Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
A Missing Link? Middle School Students’ Procedural
Knowledge on Fitness
Journal: Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
Manuscript ID JTPE.2019-0237.R3
Manuscript Type: Article
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
middle school physical education, physical activity behaviors, declarative
Keywords: knowledge, procedural knowledge, learning in physical education, fitness
goals
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 1 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
Abstract
1
Purpose. Guided by the declarative-procedural knowledge framework, the study attempts to
3
identify middle school students’ declarative (knowing what) and procedural (knowing how)
4
fitness knowledge and the relationship between the two. Methods: A sample of students (n=291,
5
age 11 to 14 years) from 24 middle schools took a grade-relevant standardized knowledge test on
6
declarative fitness knowledge and received a semi-structured interview designed to clarify their
7
declarative and procedural knowledge. Results: Most students were lacking procedural
8
knowledge to conduct fitness-enhancing physical activities. A few students who had mastered
9
declarative fitness knowledge demonstrated a high-level of procedural knowledge consistent
rP
Fo
2
with personal fitness goals. Discussion: The findings suggest that incapability to engage in
11
fitness-enhancing physical activities could be a result of lacking procedural fitness knowledge.
12
Future school-based interventions may prioritize procedural knowledge learning to bridge both
13
declarative and procedural fitness knowledge for actual physical activity participation.
ev
rR
14
ee
10
Key words: middle school physical education, physical activity behaviors, declarative
16
knowledge, procedural knowledge, learning in physical education, fitness goals
iew
15
17
1
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
18
A Missing Link? Middle School Students’ Procedural Knowledge on Fitness
19
Over the past three decades, professional associations and agencies such as SHAPE
America and the Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, have established standards and
21
issued policies to promote physical activity to youth. These policy-level changes have
22
established a foundation for long-lasting and far-reaching efforts to promote physical activity in
23
public schools. For instance, at the national level, campaigns such as Jump Rope for Heart and
24
Let’s Move used school physical education as a platform to expand physical activity
25
opportunities for kindergarten (age 5) to 12th grade (age 18) students. At the local level, 48 out of
26
all 50 states have issued policies and standards to assure that physical education includes health-
27
enhancing fitness knowledge (SHAPE America, 2016). Nevertheless, the evaluation results of
28
these policy-level efforts have consistently revealed unsatisfactory outcomes. Recently, the 2018
29
United States Report Card indicated that, in the past decade, the percentage of school-aged
30
students who engaged in at least 60 minutes of physical activity daily, including moderate-to-
31
vigorous and vigorous aerobic physical activity, muscle-strengthening activity and bone-
32
strengthening activity, declined from 29.9% to 24.2% (National Physical Activity Plan Alliance,
33
2018).
34
Transferable Learning?
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
35
Fo
20
This study is, theoretically and contextually, driven by the dialogue about the following
36
two questions. First, what constitutes learning in physical education? Second, considering the
37
limited instructional time, what content knowledge should be prioritized for instruction in
38
physical education? For over two decades, scholars, researchers and educators in physical
39
education have reached a consensus – learning in physical education is co-constitutive of
2
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 2 of 34
Page 3 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
40
conceptual and behavioral changes (Ennis, 2007). Theoretically speaking, this paradigm shift is
41
to assert the embodiment of learning as change enabled by:
42
accessing cognitive conceptualizations of knowledge of and through the physical. It
43
opens vantage points to a vision of a sound mind in a sound body and facilitates access to
44
educational environments for effective delivery of physical education and physical
45
education content (Ennis, 2007, p. 139).
Thus, the goal of physical education should be inclusive to helping students learn fitness
47
knowledge, including but not limited to concepts of fitness, exercise principles, components of
48
fitness, nutrition and effects of physical activity on chronic disease risk factors (Zhu, Safrit, &
49
Cohen, 1999), and empowering them to practice the knowledge in daily life.
rP
Fo
46
Transferring fitness knowledge into behavioral practices, however, is neither
51
instantaneous nor effortless (Ennis, 2017). In a recent review, Demetriou, Sudeck, Thiel and
52
Honor (2015) evaluated 34 school-based interventions aiming at improving students’ fitness
53
knowledge. It reveals that, regardless of the intervention content, duration, and frequency, most
54
school-based intervention studies (79.4%) significantly improved student fitness knowledge,
55
reaffirming that physical education in public schools, being far-reaching and low-cost, carries a
56
great potential to improve fitness knowledge through quality programs (Corbin, 2002; Marx &
57
Wooley, 1998). On the other hand, the review also indicates that few interventions improved
58
students' physical activity participation and fitness levels (Demetriou et al., 2015). Based on the
59
results, Demetriou and colleagues (2015) concluded that there is a missing link between fitness
60
knowledge and a change in engaging fitness-enhancing activities.
iew
ev
62
rR
61
ee
50
In different contexts, students’ incapability of transferring what they might know to
action has drawn scholarly attention. For instance, Harris and colleague (2018) recognized that
3
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
health/fitness knowledge learned in schools is likely to be superficial and often mismatch with
64
the opportunities to practice at school meal times and physical education. The mismatch often
65
presents many knowledge-behavior dilemmas such as Shea and Beausoleil (2012) documented
66
that “they (students) viewed fast food as unhealthy, these young people also talked about how
67
much they enjoyed it” (p. 103). The widespread incapability of knowledge transfer to action
68
witnessed in research (Demetriou et al., 2015) has stirred theoretical discussion on the
69
relationship between fitness knowledge and behavioral change. Some argue that knowledge is an
70
indispensable prerequisite for behavioral change, but not sufficient to initiate behavioral change
71
(see Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay, 2010; Rimal, 2001). Others speculate that cognitive mastery of
72
health-related fitness knowledge may serve as the precursor of physical activity (Keating,
73
2003; Nahas, 1992).
74
The Declarative-Procedural Knowledge Paradigm
rR
ee
rP
75
Fo
63
The declarative and procedural knowledge paradigm derived from Anderson’s (1976)
ev
theoretical work on explicit/implicit knowledge. According to Anderson, declarative knowledge
77
is a form of explicit knowledge that conveys clear description of facts. It is knowledge about
78
what. In contrast, procedural knowledge refers to the knowledge of “how to do” which is likely
79
implicit or tacit forms of knowledge about getting something done. The conceptual distinction of
80
the two may be vague (Nickols, 2000). Procedural knowledge can be declarative when one
81
verbalizes or writes down a procedure (e.g., a flowchart) to do something; or it is completely
82
implicit in that one can complete a task without knowing how to describe the process. Anderson
83
(1976) and Nickols (2000) took the stand that procedural knowledge is completely implicit, but
84
becomes declarative when one can verbalize the procedure. Greeno (1978) and others (Gil,
85
Moreno, García-González, Moreno, Del Villar, 2012) held a different conceptualization. He
iew
76
4
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 4 of 34
Page 5 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
argued from learning mathematics operation perspective that when one follows a descriptive
87
procedure to complete a task, the application of the procedure, including reading/following the
88
flowcharts/plans reflects procedural knowledge. In our study we adopted the latter
89
conceptualization of procedural knowledge to distinguish “what” and “how” in terms of fitness
90
knowledge. In the domain of fitness knowledge, therefore, we refer declarative knowledge to the
91
conceptual understanding of the facts and principles about human bodies and human practices in
92
relation to fitness. We refer procedural knowledge to how to apply the facts and principles to
93
physical activity settings to enhance personal fitness and health.
