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Introduction: Tourism social science
Article in Annals of Tourism Research · January 1991
DOI: 10.1016/0160-7383(91)90035-A
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Vol
18. pp
I-11.
1991
Prmred in the USA. All nghrs reserved.
Copyright
0160-7383191 $3 00 + 00
@ 1991 Pergamon Press plc and J, Jafan
INTRODUCTION
Tourism Social Science
University
Nelson H. H. Graburn
of California, Berkeley, USA
Jafar Jafari
University of Wisconsin-Stout,
USA
TOURISM
AND SCHOLARSHIP
IN RETROSPECT
The development of scholarship on tourism is intertwined with the
long history of tourism itself. Studies of tourism have often been undertaken by people who have experienced tourism, and were often a reaction to the nature of tourism at that time. Though most studies have
taken place since 1970, perhaps 50% of them since 1980, it is important
to consider the historical background to present tourism scholarship,
and to highlight the concerns and styles of reporting, paradigm shifts,
and contributions of the social science disciplines to the present state of
tourism studies.
up to the Twentieth Century
Mankind has always traveled, but only the early civilizations in the
Middle East, Asia, and the Mediterranean
left written records of their
experiences.
These records show that as Greece, Rome, and China
expanded for trade and conquest, their upper classes often traveled for
pleasure or diplomacy. Some, such as Herodotus, wrote about traveling and sojourns, much as one might today. This long tradition of
dmriptiue humanistic literature tells of the art and psychology of travel,
and strangers and their manners,
languages,
religions,
gift giving,
lodging, and hospitality.
The Age of Expansion and Exploration,
by Arabs (800 AD on) and
Europeans,
such as Marco Polo (1200 AD on), left many travel accounts. Japanese travelers from the Edo period, such as the poet Bassho, wrote memoirs which still serve as cguides for today’s tourists in
Nelson
Graburn
is Professor
of Anthropology
and curator
of North
American
Ethnology
at the Lowie Museum,
University
of California
(Berkeley
CA 94720, USA).
He has published
extensively
in the area of kinship,
ethnic and tourist arts, and the
anthropology
of tourism.
He is currently
engaged
in projects
involving
Eskimo arts,
Japanese
tourism,
and Canadian
studies. Jafar Jafari
is a faculty member
of University of Wisconsin-Stout
where he teaches undergraduate
and graduate
tourism
courses.
He is the President
of International
Academy
for the Study of Tourism.
His research
interest includes
tourism
and culture change,
domestic
and international
tourism,
role
of tourism
in developing
countries,
and tourism
training
and education.
1
2
INTRODUCTION
Japan.
However, until the fifteenth
century,
most tourism was not for
sightseeing,
but to encounter
important
people and civilizations
and to
visit sacred places (Adler 1989).
From the fifteenth
century,
European
expansion
was enhanced
by
cartographic
and sailing technologies,
and the rise of the merchant
classes, while travel documents
multiplied
through the newly invented
printing
press. According
to these documents,
from the mid-sixteenth
century
onwards,
Northern
Europeans
regularly
traveled
to spas in
their own countries,
to centers of learning
and to the ruins of the great
classical
civilizations
of southern
Europe.
At first confined
to nobles
and diplomats,
this circuit became commonplace.
It became known as
the tour by the mid 17OOs, and soon, according
to the 1989 edition of the
Oxford English Dictionary,
the term tourist was coined to describe participants in such pleasurable,
educational
journeys.
Taking two to three years at first, the tour gradually
shortened
as the
number of tourists grew. The tourist (usually a young man) was accompanied
by a tutor, and many of them wrote about their travels in
memoirs,
travelogues,
or guide books. These were literary
as well as
descriptive
and educational
works,
perhaps
best exemplified
by
Goethe’s descriptions
of Italy in 1786-88.
The records further show that in the nineteenth
century, the Industrial Revolution
and the social revolutions
of imperialism,
evangelism,
and socialism
brought
vast social changes.
