Lecture 10: Media
1 / 19
Media
I
Many authoritarian regimes around the world block foreign
websites to stop uncensored information from reaching citizens.
I
Even in countries without state censorship there may be other
forms of control over the media (Manufacturing consent by
Noam Chomsky)
I
Moreover, even in the presence of a totally free media, people
may not necessarily seek the truth as seen in the rise of
conspiracy theories in the age of the internet (vaccine hesitancy,
beliefs such as moon landings were a hoax, and the earth is flat).
I
Does a free media really matter?
2 / 19
Censorship in China
I
Domestic media outlets in China are heavily censored.
I
This includes self censorship from the fear of severe business
and political costs from publishing content that the state deems
threatening and objectionable.
I
Censorship also follows from orders of the Propaganda
Department of the Communist Party of China.
I
Among the most heavily censored topics in 2016 are government
corruption, media censorship, civil society activism, ethnic
tensions, health, and safety scandals.
I
Transmission of politically sensitive information on domestic
social media such as Weibo and WeChat is also limited due to
platform-wide keyword filters and ex-post content deletion.
3 / 19
The great firewall
I
An important aspect of China’s internet regulation is its effort to
block internet users in China from accessing specific foreign
websites.
I
Since 2003 the great firewall serves as the main infrastructure
blocking access to potentially unfavourable incoming data from
foreign media outlets.
I
As of 2016 (the time of the experiment) the great firewall blocks
entire websites or specific web pages from being accessed by IP
addresses located in China.
I
Some prominent examples are: Google, YouTube, Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, Blogspot, Tumblr, Dropbox, Blogger, Vimeo,
Soundcloud, and Flickr.
I
Examples of blocked news websites include CNN, The New York
Times, The Guardian, BBC, Bloomberg, The Wall Street Journal,
and Reuters.
4 / 19
Experiment
I
The authors of the next study conducted an experiment with
1800 university students in Beijing
I
They gave students access to a virtual proxy network (VPN) to
bypass the great firewall with encouragement to do so
I
The aim of the experiment was to:
1. Does providing access to an uncensored internet lead
citizens to acquire politically sensitive information?
2. Does acquisition of such information affect their attitudes
and behaviour?
5 / 19
we randomly assign them to either a control condition in which they are subject to
censorship as in the status quo, or an access (A) treatment in which they receive
Design
free access to uncensored internet for 18 months. Among a random subgroup of the
students who receive the access treatment, we also assign an encouragement (E )
treatment, where we encourage them to visit foreign news websites blocked by the
Great Firewall.
No access to
uncensored internet
Access
treatment
Encouragement
treatment
No
[C]ontrol
(status quo)
N = 185
Free access to
uncensored internet
Yes
No
Yes
[C]ontrol +
[E]ncouragement
[A]ccess
[A]ccess +
[E]ncouragement
N = 328
N = 313
N = 650
Existing users
N = 331
source: Chen and Yang (2019)
To address concerns that the encouragement treatment alone generates an experimenter demand effect (e.g., explicit endorsement of specific foreign websites
by the researchers) or changes students’ perception of government suppression,
we also provide the encouragement treatment to a random subgroup of students
6 / 19
in the control group. These students are presented with the same encouragement
Design
I
I
The experiment was conducted between November 2015 to
April 2017. After an initial survey of students, existing users of
VPNs were filtered out of the experiment.
Students were randomly assigned to one of four groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Control
Control + Encouragement.
Access
Access + Encouragement
7 / 19
Design
I
I
Access: 18 months free access to VPN (valued at 25 USD a
month)
Encouragement:
I
I
I
4 newsletters introducing students to variety of foreign
websites that are blocked highlighting that politically
sensitive news is often reported differently in domestic and
foreign outlets
News quizzes with modest monetary incentives
The encouragement treatment is only active between
December 2015 to March 2016
8 / 19
Table 1—Summary Statistics, Attrition, Balance Tests
Variables
Male
Birth year
Height
Han ethnicity
Born in coastal
province
Resided in coastal
province
Urban hukou prior
to college
Religious
Member of CCP
[at baseline]
Educational
background
English ability
Oversea travel
experiences
Household
characteristics
Risk preferences
Time preferences
Altruism
Reciprocity
Sample and attrition
Baseline
Endline
Mean
Mean
t-test
(SD)
(SD)
p-value
(1)
(2)
(3)
0.559
(0.497)
1995.8
(1.278)
170.1
(9.311)
0.912
(0.283)
0.417
(0.493)
0.444
(0.497)
0.784
(0.412)
0.066
(0.248)
0.068
(0.252)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
(1.000)
0.000
Treatment balance
Exg.
