AP EXAM SUPPLEMENT Specifically developed for this year’s AP Exam* curvebreakerstestprep.com facebook.com/curvebreakerstestprep twitter.com/curvebreakers instagram.com/curvebreakers *This is not meant to be a comprehensive study guide but rather a companion in your preparation for the exam and for taking the exam. Please refer to CollegeBoard rules and regulations to make sure you are in compliance with all exam rules. #NickTheTutor on YouTube tiktok.com/amp/tag/nickthetutor Biochemistry Most common elements of life: CHNOPS Interactions: ionic (move e-); covalent (share, polar or nonpolar); hydrogen; hydrophobic interactions pH: log scale, acid < 7, base > 7, based on [H+]; blood = 7.4, stomach = 2, small intestine = 8 Properties of water: polarity, cohesion (to other water), adhesion (other surfaces), low density when frozen, solvent, high heat of fusion and vaporization, surface tension Organic molecules - - Carbohydrates (CHO 1:2:1, used for energy) Lipids (CHO w/o ratio, fats, waxes, oils, sterols) Proteins (C,H,O,N + R group) o 20 amino acids; Carboxyl (COOH) + central carbon with R group + Amino (NH2) o Folding: primary is amino acid chain, secondary β-pleated sheet or α helix, tertiary is folding in (disulfide bridges, H bonds, other bonds), quaternary is 1+ polypeptides Nucleic acids – CHON o Sugar + phosphate + base o DNA is double stranded with deoxyribose, AGCT o RNA is single stranded with ribose, AGCU Enzymes: break down (catabolism) or build up (anabolism), act on substrate - Rate affected by pH, temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration Inhibition: competitive (something else in active site) and non-competitive (something at allosteric site, changes enzyme shape) Coenzymes (organic i.e. NAD) and cofactors (inorganiz, Zn, Mg) Cell Structure Prokaryotes (bacteria) vs eukaryotes (other living things): prok have no membrane-bound organelles, no nucleus, circular DNA (single), free ribosomes, can have cell wall Organelles: nucleus holds DNA; mitochondria (outer membrane smooth, inside folded with enzymes for cellular respiration); ribosome is site of translation (making proteins); ER can modify lipids (smooth) and proteins (rough); Golgi complex for packaging and export signals; cytoskeleton (microfilaments- give shape and movement; microtubulescentrioles, spindle fibers); vacuoles hold liquids (large central for water in plants) - Animals have lysosomes and centrioles, Plants have chloroplast and cell wall (cellulose and lignin) Cell membrane: phospholipid, amphipathic, fluid mosaic model, modes of transport (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport) - Endocytosis takes in, exocytosis spits out material Osmosis for water diffusion Turgor pressure in plant cells from cell wall and vacuole Hypertonic (high solute), hypotonic (low solute), isotonic (equal solute) As cell size increases, volume increases faster than surface area so cells have to divide Nervous system – Na+ outside, K+ and Cl- inside; depolarization has Na+ come in, action potential; sodium-potassium pump moves 3 Na+ out and two K+ in 1 Cellular Energy Energy and matter are not created but change (1st law of thermodynamics), entropy ~ disorder; if more organized, more free energy and less entropy Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O - Glycolysis in cytoplasm, anaerobic, makes pyruvate <- inefficient, only 2ATP Kreb’s cycle in mitochonddrial matrix, 2x per glucose molecule, further oxidize pyruvate and release CO2; coenzymes NAD+ and FAD take e- to ETC Electron Transport Chain in mitochondria, pumps H+ ions into intermembrane space so chemiosmosis has ions rush through ATP synthase into matrix, making ATP by oxidative phosphorylation Anaerobic fermentation: no oxygen - Recycles NAD; alcohol and lactic acid fermentation; does NOT make ATP 2 Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 - Light-dependent in internal membranes of chloroplasts (photosystems I and II), pass ethrough ETC and use chemiosmosis to make ATP, release O2; red and blue light best Light-independent in stroma of chloroplasts; carbon fixation to make sugar, ATP and NADPH help make glucose 3 Cell Communication Cell cycle- favorable SA:Vol ratio better for material exchange so smaller cell better - - Interphase (G1 growth, S DNA synthesis, G2 preparation for mitosis) + cell division Mitosis- duplicated chromosomes line up in center, spindle fibers pull apart; Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and reforms membrane (animal cell has cleavage, plant cell forms cell plate to make cell wall); 2 clones from 1 cell (2n-> 2n) o Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis Checkpoints by internal enzymes and external growth factors Cancer when cell cycle control disrupted Meiosis: 2n-> 1n; homologous chromosomes paired (one maternal, one paternal), line up randomly in center, pulled apart in meiosis I; duplicated chromosomes pulled apart in meiosis II; crossing over causes variation o Prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I and cytokinesis, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II and cytokinesis 4 Mendel’s laws - Law of Dominance- one allele expressed over