contribution
margin per unit
(14)
Actual units sold
Product A
Product B
30,000
60,000
x
P4.00
x
P10.00
P120,00
0
P600,00
0
Total
90,000
P720,00
0
P8.00
Product
A
35,000
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Product
B
65,000
Total
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Budgets sales unit
Differences in sales
units
Budgeted contribution
margin per unit
Sales volume
contribution margin
variance
–
30,000
–
60,000
5,000
x
P4.00
5,000
x
P10.00
P20,000 P50,000 P70,000
F
F
F
Sales mixes:
Budgeted
Unit
Product A
Product B
TOTAL
30,000
60,000
90,000
Actual
%
1/3
2/3
100
Unit
35,000
65,000
100,000
%
35
65
100
(15)Sales mix contribution margin variance:
Product A: (0.35 – 1/3) x 100,000 x P4 =
Product B: (0.65 – 2/3) x 100,000 x P10 =
Total sales mix contribution margin variance
P 6,667 F
16,667 U
P10,000 U
(16)Sales quantity contribution margin variance:
Product A: (100,000 – 90,000) x 1/3 x P4 =
Product B: (100,000 – 90,000) x 2/3 x P10 =
Total sales quantity contribution margin variance
P13,333 F
66,667 F
P80,000 F
(17)Weighted average budget contribution margin per unit:
P8.00 (calculated in no. 13)
Market size contribution margin variance:
(2,000,000 – 1,500,000) x 90,000 / 1,500,000 x P8 = P240,000 F
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
(18)Market share contribution margin variance:
(100,000 / 2,000,000 – 90,000 / 1,500,000) x 2,000,000 x P8 =
P160,000 U
(19)Flexible budget contribution margin variance:
Flexible
Budget
Total Contribution margin
Actual Operating
Contribution
Flexible Budget
Margin Variance
Result
Product A
Product B
TOTAL
35,000 x P3 =
35,000 x P4 =
P105,000
P140,000
65,000 x P12 =
65,000 x P10 =
P780,000
P650,000
P885,000
P790,000
P 35,000 U
P130,000 F
P 95,000 F
(20)Total contribution margin price variance (given)
P50,000 F
Sales price variance:
Product A: (P12 – P10) x 35,000 =
P70,000 F
Product B: (P24 – P25) x 65,000 =
P65,000 U
Total sales price variance
– 5,000 F
Total variable cost price variance
P45,000 F
(21)Total flexible budget contribution margin variance
Total contribution margin price variance (given)
Total variance cost efficiency variance
(22)Sales mix ratio:
R66
R100
TOTAL
Actual
Quantit
Ratio
y
1,000
0.50
1,000
0.50
2,000
1.00
P95,000 F
50,000 F
P45,000 F
Budget
Quantit
Ratio
y
1,200
0.75
400
0.25
1,600
1.00
R66 sales quantity variance: (2,000 – 1,600) x 0.75 x P10 = P3,000 F
(23)R100 sales mix variance: (0.5 – 0.25) x 2,000 x P70 = P35,000 F
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
(24)Total sales volume variance:
R66:
R100:
Total
(1,000 – 1,200) x P10 =
(1,000 – 400) x P70 =
P 2,000 U
42,000 F
P40,000 F
CHAPTER 26
EXECUTIVE PERFORMANCE MEASURES
AND COMPENSATION
I.
Questions
1. Incentive compensation is a monetary reward that is based on measured
performance. Organizations where employees have been given the
responsibility to make decisions are best suited for incentive compensation
systems.
2. The four guidelines are: fairness, participation, basic wage level, and
independent wage policy.
Fairness deals with the ratio of salaries of the highest paid to lowest paid
employees.
Participation states that all employees should be included in a
compensation plan. Although, they do not need to be included in the same
one.
Basic wage level states that a market wage should be paid, and incentive
compensation should not be used to adjust the market wage downward.
Independent wage policy states that the incentive compensation system for
the most senior levels of the organization should be set by a group that is
independent of senior management.
3. a. based on salary – easy to administer, likely to be considered fair, and,
to the extent that salary reflects the relative ability to contribute to
results, is based on contribution;
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
based on equal share – easy to administer, likely to be considered fair,
and reflects how people often divide up rewards when left to their own
devices;
based on position – same as based on salary;
based on individual performance – ties reward most closely to
performance and likely to have the highest motivational impact.
b. based on salary – may convince lower level employees that they have
little to contribute, does not necessarily reflect contributions;
based on equal share – may have little motivational effect, may lead to
feeling of inequity if some people contribute nothing;
based on position – same as based on salary;
based on individual performance – may be difficult and costly to
administer, may lead to arguments about interpreting the performance
measure.
