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PE 104
FITNESS EXERCISE
Physical Activity – A body movement that is produced by the contraction of skeletal muscles and that
substantially increases energy expenditure.
Exercise – A type of physical activity that requires planned, structured, and repetitive bodily movements to
improve or maintain one or more components of physical fitness.
Physical Education – An integral part of general education designed to promote the optimum development
of the individual physically, socially, emotionally, and mentally through total body movement in the
performance of properly selected physical activities.
Physical Fitness – The ability of an individual to perform one’s daily task with vigor and alertness without
undue fatigue, with reserve energy to attend to other tasks, with readiness to meet unforeseen emergencies,
and with enough energy for leisure time activities.
COMPONENTS/PARAMETERS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
A. Health Related Components
Those components that contribute to the development of fitness and health and functional capacity of the
body will be classified as health-related components. Health-related components are first developed before
the skill-related components.
1. Muscular Strength – ability of the muscle to exert or apply a single maximal force during contraction to
overcome resistance.
Activity tests to measure muscular strength:
Push-ups
Modified Push-ups
2. Muscular Endurance – capacity of a muscle or a group of muscle to persist in a localized muscular effort
or capacity of a muscle to exert force repeatedly or to hold a contraction over a period of time.
Activity test to measure muscular endurance:
Abdominal Curl-ups
3. Flexibility – functional capacity of the joints to move within a normal range of motion (ROM). It involves
the muscular system as well as the bones and joints. Lack of adequate flexibility has often been linked with
low back pain as well as with muscle and joint injuries. An adequate degree of flexibility is important to
prevent injury and to maintain body mobility. It can be greatly improved by stretching.
It involves four basic movements, namely:
 Flexion – bending a body segment
 Extension – straightening a body segment
 Abduction – moving a limb away from a body
 Adduction – moving a limb towards the body
Activity tests to measure flexibility:
Sit and Reach
Shoulder Flexibility
Sit and Reach Wall Test
4. Body Composition – refers to the total make-up of the body using the concept of a two component model:
The Lean Body Mass and the Body Fat.
The Lean Body Mass consists of the muscles, bones, nervous tissue, skin, blood and organs. These
tissues have high metabolic rate and make a direct, positive contribution to energy production during
exercise.
Body Fat of adipose tissue represents that the components of the body whose primary role is to store
energy for later use. Body Fats does not contribute in a direct sense to exercise performance. Body Fat is
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further the maintenance of life while storage body fat contained in the fatty deposits found under the skin
and deep inside the body.
Activity tests to measure body composition:
Body Mass Index
Pinch
Waist-Hip Ratio
5. Cardiovascular Endurance – is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels to supply oxygen and
nutrients to the working muscles efficiently in order to sustain prolonged rhythmical exercises. It is also
defined as the maximum amount of work an individual is capable of performing continuously where the work
involves large muscle groups.
Activity tests to measure cardio-vascular endurance:
Walking Test
Step Test
B. Skill-Related Components of Fitness
Contribute to one’s ability to perform skills and to participate in enjoyable leisure activities. Skill-related
components are developed after the health-related components.
1. Speed – is the ability of the individual to move from one point to another or one direction within the
shortest time possible.
Activity tests to measure speed:
50-meter Sprint
Double Heel Click
100-meter Dash
2. Power – is the ability to exert or apply a single maximum force within the shortest time possible.
Strength + Speed = Power
Activity tests to measure power:
Standing Long Jump
Vertical Jump
3. Reaction Time – the length of time that an individual requires to respond to a stimulus.
Activity test to measure reaction time:
Paper Drop
4. Coordination – is the common denominator of all motor performance parameters. It involves the nervous
system and the skeletal-muscular system and may be as the smooth flow of movement.
Activity test to measure coordination:
Paper Ball Bounce
5. Balance – a special kind of coordination involves reflexes, vision, the “inner ear”, the cerebellum, and the
skeletal-muscular system. It is the ability of the individual to maintain equilibrium in relation to change in
body position. Balance can be categorized into static and dynamic balance.
Static balance involves equilibrium in a fixed position such as standing on one foot or on a balance
beam.
Dynamic balance refers to the maintenance of equilibrium while moving such as walking in a
balance beam.
Activity tests to measure balance:
One-foot Balance
Balance Beam Walk
6. Agility – generally defined as the ability to change direction quickly and efficiently while moving as early
as possible as full speed.
Activity tests to measure agility:
Shuttle Run
Paper Ball Pick-up
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C. PHYSICAL FITNESS TEST
1. Speed Test
Double Heel Click. With the feet apart, jump up and tap the heels together twice before you hit the ground.
You must land with your feet 3 inches apart.
2. Agility Test
Paper Ball Pick-up. Place two wadded paper balls on the floor 5 feet away. Run, pick up the first paper ball
and return both feet behind the starting line. Repeat with the second ball. Finish in 5 seconds.
3. Balance Test
One Foot Balance. Stand on one foot, press up so that the weight is on the ball of the foot with the heel off
the floor. Hold the hands and the other leg straight out in front for 10 seconds.
