Chapter 3: The Structure of Crystalline Solids ISSUES TO ADDRESS... • How do atoms assemble into solid structures? • How does the density of a material depend on its structure? • When do material properties vary with the sample (i.e., part) orientation? Chapter 3 - 1 Energy and Packing • Non dense, random packing Energy typical neighbor bond length typical neighbor bond energy • Dense, ordered packing r Energy typical neighbor bond length typical neighbor bond energy r Dense, ordered packed structures tend to have lower energies. Chapter 3 - 2 Materials and Packing Crystalline materials... • atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays • typical of: -metals -many ceramics -some polymers crystalline SiO2 Adapted from Fig. 3.23(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Noncrystalline materials... • atoms have no periodic packing • occurs for: -complex structures -rapid cooling "Amorphous" = Noncrystalline Si Oxygen noncrystalline SiO2 Adapted from Fig. 3.23(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 3 - 3 Metallic Crystal Structures • Tend to be densely packed. • Reasons for dense packing: - Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic radii are the same. - Metallic bonding is not directional. - Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in order to lower bond energy. - Electron cloud shields cores from each other • Have the simplest crystal structures. We will examine three such structures... Chapter 3 - 4 Simple Cubic Structure (SC) • Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure) • Close-packed directions are cube edges. • Coordination # = 6 (# nearest neighbors) Click once on image to start animation (Courtesy P.M. Anderson) Chapter 3 - 5 Atomic Packing Factor (APF) Volume of atoms in unit cell* APF = Volume of unit cell *assume hard spheres • APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52 atoms unit cell a R=0.5a APF = volume atom 4 p (0.5a) 3 1 3 a3 close-packed directions contains 8 x 1/8 = 1 atom/unit cell Adapted from Fig. 3.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. volume unit cell Chapter 3 - 6 Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC) • Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals. --Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded differently only for ease of viewing. ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum • Coordination # = 8 Click once on image to start animation (Courtesy P.M. Anderson) Adapted from Fig. 3.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8 Chapter 3 - 7 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC • APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68 3a a 2a Adapted from Fig. 3.2(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. atoms R a 4 Close-packed directions: length = 4R = 3 a volume atom p ( 3a/4) 3 2 unit cell 3 APF = volume 3 a unit cell Chapter 3 - 8 Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC) • Atoms touch each other along face diagonals. --Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded differently only for ease of viewing. ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag • Coordination # = 12 Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Click once on image to start animation (Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8 Chapter 3 - 9 Atomic Packing Factor: FCC • APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74 maximum achievable APF Close-packed directions: length = 4R = 2 a 2a a Adapted from Fig. 3.1(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Unit cell contains: 6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8 = 4 atoms/unit cell atoms volume 4 3 p ( 2a/4) 4 unit cell atom 3 APF = volume 3 a unit cell Chapter 3 - 10 FCC Stacking Sequence • ABCABC... Stacking Sequence • 2D Projection B B C A B B B A sites C C B sites B B C sites • FCC Unit Cell A B C Chapter 3 - 11 Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure (HCP) • ABAB... Stacking Sequence • 3D Projection c a • 2D Projection A sites Top layer B sites Middle layer A sites Bottom layer Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. • Coordination # = 12 • APF = 0.74 • c/a = 1.633 6 atoms/unit cell ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn Chapter 3 - 12 Theoretical Density, r Density = r = r = where Mass of Atoms in Unit Cell Total Volume of Unit Cell nA VC NA n = number of atoms/unit cell A = atomic weight VC = Volume of unit cell = a3 for cubic NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol Chapter 3 - 13 Theoretical Density, r • Ex: Cr (BCC) A = 52.00 g/mol R = 0.125 nm n = 2 atoms/unit cell Adapted from Fig. 3.2(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. atoms