4. A cash bonus is a cash reward tied to measured performance. A cash
bonus is a bonus that is best related to activities oriented to short-run
performance that should be rewarded immediately to provide a
reinforcement effect. Cash bonuses are best tied to measures of achieved
operating performance such as quality improvement, sales increases, and
success at short-run cost control.
Profit-sharing is a cash bonus incentive compensation plan where the total
of all cash bonuses paid to all employees is determined by a formula
involving the organization’s, or an organization unit’s, reported profit.
Profit-sharing is used to focus organization members on team activities to
improve the organization’s short-term performance.
Gain-sharing is a cash bonus incentive compensation plan where the total
of all cash bonuses paid to all employees is determined by a formula
involving cost performance (on materials or labor that the group is
deemed able to control) relative to some standard. Gain sharing is best
used when there is a visible and agreed performance standard and the
employees can work as a group to improve performance relative to that
standard.
A stock option plan is a process where employees, deemed to be able to
affect the value of an organization’s shares, are given the option to
purchase those shares at a specified price which is usually higher than the
share price at the time the option is issued. Stock options are best used to
focus attention of senior people, who can affect the organization’s longrun performance by their decisions, on long-run performance.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
II. Problems
Problem 1
Requirement (a)
P20,000,000 – (0.18 x P60,000,000) = P9,200,000
P9,200,000 x 0.20 = P1,840,000
Therefore, P2,000,000 would be larger.
Requirement (b)
P50,000 / P12,000,000 x P2,000,000 = P8,333.33
Problem 2
Requirement (a)
P30,000,000 – (0.18 x P72,000,000) = P17,040,000
P17,040,000 x 0.25 = P4,260,000
Therefore, P4,260,000 would be larger.
Requirement (b)
P40,000 / P10,000,000 x P4,260,000 = P17,040
III. Multiple Choice Questions
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
C
A
D
C
B
D
D
A
D
B
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
C
B
D
B
A
D
C
B
B
B
35.
36.
37.
38.
18-395
C
D
B
D
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
CHAPTER 27
MANAGING ACCOUNTING IN
A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
I.
Questions
1. The American Heritage Dictionary defines quality as “1. a characteristic
or attribute of something; property; a feature. 2. the natural or essential
character of something. 3. excellence; superiority.”
Quality for a product or service can be defined as a “product or service
that conforms with a design which meets or exceeds the expectations of
customers at a price they are willing to pay.”
2. Procter & Gamble defines TQM as “the unyielding and continually
improving effort by everyone in an organization to understand, meet, and
exceed the expectations of customers.” Typical characteristics of TQM
include focusing on satisfying customers, striving for continuous
improvement, and involving the entire workforce.
TQM is a continual effort and never completes. Global competition, new
technology, and ever-changing customer expectations make TQM a
continual effort for a successful firm.
3. The core principles of TQM include (1) focusing on satisfying the
customer, (2) striving for continuous improvement, and (3) involving the
entire work force.
4. Continuous improvement (Kaizen) in total quality management is the
belief that quality is not a destination; rather, it is a way of life and firms
need to continuously strive for better products with lower costs.
In today’s global competition, where firms are forever trying to
outperform the competition and customers present ever-changing
expectations, a firm can never reach the ideal quality standard and needs
to continuously improve quality and reduce costs to remain competitive.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
5. The Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) believes an effective
implementation of total quality management will take between three and
five years and involves the following tasks:
Year 1





Create a quality council and staff
Conduct executive quality training programs
Conduct quality audits
Prepare gap analysis
Develop strategic quality improvement plans
Year 2



Conduct employee communication and training programs
Establish quality teams
Create measurement systems and set goals
Year 3



Revise compensation / appraisal / recognition systems
Launch external initiatives with suppliers
Review and revise
6. Reward and recognition are the best means of reinforcing the emphasis on
TQM. Moreover, proper reward and recognition structures can be very
powerful stimuli to promote TQM. Efforts and progress will most likely
be short-lived if no change is made to the compensation / appraisal /
recognition systems to make them in line with the objectives of the firm’s
TQM.
7. The purposes of conducting a quality audit are to identify strengths and
weaknesses in quality practices and levels of a firm’s quality and to help
the firm identify the target areas for quality improvements.
8. A gap analysis is a type of benchmarking that includes analyzing the
differences in practices between the firm and the best-in-class. The
objective of gap analyses is to identify strengths, weaknesses, and target
areas for quality improvement.