4. Power Test
Standing Long Jump. Stand with toes behind the line. Using no run or hop step, jump as far as possible.
Men must jump their height plus 6 inches. Women must jump their height only.
5. Coordination Test
Paper Ball Bounce. Wad up a sheet of notebook paper into a ball. Bounce the ball back and forth between
the right and left hands. Keep the hands open and palms up. Bounce the ball 3 times with each hand,
alternating hands for each bounce.
6. Reaction Time Test
Paper Drop. Have a partner hold a sheet of notebook paper so that the side edge is between your thumb
and index finger, about the width of your hand from the top of the page. When your partner drops the paper,
catch it before it slips through the thumb and finger. Do not lower your hand to catch the paper.
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF CARDIORESPIRATORY TRAINING
Training – Is a systematic method of physical conditioning. Before an individual perform an activity, he
should know the guidelines in doing the activity. It is also defined as a systematic process of repetitive,
progressive exercise of work, involving the learning process and acclimatization.
The basic training principles help coaches to design program that are specific and safe for an individual
athlete. The training principles outlined below will appear to focus mostly on fitness training but the majority
will also apply to technical, tactical and psychological training.
A. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES – Performers respond differently to the same training. This is due to factors
such the individuals state of training, the characteristic athletes have inherited from their parents, their
personal commitment and their level of physical and mental maturity, their sexes and age levels.
No two individuals are exactly alike. All individuals have different performances, fitness attributes, lifestyles,
nutritional preferences, and they respond to exercise and its physical and social environments and their own
unique way. It is therefore essential that the exercise programs cater to these individual needs and
preferences.
B. ADAPTATION – Is the way the body responds to the training program. The parts of the body that are
actively stressed during exercise adapt to those stresses, leading to an increase in performance.
C. OVERLOAD – Indicates that doing “more than the usual” is necessary if benefits are to occur. In order
for the muscles (including the heart muscles) to get stronger, it must be overloaded or worked against a
load greater than the usual. It relates to the principle of used in that your energy systems must be stressed
beyond their normal levels of activity if they are to improve. For the body’s systems to make these
adaptations, they must be overloaded. Just taking part in an activity will not cause any improvements in
fitness, as the body will not be stressed to a greater extent than normal.
For physical activity to be effective, it must be done with enough intensity, frequency and duration.
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Intensity – (how hard) it is defined as the difficulty level or how vigorous and exercise should be.
This is probably the most critical of the different factors that determine the amount of positive physical
change to take place.
Frequency – (how often) it is the number of times one should exercise in a week. According to
studies, for one to achieve something out of ones physical fitness activity, one should exercise at
least 3-4 times in a week. Increased frequency may be necessary for those training for competition.
Duration – (how long) the length of time at which the exercise program is executed. An average
work-out will last between 15-45 minutes to an hour. The intensity of an exercise is inversely
proportional to the duration. As the intensity increases, duration decreases and vice versa.
D. PROGRESSION – As one reaches their fitness potentials, the rate of improvement begins to plateau.
The overload imposed on an athlete must be progressive. If a training program stays at the same intensity
for a whole year, adaptations will only be evident at the beginning, as after this the body will no longer be
overloaded.
For the initial stage of training, the habitually sedentary individuals should have a mild to moderate entry
into the program. As the body begins to adapt to the exercise routing, the intensity, duration, and or
frequency may be increased so as to keep up with the improvement of the body.
It is important to progress slowly, as too rapid progression may contribute to the development of overuse
injuries.
E. REVERSIBILITY – The adaptation that take place as a result of training are all reversible. Adaptation to
endurance training can be lost more quickly than it takes to achieve them while strength gains are lost more
slowly. The principle of reversibility is another way of stating the principle of disuse. If your energy systems
are not utilized, it deteriorates to a level congruent to your level of activity. It indicates that disuse or inactivity
results in loss of benefits achieved in overloading.
In order to maintain a desired level of fitness, you need to continue to provide an exercise overload.
Unfortunately, we cannot “bank” fitness neither can we “store” fitness.
The principle states that if an individual stop to exercise, the body returns to its initial level of fitness.
F. SPECIFICITY – In order for a training program to be effective it must be specific for the sport and position
of the performer. It indicates that you must train specific energy system and specific muscle groups in order
for them to improve.
Two Types of Specificity:
 Metabolic Specificity- involves training a specific energy system.
 Neuromuscular Specificity – involves training specific muscle group.
Special Considerations:
 The program must be specifically planned in terms of the sports itself.
 The program must be geared specifically to the individual using it.
G. RECOVERY – It is during the recovery sessions that the adaptations to training take place. Recovery
sessions may not necessary means complete rest. Periods of lower intensity activity will allow the body to
adapt without increasing the stress placed on it. These periods are excellent opportunities for work on
technique and tactics.
It refers to the amount of time the body should be allowed to rest and recover from fatigue before the
next activity begins.
H. VARIATION – Refers to the need of the body to undergo changes. If training programs are repetitious,
athletes can soon become bored and lose their motivation.