users
Mean
(4)
C
Mean
(5)
CE
Mean
(6)
0.562
0.843
0.630
0.512
0.579
(0.496)
1995.8
0.696 1995.9
1995.9
1995.8
(1.262)
169.9
0.576
170.6
168.0
170.3
(8.951)
0.914
0.844
0.921
0.898
0.896
(0.280)
0.415
0.918
0.438
0.372
0.398
(0.492)
0.439
0.753
0.474
0.358
0.413
(0.496)
0.771
0.402
0.835
0.752
0.764
(0.420)
0.066
0.958
0.050
0.058
0.093
(0.249)
0.064
0.660
0.058
0.044
0.066
(0.245)
−0.028
−0.140
−0.112
0.441
0.086
(0.980)
0.512
0.008
0.045
−0.023
−0.094
(0.986)
0.416
0.208
−0.029
−0.158
−0.048
(0.988)
0.604
0.010
−0.018
−0.067
−0.077
(0.967)
0.639
0.109
−0.017source:
−0.011
Chen and Yang (2019) 0.031
(1.008)
0.930
0.057
−0.003
−0.018
−0.044
(0.995)
0.006
0.874
0.011
−0.012
−0.006
(0.995)
−0.071
−0.007
0.014
0.702
0.246
A
Mean
(7)
0.597
AE
Mean
(8)
0.517
ANOVA
test
p-value
(9)
0.119
1995.7
1995.8
0.252
170.4
169.6
0.063
0.922
0.920
0.585
0.471
0.398
0.168
0.512
0.420
0.017
0.705
0.781
0.150
0.061
0.065
0.430
0.057
0.076
0.549
0.157
−0.109
0.002
−0.089
−0.019
0.383
−0.152
−0.035
0.284
0.068
−0.035
0.284
−0.023
−0.101
0.381
−0.025
0.004
0.939
0.118
−0.041
0.223
0.005
0.006
0.076
9 / 19
Member of CCP
[at baseline]
Educational
background
English ability
Oversea travel
experiences
Household
Variables
characteristics
Male
Risk preferences
Birth
Time year
preferences
Height
Altruism
Han
ethnicity
Reciprocity
0.068
0.064
0.660
0.058
0.044
0.066
0.057
(0.252)
(0.245)
0.000
0.441
0.086
0.157
−0.028
−0.140
−0.112
1—Summary Statistics, Attrition, Balance Tests
(1.000)Table (0.980)
0.000Sample −0.023
0.512
0.008
0.045
−0.094
−0.089
and attrition
Treatment balance
(1.000)
(0.986)
Baseline
Endline
Exg.
0.000
0.416
0.208
−0.029
−0.158
−0.048
−0.152
Mean
Mean
t-test
users
C
CE
A
(1.000)
(0.988)
(SD)
(SD)
p-value
Mean
Mean
Mean
Mean
0.000
0.604
0.010
0.068
−0.018
−0.067
−0.077
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(1.000)
(0.967)
0.559
0.562
0.843
0.630
0.512
0.579
0.597
0.000
0.639
0.109
0.031
−0.017
−0.011
−0.023
(0.497)
(0.496)
(1.000)
(1.008)
1995.8
1995.8
0.696
0.000
0.930 1995.9
0.057 1995.9
−0.003
−0.018 1995.8
−0.044 1995.7
−0.025
(1.278)
(1.262)
(1.000)
(0.995)
170.1
169.9
0.576
170.6
168.0
170.3
170.4
0.000
0.006
0.874
0.011
0.118
−0.012
−0.006
(9.311)
(8.951)
(1.000)
(0.995)
0.912
0.914
0.844
0.921
0.898
0.896
0.922
0.000
0.014
0.702
0.246
0.005
−0.071
−0.007
(0.283)
(0.280)
(1.000)
(1.007)
0.417
0.415
0.918
0.438
0.372
0.398
0.471
1,807
1,372
—
242
137
259
244
(0.493)
(0.492)
0.076
0.549
−0.109
0.002
−0.019
0.383
−0.035
AE
Mean
−0.035
(8)
ANOVA
0.284
test
p-value
0.284
(9)
0.517
−0.101
0.119
0.381
1995.8
0.004
0.252
0.939
169.6
−0.041
0.063
0.223
0.920
0.006
0.585
0.076
Born in coastal
0.398
0.168
Number
of
490
—
province
observations
Resided in coastal
0.444
0.439
0.753
0.474
0.358
0.413
0.512
0.420
0.017
province
(0.497)
(0.496)
Notes: Mean level of each characteristics are reported in column 1 for all participants who have completed baseline
Urban hukou prior
0.784
0.771
0.402
0.835
0.752
0.764
0.705
0.781
0.150
survey
in November(0.412)
2015 (and corresponding
standard deviation in parentheses), column 2 for participants who
to college
(0.420)
completed endline survey in April 2017 (and corresponding standard deviation in parentheses), column 4 for
Religious
0.066
0.066
0.958
0.050
0.058
0.093
0.061
0.065
0.430
endline participants (0.248)
who use censorship
(0.249) circumvention tools prior to the baseline survey, column 5 for endline
participants in the control group (C ), column 6 for endline participants in the control + encouragement group
Member of CCP
0.068
0.064
0.660
0.058
0.044
0.066
0.057
0.076
0.549
(CE
column 7 for(0.252)
endline participants
[at ),
baseline]
(0.245) in the access group (A), and column 8 for endline participants in the
access + encouragement group (AE ). All characteristics in the “personal characteristics” (category F.1 in survey)
Educational
0.000
0.441
0.086
0.157
0.002
−0.028
−0.140
−0.112
−0.109
arebackground
presented. Characteristics
in(0.980)
“educational background” (category F.2), “English ability and oversea travel
(1.000)
experiences [at baseline]” (category F.3), “household characteristics” (category F.4), and “fundamental preferences”
English ability
0.000
0.512
0.008
0.045
0.383
−0.023
−0.094
−0.089
−0.019
(category F.5) are summarized
by(0.986)
z-scores. For each characteristic, a t-test is conducted against the null hypothesis
(1.000)
that students who have completed baseline survey and those who completed endline are not different from each
Oversea travel
0.000
0.416
0.208
0.284
−0.029
−0.158
−0.048
−0.152
−0.035
other
in term of this characteristic;
column 3 reports the corresponding p-value for each test. For each characteristic,
experiences
(1.000)
(0.988)
an ANOVA test is conducted against the null hypothesis that students in the control, control + encouragement,
Household
0.000
0.604
0.010
0.068
0.284
−0.018
−0.067
−0.077
−0.035
access,
and access +(1.000)
encouragement
groups are not jointly different from each other in term of this characteristic;
characteristics
(0.967)
column 9 reports the corresponding p-value for each test.