9. Some examples of costs associated with cost of quality categories are:
Prevention costs: Training costs such as instructors’ fees, purchase of
training equipment, tuition for external training, training wages and
salaries; salaries for quality planning and executions, cost of preventive
equipment, printing and promotion costs for quality programs, awards for
quality.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Appraisal costs: Costs of raw materials, work-in-process, and finished
goods inspections.
Internal failure costs:
Scrap, rework, loss due to downgrades,
reinspection costs, and loss due to work interruptions.
External failure costs: Sales returns and allowance due to quality
deficiency, warranty cost, and canceled sales orders due to quality
deficiency.
10. Prevention costs rise during the early years of implementing TQM as the
firm engages in education to prepare its employees and in the planning and
promotion of the quality program. Appraisal costs will also likely rise
during the early years of TQM, because the firm needs to ensure that
quality is actually being achieved. The increase in appraisal cost,
however, is most likely to occur at a slower pace than those of the
prevention costs because at the beginning of a TQM program there will be
substantial increases in quality training and in promotion to raise
awareness on the importance of quality.
The firm may see some decreases in internal and external failure costs in
the early years of implementing a TQM. However, these two costs most
likely will remain at about the same level as before during the first several
years of TQM. Many firms may actually see internal failure cost rise,
because of the higher standard demanded by the TQM or the higher level
of employees’ awareness on the critical importance of perfection in every
step of the process. As the firm makes progress in TQM, both internal
failure and external failure costs should decrease.
11. Costs of conformance are costs incurred to ensure that products or
services meet quality standards and include prevention costs and appraisal
costs.
Internal and external failure costs are costs of non-conformance. They are
costs incurred or opportunity costs because of rejection of products or
services.
12. Better prevention of poor quality often reduces all other costs of quality.
With fewer problems in quality, appraisal is needed because the products
are made right the first time. Fewer defective units also reduce internal
and external failure costs as the occasion for repairs, rework, and recalls
decrease.
It is easier to design and build quality in than try to inspect or repair
quality in. Theoretically, if prevention efforts are completely successful,
there will be no need to incur appraisal costs and there will be no internal
failure or external failure costs. In practice, appraisal costs usually do not
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
decrease, partly because management needs to ensure that quality is there
as expected. Nonconformance costs, however, decrease at a much faster
pace than prevention costs increase.
13. The role of management accountants in total quality management includes
gathering all relevant quality information, participating actively in all
phases of the quality program, and reviewing and disseminating quality
cost reports.
14. To meet the challenges of total quality management, management
accountants need to have a clear understanding of TQM methodology.
They must be able to design, create, or modify information systems that
measure and monitor quality and evaluate progress toward total quality as
expected of each organizational unit and the total enterprise.
15. Just-in-time (JIT) purchasing is the purchase of goods or materials such
that a delivery immediately precedes demand or use. Benefits include
lower inventory holdings (reduced warehouse space required and less
money tied up in inventory) and less risk of inventory obsolescence and
spoilage.
16. The sequence of activities involved in placing a purchase order can be
facilitated by use of the Internet. A company can streamline the
procurement process for its customers – e.g., having online a complete
price list, information about expected shipment dates, and a service order
capability that is available 24 hours a day with email or fax confirmation.
17. Just-in-time (JIT) production is a “demand-pull” manufacturing system
that has the following features:





Organize production in manufacturing cells,
Hire and retain workers who are multiskilled,
Aggressively pursue total quality management (TQM) to
eliminate defects,
Place emphasis on reducing both setup time and manufacturing
lead time, and
Carefully select suppliers who are capable of delivering quality
materials in a timely manner.
18. Reengineering is the fundamental rethinking and redesign of business
processes to achieve improvements in critical measures of performance
such as cost, quality, service, speed, and customer satisfaction.
19. The three main measures used in the theory of constraints are:
a. Throughput contribution equal to sales revenue minus direct materials
costs.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
b. Investments (inventory) equal to the sum of materials costs of direct
materials inventory, work-in-process inventory and finished goods
inventory, research and development costs, and costs of equipment
and buildings.
c. Other operating costs equal to all operating costs (other than direct
materials) incurred to earn throughput contribution.
20. The four key steps in managing bottleneck resources are:
Step 1: Recognize that the bottleneck operation determines throughput
contribution.
Step 2: Search for, and find the bottleneck.
Step 3: Keep the bottleneck busy, and subordinate all nonbottleneck
operations to the bottleneck operation.
Step 4: Increase bottleneck efficiency and capacity.
21. (a) Product warranty costs should be lower because a world-class
manufacturer (WCM) will make fewer defectives.