J. TIME PATTERN – Exercises should be done anytime of the day when it is convenient for the individual
and it should be governed by the preference and the timetable of the individual.
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However, exercising one (1) or two (2) hours after a heavy meal is not advised because it may result to
indigestion. Digestion takes place one to two hours after a heavy meal, where blood and oxygen is needed
for good digestion. If an individual exercise at this time, the exercised muscles will also demand more blood
and oxygen supply. As a result, the blood and oxygen needed for digestion will not be enough, thus,
indigestion may likely be experienced.
EXERCISE PRECAUTIONS – Prior to undertaking an exercise program, some precautions should be
followed.
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Medical Examination
Warm-up
IMPORTANCE OF MUSCLE STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE
The muscle system is at the foundation of all physical exercise. No matter what activity you participate in,
your muscle strength and endurance determine your exercise limits.
Body motion, the beating of the heart, breathing movements, movements of the bones, balance, and
posture are all brought about by the contraction of muscles. Yet, muscles are not independent from the rest
of the body systems, and conditioning is not limited solely to the muscles. Your muscles’ ability to do work
is totally dependent upon the efficiency of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs in providing energy and waste
product elimination. Muscles, the heart, blood vessels, and the lungs are simultaneously conditioned
because of their interdependence.
Your main goal in conditioning the muscle system is not to build big, bulky muscles like the bodybuilders
seen on television or the weight lifters in the Olympics. These individuals have trained rigorously for years
in highly specialized weight programs to develop their special qualities. Your primary goal is to increase the
strength and endurance of your muscles so that they become more efficient in dealing with the everyday
demands placed upon them. Whether it’s mowing the grass in the backyard, moving the filing cabinet at the
office, or meeting the unforeseen physical demands of an emergency situation, well-conditioned muscles
enable you to make the necessary adaptations more effectively and without injury.
Power
Power is basically the product of strength and speed; an increase in either one will increase power. However,
strength will only play a minor role unless it can be applied explosively over a short period of time. The
strongest wrestler, for example, may not be the best if he doesn’t have the speed that prevents him from
being outmaneuvered. Because speed depends upon activating the appropriate neuromuscular patterns
involved in a particular skill, it is important to train at velocities of movement similar to those of the specific
sport skill.
Research on muscles has advanced rapidly in the past ten years in such areas as muscle fatigue, fiber
type, weight-resistance training, and injury. Even with these advances, some confusion still exists with
regard to the most efficient techniques for increasing strength and endurance. However, research indicates
that certain training procedures produce greater muscle efficiency than others.
Before discussing the three basic weight-resistance programs, we examine the basic principles of
weight-resistance training and how to determine the amount of resistance to use for training.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT-RESISTANCE TRAINING
Four basic principles of weight-resistance training should be followed to derive the maximum strength and
endurance gains from the training regimen:
1. Overload – Muscles are forced to contract at maximum or near maximum tension. Muscle contractions
at these tension levels produce physiological changes in the muscles, resulting in strength gains. If
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muscles are not overloaded to this degree, they do not increase in strength or in size (hypertrophy).
Muscles adapt only to the load they are subjected to. A maximum overload results in maximum strength
gains, whereas a minimum overload produces only minimum strength gains.
2. Progressive Resistance – As muscle strength increases from training, the initial training load no longer
provides adequate strength gains. If the intensity of the training load is not increased, only existing
strength levels are maintained. Therefore, the intensity of the load must be progressively increased to
ensure future strength gains, a concept known as progressive resistance.
3. Specificity – The demands of the exercise must be sufficient to force muscles to adapt, and the
subsequent muscle adaptations are specific to the type of training performed, a concept known as
specificity. For example, aerobic activity develops aerobic capacity, and anaerobic activity develops
anaerobic capacity.
Recent research indicates that muscle adaptations are specific to the type of training performed
because exercise not only affects muscles but also nerve control of muscles. The nerve pathways
appear to become more efficient with continued exercise. The efficiency, however, is specific only to the
particular exercise. Research also indicates that the joint angle of exercise, the type of exercise (that is,
isotonic, isometric, or isokinetic), and the speed and range of movement all produce a variety of specific
muscle adaptations.
4. Allowing for Adequate Recovery – Progressive training becomes less effective when muscles become
fatigued since the training stimulus cannot be maintained at maximum level. Also, overloading a fatigued
muscle may lead to soreness and injury. Therefore, follow four simple rules:
a. Exercise large muscle groups before smaller ones. Movements become fatiguing when the
small muscles involved in the movement are fatigued. For example, before performing standing
overhead lifts with free weights, first exercise the leg muscles and then the lower arm muscles.
b. Arrange your strength exercises so that successive exercises only minimally affect the muscle
groups that were trained previously.
c. Maintain a consistent application of force by raising and lowering the weight in a controlled
manner. Generally, the lift phase should take about one to two seconds and the lowering phase
approximately three to four seconds.
d. Allow forty-eight hours between strength exercises for complete physiological recovery.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING A STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE PROGRAM
Before we discuss the specifics of how to develop a strength training program, let’s discuss several
principles that should be considered in developing a muscular strength and endurance training program.