94
Fo
86
Reflecting on the findings from the intervention studies, Demetrious and colleagues
rP
(2015) pointed out that most school-based fitness knowledge intervention studies only measured
96
declarative knowledge – the conceptual and factual perspective of fitness knowledge. They
97
further specified, among the 34 fitness knowledge intervention studies, only one study measured
98
procedural fitness knowledge – how to run within a self-perceived effort/heart rate zone (Ignico
99
& Corson, 1997). Such an exclusion of procedural knowledge in the knowledge-behavioral
ev
rR
ee
95
change research runs the risk of reducing fitness knowledge to its mere declarative
101
representations and contributes to unsuccessful learning transfer (Demetrious et al., 2015).
102
The Missing Link: Procedural Knowledge
103
iew
100
Procedural fitness knowledge refers to how to apply the facts and principles for fitness
104
improvement which includes “higher-order skills that require deeper learning and a greater
105
degree of cognitive processing” (Adams, 2015, p. 152). Its application involves making self-
106
conscious choices for physical activities, and monitoring physical activity engagement on
107
duration, frequency and intensity based on ongoing reflection of physiological facts and training
108
principles. In other words, declarative and procedural fitness knowledge are two distinct aspects
5
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
109
of one knowledge domain (Anderson, 1976). The mastery of declarative fitness knowledge alone
110
does not guarantee the mastery of how to act for fitness improvement as procedural fitness
111
knowledge could be missing in one’s knowledge repertoire. Based on the findings of student
112
inability to transfer knowledge into action (Demetrious et al., 2015), we hypothesized that
113
procedural knowledge for fitness improvement could be the missing link that contributes to
114
students’ incapability in transferring fitness knowledge to fitness-enhancing behaviors.
115
The purpose of this study, therefore, was to identify middle school students’ mastery of
fitness knowledge on both declarative and procedural dimensions. We posed two questions:
117
First, in what ways do middle school students conceptualize fitness knowledge? Second, to what
118
extent do they operationalize fitness knowledge they know in daily life? By answering the two
119
questions, we attempt to clarify the role played by procedural knowledge in transferring fitness
120
knowledge to physically active behaviors.
Method
121
The study was a part of large physical education curriculum intervention research
iew
123
The Research Context
ev
122
rR
ee
rP
Fo
116
124
conducted in six adjacent Local Educational Agencies (LEAs; or school districts) that serve
125
urban, suburban and rural communities in a southeastern state of the U.S. The purpose of this
126
curriculum intervention research was to evaluate a constructivist curriculum that integrates
127
learning of fitness and health knowledge with physical activities in physical education. Guided
128
by constructivist learning theory, the curriculum was in alignment with the state’s essential
129
standards for middle school physical and health education.
130
131
The state issued Health and Physical Education Standards in 2009, specifying grade-level
content knowledge from kindergarten (5 years old) to ninth grade (~ 15 years old). The State
6
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 6 of 34
Page 7 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
Board of Education suggests a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity
133
daily for all students from K (age 5) to eighth grade (14) and a minimum of 225 minutes of
134
Healthful Living Education weekly taught by certified health and physical education teachers.
135
LEAs were required to implement annual fitness evaluation for all students from third to eighth
136
grade, and establish a LEA Wellness Policy to monitor their own practices. Since physical
137
education is not a core content area like mathematics, reading or science, the implementation of
138
the policies is at the discretion of LEAs and schools’ administrators.
139
Participants
140
Fo
132
The region has a relatively high poverty rate (15.8%) in comparison with the state and
rP
national averages (15.4% and 13.8% respectively). In sampling we first determined a sampling
142
pool with 75 middle schools whose demographic information, especially poverty rate, fell within
143
the range of one standard deviation around the national mean. Using the stratified sampling
144
technique, we divided 75 middle schools in the six districts into six strata based on the school’s
145
free and reduced-priced meal (FARM) rate and state standardized test score. Then, four schools
146
were randomly selected from each strata and randomly assigned to experimental and control
147
conditions, yielding 12 schools in each condition. The FARM rates of the 24 sampled schools
148
ranged from 22% to 78%. The final sample for the curriculum intervention research included
149
11,638 students (age 11 to 14) including 5% Asian, 29% Black, 12% Hispanic, 8% mixed race,
150
and 40% White. During the curriculum intervention we followed these students in both
151
conditions to evaluate their learning.
iew
ev
rR
152
ee
141
Within each sampled middle school, we randomly selected one class from each grade
153
level, then six students from the sampled class, to form a student sub-sample. During the process,
154
we consulted with the participating teachers to ensure that the sampled students were regularly
7
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
155
attending physical education and capable to verbally elaborate themselves. The final sub-sample
156
included 291 students (female = 161), 108 in the sixth, 92 the seventh and 91 the eighth grade.
157
The students reflected diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds with 67 Black, 8 Asian, 36 Hispanic, 26
158
mixed race, 148 White, and six self-identified to be “other.”
159
Evidence and Data Collection
Prior to data collection, we obtained approval from the university’s Institutional Review
160
Board for research involving human subjects, and collected student assent forms, teacher consent
162
forms and parent/guardian consent forms. To address the research purpose and questions, we
163
gathered evidence on students’ declarative and procedural fitness knowledge through a two-stage
164
data collection process. In the first stage, we collected declarative fitness knowledge evidence
165
using a standardized knowledge test with 20 questions for each grade. The tests were grade
166
specific and written to evaluate the constructivist curriculum and had been validated and piloted
167
prior to the curriculum intervention research. The test items had difficulty indices ranging from
168
45% to 65% and discrimination indices greater than .40 (Zhang et al., 2016). Along with all
169
students in the large study (N= 11,638), the students in the sub-sample (n=291) completed the
170
standardized knowledge tests administered by the researchers. Below are sample questions.
171
Sixth grade: “Regularly exercising at an overload pace makes my body become used to that level
172
of work, which is called __.” The answer choices were:
173
(a) rate of exertion (b) physiological adaptation (c) intensity (d) circulation
174
Seventh grade: Which of the following activities will produce high intensity measured in heart
175
rate?