(b) Salaries of quality control inspectors should be lower because a
WCM will have its workers inspect as they go, rather than having
separate inspections. Nor will a WCM inspect incoming materials
and components because it will deal only with vendors whose quality
has been demonstrated.
(c) Amounts paid to vendors for parts and components should be higher
because a WCM will not search out the lowest prices, but will seek
high-quality components delivered when needed.
(d) Wages rates for direct laborers should be higher because a WCM’s
workers will multiskilled and should therefore command premium
wages.
(e) Total supervisory salaries should be lower because a WCM’s workers
will not need as much supervision.
(f) Warehousing costs should be lower because a WCM will produce as
needed and so will not require storage space for materials or finished
product.
22. At the final assembly stage in a JIT system, a signal is sent to the
preceding workstation as to the exact parts and materials that will be
needed over the next few hours for the final assembly of products. Only
those parts and materials are provided. The same signal is sent back
through each preceding workstation so that a smooth flow of parts and
materials is maintained with no buildup of inventories at any point. Thus,
all workstations respond to the “pull” exerted by the final assembly stage.
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Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
The “pull” approach just described can be contrasted to the “push”
approach used in conventional systems. In a conventional system,
inventories of parts and materials are built up—often simply to keep
everyone busy. These semi-completed parts and materials are “pushed”
forward to the next workstation whether or not there is actually any
customer demand for the products they will become part of. The result is
large stockpiles of work in process inventories.
23. A number of benefits accrue from reduced setup time. First, reduced setup
time allows a company to produce in smaller batches, which in turn
reduces the level of inventories. Second, reduced setup time allows a
company to spend more time producing goods and less time getting ready
to produce. Third, the ability to rapidly change from making one product
to making another allows the company to respond more quickly to
customers. Finally, smaller batches make it easier to spot manufacturing
problems before they result in a large number of defective units.
II. Exercises
Exercise 1 (Quality Cost Classification)
Inter Exter
nal
nal
Preven Apprai Failur Failur
tion
sal
e
e
a.
Warranty
repairs
b.
Scrap
c.
Allowance
granted due to
blemish
x
x
x
d.
Contribution
margins of lost sales
e.
Tuition for
quality courses
f.
Raw materials
18-401
x
x
x
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
inspections
g.
Work-inprocess inspection
h.
Shipping cost
for replacements
i.
Recalls
j.
Attorney’s fee
for unsuccessful
defense of
complaints about
quality
k.
Inspection of
reworks
l.
Overtime
caused by reworking
m.
Machine
maintenance
n.
Tuning of
testing equipment
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Exercise 2 (Cost of Quality Report)
Requirements 1 & 2
Bali Company
Cost of Quality Report
For 2005 and 2006
Cost of Quality
Category
2006
Peso
2005
%
Peso
%
Prevention costs:
Quality manual
Product design
P 40,000
P 50,000
300,000 P 340,000
Appraisal costs:
18-402
5.67
270,000
P320,000
5.33
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Testing
P 80,000
80,000
1.33
P 60,000
60,000
1.00
425,000
7.08
Internal failure costs:
Rework
Retesting
P200,000
P250,000
50,000
90,000
Disposal of defective
units
90,000
340,000
5.67
85,000
External failure costs:
Product recalls
Field service
P360,000
230,000
Total cost of quality
P500,000
590,000
9.83
P1,350,000
22.50
350,000
850,000 14.17
P1,655,000 27.58
a. There were slight increases in both prevention and appraisal costs from
2005 to 2006. Each of these two cost of quality increased by
approximately 0.33 percent of the total sales. These two costs increased
by P40,000 over the two years.
b. Both internal failure costs and external failure costs decreased
substantially in 2006 as compared to those in 2005. The firm experienced
a 1.41 percent decrease in internal failure and a 4.34 percent decrease in
external failure costs with the total savings of P345,000. The savings was
863 percent of the increases in prevention and appraisal costs.
Requirement 3
Among nonfinancial measures the firm may want to monitor are:






The number of defects or the processes yield (ratio of good output to
total output)
The percentage of defective units shipped to customers to total units
of products shipped
The number of customer complaints
Difference between delivery date requested by the customer
On-time delivery percentage (total units shipped on or before the
scheduled date to the total units shipped)
Surveys of customer satisfaction
It should be noted that nonfinancial measures by themselves often have limited
meaning. Nonfinancial measures are more informative when trends of the
same measure over time are examined.