Progressive Resistance Exercise
The concept of progressive resistance exercise (PRE) is an application of the overload principle applied to
strength and endurance exercise programs. Even though the two terms can be used interchangeably, PRE
is preferred when discussing weight training. Progressive resistance exercise means that as strength and
endurance are increased, the load against which the muscle works must be periodically elevated for strength
and endurance gains to be realized.
Principle of Specificity
The principle of specificity of training means that development of muscular strength and endurance is
specific to the muscle group that is exercised and the training intensity. First, the muscles that are trained
will be the only muscles improving in strength and endurance. For example, if an individual has low-back
pain and wishes to improve the strength of the supporting musculature of the lower back, it would be of no
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benefit to strengthen the arm muscles. The specific muscles involved with movement of the lower back
should be the ones trained. Second, the training intensity determines whether the muscular adaptation is
primarily an increase in strength or endurance. High-intensity training (i.e. lifting heavy weights four to six
times) results in an increase in both muscular strength and size with only limited improvements in muscular
endurance. Conversely, high repetition, low-intensity (i.e. lifting light weights 15 times or more) promotes an
increase in muscular endurance, with only limited improvements in muscular size and strength.
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SKELETON (ANTERIOR VIEW)
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SKELETON (POSTERIOR VIEW)
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MUSCLES OF THE BODY (ANTERIOR VIEW)
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MUSCLES OF THE BODY (POSTERIOR VIEW)
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MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
There are three types of skeletal muscle fibers: slow twitch, fast twitch, and intermediate. These fiber types
differ in their speeds of contraction and in fatigue resistance.
1.
Slow-Twitch Fibers – Contract slowly and produce small amounts of force; however, these fibers are
highly resistant to fatigue. Slow-twitch fibers, which are red in appearance, have the capacity to produce
large quantities of ATP aerobically, making them ideally suited for a low-intensity prolonged exercise like
walking or slow jogging. Further, because of their resistance to fatigue, most postural muscles are composed
primarily of slow-twitch fibers.
2.
Fast-Twitch Fibers – Contract rapidly and generate great amounts of force but fatigue quickly. These
fibers are white and have a low aerobic capacity, but they are well-equipped to produce ATP anaerobically.
With their ability to shorten rapidly and produce large amounts of force, fast-twitch fibers are used during
activities requiring rapid or forceful movement, such as jumping, sprinting, and weight lifting.
3.
Intermediate Fibers – Although more red in color, possess a combination of the characteristics of fast
and slow-twitch fibers. They contract rapidly, produce great force, and are fatigue resistant due to a welldeveloped aerobic capacity. Intermediate fibers contract more quickly and produce more force than slowtwitch fibers but contract more slowly and produce less force than fast-twitch fibers. They are more fatigue
resistant than fast-twitch fibers but less fatigue resistant than slow-twitch fibers. Table 5.1 summarizes the
properties of all three fiber types.
Table 5.1
Properties of Human Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
PROPERTY
Contraction speed
Resistance to fatigue
Predominant energy system
Force generation
SLOW-TWITCH
Slow
High
Aerobic
Low
FIBER TYPE
INTERMEDIATE
Intermediate
Intermediate
Combination aerobic and
anaerobic
Intermediate
FAST-TWITCH
Fast
Low
Anaerobic
High
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE MUSCULAR STRENGTH
Two primary physiological factors determine the amount of force that a muscle can generate: the size of the
muscle and the number of fibers recruited during the contraction.
Muscle Size
The primary determinant of how much force a muscle can generate is its size. The larger the muscle, the
greater the force it can produce. Although there is no difference in the chemical makeup of muscle in men
and women, men are generally stronger than women because men have more muscle mass (i.e. larger
muscles). The larger muscle mass in men is due to hormonal differences between the sexes; men have
higher levels of the male sex hormone testosterone. The fact that testosterone promotes an increase in
muscle size has led some athletes to attempt to improve muscular strength with drugs.
Muscle Fiber Recruitment
We have seen that muscle fiber recruitment influences the production of muscle force. The more muscle
fibers that are stimulated to shorten, the greater the muscle force generation, because the force generated
by individual fibers is additive.
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Muscle fiber recruitment is regulated voluntarily through the nervous system. That is, we determine how
many muscle fibers to recruit by voluntarily making a decision about how much effort to put into a particular
movement. For instance, when we choose to make a minimal effort in lifting an object, we recruit only a few
motor units, and the muscle develops limited force. However, if we make a decision to exert our maximal
effort in lifting a heavy object, many muscle fibers are recruited and great force is generated.
Weight Training – Is a physical exercise involving lifting or pushing heavy weights to improve muscle
performance and body appearance.
TYPES OF WEIGHT TRAINING PROGRAMS
Weight training programs can be divided into three general categories classified by the type of muscle
contraction involved: isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic.
Isotonic Programs
Isotonic programs, like isotonic contractions, utilize the concept of contracting a muscle against a movable
load (usually a free weight or weights mounted by cables or chains to form a weight machine). Isotonic
programs are very popular and are the most common type of weight training program in use today.