Thomas
Cook, an English
Methodist
reformer,
used steam trains to take the urban poor to the
countryside
and to expositions
and rallies. Seeing the commercial
possibilities of mass tourism,
he is credited
for inaugurating
the modern
tourist industry:
travel agencies,
reserved seats, booking hotels. accommodations
classification,
travelers’
cheques,
timetables,
and comprehensive guidebooks.
Mass tourism became an international
enterprise.
perhaps best described
in Mark Twain’s 1869 parody Innocents Abroad.
This age of scientific
progress,
increased
record-keeping,
and the democratization
of institutions
emancipated
the bourgoisie
both for leisure and travel and the organized
pursuit of knowledge
(see Towner
and Wall).
Th Ear+ Twentieth Century
By the turn of the century,
research
was no longer the province
of
broad “philosophers”
or lone individuals
such as Darwin,
Spencer
or
Marx:
knowledge
was organized
into “disciplines.”
The foundations
of
the modern
social sciences were being laid by Weber, Durkheim
and,
most germaine
here, Veblen’s (1973)
Theol-y of the Leisure Class, which
emphasized
conspicuous
consumption,
and van Gennep’s
(1960)
Les
R&s & Passage, which outlined the ritual dimensions
of social and geographical “passages” (see Nash and Smith).
However,
as the social sciences
became
fragmented,
the study of
tourism,
itself a “total social phenomenon,”
became more difficult; most
studies analyzed narrow aspects of tourism,
such as economic
impacts,
spatial movements,
or psychological
motivations.
Only geography
and
sometimes
anthropology
have tried to maintain
a more holistic view.
INTRODUCTIOiK
3
This Special Issue shows each of the narrow disciplines’ other ways of
approaching
tourism to stimulate more cross- and multidisciplinary
research.
However, the tradition of humanistic travel literature was kept alive
by the elite, who traveled ever further to avoid the new mass tourists in
Europe and North America. World War I put an end to the power of
the aristocracy and brought about a new revolution in tourismthe
appreciation
of nature in the face of rapid industrialization.
Sunbathing, indeed sea bathing itself, became popular, along with mountaineering, hiking, skiing, and boating, trends which have continued to
the present day.
At this time, much of the scholarship on tourism was historical,
concerning itself with grand tourism or the fortunes of particular resorts. Historians
were the main contributors,
as exemplified by the
works on the Romans, on the Grand Tour, on Niagara Falls (Towner
and Wall) or on seventeenth century England (Parkes 1925). This historical research, often neglected by other social scientists, continued
well into the 196Os, focusing either on case studies of resorts and spas
(e.g., on Coney Island) or on broad topics such as resorts in general,
the Romans, the English and the Grand Tour (Fairburn 1951; Hibbert
1969; Trease 1967), or even the whole history of recreation and tourism
(Duchet 1949; Sigaux 1966).
It was not until the 1930s that other disciplines began to make contributions. One theme, in leisure and recreation studies, was the historical and ideological nature of leisure (Smith and Godbey). Geographers
produced serious but descriptive works on both domestic tourism,
stemming from the growth of automobile usage, and on overseas tourism (Mitchell and Murphy). In North America, pioneer works included Ogilvie (1933), Geogmphzkf Review (1936), and Eiselen (1945). Eventually Smith (1953) argued the need to teach courses in this field. In
Europe, especially Germany, research expanded with the founding of
Archiv fuer Fremdenverkehr in 1930, and the ensuing works of Poser (1939)
and Christaller (1955).
Post-Colonialism and Development
In the decades following World War II, most tourism research functioned as an instrument
for development,
particularly
in the postcolonial nations. The expansion of overseas travel was boosted by the
introduction of jet travel in 1952. North American research focused on
domestic tourism (e.g., Alexander 1953), or on the nation’s Hispanic
sphere of influence (e.g., Eiselen 1955; Mings 1969). Most research
was left to planners and economists, many of whom worked for organizations such as the United Nations (Krapf 1963), the World Bank, and
the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (Pouris
1963), but with some exceptions (e.g., Carone 1959). The European
periodical, Revue de Tourisme/Zeitschrift fuer Frema!envedehr/The Tourist Review (founded 1946) attested to growing French as well as German
research interests.