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Exercise 3 (Cost of Quality Category)
Requirement 1
Costs of
Quality
Rework
Recalls
Reengineering
efforts
Repair
Replacements
Retesting
Supervision
Scrap
Training
Testing of
incoming
materials
Inspection of
work in
process
Downtime
Product
liability
insurance
Quality audits
Continuous
improvement
Warranty
repairs
Prevent
ion
Apprais
al
P
9,000
Internal Externa
Failure l Failure
P
6,000
P15,000
12,000
P18,000
15,000
5,000
12,000
9,000
7,000
18,000
5,000
1,000
18-404
10,000
9,000
15,00
0
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Requirement 2
Total spent by
category
P25,000 P48,000 P42,000 P51,000
Requirement 3
The company is currently spending the least on preventive costs. They should
concentrate their efforts on preventive costs because they prevent poor quality
products from being manufactured.
By increasing amount spent on prevention, they could reduce spending on the
other cost of quality categories.
Exercise 4 (Cost of Quality Analysis, Nonfinancial Quality Measures)
Requirements 1 and 2
Revenues
Costs of Quality
Prevention costs
Design
engineering
Preventive
maintenance
Training
Supplier
2006
P12,500,000
Percent
age of
Revenu
es (2) =
(1) 
Cost P12,500
(1)
,000
2005
P10,000,000
Percent
age of
Revenu
es (4) =
(3) 
Cost P10,000
(3)
,000
P240,0
00
P100,0
00
90,000
120,00
0
50,0
35,000
18-405
45,000
20,0
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
evaluation
Total
prevention
costs
Appraisal costs
Line inspection
Product-testing
equipment
Incoming
materials
inspection
Product-testing
labor
Total
appraisal costs
Internal failure
costs
Scrap
Rework
Breakdown
maintenance
Total internal
failure costs
00
00
500,0
00
200,0
00
4.0%
85,000
110,00
0
50,000
50,000
40,000
75,0
00
250,0
00
20,000
220,0
00
400,0
00
2.0%
200,00
0
135,00
0
40,0
00
250,00
0
160,00
0
90,0
00
375,0
00
500,0
00
External failure
costs
18-406
3.0%
2.0%
4.0%
5.0%
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Returned
goods
Customer
support
Product liability
claims
Warranty repair
Total costs of
quality
145,00
0
60,000
30,000
100,00
0
200
,000
475
,000
P1,600,
000
40,000
200,00
0
300
,000
600
3.8%
,000
P1,700,
12.8%
000
6.0%
17.0%
Between 2005 and 2006, Gabriel’s costs of quality have declined from 17% of
sales to 12.8% of sales. The analysis of individual costs of quality categories
indicates that Gabriel began allocating more resources to prevention activities
– design engineering, preventive maintenance, training and supplier
evaluations in 2006 relative to 2005. As a result, appraisal costs declined
from 4% of sales to 2%, costs of internal failure fell from 5% of sales to 3%,
and external failure costs decreased from 6% of sales to 3.8%. The one
concern here is that, although external failure costs have decreased, the cost of
returned goods has increased. Gabriel’s management should investigate the
reasons for this and initiate corrective action.
Requirement 3
Examples of nonfinancial quality measures that Gabriel Corporation could
monitor are:
a. Number of defective grinders shipped to customers as a percentage of
total units of grinders shipped.
b. Ratio of good output to total output at each production process.
c. Employee turnover.
Exercise 5 (Costs of Quality Analysis, Nonfinancial Quality Measures)
Requirements 1 and 2
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Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Revenues, Costs of Quality and Costs of Quality as a
Percentage of Revenues for Victoria
Revenues = P2,000 x 10,000 units = P20,000,000
Costs of Quality
Prevention costs
Design engineering (P75 x
6,000 hours)
Appraisal costs
Testing and inspection
(P40 x 1 hour x 10,000
units)
Internal failure costs
Rework (P500 x 5% x
10,000 units)
External failure costs
Repair (P600 x 4% x
10,000 units)
Total costs of quality
Costs
(1)
Percentage of
Revenues
(2) = (1) 
P20,000,000
P 450,000
2.25%
400,000
2.00%
250,000
1.25%
240,000
1.20%
P1,340,000
6.70%
Revenues, Costs of Quality and Costs of Quality as a
Percentage of Revenues for Vancouver
18-408
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Revenues = P1,500 x 5,000 units = P7,500,000
Costs of Quality
Prevention costs
Design engineering (P75 x
1,000 hours)
Appraisal costs
Testing and inspection
(P40 x 0.5 x 5,000
units)
Internal failure costs
Rework (P400 x 10% x
5,000 units)
External failure costs
Repair (P450 x 8% x 5,000
units)
Estimated forgone
contribution margin on
lost sales [(P1,500 –
P800) x 300]
Total external failure
costs
Total costs of quality
Costs
(1)
Percentage of
Revenues
(2) = (1) 
P7,500,000
P 75,000
1.00%
100,000
1.33%
200,000
2.67%
180,000
2.40%
210,000
2.80%
390,000
5.20%
P765,000
10.20%
Costs of quality as a percentage of sales are significantly different for
Vancouver (10.20%) compared with Victoria (6.70%). Canada spends very
little on prevention and appraisal activities for Vancouver, and incurs high
costs of internal and external failures. Canada follows a different strategy
with respect to Victoria, spending a greater percentage of sales on prevention
and appraisal activities. The result: fewer internal and external failure costs
and lower overall costs of quality as a percentage of sales compared with
Vancouver.