Variations of isotonic exercise include speed loading, eccentric loading, and plyometric loading.
 Speed Loading – Occurs when the resistance is moved as rapidly as possible. This technique is believed
to be inferior to the more commonly practiced constant resistant isotonic exercise for gaining strength
since not enough tension is produced for a training effect. However, many athletes use this technique
during competition when maximum power is desired.
 Eccentric Loading – Is sometimes referred to as a negative contraction because the muscle lengthens
as it develops tension. Examples would be letting yourself down slowly from a chin-up or extending your
elbow slowly from a flexed position while holding a weight in your hand. This type of exercise tends to
produce more muscle soreness than other techniques. It is not superior to other isotonic methods and
is used mainly as an addition to other training techniques.
 Plyometric Loading – Requires that the muscles be loaded suddenly and then forced to stretch before
the contraction for movement occurs. This type of exercise has gained some popularity among volleyball
players, skiers, discus throwers, and shot-putters. An example would be to jump from a bench to the
floor and then immediately back onto the bench. This exercise has been shown to increase strength and
jumping ability. However, anyone who attempts this exercise should be aware of the possibility of injury
to the ankles and knee joints.
Isometric Programs
An isometric strength training program is based on the concept of contracting a muscle at a fixed angle
against an immovable object, using an isometric or static contraction. Interest in strength training increased
dramatically during the 1950s with the finding that maximal strength could be increased by contracting a
muscle for 6 seconds at two-thirds of maximal tension once per day for 5 days per week! Although
subsequent studies suggested that these claims were exaggerated, it is generally agreed that isometric
training can increase muscular strength and endurance.
Two important aspects of isometric training make it different from isotonic training. First, in isometric
training, the development of strength and endurance is specific to the joint angles at which the muscle group
is trained. Second, the static nature of isometric muscle contractions can lead to breath holding (called a
Valsalva maneuver), which can reduce blood flow to the brain and cause dizziness and fainting.
Isokinetic Programs
Again, isokinetic contractions are isotonic contractions performed at a constant speed. Isokinetic training is
a relatively new strength training method, so limited research exists to describe its strength benefits
compared with those of isometric and isotonic programs. Isokinetic exercises require the use of machines
that govern the speed of movement during muscle contraction (isokinetic refers to constant speed of
movement). The first isokinetic machines available were very expensive and were used primarily in clinical
settings for injury rehabilitation. Recently, less expensive machines have become available that utilize a
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piston device (much like a shock absorber on a car) to limit the speed of movement throughout the range of
the exercise. Today, these machines are found in fitness centers across the United States.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF WEIGHT TRAINING PROGRAMS
Isotonic Exercise
Advantages:
1. Generally produces strength gains throughout the full range of movement
2. Progress in strength gains is easy to evaluate because of numbered free weights and universal
stacks
3. Strength exercises can be developed to duplicate a variety of sports skills
Disadvantages:
1. The equipment is cumbersome
2. Produces more muscle soreness and greater risk of injury than isometric and isokinetic
exercises
3. Most strength gains occur at the weakest point of the movement and are not uniform throughout
Isometric Exercise
Advantages:
1. Little time is required for training
2. Expensive and cumbersome equipment is not needed
3. Exercise can be performed anywhere – in home or office or while on vacation
Disadvantages:
1. Strength gains are not produced throughout the full range of movement
2. Strength gains are difficult to evaluate; that is, no numbered weights or gauges generally are
used
3. Increases the pressure in the chest cavity, causing reduced blood flow to the heart, lungs, and
brain
4. Not as efficient in producing strength gains as isotonic and isokinetic methods
5. Not effective in producing increases in skilled movements
6. Motivation is difficult to maintain
Isokinetic Exercise
Advantages:
1. Produces maximum resistance at all ranges of movement
2. Increases strength throughout the full range of movement
3. Results in less injury and soreness than isometric and isotonic exercise
4. The uniqueness of the equipment increases motivation
5. Strength gains are easy to determine
Disadvantages:
1. The equipment is very expensive, with limited availability
2. Research is still incomplete with regard to motor patterns and force-velocity relationships
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Guidelines in Lifting Weights
Safety Concerns
Before we discuss the specifics of how to develop a weight training program, the need for safety should be
emphasized. Although weight training can be performed safely, some important guidelines should be
followed:
1. When using free weights (like barbells), have spotters (helpers) assist you in the performance
of exercises. They can help you if you are unable to complete a lift. Many weight machines
reduce the need for spotters.
2. Be sure that the collars on the end of the bars of free weights are tightly secured to prevent the
weights from falling off. Dropping weight plates on toes and feet can result in serious injuries.
Again, many weight machines reduce the potential risk of dropping weights.
3. Warm up properly before doing any weight lifting exercise.
4. Do not hold your breath during weight lifting. A recommended breathing pattern to prevent
breath holding during weight lifting is to exhale while lifting the weight and inhale while lowering.
Also, breathe through both your nose and mouth.