Risk preferences
0.000
0.639
0.109
0.031
0.381
−0.017
−0.011
−0.023
−0.101
(1.000)
(1.008)source: Chen and Yang (2019)
Time preferences
0.000
0.930
0.057
0.004
0.939
−0.003
−0.018
−0.044
−0.025
(1.000)
(0.995)
Altruism
0.000
0.006
0.874
0.011
0.118
0.223
−0.012
−0.006
−0.041
(1.000)
(0.995)
Reciprocity
0.000 across
0.014 treatment
0.702
0.246the −0.007
0.006 effects
0.076
−0.071
differential attrition
groups,
and
estimated0.005
treatment
(1.000)
(1.007)
10 / 19
Online behaviour of the access groups
2312
2312
JUNE
JUNE 2019
2019
THE
THE AMERICAN
AMERICAN ECONOMIC
ECONOMIC REVIEW
REVIEW
Table
Table 2—Browsing
2—Browsing Activities
Activities on
on Foreign
Foreign Websites
Websites
Access
Access
Mean
Mean
(1)
(1)
SD
SD
(2)
(2)
39.6%
39.6%
49.0%
49.0%
Access +
+
Access
encouragement
encouragement
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
(3)
(4)
(3)
(4)
Panel
Panel A.
A. Extensive
Extensive margins
margins (( percent
percent of
of students),
students), among
among all
all students
students
Activated accounts
accounts
54.6%
49.9%
68.2%
Activated
54.6%
49.9%
68.2%
Active users
users
Active
45.5%
45.5%
46.6%
46.6%
49.8%
49.8%
Panel B.
B. Intensive
Intensive margins
margins (minutes
(minutes per
per day),
day), among
among all
all students
students
Panel
Total daily
daily browsing
browsing time
time
31.45
64.99
31.87
Total
31.45
64.99
31.87
Google and
and related
related services
services
6.96
13.76
7.09
Google
6.96
13.76
7.09
YouTube
3.64
8.79
4.46
YouTube
3.64
8.79
4.46
Facebook
3.09
7.28
3.27
Facebook
3.09
7.28
3.27
Twitter
2.79
7.29
2.96
Twitter
2.79
7.29
2.96
Top
foreign
news
websites
0.10
0.23
0.59
Top foreign news websites
0.10
0.23
0.59
New
York
Times
0.07
0.18
0.56
New York Times
0.07
0.18
0.56
Informational
websites
2.98
5.84
3.17
Informational websites
2.98
5.84
3.17
Wikipedia
0.05
0.19
0.54
Wikipedia
0.05
0.19
0.54
Entertainment
websites
9.07
15.42
8.90
Entertainment websites
9.07
15.42
8.90
Pornographic
websites
2.44
8.13
2.52
Pornographic websites
2.44
8.13
2.52
59.14
59.14
13.29
13.29
11.44
11.44
7.83
7.83
7.70
7.70
0.65
0.65
0.61
0.61
5.51
5.51
1.78
1.78
14.53
14.53
8.74
8.74
Chen
and
Yang
(2019)
Panel
(minutes
day),
among
active
users
Panel C.
C. Intensive
Intensive margins
marginssource:
(minutes per
per
day),
among
active
users
Total daily
daily browsing
browsing time
time
79.17
83.13
69.59
Total
79.17
83.13
69.59
Google and
and related
related services
services
17.50
17.16
15.22
Google
17.50
17.16
15.22
YouTube
9.12
12.06
9.75
YouTube
9.12
12.06
9.75
Facebook
7.74
9.92
7.14
Facebook
7.74
9.92
7.14
Twitter
7.05
10.22
6.51
Twitter
7.05
10.22
6.51
Top foreign
foreign news
news websites
websites
0.25
0.30
1.19
Top
0.25
0.30
1.19
71.20
71.20
16.31
16.31
15.37
15.37
10.36
10.36
10.36
10.36
0.43
0.43
p-value
p-value
(5)
(5)
<0.001
<0.001
0.083
0.083
0.922
0.922
0.885
0.885
0.263
0.263
0.732
0.732
0.742
0.742
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.612
0.612
<0.001
<0.001
0.871
0.871
0.898
0.898
0.232
0.232
0.198
0.198
0.686
0.686
0.587
0.587
0.625
0.625
<0.001
<0.001
11 / 19
2312
Facebook
Twitter
3.09
7.28
THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC
REVIEW3.27
2.79
7.29
2.96
7.83
7.70
Online behaviour of the access groups
Top foreign news websites
0.10
0.23
0.59
0.65
Foreign Websites
New York Times Table 2—Browsing Activities
0.07 on 0.18
0.56
0.61
Informational websites
Wikipedia
Entertainment websites
Pornographic websites
2.98
5.84
0.05Access 0.19
9.07
Mean
(1)
2.44
15.42
SD
(2)
8.13
3.17
Access +5.51
encouragement
0.54
1.78
8.90
14.53
Mean
SD
(3)
(4)
2.52
8.74
Panel A.