In the 196Os, the benefits of tourism were unquestioned.
Research
assumed that tourism was a labor intensive growth industry, beneficial
4
INTRODUCTION
to both the Third World and the hinterlands of metropolitan countries.
This “Tourism = Development”
philosophy
claimed
that tourism
brought in foreign exchange, employed more people, and that tourist
expenditures had a large “multiplier effect,” stimulating the local economy and raising the standard of living. The massive tourist flows and
projects that came into being were analyzed and occasionally criticized.
Sociologists such as Knebel (1960) and Forster (1964) saw both the
theoretical
and applied importance
of tourism research (Dann and
Cohen). Psychologists such as Farber (1954) and Reason (1964) examined the psychology of travel (Pearce and Stringer). Interest in tourism
and heritage grew (Tilden 1957; UNESCO
1966) and the parallel topic
of tourism and ecology emerged (Farrell and Runyan).
Soon, reactions against mass tourism asserted themselves on two
fronts. In popular criticism,
a set of snobbish,
nostalgic views was
articulated (Barthes 1957; Boorstin 1964; Mitford 1959), as they were
and later (Haden-Guest
1972; Turner and Ash 1975, see also Dann and
Cohen). A more serious critique emerged in economics, which showed
through detailed studies (cf. Bryden and Farber 197 1; Sargent 1967)
that the multiplier effect was lower than anticipated and that “leakage”
and local inflation often nullified the supposed economic advantages of
the tourist industry (Eadington and Redman).
A burst of scholarship in many disciplines then examined the negative impacts of tourism in non-economic
spheres. In anthropology,
Smith edited a collection of case studies (1977) following Finney and
Watson’s more regional focus (1975), as did de Kadt (1979) in sociology
(Nash and Smith; Dann and Cohen). In ecology, similar concerns were
voiced (Lawson and Baud-Bovy 1977), as well as interests in conservation and parks and the all important concept of “tourist carrying capacity” (Farrell and Runyon;
Mitchell and Murphy).
Similarly, leisure
studies also demonstrated a broad set of concerns (Smith and Godbey)
as did psychology (Pearce and Stringer) and political science (Matthews and Richter).
There was a common interest in certain subject
matters of mutual interest zig-zagged back and fourth among disciplines which might have cited each other’s data, and sometimes,
results, but rarely their methods. In sociology, little was forthcoming save
the works of Cohen, and in marketing
the concern remained with
understanding
travel demand and promotion
(Calantone
and Mazanec), rather than impact. Economists
continued their penetrating
impact analyses (Young 1973) which have remained a focus up to the
present (Eadington and Redman).
Maturity of the Field
So far, the study of tourism emerged only as a sideline to other “more
serious” research topics; rarely was tourism taught “as a subject” and
tourism data were not gathered systematically. The maturity of tourism
as a research topic was marked when researchers set out to specifically
study tourism and when it emerged as a prime focus for discussion and
scholarly meetings in the 1970s.
The growth of the subject was also signaled by the establishment
of
research journals, often multidisciplinary
or combining academic and
INTRODUCTION
5
applied research, for example, Journal of ?iavel Research (founded 1962)
and Annals of Tourism hkearch (founded 1973) in North America;
The
Tourist Review (founded 1946), Berner Studitn zum Fwmdenverhzhr (founded
1966) and Tourism Management (founded 1980) in Europe; Tourism Recreation Research (founded 1977) in Asia; and the latest, The Journal of Tourism
Studies (founded 1990) in Australia. Also signaling the growth of the
subject is the increasing number of thematic bibliographies and sourcebooks devoted to tourism t’Jafari, Sawin, Gustafson and Harrington
1989) and the growing popularity of tourism as the subject of doctoral
dissertations Uafari and Aaser 1988).