5. Although debate continues as to whether high-speed weight lifting is superior to slow-speed
lifting in terms of strength gains, slow movements may reduce the risk of injury. Therefore,
because slow movement during weight lifting certainly results in an increase in both muscle
size and strength, it would be wise to take this approach.
6. Use light weights in the beginning so that the proper maneuver can be followed with each
exercise. This is particularly true when lifting free weights.
PROPER BREATHING
There are two methods of breathing, depending on whether you are in competition or just exercising
for your health.
Competitive weight lifters hold the breath against the closed glottis, called the Valsalva maneuver.
This raises the air pressure inside the chest, thus stabilizing the upper vertebrae (thoracic section) of
the backbone. As soon as the most difficult part of the lift is past, the air is exploded from the mouth
as the lifter finishes the lift. The lifter then inhales when lowering the weight.
While this method generally allows for more weight to be lifted, the high air pressure in the chest
increases the blood pressure significantly, sometimes to over 400 millimeters of mercury. (Normal is
about 120). If there is a weakness in the blood vessels, one may pop and hemorrhage. Another
disadvantage, especially for men, is the danger of creating an inguinal hernia. When the testicles move
downward from inside the body to the scrotum before birth, they weaken the tissue covering the small
holes in the hips (the inguinal rings) through which they pass. The increased air pressure from lifting
a heavy weight while holding one’s breath can push a small part of the intestine through that opening.
The recommended method for the great majority people is to exhale during the lifting phase of the
exercise. This eliminates the potential problems of breath holding during a lift. This was first suggested
in 1964, and is almost universally followed in strength-training classes.
DOING A COORDINATED MOVEMENT
Most athletic movements involve several joints being moved at the same time-a multiple-joint exercise.
For example, in jumping you extend the hip, knee, and ankle joints. So if you want to improve your
jumping ability, you should use all three actions in one exercise. Rising from a squat position up to
your toes would be one example. Or if you were using a machine such as a Universal, you would, from
the sitting position, extend your leg and ankle.
Exercise Order
As with your choice exercises for your workout, you order of choosing exercises can be an individual
decision. One general principle, however, is that whichever muscles you want to work on the most should
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be exercised early in the workout. So if you are a swimmer, you should work on the latissimus dorsi and
triceps muscles first. If you are more interested in increasing your biceps strength, you should start with
biceps.
If you don’t have a particular muscles group in mind, the rule is to start with the complex (multiple-joint
actions), then move to the simpler actions (the single-joint exercise). You should also go from the larger
muscles to the smaller muscles.
Workout for Strength
If you want general strength, determine which areas of your body you want to develop. For most muscles
group, there is one “best” exercise – an exercise that gives you maximum strength and flexibility for the
joint’s action.
Once you know the types of muscles and coordinated movements you want to develop, there are several
choices for how you will put them together.
Priority System
In the priority system, you do your most important exercise first. This allows you to exhaust your muscles
on that exercise before you tire yourself on the less important exercises. Be sure to work on the larger
muscles group first.
Research of many years ago indicated that three sets of five to six reps was best for strength gain. Of
course, your muscles should be exhausted, or at least very tired, after each set. Well-conditioned weight
trainers can generally do more work with each muscle group. Your exercise program could include this
three-set, five-to-six-repetition maximum, or you can vary the reps and weight for a high-intensity workout.
Cyclic System
The cyclic system has proven very effective for gaining strength. The weight and number of reps will vary
for each of three periods in a cycle. (the total cycle could be six to eighteen weeks, but three weeks in
common.) In this type of program, the lifter does three sets of 10 RM for one part of a cycle (for three weeks
of a nine-week cycle). For the next part of the cycle (another three weeks), three sets of 5 RM are done. For
the last three weeks, three sets of 3 RM are done. For the next cycle, the same type of workout is repeated,
but the weights are increased because the previous cycle should have increased the lifter’s strength.
Pyramid System
In the pyramid system, the lifter starts with a lighter weight, perhaps one that can be done ten times (a 10
RM). For the next set, eight reps (8 RM), them a 6 RM, a 4 RM, a 2 RM, and finally 1 RM. This should be
followed by five or six reps with a lighter weight just to cool down.
Reverse Pyramid System
The reverse pyramid system starts with a warm-up, then goes immediately to a 1 RM. The lifter then reduces
the weight and does a 2 RM, then 4 RM, them 6 RM, then 8 RM, and finally 10 RM. Some experts advise
against this, however, because the warm-up may not be sufficient for a true 1 RM lift so early in the workout.
The gains, however, are outstanding if the muscles are exhausted at each set of RM’s.
Workout for Muscle Bulk
For muscle bulk you will use less weight than for strength, but do more reps and more sets. You may want
to use a wide variety of exercises just to prevent boredom. But remember that there is generally one “best”
exercise for each muscle group that includes isolation of the joint and maximum stretching for flexibility.
Two types of programs for developing muscle bulk are split routines and super sets:
Split Routines – In a split routine, you alternate days with different body parts. For example, on
Monday and Thursday you might concentrate on legs, abdominals, and lower back, then on
Tuesday and Friday you might concentrate on the upper body.