margins (minutes
( percent per
of students),
among
all users
students
Panel
C. Extensive
Intensive margins
day), among
active
Activated
54.6%
49.9%
68.2%
Total
dailyaccounts
browsing time
79.17
83.13
69.59
Active users
39.6%
49.0%
45.5%
Google
and related services
17.50
17.16
15.22
YouTube
9.12
12.06
9.75
Panel B. Intensive margins (minutes per day), among all students
Facebook
7.74
9.92
7.14
Total daily browsing time
31.45
64.99
31.87
46.6%
71.20
49.8%
16.31
0.732JUNE 2019
0.742
<0.001
<0.001
0.612
<0.001
0.871
p-value
(5)
0.898
<0.001
0.232
0.083
0.198
15.37
0.686
0.587
0.922
0.625
0.885
<0.001
0.263
<0.001
0.732
0.284
0.742
Twitter
Google and related services
Top foreign news websites
YouTube
7.05
6.96
0.25
3.64
10.22
13.76
0.30
8.79
6.51
7.09
1.19
4.46
10.36
59.14
10.36
13.29
0.43
11.44
New York Times
Facebook
Informational
websites
Twitter
Wikipedia
Top
foreign news websites
Entertainment
websites
New York Times
Pornographic websites
Informational
websites
0.18
3.09
7.50
2.79
0.14
0.10
22.79
0.07
6.16
2.98
0.25
7.28
7.24
7.29
0.29
0.23
16.97
0.18
12.03
5.84
1.13
3.27
6.72
2.96
1.19
0.59
19.22
0.56
5.49
3.17
0.38
7.83
6.59
7.70
2.48
0.65
16.37
0.61
12.32
5.51
<0.001
<0.001
0.044
<0.001
0.613
0.612
Wikipedia
0.05
0.19
0.54
1.78
<0.001
Notes: Panel A shows the composition among students who received only the access treatment
Entertainment
9.07and encouragement
15.42
8.90
14.53(Group-AE
0.871).
(Group-A)
andwebsites
those who received both access
treatments
They
are divided
into two nested categories:
have
Pornographic
websites
2.44(i) Activated
8.13 accounts,
2.52 students
8.74 who0.898
activated the censorship circumvention tool provided during the experiment, as of April 10,
2017
last day margins
of the experiment);
(ii)among
Activeactive
users,users
students who have activated the
Panel (the
C. Intensive
(minutes perand
day),
tool
were
actively
using the tool (if the79.17
student’s 83.13
account records
one browsing
Totaland
daily
browsing
time
69.59 at least
71.20
0.232
activity per day for more than 40 days after the encouragement treatment ends). Panel B shows
Google
and daily
relatedbrowsing
servicestime in total and17.50
16.31
0.198
the
average
on various17.16
categories15.22
of websites
throughout
the
experiment
after
the
encouragement
treatment
ends,
among
all
students
(assuming
students
YouTube
9.12
12.06
9.75
15.37
0.686
without
activated accounts spend zero minutes7.74
on these 9.92
websites). 7.14
Panel C replicates
panel
B,
Facebook
10.36
0.587
but among students who actively used the tool. Top foreign news websites, informational,
Twitter
10.22
6.51on Alexa
10.36Top Websites
0.625
entertainment,
and pornographic websites are7.05
defined primarily
based
categorization.
Column
5 shows p-values of two-sided
t-tests
extensive0.43
margins<0.001
and the
Top foreign news
websites
0.25
0.30 on the1.19
intensive
margins
students.
New York
Timesbetween the Group-A and Group-AE
0.18
0.25
1.13
0.38
<0.001
source: Chen and
(2019)6.72
Informational websites
7.50 Yang7.24
6.59
0.284
Wikipedia
0.14
0.29
1.19
2.48
<0.001
Entertainment websites
22.79
16.97
19.22
16.37
0.044
12 / 19
Trump s
Inauguration
Chinese New Year
holiday week
Trump calls
President of Taiwan
US Presidential
Election
National Day
holiday week
2016 Rio Olympics
50th anniversary
of Cultural Revolution
Panama Papers
Incentivized
encouragement period
Unincentivized
encouragement period
2313
CHEN AND YANG: THE IMPACT OF MEDIA CENSORSHIP
30
8
20
4
10
0
0
20
16
-0
1
20
16
-0
20 2
16
-0
3
20
16
-0
20 4
16
-0
5
20
16
-0
6
20
16
-0
7
20
16
-0
8
20
16
-0
9
20
16
-1
0
20
16
-1
1
20
16
-1
2
20
17
-0
1
20
17
-0
2
20
17
-0
3
20
17
-0
4
12
Percent pol. sensitive
articles on NYTimes
Total browsing time on
NYTimes per week (min)
VOL. 109 NO. 6
Access
Access + Encour.