176
(a) Capture the Flag game (b) sit-and-reach exercise (c) volleyball bumps (d) butterfly stretches
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
161
8
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 8 of 34
Page 9 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
177
Eighth grade: If I want the aerobic glycolysis (AG) system to work effectively during a 20-minute
178
speedball game, I must
179
(a) run as fast as I can (b) sit down and rest fully (c) be a goalie (d) use a pacing strategy in the
180
game
181
The tests were taken online using Qualtrics in the schools’ computer rooms and the answers were
182
graded with 1 point awarded to a correct response and 0 an incorrect response.
183
In the second stage, we conducted open-ended individual interviews with the students
(n=291) to gather declarative and procedural knowledge evidences. For declarative knowledge,
185
interviewers asked factual and conceptual questions on fitness training. For instance, “What do
186
you think would happen if someone who doesn’t run very much tried to one day run a long
187
distance, like a marathon? Why?” For procedural knowledge, the interviews were focused on
188
students’ understanding of what, when, where, and how to perform physical activity given their
189
declarative knowledge. Specifically, the students were asked to provide details about how they
190
would personally practice or advise others to implement fitness knowledge. Among the list of
191
interview questions, four were “If you want to get stronger, what you might do in your workout
192
next week to make your body stronger? How, and Why?” and “So if she wanted to be successful
193
what advice would you give to her?” “Do you have an exercise plan for yourself? If yes, what is
194
the goal? Could you tell me how you plan to accomplish that goal?” The interview questions
195
were designed to re-validate students’ conceptual understanding of declarative fitness knowledge
196
as well as to capture students’ procedural fitness knowledge. The stem interview questions were
197
piloted with a group of expert middle school language and physical education teachers for
198
relevance and language appropriateness and a small group of non-patriating student representing
199
each grade in this study.
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
184
9
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
200
The interviewers were eight doctoral and master students enrolled in a Physical
Education Teacher Education graduate program. In addition to having taken two hands-on
202
qualitative research methods courses focusing on field-observation and children/adolescents
203
interview techniques, the interviewers attended a ~20-hour workshop on how to implement the
204
techniques in this study to gather observation and interview data. The workshop included
205
conducting descriptive, non-participant observations by viewing video-recorded physical
206
education lessons, studying the semi-structured interview guides, conducting mock interviews
207
following the guide, and conducting initial data categorization following the constant comparison
208
principles (Pattern, 1990). Since the interviews were open-ended, the techniques of asking
209
follow-up questions (controlling deviations) was discussed and practiced with a focus on by
210
developing and giving specific prompts to the interviewee. For instance, interviewers could
211
probe more details on fitness plan implementation by focusing on FITT principles rather than
212
asking random questions merely following the lead of the interviewee. The interview transcripts
213
were coded and compared in the workshop for agreement. The practices continued until a
214
consensus agreement reached by the team.
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
215
Fo
201
In data collection, all the interviews were conducted in physical education teachers’
216
offices during physical education lessons. The interviews were conducted individually and lasted
217
about 15 to 20 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and later transcribed verbatim.
218
Data Reduction and Analysis
219
We adopted mixed methods for data analysis due to two reasons. First, both standardized
220
knowledge test (quantitative) and open-ended interviews (qualitative) evaluated students’
221
declarative fitness knowledge, we therefore used evidence obtained from the two sources to
222
validate and triangulate each other. Second, in this study, the qualitative inquiry of procedural
10
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 10 of 34
Page 11 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
fitness knowledge is exploratory by nature. The answers obtained through open-ended interview
224
could be too discursive to be synthesized. Thus, we used standardized test results on declarative
225
fitness knowledge to categorize students into three achievement groups for more focused
226
analysis of students’ procedural knowledge obtained from interviews. In other words, the results
227
from the first method (the standardized knowledge test) inform the investigation using the
228
second method (in-depth semi-structured interviews) (Greene, 2006). Hypothetically, students
229
who scored high on standardized knowledge tests should demonstrate a better mastery of
230
procedural fitness knowledge in interviews.
231
Fo
223
Using the standardized test results, we categorized students into low-, medium-, and
rP
high-achievement knowledge groups with +/- .5 standard deviation splits (Rencher, 2002).
233
Achievement group membership of the interviewee was not revealed to the interviewer to avoid
234
interviewer bias or leniency. The membership information was used after all the interviews were
235
completed to categorize the transcribed interviews for analysis and cross-group comparison. The
236
three-phase interview analysis involved the open, axial and selective coding to generate themes
237
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In the open coding phase, we labeled the recurring student responses
238
to form initial categories for declarative and procedural knowledge. Specifically, the open coding
239
process focused on labeling conceptual understanding of the fitness principles (overload,
240
progression and specificity) as declarative knowledge. Student descriptions on how they
241
designed and implemented the principles were labeled as procedural knowledge. The open-
242
coding phase prepared the data for axial and selective coding (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
iew
ev
rR
243
ee
232
In axial coding, we related the similar categories uncovered through open coding together
244
to form a descriptive chain for each achievement group. This procedure allowed us to identify
245
unique characteristics of students’ procedural knowledge in relation to their achievement level
11
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
that was indicative of their declarative knowledge. We also developed themes by drawing
247
students’ thematic responses within and across achievement groups in connection with the
248
declarative-procedural framework. In the last analysis step when we conducted selective coding,
249
we contrasted themes to form a grounded theory to understand the declarative-procedural
250
knowledge relations by distinguishing the characteristics of their conceptualized procedural
251
knowledge in terms of their declarative knowledge. Specifically, we used the data triangulation
252
to identify “theoretically sensitive” (Gilgun, 2019, p. 116) evidence of the initial relationship
253
between the two types of knowledge. We then adopted retroductive qualitative analysis to verify
254
the relationship (Gilgun, 2019). For example, when a triangulation showed that a student
255
demonstrated a declarative understanding of a concept in the knowledge test, was able to
256
articulate the meaning of the concept clearly, and provided procedural knowledge (e.g., step by
257
step way of executing the concept), we then retrospectively retrieved his/her data files build a
258
case as an element (axial coding) in the grounded theory. During the analysis, the researchers
259
worked independently on coding and collectively on reaching the consensus of categories and
260
themes. Peer checking was performed along with a constant search for negative cases throughout
261
the data analysis. In the data verification process, the researchers held a series of meetings until
262
consensuses were reached on evidence saturations (Patton, 2014).
iew
ev
rR
ee
264
rP
263
Fo
246
Results
Based on the descriptive statistics for standardized test scores, low-, medium-, and high-
265
achievement groups were formed. By the conceptualization of declarative knowledge (Anderson,
266
1978), the achievement levels represented the levels of declarative knowledge. In the following
267
sections, we present the declarative knowledge evidence first, followed by procedural knowledge
268
corresponding to the declarative knowledge. In this description, we emphasized on student
12
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 12 of 34
Page 13 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
269
responses that we consider as illustrating the differences associated with different levels of
270
declarative knowledge. Then, we describe the procedural knowledge associated with the
271
declarative knowledge to illustrate where the missing links are likely to be present.