Super Sets – Are often used to pump up an area of the body. For example, you might do a set of
biceps curls, then follow immediately with a triceps exercise. After a short rest, you would repeat
the super set, rest again, and finish with another. Super sets are generally used with the one-joint
action exercises.
17
Rest Between Sets
You must rest, but not too long, between sets. Generally, if you are doing an isolated movement such as a
biceps curl or a triceps exercise. 1 to 1 ½ minutes is sufficient time for a rest. For a multi-joint exercise such
as a press or a squat, 2 to 3 minutes (maximum) should be enough. The fewer reps you are doing to
exhaustion, the longer the recommended rest period is. So a 2 RM set will require a longer rest than a 6
RM set. However, if you are working with lighter weights to develop endurance, your rest periods should be
much shorter.
Rest Between Workouts
Rest is essential for developing muscles. This is the reason that strength-training programs are generally
done only every other day, while endurance exercises such as swimming or running can be done daily.
Highly trained weight lifters, however, can lift daily if they replace the glycogen adequately during a 24-hour
rest period.
The rest period does two things. It allows the body to repair the small damages to the muscle fibers, and
allows the lactate and hydrogen ions (by-products of the exercise) to stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete
more human growth hormone. This strongest of the natural steroids helps to increase muscle size.
Periodization
Periodization is important for those wishing to make maximum gains in strength or hypertrophy. It refers to
changing the type or the intensity of the exercise for different periods of the year as follows:



Microcycle - a one-to four – week period of training
Mesocycle - a period of three or four microcycles
Macrocycle - the largest division of a training year, including three periods:
Preparation (strength-gaining and hypertrophy phase)
Competition (strength maintenance with high intensity and low volume)
Transition (recovery and maintenance phase)
The macrocycle can be as short as six months but usually lasts a year- from the major
competition (such as the national championships) to the next major competition (the next year’s
national championships). Some athletes might use a four-year cycle geared to Olympic
competition.
Periodization allows for different types of peak performances. It also allows for changes in workouts to
reduce boredom (which might reduce an athlete’s drive to excel). It requires changes in intensity and
volume.
Intensity refers to how close you are working to the maximum amount of weight you can handle (close
to 1 RM). Volume refers to the amount of work done (the total amount of weight lifted in a workout).
Rest and restoration periods are also important parts of each period. Performance will be improved if the
rest periods are adequate to allow the body and mind to recover from the fatigue of the workout schedule.
Recording Your Progress: Sample Program
When setting up your workout, you will need to determine which exercises you will do, how much weight
you will use, how many repetitions you will perform, and how many sets of each exercise you will do. Then
you will be prepared to make out your strength-training record card as follows:
18
NAME
DATE
Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight
Squats
Bench
Press
Lats
Curl-ups
Back
Extension
Quads
Hamstrings
Hip
Adductors
Biceps
1. On the left side on the card, list the exercises you will perform.
2. Early in your program, you will have to experiment with the weight until you can estimate your
1 RM or 10 RM.
3. Determine what weight you will work with for each exercise. For most people in a general
conditioning program, a set of 8 to 12 reps is adequate. So select a weight and lift it as many
times as you can. If you cannot do 8 reps, the weight is too heavy. If you can do more than 12, it
is too light.
4. Perform the exercise, then record the weight used and the number of repetitions. Record each
set separately. For example, for a strength workout, your card might look like this for one day.
NAME
Squats
Bench
Press
Lats
Curl-ups
Back
Extension
Quads
Hamstrings
Hip
Adductors
Biceps
DATE
Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight Reps/Weight
7/190
8/190
8/190
10/190
7/200
7/200
10/150
8/160
9/160
9/160
10/160
1/170
9/50
10/0
6/0
9/50
8/5
8/0
10/50
9/5
12/0
7/55
10/5
6/5
8/55
8/10
7/5
8/55
9/10
7/5
9/50
8/40
10/20
9/50
8/40
8/25
10/50
8/40
8/25
7/60
9/40
9/25
8/60
9/40
10/25
8/60
9/40
7/30
7/90
9/90
9/90
9/90
10/90
7/100
If you are working for hypertrophy, the number of reps will probably be the same for every set, because you
are not trying to exhaust your muscle through maximum work as in the strength exercises. So your record
might look like this: 165/15, 165/15, 165/15. Or if the number of sets is always the same, perhaps three or
five sets, you might just mark your typical set 165/15, and you will know that you performed three or five
sets with that weight. It can also be written as sets x reps x weight, as follows: 3 x 15 x 165.
19
Checklist for Workouts
Priority Workout
For the priority workout, select the muscle groups that you are most interested in developing and
work on them first.
 Priority of legs, chest, biceps, triceps
 Priority of chest, biceps, triceps, legs
Cyclic Progression
Rather than using a standard workout of three sets of six to eight repetitions each time over a
Ten weeks period, you might divide that ten weeks into cycles of three or four weeks and change the
amount of weight and the number of repetitions for each cycle.