Percent sensitive articles on NYTimes
Figure 1
Notes: Average total browsing time (minutes) on the New York Times per week, among students received only the
access treatment (Group-A) and those who received both access and encouragement treatments (Group-AE). New
York Times browsing time includes both its English and Chinese websites. Dotted line ( y-axis on the right-hand
side) indicates the proportion of articles published on the New York Times that are politically sensitive during that
corresponding week.
source: Chen and Yang (2019)
B. Temporary Encouragement Boosts Immediate Information Acquisition
13 / 19
Effect on willingness to pay
2316
JUNE 2019
THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW
WTP for uncensored internet access ($/month)
40
35
30
25
20
15
Nov. 2015
Apr. 2016
May 2017
Control
Access
Access + Encour.
Existing users
Figure 2
Notes: Average level of willingness to pay for accessing censorship circumvention tools (US$ per month), elicited
using a BDM method, among students in control group (Group-C, pooling C and CE students together), those
who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received both access and encouragement treatments
(Group-AE), and the existing users, across the baseline survey (November 2015), midline survey (May 2016), and
endline survey (April 2017). Sample is restricted to 1,372 students who have completed the endline survey.
source: Chen and Yang (2019)
they pay on average US$21.50 up front for a seasonal subscription (darker bars in
Figure 3).22 If we count the students who intend to purchase censorship circumvention
14 / 19
8
8
7
0
0
0
7
.5
.5
.5
5
4
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Awareness of foreign protests
Midline
6
5
4
5
4
Baseline
Awareness of protests in Greater China
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Self-assessment of knowledge level
1
Endline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
.8
Baseline
Midline
.6
Endline
.4
.4
.15
.4
.4
.1
Awareness of fo
.6
-.5
-1
Midline
Awareness of fo
.8
0
Awareness of protests in Greater China
Currently invested in Chinese stock mkt.
.2
.4
1
.5 1
Willingness to act
-1 -.5 -.5 0
0 .5
.5 1
0 .5
-1 -.5 -.5 0
-1
1
0
.8
Baseline
.25
.4
.5
.3
Midline
Midline
.8
-.5
-1
Endline
Location pref.: foreign cities
.3
.4
1
Midline
Censorship i
Censorship i
Awareness of protests in Greater China
.6
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
.6
Endline
Plan: master degree abroad
.4
Endline
Trust in non-domestic media outlets
Living in democracy is not important
.5
1
0
-1
-.5
.8
Midline
Endline
Endline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
.6
Baseline
Satisfaction of govt. performance
Midline
Midline
.6
Endline
Participation behaviors
Midline
-1
Baseline
1
Endline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
.8
0
-.5
-1
Midline
.6
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
.5
Endline
Trust in non-domestic media outlets
-1
.2
Midline
.5 1
1
Baseline
0 .5
1
Endline
-1
Trust in foreign govt.
.5
2
.5
-1
.8
.8
-.5
.6
Endline
Valuation of access to foreign media outlets
-1 -.5 -.5 0
Endline
Midline
Midline
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
Endline
Endline
Baseline
.2
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Endline
Endline
.2
.2
Endline
Midline
.2
.05
.15
Midline
Midline
Baseline
Baseline
Midline
Baseline
Midline
1
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
Access + Encour.
.5 1
1
.5 1
C.C.
Economic
Economic
beliefs
beliefs
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
Control
Access
Baseline
Baseline
Endline
0
Endline
Midline
Baseline
.1
.2
Endline
Endline
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
.05
Midline
Midline
Midline
.2
.2
Baseline
Baseline
Endline
.1
Baseline
-1
Midline
Valuation of access to foreign media outlets
.2
6
6
1
5
.5
5
4
0
4
-.5
3
Midline
Trust in Chinese govt.
.4
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
E. Behaviors
Baseline
Midline
0
Endline
Baseline
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
.2
Midline
Social interaction in politics
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
.2
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
D. Political
attitudes
Demand for institutional change
Baseline
Endline
-1
3
Endline
Midline
Frequently visit foreign websites for info
2
Midline
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
1
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
C. Economic
beliefs
Baseline
Frequently visit foreign websites for info
Baseline
0
Endline
-.5
Midline
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
.2
-.5
.4
.4
.4
0
.6
.6
.6
.6
.4
.2
Baseline
A.A.Media-related
Media-related
behaviors,
beliefs
behaviors,
beliefs
B.B.
Knowledge
Knowledge
and
attitudes
and
attitudes
B. Knowledge
.5
.8
.8
-.5
6
Endline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
1
Midline
-1
-.5
Baseline
.8
Endline
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
.8
Midline
-1
-.5
-1
3
2
Baseline
.5
Media-related
ehaviors, beliefs
nd attitudes
Effect on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour
Existing users
0 .5
0 .5
Yang
(2019)group (Group-C, pooling C and CE students
Figure A.9: Average level of outcomes elicited in the panelsource:
survey, Chen
amongand
students
in control
-1 -.5 -.5 0
-1
-1 -.5 -.5 0
1
1
D.D.