As articles in this issue show, certain topics became foci of research in
related disciplines, for example, the rise and fall of resorts, starting in
history with Plog’s 1974 article, then in economics, and finally in geography. Similarly, the concept of carrying capacity arose in both geography and ecology. Since then, concern for the impact of tourism on the
physical environment
has been expressed in many disciplines and in
the press (Towner and Wall; Eadington
and Redman;
Murphy and
Mitchell; Farrell and Runyan).
In both sociology and anthropology
basic works on the nature of
tourism itself, and its relation to pilgrimage,
ritual, play, and the life
cycle appeared in the 1970s. These works drew upon stimuli outside of
tourism studies, such as the works of the anthropologist
Victor Turner
(1969) on ritual and pilgrimage and the sociologist Csikszentmihalyi
(1875) on “flow” (Smith and Godbey). MacCannell
(1976), drawing
upon sociology, anthropology,
and semiotics has had the most crossdisciplinary influence. Graburn (1983a) stimulated cross-cultural studies of tourism in the face of a pervasive European-North
American
research bias (Nash and Smith).
A further stimulant to research has been the negative reactions to
tourism on the part of the Third World host peoples themselves. Forcefully stated in Hawaii (Finney and Watson 1975), powerful objections
to mass tourism for its trail of prostitution (Graburn
1983b), crime,
cultural, and environmental
debasement,
and multinational
control
have been articulated particularly by Asian and Pacific peoples espousing Christian values: e.g., the Ecumenical
Council on Third World
Tourism in Bangkok, the Christian Conference of Asia, Singapore, and
the Institute of Pacific Studies, Fiji (Rajotte and Crocombe
1980) and
socialist views in Africa (Shivji 1973). This supply-side critique, combined with the demand-side status-based nostalgic denigration of mass
tourism, led to the promotion and to multidisciplinary
discussions of
alternative, appropriate, soft-path or ecotourism by UNESCO
in 1982,
by the International
Academy for the Study of Tourism in 1989, and by
the World Tourism Organization
in 1980, 1985 and 1989.
In the past decade, because of shared research foci, each discipline
has increasingly become aware of, and borrowed methods and results
from, related disciplines. This is more common between closely related
disciplines such as political science and sociology, economics and marketing, or ecology and geography. While marketing has remained focused on selling, promotion,
and market segments, it is increasingly
concerned with advertising (Calentone and Mazanec) and the psychology of motivation, topics which are also studied in sociology (Dann and
6
INTRODUCTION
Cohen),
anthropology
(Nash and Smith),
psychology
(Pearce and
Stringer) and leisure (Smith and Godbey). Environmental
concerns,
while still a major focus of ecology (Farrell and Runyon), have been
researched in the above disciplines and especially in geography (Mitchell and Murphy). The latter, along with other disciplines, has focused
on tourism to special areas such as mountains,
coasts, islands, and
urban centers. The interactions
of hosts, guests, and culture brokers
(guides, entrepreneurs,
middlemen) have been examined in sociology
and anthropology, as well as in psychology (Pearce and Stringer), history (Towner and Wall), and political science (Matthew and Richter).
Two topics remain of shared interest to most of the social science
disciplines.
One is the study of impacts of tourism and the related
needs of tourism policy formulation,
topics of both theoretical
and
applied interests, especially in economics,
ecology, political science,
and geography. The lessons of history and the case studies of anthropology provide much of the data for formulating
general propositions.
Second, at a more abstract level, the study of representations
in and of
tourism, in advertising, photographs and diaries, brochures, film, television and souvenirs,
while well developed in anthropology
(Crick
1989; Graburn
1976) h as also emerged as an important concern in
psychology, sociology, and marketing. While these topics will remain
central, others will arise from further multidisciplinary
research.
Organizational and Institutional Contributions
The development of tourism studies can also be traced through the
formation and contributions
of organizations
concerned with its commercial and theoretical aspects. Most tourism organizations promote it
as an industry. Internationally,
the World Tourism Organization
(WTO,
founded 1924), a UN-affiliated
intergovernmental
agency, gathers and
disseminates data, provides technical assistance, and sponsors training
programs and conferences.