unit cell r= volume unit cell R a 2 52.00 a3 6.022 x 1023 a = 4R/ 3 = 0.2887 nm g mol rtheoretical = 7.18 g/cm3 ractual atoms mol = 7.19 g/cm3 Chapter 3 - 14 Densities of Material Classes In general rmetals > rceramics > rpolymers 30 Why? Metals have... Ceramics have... • less dense packing • often lighter elements Polymers have... r (g/cm3 ) • close-packing (metallic bonding) • often large atomic masses • low packing density (often amorphous) • lighter elements (C,H,O) Composites have... • intermediate values Metals/ Alloys 20 Platinum Gold, W Tantalum 10 Silver, Mo Cu,Ni Steels Tin, Zinc 5 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.4 0.3 Titanium Aluminum Magnesium Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond Composites/ fibers Polymers Based on data in Table B1, Callister *GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass, Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy composites (values based on 60% volume fraction of aligned fibers in an epoxy matrix). Zirconia Al oxide Diamond Si nitride Glass -soda Concrete Silicon Graphite PTFE Silicone PVC PET PC HDPE, PS PP, LDPE Glass fibers GFRE* Carbon fibers CFRE* Aramid fibers AFRE* Wood Data from Table B.1, Callister & Rethwisch, 8e. Chapter 3 - 15 Crystals as Building Blocks • Some engineering applications require single crystals: -- diamond single crystals for abrasives (Courtesy Martin Deakins, GE Superabrasives, Worthington, OH. Used with permission.) -- turbine blades Fig. 8.33(c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 8.33(c) courtesy of Pratt and Whitney). • Properties of crystalline materials often related to crystal structure. -- Ex: Quartz fractures more easily along some crystal planes than others. (Courtesy P.M. Anderson) Chapter 3 - 16 Polycrystals • Most engineering materials are polycrystals. Anisotropic Adapted from Fig. K, color inset pages of Callister 5e. (Fig. K is courtesy of Paul E. Danielson, Teledyne Wah Chang Albany) 1 mm • Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld. • Each "grain" is a single crystal. • If grains are randomly oriented, Isotropic overall component properties are not directional. • Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm (i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers). Chapter 3 - 17 Single vs Polycrystals • Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa Data from Table 3.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Source of data is R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1989.) -Properties vary with direction: anisotropic. -Example: the modulus of elasticity (E) in BCC iron: • Polycrystals -Properties may/may not vary with direction. -If grains are randomly oriented: isotropic. (Epoly iron = 210 GPa) -If grains are textured, anisotropic. E (edge) = 125 GPa 200 mm Adapted from Fig. 4.14(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy of L.C. Smith and C. Brady, the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC [now the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD].) Chapter 3 - 18 Crystal Systems Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal. 7 crystal systems 14 crystal lattices a, b, and c are the lattice constants Fig. 3.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 3 - 19 Point Coordinates z Point coordinates for unit cell center are 111 c a/2, b/2, c/2 000 a x y b Point coordinates for unit cell corner are 111 • z ½½½ 2c • • • b y Translation: integer multiple of lattice constants → identical position in another unit cell b Chapter 3 - 20 Crystallographic Directions z pt. 2 head Example 2: pt. 1 x1 = a, y1 = b/2, z1 = 0 pt. 2 x2 = -a, y2 = b, z2 = c y x pt. 1: tail => -2, 1/2, 1 Multiplying by 2 to eliminate the fraction -4, 1, 2 => [ 412 ] where the overbar represents a negative index families of directions <uvw> Chapter 3 - 21 Crystallographic Directions z Algorithm 1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass through origin. 2. Read off projections in terms of unit cell dimensions a, b, and c y 3. Adjust to smallest integer values 4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas [uvw] x ex: 1, 0, ½ => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ] -1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a negative index families of directions <uvw> Chapter 3 - 22 HCP Crystallographic Directions z Algorithm a2 - a3 a1 1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass through origin. 