18-409
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement 3
Examples of nonfinancial quality measures that Canada Industries could
monitor as part of a total quality-control effort are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Outgoing quality yield for each product
Returned refrigerator percentage for each product
On-time delivery
Employee turnover
III. Problems
Problem 1 (Quality Improvement, Relevant Cost Analysis)
Requirement 1
Cost of new equipment and installation
Training
Total additional cost of the new process
P12,000,000
3,000,000
P15,000,000
Requirement 2
Quality cost if no change is made:
Rework
3,000 x 40% x P2,000 =
Repair
3,000 x 15% x P2,500 =
Appraisal
Inspection
3,000 x P50 =
Lost contribution:
Contribution margin per unit P12,000 x 85% - P2,500 = P7,700
Lost sales
3,000  0.8 – 3,000 = x 750
Total current cost of quality
P 2,400,000
1,125,000
600,000
150,000
5,775,000
P10,050,000
Quality cost with the new process:
Warranty repair
3,000  0.8 x 5% x P1,000 = –
187,500
Savings from the new process each year
P 9,862,500
Years effective
x
3
Total
P29,587,500
Appraisal and inspection cost in Year 1
18-410
–
750,000
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Total savings over 3 years
P28,837,500
Requirement 3
Yes. The cost of the new process is P15,000,000 and the expected benefits is
P28,837,500 over three years. The firm can expect to earn a return of over
90%.
Requirement 4
The following factors should be considered before making the final decision:
a. Accuracy of cost estimates including
 Contribution margin per unit
 Costs of current repair and rework
 Cost of repair with the new process
 Cost of the new process
b. Reliability of estimations of
 Rates of rework and repair
 Lost sales
 Amount of time before the current product become obsolete
c. Reaction of competitors
Requirement 5
The member of the board would be right if we ignore the financial payoff of
the new process and if the firm is going to be in business for only three years.
Having high quality products, especially for a high-end product such as the
one the firm is selling, is crucial for a long term success.
Problem 2 (Preparing a Cost of Quality Report)
The Adoracion Company
Comparative Costs of Quality Report
Costs
Categories
2005
Prevention
18-411
2006
Increase
(Decrease
)
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
costs:
Training
Product
design
Total
prevention
Appraisal
costs:
Testing
Calibration
Total
appraisal
Internal
failure costs:
Rework
Retesting
Total
internal
failure
External
failure costs:
Warranty
repairs
Product
recalls
P
75,000
150,00
0
225,000
P
100,000
175,00
0
275,000
P
25,000
25,0
00
50,000
50,000
75,00
0
125,000
150,000
100,00
0
250,000
100,000
25,0
00
125,000
325,000
250,00
0
575,000
100,000
200,00
0
300,000
(225,000)
(50,00
0)
(275,000)
150,000
75,000
(75,000)
400,000
200,000
(200,000)
18-412
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Product
liability
Total
external
failure
Total costs of
quality
125,00
0
675,00
0
75,00
0
350,00
0
(50,00
0)
(325,00
0)
P1,600,00
0
P1,175,00
0
P
(425,000)
Problem 3 (JIT Production, Relevant Benefits, Relevant Costs)
Requirement 1
Relevant Items
Annual tooling costs
Required return on investment
12% per year x P900,000 of
average inventory per year
12% per year x P200,000 of
average inventory per year
Insurance, space, materials
handling, and setup costs
Rework costs
Incremental revenues from
higher selling prices
Total net incremental costs
Annual difference in favor of JIT
production
a
P200,000 (1 – 0.30) = P140,000
b
P350,000 (1 – 0.20) = P280,000
c
P3 x 30,000 units = P90,000
18-413
Incremental
Costs under
Current
Production
System
–
Incremental
Costs under
JIT Production
System
P150,000
P108,000
24,000
200,000
350,000
140,000a
280,000b
–
P658,000
(90,000)c
P504,000
P154,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Requirement 2
Other nonfinancial and qualitative factors that Francisco should consider in
deciding whether it should implement a JIT system include:
a. The possibility of developing and implementing a detailed system for
integrating the sequential operations of the manufacturing process.