P
a
1
Midline
Endline
Trust in Chinese govt.
Trust in Chinese govt.
Trust in foreign govt.
Trust in foreign govt.
Satisfaction of go
1
Baseline
1
Endline
1
Midline
Demand for institutional change
Demand for institutional change
1
-1
Baseline
1
A.52
A.52
together), those who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received both access and encouragement treatments (Group-AE)
and the existing users, across the baseline survey (November 2015), midline survey (May 2016), and endline survey (April 2017). If there
are multiple survey questions elicited within a category or subcategory of outcomes, results are shown using a z-score index aggregating
all corresponding questions. The z-score index (weighting by the inverse covariance of the standardized variables) is computed following
Anderson (2008). Sample is restricted
to 1,372
students who have
survey. Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endlinecompleted
Baselinethe endline
Midline
Satisfaction of go
15 / 19
8
8
7
0
0
0
7
.5
.5
.5
5
4
Media-related
ehaviors, beliefs
nd attitudes
Endline
Midline
Endline
6
5
4
Baseline
Awareness of protests in Greater China
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Awareness of foreign protests
Midline
4
5
-.5
-1
Baseline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Self-assessment of knowledge level
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Endline
-1
Degree of censorship on foreign news outlets
Censorship is
.5
8 .5 9
8 .5 9
1
5
Trust in non-domestic media outlets
Baseline
1
1
Endline
1
.2
.2
6
1
Midline
0
70
70
.5
0
4 .5
Baseline
Endline
Midline
Baseline
-1
-.5
1
.5
1
4
.5
.8
0
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
.6
-1
-.5
0
Midline
Awareness of fo
Endline
.4
.15
.1
.05
Endline
Midline
Endline
Endline
.2
.2
.1
Midline
.05
Baseline
Baseline
Endline
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
1
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
Access
Access + Encour.
Existing users
.5
Control
.5
C. Economic
beliefs
1
.15
.2 -.5
-1
Endline
Midline
Baseline
Endline
Endline
Currently invested in Chinese stock mkt.
.3
.2
Endline
.1
Midline
Midline
Midline
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
Baseline
.25
.40
.4
.5
.4
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
.8
-.5
-1
Endline
Location pref.: foreign cities
.3
.4
1
Midline
Willingness to act
Awareness of protests in Greater China
.6
Baseline
Plan: master degree abroad
0
.2
Endline Endline
1
0
-1
Endline
Midline
Midline
.4
Midline
-.5
1
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
.2
Endline
Living in democracy is not important
0
Midline
Participation behaviors
Endline
Endline
Self-assessment of knowledge level
.5.6
Baseline
Satisfaction of govt. performance
Midline
Midline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
.8
0
-.5
-1
.8
.8
-.5
-1
Awareness of foreign protests
Baseline
Baseline
.5
4
1
.5
.5
Trust in foreign govt.
Endline
Endline
-1 5
6
-.5
-1 5
Endline
6
-.5
0
Midline
Trust in Chinese govt.
-1
-1
.2
-.5
0
.5
1
E. Behaviors
Midline
Endline
Degree of censorship on domestic news outlets
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
.6
Endline
Baseline
Baseline
.6
.5
0
-.5
-1
B. Knowledge
Midline
Social interaction in politics
Valuation of access to foreign media outlets
Midline
-.5
-1
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Baseline
3
2 -.5
1
D. Political
attitudes
Midline
Baseline
Demand for institutional change
Awareness of protests in Greater China
Endline
Censorship is unjustified
1
Endline
Midline
-1
Midline
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
-.5
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
C. Economic
beliefs
Baseline
Midline
Frequently visit foreign websites for info
Baseline
0
Endline
.2
-.5
.4
.4
.4
0
.6
.6
.5
.8
.6
.6
.4
.2
A. Media-related
behaviors, beliefs
and attitudes
Midline
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
Baseline
Midline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
.8
B. Knowledge
Baseline
Trust in non-domestic media outlets
Baseline
-.5
Baseline
1
Endline
.8
Midline
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
.8
Baseline
-1
2
-1
3
-.5
6
Effect on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour
Yang
(2019)group (Group-C, pooling C and CE students
Figure A.9: Average level of outcomes elicited in the panelsource:
survey, Chen
amongand
students
in control
0
-1
-.5
0
-.5
Trust in foreign govt.
Willingness to act
Satisfaction of go
1
Living in democracy is not important
1
1
Trust in Chinese govt.
1
Satisfaction of govt. performance
1
-1
Demand for institutional change
1
D. P
a
Trust in foreign govt.
1
A.52
together), those who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received both access and encouragement treatments (Group-AE)
and the existing users, across the baseline survey (November 2015), midline survey (May 2016), and endline survey (April 2017). If there
are multiple survey questions elicited within a category or subcategory of outcomes, results are shown using a z-score index aggregating
all corresponding questions. The z-score index (weighting by the inverse covariance of the standardized variables) is computed following
Anderson (2008). Sample is restricted
to 1,372
students who have
endline survey. Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline completed
Baseline the Midline
16 / 19
.2.2
9
1
Baseline
Baseline
Midline
Midline
8
8
7
7
.5
Midline
Endline
6
4
Baseline
Awareness of foreign protests
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Self-assessment of knowledge level
0
Endline
Endline
Trustininforeign
foreigngovt.
govt.