272
“Oh, I know it…” – Declarative Knowledge as Manifested
273
Most of the students did not seem to have difficulty recalling important factual
information about fitness benefits and exercise principles. This was especially true with the high
275
achievement group of the students who clearly knew more than those in the other two groups.
276
They were able to articulate complex relationships of important conceptus such as intensity,
277
frequency, specificity, personal goals, and others. What is impressive is that many of them were
278
able to recall and use scientific vocabularies in the interviews with the researchers. These
279
particularly are reflective in their interview responses on the progression and overload principles.
280
In contrast, they faltered when trying to articulate on the specificity principle. In our perspective,
281
this weakness could be significant because the understanding of specificity principle is likely
282
associated with setting appropriate personal fitness goals.
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
274
Understandings of progression and overload. It appeared that the principles of
284
progression and overload have been mastered by a considerable number of students, including 16
285
students (16.67%) of low-, 27 students (25.71%) of medium-, and 49 students (54.44%) from the
286
high achievement/declarative knowledge groups. They were able to articulate these principles in
287
many forms of expressions. Some used scientific terminologies; others used layperson
288
languages. In answering how to prepare for a marathon, a sixth grader in the high declarative
289
knowledge group explained how to prepare oneself for long-distance running with the principle
290
of progression:
iew
283
13
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
291
You have to run a lot, practice and, that’s all. Because if you’re running a marathon and
292
run like more than one mile, if you run every day more than one mile, and you get more,
293
you are increasing, um, how you say it? Adaptation! You will get used to it.
294
In answering the question “if you want to get stronger, what might you do in your workout next
295
week?” a sixth grader with high declarative knowledge revealed his understanding of overload
296
and progression: “… I’d start with something that challenges me, and then if I could, I’d work on
297
completing that and then I’d go higher and higher mileage until I become stronger.”
Students’ understanding of progression and overload principles were not only applied to
Fo
298
cardiovascular fitness but also to musculoskeletal fitness. For instance, an eighth grader from the
300
high declarative knowledge group also applied the principles to the development of
301
musculoskeletal fitness, “(you) progressively have more reps and add more weights …put more
302
weight on. Yeah, (you) make it heavier.” A sixth grader from the same group specifically used
303
the term overload to explain his strategy to improve fitness by saying “(you) use the principle of
304
overload to work out harder than you normally do. It (the principle) is about working harder and
305
trying to set higher goals than normal.”
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
299
306
Students in the medium-declarative knowledge group also demonstrated mastery of the
307
principles of overload and progression. Elaborating progression, a seventh grader stated, “Your
308
body will respond to running 10 miles if you build up to it gradually. It (exercising with
309
progression) is different from someone who tries to run 10 miles at once with no preparation.”
310
Another seventh grader explained progression in musculoskeletal fitness, saying “(you) start with
311
a lower amount of weight and then work your weight up to what you want to be able to lift.”
312
Similar to her counterparts from the high-declarative knowledge group, an eighth grader from the
313
medium-declarative knowledge group explained what she would do to make herself strong by
14
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 14 of 34
Page 15 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
314
using the principle of overload: “I would push myself because when I get tired I could just stop,
315
but I try to push myself harder.”
316
Understandings of specificity. In terms of the specificity principle, only a small
percentage of students (6.67%) in the high achievement group, 1.90% in the medium
318
achievement group, and 0.00% in the low achievement group demonstrated accurate
319
understanding. In other words, in contrast to the understanding of the progression and overload
320
principles, most students of all three declarative knowledge groups showed inaccurate
321
understanding of the specificity principle. These small percentages across all three groups
322
suggested a high level of confusion about the specificity principle, a critically important guiding
323
principle to planning one’s physical activity goals for health. Evidence from the interviews
324
substantiated this confusion as well. For instance, in answering the question “how to become
325
stronger…” a sixth grader from the high-declarative knowledge group suggested, “Probably eat
326
right, work out a whole lot, and run. Because you get leg muscles from jogging, then eating right
327
you get heart muscles. And then from lifting weights and stuff you get arm muscles.” Another
328
seventh grader from the high declarative knowledge group stated, “You would practice your
329
running on machines (treadmills) that help you to be able to run. Because it helps your leg
330
muscles get stronger in running and it makes your body used to doing it all the time.” In the same
331
vein, an eighth grader from the high-declarative knowledge group believed “the faster your heart
332
beats the more muscle you get.” Almost all the students, regardless of their declarative
333
knowledge levels, seemed to hold a similar misconception that cardiovascular activities, such as
334
jogging, would contribute to muscular strength and hypertrophy.
iew
ev
rR
ee
336
rP
335
Fo
317
The few students (6.67%) from the high declarative knowledge group demonstrated
accurate understanding of the specificity principle. For instance, a sixth grader elaborated,
15
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
337
If I’m carrying stuff from the grocery store that’s really heavy, I get more upper body
338
strength. And if I’m like running to go down the street or get something I would get my
339
heart rate higher and my cardio working better.
340
A seventh grader specified,
You might start work out on some particular area in your body like the upper part or
342
lower part … Like maybe you wanted to get your arm stronger or your leg stronger or
343
both at the same time then you will have to do certain exercises to fit those needs”.
344
Fewer students (1.90%) from the medium declarative knowledge group demonstrated
Fo
341
accurate understanding of the specificity principle than those in the high-declarative knowledge
346
group. Among some of the few exceptions, an eighth grader elaborated what he would do to be
347
stronger:
ee
rP
345
Um… it depends on what you want to improve it on. Like… if you have weak upper
349
body strength you might want to do more anaerobic. But … if you have weak lower body
350
strength and not much endurance you might want to do aerobic, because it’ll help you get
351
use to pushing yourself.
352
Other than the few, most students from this group displayed misconceptions about the
iew
ev
rR
348
353
specificity principle. Some believed that whole body movements, such as running, contribute to
354
muscle growth across the body suggesting that one does not need to focus on different body parts
355
in exercise. For example, a seventh grader equated aerobic activities to muscle growth by
356
reasoning: “aerobic stuff requires you to use more oxygen … so you will feel the heat and you’re
357
starting to sweat more and starting to build more muscle while doing it.” Another eighth grader
358
shared the misconception, “if you run more then you get much stronger in your lower and upper
359
body at the same time.” A seventh grader explained that she would do sit-up and running to make
16
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 16 of 34
Page 17 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
360
her stronger, because “it (sit-up) helps your stomach decrease the fat and running helps you build
361
up your strength.” When a seventh grader was asked to explain “what do you think would
362
happen if someone who doesn’t run very much tried to run a long distance, like a marathon, one
363
day?” He answered, “They wouldn’t have like muscles to run marathon. They would just be like
364
they wouldn’t really care about their body, because you need muscles to do things.” To this
365
student, muscular strength rather than cardiovascular fitness is critical to marathon.