Direct materials must arrive when needed for each subassembly so
that the production process functions smoothly.
b. The ability to design products that use standardized parts and reduce
manufacturing time.
c. The ease of obtaining reliable vendors who can deliver quality direct
materials on time with minimum lead time.
d. Willingness of suppliers to deliver smaller and more frequent orders.
e. The confidence of being able to deliver quality products on time.
Failure to do so would result in customer dissatisfaction.
f. The skill levels of workers to perform multiple tasks such as minor
repairs, maintenance, quality testing and inspection.
Problem 4 (JIT Purchasing, Relevant Benefits, Relevant Costs)
Requirement 1
Incremental
Costs under
Current
Purchasing
System
Required return on investment
20% per year x P600,000 of
average inventory per year
20% per year x P0 of
inventory per year
Annual insurance costs
Warehouse rent
Overtime costs
18-414
Incremental
Costs under
JIT Purchasing
Policy
P120,000
P
14,000
60,000
0
0
(13,500)a
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
No overtime
Overtime premium
Stockout costs
No stockouts
P6.50b contribution margin
per unit x 20,000 units
Total incremental costs
Difference in favor of JIT
purchasing
a
b
0
40,000
0
130,000
P156,500
P194,000
P37,500
P(13,500) = Warehouse rental revenues, [(75% x 12,000) x P1.50].
Calculation of unit contribution margin
Selling price (P10,800,000  900,000 units)
P12.00
Variable costs per unit:
Variable manufacturing costs per unit
(P4,050,000  900,000 units)
P4.50
Variable marketing and distribution
costs per unit
(P900,000  900,000 units)
1.00
Total variable costs per unit
5.50
Contribution margin per unit
P6.50
Note that the incremental costs of P40,000 for overtime premiums to make the
additional 15,000 units are less than the contribution margin from losing these
sales equal to P97,500 (P6.50 x 15,000). Josefina would rather incur
overtime than lose 15,000 units of sales.
Problem 5 (Theory of Constraints, Throughput Contribution, Relevant
Costs)
Requirement 1
Finishing is a bottleneck operation. Hence, producing 1,000 more units will
generate additional throughput contribution and operating income.
Increase in throughput contribution (P72 – P32) x 1,000
Incremental costs of the jigs and tools
Net benefit of investing in jigs and tools
18-415
P40,000
30,000
P10,000
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Zashi should invest in the modern jigs and tools because the benefit of higher
throughput contribution of P40,000 exceeds the cost of P30,000.
Requirement 2
The Machining Department has excess capacity and is not a bottleneck
operation. Increasing its capacity further will not increase throughput
contribution. There is, therefore, no benefit from spending P5,000 to increase
the Machining Department’s capacity by 10,000 units. Zashi should not
implement the change to do setups faster.
Problem 6 (Theory of Constraints, Throughput Contribution, Relevant
Costs)
Requirement 1
Finishing is a bottleneck operation. Hence, getting an outside contractor to
produce 12,000 units will increase throughput contribution.
Increase in throughput contribution (P72 – P32) x 12,000
Incremental contracting costs P10 x 12,000
Net benefit of contracting 12,000 units of finishing
P480,000
120,000
P360,000
Zashi should contract with an outside contractor to do 12,000 units of
finishing at P10 per unit because the benefit of higher throughput contribution
of P480,000 exceeds the cost of P120,000. The fact that the costs of P10 are
double Zashi’s finishing cost of P5 per unit are irrelevant.
Requirement 2
Operating costs in the Machining Department of P640,00, or P8 per unit, are
fixed costs. Zashi will not save any of these costs by subcontracting
machining of 4,000 units to Rainee Corporation. Total costs will be greater
by P16,000 (P4 per unit x 4,000 units) under the subcontracting alternative.
Machining more filing cabinets will not increase throughput contribution,
which is constrained by the finishing capacity. Zashi should not accept
Rainee’s offer. The fact that Rainee’s costs of machining per unit are half of
what it costs Zashi in-house is irrelevant.
Problem 7 (Theory of Constraints, Throughput Contribution, Quality)
Requirement 1
18-416
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Cost of defective unit at machining operation which is not a bottleneck
operation is the loss in direct materials (variable costs) of P32 per unit.
Producing 2,000 units of defectives does not result in loss of throughput
contribution. Despite the defective production, machining can produce and
transfer 80,000 units to finishing. Therefore, cost of 2,000 defective units at
the machining operation is P32 x 2,000 = P64,000.