another Law of Segregation – alleles separate during meiosis Law of Independent Assortment- alleles separated randomly during meiosis (only if on different chromosomes) Probability and Exceptions - Monohybrid cross (one trait): 3:1 from Aa x Aa; 1:1 when Aa x aa Dihybrid cross: 9:3:3:1 from AaBb x AaBb Incomplete dominance: both proteins expressed so blend (red x white-> pink) Codominance: both proteins equally expressed Epistasis: one gene affects another’s expression Linked genes: genes inherited together (same chromosome), recombination frequency calculated by recombinants/total Gene/environment interactions: phenotypes can be changed by environment Polygenic: continuous variation, many genes affect the phenotype (i.e. height, skin color) Humans: 22 pairs of autosomes + 1 pair of sex chromosomes = 46 chromosomes Heredity DNA Structure: Avery-MacLeod isolated DNA 1944; Hershey-Chase showed DNA injected by bacteriophage 1952; Watson-Crick(Wilkens and Franklin)- structure of DNA 1953 - Deoxyribose nucleic acid, double helix of nucleotides (phosphate + deoxyribose sugar + nitrogen base), antiparallele strands Purines (AG, double rings) and Pyrimidines (CUT, single ring); A-T/U: double H, C-G: triple H Replication is semiconservative (original strand copied) o Helicase unzips strands, DNA pol adds nucleotides bidirectionally to the 3’-> 5’ (new DNA made in 5’->3’ direction) o Replication bubbles and replication fork, Leading strand continuous (3’->5’), Lagging strand discontinuous (Okazaki fragments fused by ligase) o RNA primers to start 5 RNA: single stranded, uracil instead of thymine - Transcription makes mRNA in nucleus, RNA pol reads DNA 3’->5’ and makes complementary mRNA o RNA pol binds TATA box, Initiation, Elongation (add RNA nucleotides), Termination - Editing (cut out introns, splice together exons), add polyA tail at 3’, add GTP cap at 5’, go to ribosome Translation: Match mRNA code (every 3 is a codon) to tRNA (with attached amino acid) to make polypeptide at ribosome - Initiation: tRNA attaches to start codon AUG, large ribosomal subunit binds and tRNA in P site Elongation: new tRNA in A, peptide bond forms, translocation, tRNA in A moves to P Termination: ribosomes sees stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) Gene Expression and Regulation Negative feedback (product shuts off process) and positive feedback (product amplifies response) Communication between cells (inhibition or stimulation) by contact, local signals (paracrine), long distances (endocrine) Immunity: plants, invertebrates, vertebrates have nonspecific response - Mammals have adaptive immunity: cell mediated (Cytotoxic T cells target intracellular pathogens based on displayed antigens) Humoral- B cells make antibodies against specific antigens Viruses- Replicate in host cell, rapid evolution, lack replication proofreading, lytic or lysogenic infections (lytic replicate and lyse cells, lysogenic integrate into host DNA) Natural Selection Change over time, variation among phenotypes, individuals with most favorable traits will better compete for resources and survive to reproduce; fitness is ability to survive and reproduce; can have sexual selection Hardy-Weinburg needs large population, no migration, no mutation, random mating, no natural selection Speciation: 2+ species from 1 original species so the modern species can no longer breed together; come from geographic isolation (physical barrier) and reproductive isolation (different behaviors, habitats, timing, anatomy); rapid or gradual Phylogenetic: phylogenetic trees and cladograms show speciation, from morphology (can cause problems), sequence similarities; based on relationships between species Ecology Population: individuals of same species in same area; habitat is type of place where lives, niche is role in the ecosystem Growth is limited: by density (competition for resources, stress, predation, disease), not by density (climate, natural disasters); Carrying capacity is maximum population a habitat will support Communities- species composition and species diversity Interactions between species: mutualism (+/+), commensalism (+/0), parasitism (+/-), predation (+/-), competition Usually smaller organisms have higher metabolic rate Energy flows through trophic levels, 90% lost at each level; primary producers-> primary consumers-> secondary consumers-> tertiary consumers-> decomposers 6 References 1. https://medium.com/@biologynotes/cell-membrane-dc52e97b808b 2. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/celres.html 3. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants/introduction-to-stages4. 5. 6. 7. of-photosynthesis/a/intro-to-photosynthesis http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch13/mitosis-meiosis.html https://medium.com/@biologynotes/dna-replication-302203b5c3d8 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/marine-food-pyramid-1/ https://www.ptbeach.com/cms/lib/NJ01000839/Centricity/Domain/113/ap%20biology%20pages %20and%20worksheets/AP-Biology-Exam-Review.pdf 8. https://blog.prepscholar.com/ap-biology-study-guide Get ready for your next exam with Curvebreakers! 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