366
The Procedural Knowledge Gap
Our analysis revealed a conceptual difference between the students in terms of their
Fo
367
procedural fitness knowledge. In contrast to the fact that most students from all three knowledge
369
level groups demonstrated mastery of declarative fitness knowledge, they showed insufficient
370
procedural fitness knowledge. At the end of the open-coding process, we tallied the number of
371
the students who provided evidence of procedural knowledge components and the number of the
372
students who did not demonstrated any of the evidence. The tally results showed that 71.11%
373
(n=64) from the high-, 93.33% (n=98) from the medium-, and 100% (n=96) from the low-
374
declarative knowledge group did not present any procedural knowledge components.
iew
ev
rR
ee
375
rP
368
The procedural knowledge extracted from their interview responses was obscure and
376
demonstrated little operational structure or specific details for implementation. Meanwhile, most
377
interview responses including those from the high- and medium- declarative knowledge groups
378
did not exhibit adequate procedural knowledge that would match their declarative knowledge on
379
the overload and progression principles. They could recall the principles but were not able to
380
apply them to the situations presented to them in the interview questions about how they would
381
follow the principles to improve fitness. In contrast to the majority, a few students from the high-
382
(27.78%) and medium- (5.71%) declarative knowledge group demonstrated a mastery of the
17
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
383
procedural knowledge. The analyzed interview responses demonstrated a pattern of
384
understanding of the components needed for them to set up personal goals, make a plan, follow
385
the fitness principles, build a social-support network, and monitor/evaluate their fitness and
386
health.
In the following, we will first present the evidence from the most students to provide a
388
picture of what is missing in their procedural knowledge repertoire. Then we will focus on the
389
themes emerging from the small group to illustrate a procedural fitness knowledge base that
390
these students claimed helped them develop and improve fitness and health. In so doing, we hope
391
to demonstrate to fellow physical educators the curricular gap that we may need to fill.
392
“Hm… Let Me Think How to Do It…”: The Procedural Knowledge Challenge
rP
Most students felt being challenged when being asked to illustrate the ability about how
ee
393
Fo
387
to do something in physical activity. They were not able to show any procedural knowledge
395
beyond the most basics such as measuring heart rate to evaluate intensity. A seventh grader from
396
the medium declarative knowledge group explained, “(you can measure intensity) by taking your
397
pulse. Putting your fingers on the side of your neck or put them beside your thumb at your wrist,
398
right here (gesturing to the interviewer).” However, this student did not seem to understand the
399
question about what she needed to do to increase intensity to increase the heart rate.
iew
ev
rR
394
400
They often struggled with confusion in responding to application questions. For instance,
401
when a seventh grader from the high declarative knowledge group was asked about the overload
402
and progression principles, she could elaborate the two principles with little error. But when
403
asked to provide what she would do to apply the principles to her physical activity routine, she
404
could only repeat, “I try to go outside every day and do something. Whether it be just walking or
405
going out and riding my bike or something.” Clearly, how to apply the principles in her routine
18
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 18 of 34
Page 19 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
406
walking or biking was difficult for her to comprehend. The gap between her procedural and
407
declarative knowledge seemed to prevent her from seeing the way to implement these important
408
principles in her recreation-oriented physical activity routines.
409
The flawed procedural knowledge was sometimes worrisome because its implementation
could lead to injury or burnout. For instance, in responding to the question of how to apply the
411
overload principle to improve fitness for marathon, a six grader answered, “you can train
412
yourself by running…like sprinting a mile, then running a mile, then sprinting two miles then
413
running two miles.” An eighth grader from the high-declarative knowledge group shared his plan
414
to become stronger by declaring “(I) would add pounds each day like you did five one day then
415
ten the next day.” In an extreme case, one eighth grader from the medium declarative knowledge
416
group explained, “You might start (to) lift some weight … start out with 5 pounds then increase
417
to 15 then 20 pounds each week until your body responds. You just keep moving up each time,
418
because your body adapt to it with time.” These responses demonstrated a lack of understanding
419
for scientifically sound implementation with well-planned strategies or steps. These students
420
clearly wanted to follow the principle of overload but did not notice the specific requirements for
421
progressive overload (such as recovery) for planning time and frequency intervals to make
422
training relevant, safe, and effective.
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
410
423
It is alarming to have found that these many students did not possess adequate procedural
424
knowledge that matches their declarative knowledge. While they were able to recall major fitness
425
concepts, critical principles, and benefits of physical activity, they seemed to have developed a
426
deep gap between the declarative knowledge and the procedural knowledge. The gap seems to
427
have led them to incorrect physical activity plans, physical activities that mismatch their fitness
428
goals, and potential of injuring themselves during physical activity.
19
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
429
“Do It to Stay Healthy… Know How Is Important”
Then, what does a procedural fitness knowledge repertoire look like? Our analysis
431
revealed a small percentage of students in the high and the medium declarative knowledge
432
groups who displayed an understanding of procedural fitness knowledge. The knowledge was
433
characterized by detailed and step-by-step approach to fitness development and consisted of
434
these important components: duration and frequency, strategies on progression and overload,
435
dehydration prevention, dietary choices for specific type of activities, and/or seeking social
436
support. These components might form a curriculum platform for us to develop instructions to
437
teach middle school students.
rP
438
Fo
430
Duration & frequency. Those with procedural knowledge demonstrated procedural
knowledge about arranging a fitness program with detailed and appropriate duration and
440
frequency. An eighth grader from the medium declarative knowledge group said: “I exercises
441
mostly every day. I split an hour into 4 sections: 15 minutes of running, 15 minutes of exercising,
442
15 minutes to rotate the two, and 15 minutes just to have fun.” The answers from a seventh
443
grader from the high achievement group and an eighth grader from the medium group
444
emphasized the importance of “right” frequency in weight training:
iew
ev
rR
ee
439
445
(I) make a schedule of all the workouts I’m gonna do, like… push-ups, sit-ups,
446
running…and make a schedule to do it every other day. Because if you do it every day
447
it’s straining your muscles, and they don’t have time to heal and grow. If you do it every
448
other day, you give them time to rest.
449
When (I do) weightlifting, (I) keep doing it at like a schedule. You can’t just do it every
450
other week.