Requirement 2
A defective unit produced at the bottleneck finishing operation costs Zashi
materials costs plus the opportunity cost of lost throughput contribution.
Bottleneck capacity not wasted in producing defective units could be used to
generate additional sales and throughput contribution. Cost of 2,000 defective
units at the finishing operation is:
Lost of direct materials P32 x 2,000
Forgone throughput contribution (P72 – P32) x 2,000
Total cost of 2,000 defective units
P 64,000
80,000
P144,000
Alternatively, the cost of 2,000 defective units at the finishing operation can be
calculated as the lost revenue of P72 x 2,000 = P144,000. This line of
reasoning takes the position that direct materials costs of P32 x 2,000 =
P64,000 and all fixed operating costs in the machining and finishing
operations would be incurred anyway whether a defective or good unit is
produced. The cost of producing a defective unit is the revenue lost of
P144,000.
Problem 8
Requirement (a)
The following table reclassified the cost-of-quality expenses:
18-417
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
Anthony Foods
Quality Costs
2005-2006
(Millions)
2005
Q1
Quality assurance
administration
Training
Process
engineering
Prevention
Inspection
Testing
Appraisal
Rework
Scrap
Internal failure
Returns
Customer
complaint dept.
Lost sales
External failure
Total costs
Q2
2006
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
P 6.20 P 6.52 P 6.86 P 7.19 P 7.93 P 8.74 P 9.61 P10.53
13.10
14.39
15.90
17.46
21.12
25.50
30.37
36.35
2.20
21.50
1.40
1.60
3.00
15.80
17.60
33.40
26.90
2.46
23.37
1.56
1.72
3.28
12.65
14.48
27.13
21.09
2.76
25.52
1.75
1.85
3.60
10.03
11.92
21.95
16.35
3.11
27.76
1.95
1.99
3.94
8.49
10.32
18.81
13.53
3.87
32.92
2.39
2.29
4.68
7.25
8.92
16.17
11.32
4.86
39.10
2.96
2.62
5.58
6.16
7.72
13.88
9.50
6.13
46.11
3.63
3.01
6.64
5.56
7.00
12.56
8.43
7.58
54.46
4.46
3.45
7.91
5.00
6.34
11.34
7.52
3.90
3.45
3.03
2.76
2.50
2.27
2.14
2.01
49.20
40.31
33.11
28.42
24.45
21.08
19.20
17.44
80.00
64.85
52.49
44.71
38.27
32.85
29.77
26.97
P137.90 P118.63 P103.56 P95.22 P92.04 P91.41 P95.08 P100.68
Requirement (b)
From the preceding data we see that prevention and appraisal costs are
increasing while internal and external failure costs have been decreasing. The
following graph plots three series: prevention and appraisal costs, failure
costs, and total quality costs.
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
18-418
0
Q1
Q2
Q3
2005
Q4
Q1
Quarters
Q2
Q3
2006
Q4
Management Accounting: An Overview Chapter 1
Appraisal and prevention costs
Failure costs
Total quality costs
A preliminary conclusion from the graph is that Anthony Foods is probably
now spending too much on trying to improve quality. Assuming that the
underlying production processes have not changed over time, quality costs
were minimized in the second quarter of 2006. Since then, the additional
money spent on appraisal and prevention has yielded smaller internal- and
external-failure costs savings.
Problem 9 (Applying TQM in Manufacturing versus Administration)
The ability of TQM to deliver cost savings and performance enhancements
depends directly on how easy it is to measure and observe the output of the
process. If a TQM team’s output is easy to measure, it is easier to hold the
team members responsible for improving quality. If quality improvements are
difficult to observe, then holding team members responsible imposes more risk
on them. It is easier for them to argue that they didn’t achieve their goals
because they were hard to observe. If the benefits from TQM are lower
because it is more difficult to observe the TQM output, less will be invested in
such activities.
Measuring quality improvements in a manufactured process tends to be easier
than a service. Engineering standards can be set for a manufactured good and
conformance to the standards can be relatively easy to measure. But the
output of many administrative departments is multidimensional and often hard
to observe. Manufacturing involves repetitive processes with few exceptions.
Administrative functions often involve handling numerous exceptions. It is
18-419
Chapter 18 Application of Quantitative Techniques in Planning, Control and Decision Making II
likely to be easier to observe quality improvements in a television set than it is
in a human resources department or a legal department.
IV. Multiple Choice Questions
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
C
B
C
D
D
A
C
C
D
D
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
C
A
C
B
C
D
D
D
A
A
18-420