2. Read off projections in terms of unit cell dimensions a1, a2, a3, or c 3. Adjust to smallest integer values 4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas [uvtw] a 2 Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. ex: ½, ½, -1, 0 -a3 a2 2 => [ 1120 ] a3 dashed red lines indicate projections onto a1 and a2 axes a1 2 a1 Chapter 3 - 23 HCP Crystallographic Directions • Hexagonal Crystals – 4 parameter Miller-Bravais lattice coordinates are related to the direction indices (i.e., u'v'w') as follows. z [ u 'v 'w ' ] → [ uvtw ] a2 - a3 a1 1 u = (2 u ' - v ') 3 1 v = (2 v ' - u ') 3 t = - (u +v ) w = w' Fig. 3.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 3 - 24 Crystallographic Planes Adapted from Fig. 3.10, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 3 - 25 Crystallographic Planes • Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions & common multiples. All parallel planes have same Miller indices. • Algorithm 1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in terms of a, b, c 2. Take reciprocals of intercepts 3. Reduce to smallest integer values 4. Enclose in parentheses, no commas i.e., (hkl) Chapter 3 - 26 Crystallographic Planes z example 1. Intercepts 2. Reciprocals 3. Reduction a 1 1/1 1 1 4. Miller Indices (110) example 1. Intercepts 2. Reciprocals 3. Reduction a 1/2 1/½ 2 2 4. Miller Indices (100) b 1 1/1 1 1 c 1/ 0 0 c y b a x b 1/ 0 0 c 1/ 0 0 z c y a b x Chapter 3 - 27 Crystallographic Planes z example 1. Intercepts 2. Reciprocals 3. Reduction 4. Miller Indices a 1/2 1/½ 2 6 b 1 1/1 1 3 (634) c c 3/4 1/¾ 4/3 • 4 a x • • y b Family of Planes {hkl} Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001) Chapter 3 - 28 Crystallographic Planes (HCP) • In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used z example 1. Intercepts 2. Reciprocals 3. Reduction a1 1 1 1 1 a2 1/ 0 0 a3 -1 -1 -1 -1 c 1 1 1 1 a2 a3 4. Miller-Bravais Indices (1011) a1 Adapted from Fig. 3.8(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 3 - 29 Virtual Materials Science & Engineering (VMSE) • VMSE is a tool to visualize materials science topics such as crystallography and polymer structures in three dimensions • Available in Student Companion Site at www.wiley.com/college/callister and in WileyPLUS Chapter 3 - 30 VMSE: Metallic Crystal Structures & Crystallography Module • VMSE allows you to view crystal structures, directions, planes, etc. and manipulate them in three dimensions Chapter 3 - 31 Unit Cells for Metals • VMSE allows you to view the unit cells and manipulate them in three dimensions • Below are examples of actual VMSE screen shots FCC Structure HCP Structure Chapter 3 - 32 VMSE: Crystallographic Planes Exercises Additional practice on indexing crystallographic planes Chapter 3 - 33 VMSE Planar Atomic Arrangements • VMSE allows you to view planar arrangements and rotate them in 3 dimensions BCC (110) Plane Chapter 3 - 34 X-Ray Diffraction • Diffraction gratings must have spacings comparable to the wavelength of diffracted radiation. • Can’t resolve spacings • Spacing is the distance between parallel planes of atoms. Chapter 3 - 35 Chapter 3 - 36 X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure • Incoming X-rays diffract from crystal planes. extra distance travelled by wave “2” q q d Measurement of critical angle, qc, allows computation of planar spacing, d. reflections must be in phase for a detectable signal Adapted from Fig. 3.20, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. spacing between planes X-ray intensity (from detector) n d= 2 sin qc q qc Chapter 3 - 37 X-Ray Diffraction Pattern z z c Intensity (relative) c a x z b y (110) a x c b y a x (211) b (200) Diffraction angle 2q Diffraction pattern for polycrystalline -iron (BCC) Adapted from Fig. 3.22, Callister 8e. Chapter 3 - 38 y SUMMARY • Atoms may assemble into crystalline or amorphous structures. • Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC, and HCP. Coordination number and atomic packing factor are the same for both FCC and HCP crystal structures. • We can predict the density of a material, provided we know the atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal geometry (e.g., FCC, BCC, HCP). • Crystallographic points, directions and planes are specified in terms of indexing schemes. Crystallographic directions and planes are related to atomic linear densities and planar densities. Chapter 3 - 39 SUMMARY • Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline. Material properties generally vary with single crystal orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally non-directional (i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals with randomly oriented grains. • Some materials can have more than one crystal structure. This is referred to as polymorphism (or allotropy). • X-ray diffraction is used for crystal structure and interplanar spacing determinations. Chapter 3 - 40