20
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 20 of 34
Page 21 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
451
Applying the progression principle. A few students in the high- (n=15, 16.67%) and the
medium- (n=11, 10.48%) declarative knowledge groups demonstrated procedural knowledge
453
about the progression principle for both cardiovascular and/or musculoskeletal exercises. One
454
described her progression plan for push-up, “you could start with wall push-ups and then
455
gradually move to the floor (push-ups).” Another provided a detailed account of how he would
456
progress over time, “my goal is to be able to run two miles without stopping, by running at least
457
three days a week. (I will be) going out for a run, transitioning from walking to running. Each
458
week (I) make the walking shorter and the running longer.”
459
Fo
452
Applying the overload principle. The few students from the high – (n=9, 10%) and the
rP
medium- (n=6, 5.71%) declarative knowledge groups specified the procedural meaning of the
461
overload principle in musculoskeletal and cardiovascular exercises. A seventh grader described:
462
“When I exercise, it might make me tired, but I just…in the middle of a set, I just think of a
463
number I’m on, like one, two, three, four, five but I just try to keep it all straight to trick my mind
464
into doing it.” Another echoed this procedural meaning in overcoming physical discomfort
465
during her cardiovascular exercise: “(when you run) you will soon start breathing harder and it
466
will take a while for you to get your energy back. But you still have energy to continue running.”
iew
ev
rR
467
ee
460
Fitness nutrition and hydration. The students from the medium (n=5, 4.76%) and the
468
high (n=13, 14.44%) declarative knowledge groups also knew how to prevent dehydration in
469
physical activity and choose healthy diet for fitness and health. A sixth grader stated:
470
If I’m trying to run, I’ll eat something that will settle well like I don’t want to eat
471
Mexican food and I don’t want to eat like some of those things like chili... You kind of
472
want to eat like bread and soup and stuff like that so you’ll have a good energy. And,
21
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
473
when you’re lifting weights and trying to get stronger, protein helps build muscle and get
474
stronger. And, the same with your leg muscles, protein will help you grow muscle.
475
Similarly, an eighth grader and a sixth grader both mentioned that it is important to stay
476
hydrated. The eighth grader also addressed the importance of consuming carbohydrates prior to
477
workouts.
(For) vigorous activity, (you) maybe (need) thirty seconds of rest in between those reps.
479
That’s pretty much it. Then you’d have to drink a lot of water, more than sixteen cups a
480
day, I would say for people my age. (You want to have) carbohydrates before your
481
workout, so you’ll actually have enough energy to lift during that workout.
482
Seeking social support. Only four students clearly recognized the significance of social
rP
Fo
478
support to achieve fitness goals. A seventh grader from the medium declarative knowledge group
484
pointed out, “My goal is to work out three times a week. My friend helps me out so I won’t get
485
lazy and slack off it.” Another eighth grader from the high declarative knowledge group shared a
486
similar strategy on seeking social support, “I make sure to tell my parents to remind me to maybe
487
do some push-ups at night or just anything that will help me stay healthy and fit.”
iew
ev
rR
488
ee
483
Setting performance goals. We found that 11 students (12.22%) from the high- and
489
eight students (7.62%) from the medium-declarative knowledge group associated their
490
procedural fitness knowledge with explicit personal fitness goals. For instance, the eighth grader
491
who sought support from parents revealed that her personal goal was to be physically fit so as to
492
be selected to join the varsity volleyball team at the school. She stated with confidence:
493
My friends and I decided to try volleyball this year because we just wanted to see what it
494
was like. My goal (is) just staying fit, looking healthy, and not just trying to impress other
22
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 22 of 34
Page 23 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
495
people, just trying to impress myself by staying healthy. Just whatever needs to be
496
touched up on, just not giving up.
497
Many students who possessed procedural knowledge shared similar fitness goals for
498
extra-curricular activities. Another seventh grader elaborated his goal of improving his fitness for
499
the basketball season: “I work out every time I get home. I run around my neighborhood, do
500
push-ups, squats, and sit-ups. I want to get ready to play basketball.” A sixth grader who swam
501
competitively shared his training plan and goals,
I swim either for five times a week for one hour and forty-five minutes (each day) and
503
then if I don’t, I will usually run around the block or something. (My goal is to) make it
504
to the Junior Olympics this year. I want to do that by working really hard and going five
505
days a week.
506
Most students’ goals were to achieve athletic competitiveness, while a small number of
rR
ee
rP
Fo
502
students’ goals were for personal fitness development. For example, a female seventh grader
508
from the high declarative knowledge group stated:
ev
507
I want to do as many days in my healthy activity log as I can. So I’ll try to do five days
510
this week then five days the next week. If you’ve done it all that except for two days (per
511
week) in the school year, you get to go on a pride trip at the end of the year.
512
iew
509
An eighth grader specified,
513
“My goal… before this year is over, I want to be able to do push-ups well instead of
514
doing the girl (knee) push-ups. And I want to see a change in my body with how I eat and
515
how active I am when I exercise on a regular day basis.”
23
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
516
A seventh grader from the high declarative knowledge group elaborated, “I have like a
517
weightlifting set at my house, and I work out every two days and lift weights. I made a bet with
518
my brother that I’d be benching 250 lbs. by the time I’m in high school.”
519
Sources of Knowledge
In the interviews we asked the students to identify their sources of information. Although
521
majority of the students were not able to provide definitive answers, the few with the procedural
522
knowledge did identify physical education and community organizations as sources of
523
information for both declarative and procedural fitness knowledge. For example, we often
524
followed their answers with probe questions about information sources such as, “Is this a
525
physical education assignment?” or “How did you know about this?” Most students would say “I
526
don’t know…” But some were able to elaborate. For instance, the student who wanted to log in
527
as many exercise days in her healthy activity log said that keeping physically active outside
528
physical education was an assignment for physical education:
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
520
Yes, each week you have to do three days of physical activity outside of school and then
530
you write it down and keep track of it. You have to write down what you did, stretch,
531
anaerobic activity and aerobic activity, and then your nutrients, and something like I got
532
nine hours of sleep or I didn’t drink soda today and limited my electronic times (to) one
533
hour.
534
Some students identified community groups such as the Boy Scouts’ fitness camp and its
iew
529
535
fitness merit badge programs as information sources that helped them informed about their
536
personal fitness goals. Thus, in addition to physical education and extra-curricular
537
sports/athletics, other community-based programs might have served the students as the learning
538
context in which they could also receive information for fitness-related knowledge.