Trust
Endline
Midline
Satisfactionof
ofgo
go
Satisfaction
11
Baseline
11
.2
Endline
11
Endline
-.5
Midline
Midline
TrustininChinese
Chinesegovt.
govt.
Trust
Baseline
Midline
-1
Baseline
Baseline
.4
.4
-1-1
.6
.6
.5
1
.8
-.5
-.5
5
6
5
4
-1
Baseline
.5.5
00
.5.5
00
00
.5.5
1
.5.5
.5
00
0
-.5
-.5
Midline
Endline
.3.3
.25
.25
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Access
Endline
.15
.1.1
.05
Midline
Midline
Baseline
Endline
Endline
Control
Control
Midline
Endline
Access + Encour.
0
.1
Baseline
Baseline
.1.1
.15
Endline
Endline
Baseline
Endline
.1
.2.2
.25
Control
Endline
.05
Midline
Midline
Midline
-1-1
.2
Baseline
.1
Baseline
Baseline
-1-1
1
.5
-.5
-1
Baseline
Currently invested in Chinese stock mkt.
.2
.3
-.5
-.5
.5
-.5
-.5
Endline
Midline
Midline
Locationpref.:
pref.
Location
.2.2
Endline
Baseline
Baseline
.15
.15
00
1
Midline
Location pref.: foreign cities
Endline
Endline
0
0
-.5
Baseline
Willingness to act
Plan:master
masterdegree
degreeabroad
abroad
Plan:
-1
-1
Endline
Plan: master degree abroad
.4
00
Midline
Midline
Midline
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Midline
Endline
Endline
.05
.05
Baseline
.3.3
Endline
.3
Midline
Participation behaviors
Baseline
Baseline
.4.4
0
-.5
11
Baseline
.5.5
-.5
-1
-1
.5.5
-.5
11
Living in democracy is not important
.5
.5
Endline
Endline
Participationbehaviors
behaviors
Participation
0
Socialinteraction
interactionininpolitics
politics
Social
0
Midline
Midline
-1-1
Satisfaction of govt. performance
Baseline
Baseline
.5
Endline
Endline
1
Trust in foreign govt.
Midline
Midline
1
-1-1
Endline
1
1
-.5
-.5
-.5
-.5
-.5
Midline
Trust in Chinese govt.
-.5
-1-1
Midline
Endline
Endline
Degree of censorship on foreign news outlets
0
-.5
.5.5
00
Endline
Midline
-.5
-.5
-1
Baseline
Baseline
Baseline
-1
-.5
Baseline
Midline
Midline
0
1
.5
0
Midline
Endline
Endline
Demandfor
forinstitutional
institutionalchange
change
Demand
Midline
Endline
Baseline
.5
1
-1
-.5
0
.5
Endline
Social interaction in politics
-1
E. Behaviors
E.
E. Behaviors
Behaviors
D. Political
attitudes
Midline
Baseline
Baseline
Degree of censorship on domestic news outlets
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
Endline
Demand for institutional change
Baseline
Endline
Endline
Censorship is unjustified
Awareness of protests in Greater China
.2
.2
Baseline
-1-1
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
C. Economic
beliefs
Midline
Baseline
.8
-.5
-.5.8
-1-1
Midline
Midline
.4
Baseline
Baseline
Endline
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
Baseline
Endline
11
D.
D. Political
Political
attitudes
attitudes
Midline
11
.5
0
-.5
Midline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
.6
.8
.4
.2
A.52
A.52
B. Knowledge
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Confidenceof
ofguesses
guesseson
onChinese
Chineseeconomy
economy
Confidence
-1
Baseline
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
.6
1
1
11
0
-.5
.5.5
-1
Endline
00
Midline
Baseline
Baseline
Trust in non-domestic media outlets
Optimisticbelief
beliefof
ofChinese
Chineseeconomy
economy
Optimistic
9
Endline
Endline
.2.2
.2.2
Midline
Midline
Valuation of access to foreign media outlets
.5
6
5
4
3
2
Baseline
C.
C. Economic
Economic
beliefs
beliefs
A. Media-related
behaviors, beliefs
and attitudes
Baseline
Baseline
Frequently visit foreign websites for info
.2.2
.4.4
.4.4
.4.4
.4.4
wledge
wledge
Effect on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour
Baseline
Baseline
Midline
Midline
Endline
Existing users
Access
Access
Yang
(2019)group (Group-C, pooling C and CE students
Figure A.9: Average level of outcomes elicited in the panelsource:
survey, Chen
amongand
students
in control
together), those who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received both access and encouragement treatments (Group-AE)
and the existing users, across the baseline survey (November 2015), midline survey (May 2016), and endline survey (April 2017). If there
are multiple survey questions elicited within a category or subcategory of outcomes, results are shown using a z-score index aggregating
Access
Access
Figure A.9:
A.9: Average
Average level
level of
of outcomes
outcomes elicited
elicited in
in the
the panel
panel survey,
survey, among
among students
students in
in co
co
Figure
17 /both
19
together), those who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received
7
7
.5
6
6
0
0
0
-.5.5
4
C. Economic
beliefs
0
Endline
5
4
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Self-assessment of knowledge level
.5
1
.8
Awareness of foreign protests
4
5
-.5
-1
-.5
-1
.8
-.5.8
.6
Endline
Midline
Endline
Satisfaction of g
1
Midline
1
Baseline
1
Endline
1
1
Trust in foreign govt.