The European Travel Commission
(ETC,
founded 1951), Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA, founded 1957),
and Caribbean Tourism Organization
(CTO, founded 195 1) are examples of regional-level organizations functionally similar to WTO. At the
national level, most countries have governmental tourism offices, e.g.,
U.S. Travel and Tourism Administration,
Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism,
as well as quasi-governmental
agencies such as the Korea National
Tourism Corporation.
Government
and commercial
representation
is
also found at state, provincial, and local levels.
Since early in this century, (inter-) governmental agencies and entrepreneurial groups have fostered the industry as it grew to its present
position of worldwide socioeconomic
importance.
Only recently, how. ever, have they undertaken tourism research, albeit applied, to meet
the mostly commercial goals of their constituencies.
There are, however, some organizations
with little or no commitment
to tourism as a
business. Concerned with the development of tourism, the Association
Internationale
d’Experts Scientifiques
du Tourisme (AIEST,
founded
1951), Travel and Tourism
Research
Association
(reorganized
as
TTRA in 1970) and the International
Academy for the Study of Tourism (founded 1988) are examples of early and recent efforts with research
INTRODUCTION
7
(applied and/or basic) as their raison d’etre. Among such international
and national organizations,
the Academy is one of the few fully devoted
to multidisciplinary
tourism research (Butler and Wall 1988). Among
university-based
organizations,
the Centre des Hautes Etudes Touristiques (CHET,
Aix-en-Provence,
founded 1964) welcomes numerous
international
scholars and students and maintains perhaps the world’s
largest tourism research library (Baretje 1988).
Closely related are the contributions
made by social science associations worldwide, especially during the last two decades. Several major
disciplinary groups, such as the American Anthropological
Association
(AAA), International
Geographical
Union (IGU), and International
Sociological Association (ISA) regularly or sporadically organize sessions at their congresses. Most significantly, the last two have created
formal tourism research groups, e.g., in 1990 the ISA formed its thematic group on “Sociology of International
Tourism” (Lanfant 1989).
Still other effects are adding to the growing stream of research and
scholarship on tourism. For example, in 1982, the European Centre for
Coordination
of Research
and Documentation
in Social Sciences
(known as the Vienna Centre) initiated and supported a multidisciplinary cross-cultural investigation of “Tourism as A Factor of Change:
A Sociocultural
Study.” Bulgaria,
Hungary, Poland, Spain, United
Kingdom, United States, and Yugoslavia participated in the first cycle
(1982- 1989) of this project (Bystrzanowski
1989). Plans are proceeding
with the second cycle so that the diachronic findings can shed light on
tourism and sociocultural change for the host countries (Safari, Pizam
and PrzecIawski 1990).
Ensemble,
several types of organized efforts have continued to enhance the position of tourism worldwide. Since the early part of this
century, and especially since World War II, a large assortment of governmental and entrepreneurial
agencies have strengthened
and reaffirmed tourism’s prominent global position. But responses to tourism’s
research needs and scholarly treatments are of newer vintage - a thrust
evolving from a mostly economic focus to a now multidisciplinary
investigation of the subject (Safari 1990). Tourism research and scholarship is slowly, but surely, coming of age.
THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF THIS
SPECIAL
ISSUE
Several factors are unique to this Special Issue. First, all papers were
to the intended scope and nature of the theme, certain
topics had to be included; an open submission
system would have
risked omitting contributions on some of them. Second, the invitations
were only extended to the editors of the journal. Since they are among
the leaders in their respective fields, it was only natural to take this
“short-cut” and turn to those who have made Annals the leading journal
in the field of tourism (Sheldon
1990). Moreover,
this allowed the
journal to publish its first “in-house” special issue.