24
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 24 of 34
Page 25 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
539
Discussion
540
The purpose of this study was to identify middle school students’ mastery of fitness
knowledge on both declarative and procedural dimensions. Knowing fitness knowledge has been
542
widely recognized by many researchers and educators as a foundation for promoting physically
543
active behaviors and enhancing fitness level. Nevertheless, as counterintuitive as this may seem,
544
research evidence has indicated that improving students’ fitness knowledge does not, at least
545
directly, contribute to their behavioral change to become more physically active (Demetrious et
546
al., 2015). The disjunction between knowing and doing presents a challenge to physical
547
education teachers and researchers and urges us to find the missing link through re-examining
548
the theoretical reasoning based on which researchers and educators construct physical education
549
interventions and instruction.
ee
rP
Fo
541
Education researchers (Renkl, Mandl, & Gruber, 1996; Perkins & Salomon, 2012) have
551
come to recognize that, across subject domains, students could demonstrate knowledge mastery
552
in the classroom but may not apply the knowledge in real life. The term "inert knowledge" has
553
been used for a long time in education to describe the knowledge that students can possess but
554
incapable to transfer from its declarative form to procedural form (Whitehead, 1929). Scholars
555
have identified two conditions under which inert knowledge persists. The first condition
556
identifies the absence of to-be-applied knowledge as the foremost important condition that leads
557
to the incapability of transfer from declarative to procedural (Renkl et al., 1996). The second
558
condition underlines the importance of motivational factors by specifying “cold motivational
559
environment” as the contributor of inert knowledge (Belenky & Nokes-Malach, 2012; Perkins &
560
Salomon, 2012). Based on these conceptualization, we explain our findings in relation to the
561
declarative-procedural disconnection.
iew
ev
rR
550
25
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
562
Availability of the to-be-applied knowledge. Our data suggest that a lack of the ready
to-be-applied knowledge, including declarative and procedural fitness knowledge, is responsible
564
for the difficulty the students displayed in applying the knowledge (Renkl et al., 1996). Students
565
must be fully equipped with both declarative and procedural knowledge “in correct and ready-to-
566
be-used form” for actual application (Renkl et al., 1996, p. 116). For fitness knowledge, the
567
principles of overload, progression and specificity – the declarative knowledge – provide
568
conceptual guidance for fitness routines development. Without mastering the declarative
569
knowledge, it is not possible for learners to establish a scientifically sound fitness routine and
570
perform it consistently. As the findings indicate, most students across the three declarative
571
knowledge groups could only successfully elaborate the overload and progression principles but
572
not the specificity principle. Without solid mastery of declarative knowledge on all three
573
principles, an application of procedural fitness knowledge associated with the principles would
574
be infeasible.
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
563
Some knowledge domains, including biology, physics, mathematics, and sports, are
576
distinctive in that they are more procedurally rich than other domains (Dochy & Alexander,
577
1995). In the same vein, fitness knowledge is procedurally rich in that each of its principles
578
connects with a different set of contextual and operational factors. Taking the overload principle
579
as an example, following it requires the individual to physically challenge oneself in order to
580
gain fitness benefits. When one executes the principle without following the progression
581
principle at the same time, overtraining may occur to cause injuries; which leads to opposite
582
outcomes. Even with solid declarative fitness knowledge, individuals still need to answer a
583
number of procedural questions in order to implement the overload principle successfully. These
584
questions include but not limited to “To what extent should individuals overload themselves?”
iew
575
26
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 26 of 34
Page 27 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
585
“How long should the overload condition last?” and “How frequently should it be performed?”
586
Moreover, the implementation of the overload principle never follow a one-size-fits-all model.
587
For instance, a student who just began a fitness development program can be physically and
588
mentally overwhelmed by an overloading task that his or her well-trained peers who can perform
589
with ease. Without sufficient procedural fitness knowledge, students are likely to encounter
590
implementation challenges.
591
Procedural goal. The second important condition that contributes to inert learning is the
absence of motivational factors, such as personal goals aligned with the knowledge, values
593
attached to the knowledge and self-efficacy (Renkl et al., 1996; Belenky & Nokes-Malach, 2012;
594
Perkins & Salomon, 2012). In other words, a “cold” or overly rational learning environment that
595
focuses only on knowledge mastery without relating to the “warm” motivational factors may not
596
benefit students’ learning of procedural knowledge (Pintrich, Marx & Boyle, 1993). Our findings
597
seem to lend a strong support to this theoretical point. Students may not be ready to develop
598
procedural fitness knowledge if they acquire the declarative fitness knowledge without a strong
599
motivational drive for application.
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
600
Fo
592
The evidence also indicates that the students in this study had difficulty understanding
601
and applying the specificity principle and showed limited mastery of procedural fitness
602
knowledge. It confirms the hypothesized disconnection between declarative and procedural
603
fitness knowledge. The evidence further reveals that students with a clearly specified goal
604
demonstrated a mastery of procedural fitness knowledge. It potentially suggests that a clearly
605
defined goal serves as a strong determinant in fitness knowledge by attaching tangible
606
declarative fitness knowledge components to specific actions. Through learning the principle of
607
specificity, students can explore the potential gains their bodies could achieve, for a muscle
27
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
608
group, a body system, or an energy system. The knowledge allows them to identify a fitness
609
goal, which further their exploration and acquisition of procedural fitness knowledge. In other
610
words, having a fitness goal affords them a clear knowledge path to navigate, discover,
611
and identify with knowledge about how to train (procedural knowledge), and practice them
612
according to the training principles (declarative knowledge) they already know.
613
We speculate that with deep understanding of personal fitness goals a student can
meaningfully proceduralize the declarative knowledge, design meaningful fitness training
615
practices, and successfully apply what is learned in physical education outside of the school
616
gymnasia (Ennis, 2017). Our findings, on the other hand, raise a precaution against the notion
617
that goals can be developed in isolation from knowledge learning. The results of this study
618
indicate that not all the students who participated in extra-curricular sports/athletics had well-
619
defined athletics- or fitness-related goals and mature procedural knowledge to achieve them. We
620
speculate that the goals have to be developed along with scientifically sound knowledge to
621
function well as relevant procedural knowledge.
ev
rR
ee
rP
Conclusions
iew
622
Fo
614
623
Almost two decades ago, Placek and colleagues (2001) thoroughly evaluated middle
624
school students’ conceptions of fitness as very limited in scope and shallow in depth. In the
625
findings of this study, we are witnessing encouraging improvement on student learning of fitness
626
knowledge. The middle school students across all three declarative knowledge groups
627
demonstrated acceptable understanding of the overload and progression principles and physical
628
adaptation as a positive physical activity outcome. Nevertheless, the findings also suggest that
629
we are still “on the long road” (Placek et al., 2001, p. 314). For most students, critical declarative
630
and procedural fitness knowledge components are still lacking, which we may assume to be a
28
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 28 of 34
Page 29 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
631
contributing factor to students’ inability to engage in regular physical activity. The critical link
632
between knowing and action, the procedural knowledge, is missing, which prohibits them to
633
transfer conceptual fitness knowledge to physically active behaviors. The findings clearly
634
challenge us to critically review physical education curriculum to address the missing link
635
between declarative-procedural fitness knowledge in every lesson. By doing so, we can provide
636
physical education as a transformative experience that is mindful, meaningful, and motivating to
637
our students (Ennis, 2017).