Endline
Willingness to act
-1
.2
Trust in Chinese govt.
Baseline
Midline
Living in democracy is not important
Endline
0
-.5
1
-1
Endline
Baseline
Midline
-1
.25
-.5
.3
0
Location pref
Baseline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
.2
Midline
.15
.2
.1
.1
.2
-.5
.25
.15
.3
Currently invested in Chinese stock mkt.
Midline
Control
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Access
Access + Encour.
Midline
Midline
Baseline
Endline
Endline
Midline
Endline
Endline
.05
.05
.1
Baseline
Baseline
.1
.15
Endline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Midline
0
Midline
Midline
Midline
.05
Baseline
Baseline
Endline
0
Baseline
-1
Endline
.1
.05
Baseline
-1
-1
-.5
.2
.1
0
.05
.5
.5
0
Endline
Location pref.: foreign cities
0
.4
Midline
Willingness to act
Endline
.4
-.5
Baseline
Plan: master degree abroad
.3
Midline
Midline
Plan: master degree abroad
.3
Endline
Baseline
-1
-.5
-1
Midline
Baseline
-11
.5
0
.5
1
Living in democracy is not important
Endline
Endline
1
.15
.5
Baseline
.1
Endline
-1
-.5
-.5
0
0
.5
0
0
-.5
-1
1
.5
0
Midline
Participation behaviors
Midline
Midline
Participation behaviors
Currently invested in Chinese stock mkt.
-.5
Baseline
Satisfaction of govt. performance
Baseline
Baseline
-1
.5
-1
.25
Endline
Endline
Social interaction in politics
Location pref.: foreign cities
10
.2
-.5
-1
Trust in foreign govt.
Midline
.5
10
Endline
Midline
-.5
.3
Midline
Trust in Chinese govt.
Baseline
-.5.5
.15
.5
.5
1
.5
.5
.5
1
-1
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
1
Endline
0
.5
Baseline
Baseline
-.5
-1
E. Behaviors
E. Behaviors
D. Political
attitudes
Midline
Social interaction in politics
Midline
00
0
Endline
Endline
Baseline
Demand for institutional change
Midline
Endline
Baseline
Satisfaction of govt. performance
-1-.5 -.5
-.5
Midline
.2
-.5
Baseline
.4
0
-1
Midline
.4
Baseline
Confidence of guesses on Chinese economy
Demand for institutional change
Plan: master degree abroad
Access
Midline
Awareness of protests in Greater China
Baseline
-1
1
.5
0
-.5
-1
C. Economic
beliefs
Baseline
Midline
Baseline
-1
.4
.2
1
1
Endline
Optimistic belief of Chinese economy
seline
Endline
.6
.8
.6
.4
Midline
D. Political
attitudes
Trust in foreign govt.
Midline
Midline
% quizzes answered correctly: non-sensitive
.2
A.52
B. Knowledge
Baseline
seline
Baseline
-.5
Endline
% quizzes answered correctly: sensitive
.6
Midline
0 -1
3
2
Baseline
.5
ia-related
aviors, beliefs
attitudes
Effect on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour
Baseline
Midline
Endline
Existing users
Control Access + Encour.
Access
Existing users
Yang
(2019)group (Group-C, pooling C and CE students
Figure A.9: Average level of outcomes elicited in the panelsource:
survey, Chen
amongand
students
in control
together), those who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received both access and encouragement treatments (Group-AE)
and the existing users, across the baseline survey (November 2015), midline survey (May 2016), and endline survey (April 2017). If there
are multiple survey questions elicited within a category or subcategory of outcomes, results are shown using a z-score index aggregating
all corresponding questions. The z-score index (weighting by the inverse covariance of the standardized variables) is computed following
Anderson (2008). Sample is restricted to 1,372 students who have completed the endline survey.
Acces
Figure A.9: Average level of outcomes elicited in the panel survey, among students in co
el survey, among students in control group (Group-C, pooling C and CE students
together), those who received only the access treatment (Group-A), those who received both
oup-A), those who received both access and encouragement treatments (Group-AE)
and the existing users, across the baseline survey (November 2015), midline survey (Ma
mber 2015), midline survey (May 2016), and endline survey (April 2017). If there
are multiple survey questions elicited within a category or subcategory of outcomes, res
or subcategory of outcomes, results are shown using a z-score index aggregating
all corresponding questions. The z-score index (weighting by the inverse covariance of t
g by the inverse covariance of the standardized variables) is computed following
18 / 19su
Anderson (2008). Sample is restricted to 1,372 students who have completed the endline
Recommended reading
I
Chen and Yang “The Impact of Media Censorship:
or Brave New World?” AER 2019
I
To understand how the attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviour variables are defined consult Online
Appendix D (p A.8 – A.22)
1984
19 / 19