Third, while multidisciplinary
perspectives on a given theme were
offered in previous special issues, the “multidisciplinarity”
of tourism is
the very design of this Special Issue. No single discipline alone can
accommodate,
treat, or understand tourism; it can be studied only if
invited. Due
a
INTRODUCTION
disciplinary
boundaries are crossed and if multidisciplinary
perspectives are sought and formed. Because many disciplines or fields relate
to the study of tourism (‘Safari and Ritchie 1981)
the scope of this
special issue had to be defined and carefully designed at the outset in
order to ensure the thematic treatment.
Since tourism is, foremost, a
socioeconomic
phenomenon
and an institution in its own right, and
since social sciences have collectively made significant contributions
to
its study, Tourism Social Science was selected as the theme. This theme is
developed here by utilizing the basic building blocks of anthropology,
economics, geography, and more. Papers on such fields as ecology and
marketing - because their present research on tourism is greatly influenced by social science theories and methods-were
also solicited for a
fuller thematic development. Of course, other disciplinary topics were
considered, but space limitations narrowed the total number of topical
papers to ten.
The fourth unique factor is that all of the articles are co-authored.
Because disciplinary
training varies between countries and because
scholarly treatments
on tourism appear in many languages,
it was
thought that by distancing the authors of each article, broader orientations and richer resources could form the bases of each submission.
However, despite these attempts, success was only partial. Many editors invited to contribute had prior commitments,
could not meet the
deadlines, or later had to change their plans. Thus, the outcome reflects a predominantly
North American
social science perspective,
based almost entirely on literature
in English.
While disciplinary
boundaries are crossed in this and other issues of Annals, unfortunately
the linguistic gaps have scarcely been bridged.
Finally, this Special Issue is intended as a sourcebook on the study of
tourism, Almost everyone in tourism begins with a certain disciplinary
orientation.
As they start expanding their grasps of tourism, they are
inevitably led to other disciplines. This Special Issue is envisioned as an
outreach tool, as a multidisciplinary
reference source for those involved
in tourism research. In particular, it is anticipated that this volume may
become required reading for all tourism graduate studentsthe future
professionals,
professors, and scholars in this emerging field.
As to the development of this Special Issue, in July 1986, twenty
editors (two for each article) were invited to contribute. The invitation
letter gave “Tourism Social Science” as the theme, described the purpose, delineated the thematic components, and gave the timetable. The
potential authors were informed on the contents and flow of the papers:
First,
to define the field assigned
to [each paper] by also elaborating on its main concerns,
methods
of investigation,
boundaries
with/
or linkage to other fields.
Second,
to place tourism
in the context
of the assigned
field,
to examine
its application
to tourism.
Third,
to discuss
other applications
of and contributions
from the
field to the study of tourism.
Fourth,
to tie together
all that has
been discussed.
.
A retrospective
view should lead to a prospective
commentary
which sheds light on and guides the reader to uncharted
explorations
in that field. Finally,
to have at least twenty-five
contextualized
references
representing
the best contributions
that the
discipline
has made to the study of tourism.
INTRODUCTION
9
Later the consenting contributors were asked to include in their respective papers a brief history of the discipline and its major concerns, as
well as brief accounts of the discipline’s entry into the study of tourism.
To encourage cross-fertilization
among the contributions,
all authors
received copies of each others’ working papers months prior to the final
submission deadline. However, not all final submissions as published
here were developed in the same fashion and hence the contents and
flows are somewhat varied. This lack of uniformity is due to the tendencies of individual authors, to the disciplinary orientations,
to the
early or late entry of tourism into the field, to the level of development
of tourism within each discipline, to the reviewing processes, and/or to
the tight schedule for final submission.
This Special Issue’s ten disciplinary articles on tourism-and
anthropology, ecology, economics,
geography,
history, leisure/recreation,
marketing management,
political science, psychology, and sociology
(which appear in alphabetical
order) - together contain the breadth,
depth, richness, and potential that one can expect at this early stage in
the formation of knowledge in the field of tourism research. The two
editors of this volume thank the twenty authors and the more than
thirty anonymous reviewers who made this special issue on “Tourism
Social Science” possible. 00
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INTRODUCTIOS
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