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
29
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
Reference
639
640
641
Adams, N. E. (2015). Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives. Journal of the
Medical Library Association, 103(3), 152-153.
642
Anderson, J. R. (1976). Language, memory, and thoughts. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
643
Belenky, D., & Nokes-Malach, T. (2012). Motivation and transfer: The role of master-approach
644
645
goals in preparation for future learning. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21, 399–432.
Corbin, C. (2002). Physical activity for everyone: What every physical educator should know
about promoting lifelong physical activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education,
647
21(2), 128-144.
rP
648
Fo
646
Demetriou, Y., Sudeck, G., Thiel, A., & Honor, O. (2015). The effects of school-based physical
activity interventions on students’ health-related fitness knowledge: A systematic review.
650
Educational Research Review, 16, 19-40.
rR
651
ee
649
Dochy, F. J. R. C., & Alexander, P. A. (1995). Mapping prior knowledge: A framework for
discussion among researchers. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 10(3), 225-
653
242.
655
656
iew
654
ev
652
Ennis, C. D. (2007). Defining learning as conceptual change in physical education and physical
activity settings. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(3), 138-150.
Ennis, C. D. (2017). Educating students for a lifetime of physical activity: Enhancing
657
mindfulness, motivation, and meaning. Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport, 88(3),
658
241-250.
659
Gil, A., Moreno, M. P., García-González, L., Moreno, A., & Del Villar, F. (2012). Analysis of
660
declarative and procedural knowledge in volleyball according to the level of practice and
661
players’ age. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 115(2), 632– 644.
30
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 30 of 34
Page 31 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
662
Gilgun, J. F. (2019). Deductive Qualitative Analysis and Grounded Theory: Sensitizing Concepts
663
and Hypothesis-Testing. In A. Bryant & K. Charmaz (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of
664
Current Developments in Grounded Theory (pp. 107–122). London: Sage.
665
666
667
668
670
Greene, J. C. (2006). Toward a methodology of mixed methods social inquiry. Research in the
Schools, 13(1), 93-98.
Greeno, J. G. (1978). Understanding and procedural knowledge in mathematics instruction.
Educational Psychologists, 12(3), 262-283.
rP
671
Gruyter.
Fo
669
Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. New York: Aldine de
Harris, J., Cale, L., Duncombe, R., & Musson, H. (2018). Young people’s knowledge and
understanding of health, fitness and physical activity: Issues, divides and dilemmas.
673
Sport, Education and Society, 23(5), 407-420.
rR
674
ee
672
Ignico, A. A., & Corson, A. (1997). Effects of heart rate monitor instruction on first grade
ev
children’s fitness knowledge and performance. Journal of International Council for
676
Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 33, 12-14.
677
iew
675
Keating, X. D. (2003). The current often implemented nationwide youth fitness tests physical
678
education programs: The characteristics, problems and future directions. Quest, 55, 141–
679
160.
680
681
682
683
Lloyd, M., Colley, R., & Tremblay, M. (2010). Advancing the debate on 'fitness testing' for
children: Perhaps we're riding the wrong animal. Pediatric Exercise Science, 22, 176-82.
Marx, E., & Wooley, S. F. (1998). Health is academic: A guide to coordinated school health
programs. New York, NY: Teacher College Press.
31
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
684
685
686
Nahas, M. V. (1992). Knowledge and attitudes changes of low-fit college students following a
short-term fitness education program. Physical Educator, 49, 152–159.
National Physical Activity Plan Alliance (2018). The 2018 United States report card on physical
687
activity for children & youth. Columbia, SC: Author. Retrieved from:
688
http://www.physicalactivityplan.org/projects/PA/2018/2018_USReportCard_UPDATE_1
689
2062018.pdf?pdf=page-link
690
Nickols, F. (2000). The knowledge in knowledge management. In J. A. Woods, & J. Cortada
(Eds.). The knowledge management yearbook 2000-2001 (p. 12-21). Boston, MA:
692
Butterworth & Heinemann.
696
practice (4th ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (2012). Knowledge to go: A motivational and dispositional view
rR
695
Patton, M. Q. (2014). Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Integrating theory and
ee
694
rP
693
Fo
691
of transfer. Educational Psychologist, 47(3), 248-258.
ev
Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of
698
motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual
699
change. Review of Educational Research, 63, 167–199.
700
iew
697
Placek, J. H., Griffin, L. L., Dodds, P., Raymond, C., Tremino, F., & James, A. (2001). Middle
701
school students’ conceptions of fitness: The long road to a healthy lifestyle. Journal of
702
Teaching in Physical Education, 20(4), 314-323.
703
704
Rencher, A. C. (2002) Methods of Multivariate Analysis (2nd ed). Danvers, MA: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
32
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Page 32 of 34
Page 33 of 34
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
705
Rimal, R. N. (2001). Longitudinal influences of knowledge and self-efficacy on exercise
706
behavior: Tests of a mutual reinforcement model. Journal of Health Psychology, 6(1),
707
31-46.
708
709
710
Renkl, A., Mandl, H., & Gruber, H. (1996). Inert knowledge: Analyses and remedies.
Educational Researcher, 31, 115–121.
SHAPE America. (2016). Shape of the nation: Status of physical education in the USA.
Retrieved from https://www.shapeamerica.org/uploads/pdfs/son/Shape-of-the-Nation
712
-2016_web.pdf
713
Fo
711
Shea, J. M., & Beausoleil, N. (2012). Breaking down ‘healthism’: Barriers to health and fitness
rP
as identified by immigrant youth in St. John's, NL, Canada, Sport, Education and Society,
715
17(1), 97-112
ee
714
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
717
Whitehead, A. N. (1929). The aims of education. New York: Macmillan.
718
Zhang, T., Chen, A., Yli-Piipari, S., Loflin, J., Wells, S., Schweighardt, R., … Ennis, C. D.
ev
rR
716
(2016). Prior knowledge determines interest in learning in physical education: A
720
structural growth model perspective. Learning and Individual Differences, 51, 132-140.
721
722
iew
719
Zhu, W., Safrit, M., & Cohen, A. (1999). The national health-related physical fitness knowledge
test: FitSmart test user manual (High school edition). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
723
33
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
Page 34 of 34
From Fitness Knowledge to Fitness Activities
724
Table 1
725
Descriptive Statistics on Declarative Knowledge and Group Membership
Mean
Standard Deviation
Low
Medium
High
6th grade
5.26
2.06
41
39
28
7th grade
5.51
2.06
30
35
27
8th grade
6.04
2.49
25
31
35
Male
5.59
2.33
48
40
42
Female
5.59
2.13
48
65
48
iew
ev
rR
ee
rP
Fo
726
Grade
34
Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825