 Weeks 1 through 3: three sets of ten reps (using a 10 RM)
 Weeks 4 through 7: three sets of five reps (using a 5 RM)
 Weeks 8 through 10: three sets of three reps (using a 3 RM)
Pyramid Workout
After warming up with about 50 percent of the 1 RM, start with more repetitions of a lighter weight
and work towards the 1 RM. An example with approximate weights and repetitions follows:
 70 percent of 1 RM for ten reps
 80 percent of 1 RM for five reps
 90 percent of 1 RM for three reps
 95 percent of 1 RM for two reps
Reverse Pyramid
After warming up, start with a 1 RM, reduce the weight, and increase the reps for each succeeding
set.
An example follows:
 1 RM
 90 percent of 1 RM for three to five reps
 80 percent of 1 RM to exhaustion
 70 percent of 1 RM to exhaustion
Weight can continue to be reduced for more sets
Split Routines
The lifter works the upper body one day and the lower body the next. (Abdominals should be worked
every day). Split routines can be done four, five, or six days a week, depending on the physical
condition of the lifter and the strength of his or her motivation. Example follows:
4 workouts per week
5 workouts per week
(nextweek)
6 workouts per week
Day 1
lower
lower
upper
upper
Day 2
upper
upper
lower
lower
Day 3
rest
lower
upper
upper
Day 4
lower
upper
lower
lower
Day 5
upper
lower
upper
upper
Day 6
rest
rest
rest
lower
Day 7
rest
rest
rest
rest
Circuit Training
Circuit training is a type of physical training involving a series of different exercises performed in rotation
with minimal rest, often using different pieces of apparatus. The goal is to complete several full circuits
during the exercise period. Done properly, circuit training will give your muscles a good bulk-type workout
as well as condition your cardiovascular system.
For minimal cardiovascular workout, your pulse rate should rise to approximately 150 beats per minute,
the exact number varying among individuals. To find the most effective range for you, subtract your age
from the number 220; this gives your maximum recommended heart rate in beats per minute. Then exercise
until your heart rate is 50 to 90 percent of that number. (Various medical groups have suggested different
ranges. The most commonly recommended is 60 to 90 percent of your maximum heart rate.) Work at this
pace for 20 to 30 minutes.
20
The best cardiovascular workout is continuous and rhythmic, such as running, swimming, or crosscountry skiing.
The Karvonen Formula
The Finnish scientist M. J. Karvonen has improved on the simple formula of 220 minus your
age as the maximum heart rate. He starts with that number; but then subtracts the resting
pulse rate to determine the
“heart rate reserve “
1. First take 220 minus your age________. This is your maximum heart rate (MHR).
Next, determine your resting heart rate while lying in bed in the morning before you get up.
Use your index and middle fingers and locate your pulse, either on the side of your neck
(carotid artery) or on the wrist just above the thumb. Count the number of pulse beats in a
minute or take your pulse for 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to determine the total for a minute.
2. Resting heart rate (pulse rate) (rest HR)
3. Subtract your resting heart rate from the maximum pulse rate.
MHR_________ - rest HR _________ = ____________ heart rate reserve (HHR)
Now you will determine your maximum and minimum pulse rates for an effective workout. For
the average person, your high end will be your heart rate reserve multiplied by 80 percent
(.80) added to your resting pulse rate.
4.________ (HHR) x .80 =_________ + _________ (rest HR) =__________ maximum
desirable heart rate during exercise.
Next find the minimal acceptable level for your workout by multiplying your heart rate reserve
(HHR) by 60 percent (.60) added to your resting pulse rate.
5.________ (HHR) x .60 = ________ + _________ (rest HR) = _____________ minimal
desirable heart rate during exercise
These two percentages (60 and 80 percent) are not set in stone. If you have medical
problems or are in every poor condition, you might use a number between 40 and 55 percent
to set your minimal pulse rate. If you are very fit or a competitive athlete, you might use 85 or
90 percent to set your high-end exercise pulse rate.
Here is an example of how a 20-year-old would determine her target training pulse range.
Assume that her resting pulse rate is 70.
Minimum target heart rate (220 – 20 = 200 – 70 = 130) x .60 = 78 + 70 = 148
Maximum target heart rate (220 – 20 = 200 – 70 = 130) x .80 = 104 + 70 = 174
For a 40-year-old with a resting pulse of 65. The target heart rates would be:
Minimum target heart rate (220 – 40 = 180 – 65 = 115) x .60 = 69 + 65 = 134
Maximum target heart rate (220 – 40 = 180 – 65 = 115) x .80 = 92 + 65= 157
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https://stretchcoach.com/articles/circuit-training/
22
Circuit Training for Weight-Resistance Programs
Circuit training involves a combination of strength and endurance exercises performed in sequence at a
various station. This extremely efficient technique can be specifically designed for a variety of different sports
activities. For example, the circuit can emphasize strength activities, cardiorespiratory activities, or a
combination of the two.
The circuit should consist of between eight to fifteen stations, with a total circuit completion time of five
to twenty minutes. The circuit may be performed more than once during each training session, and you
should allow for as many repetitions as possible during the time allotted at each station.
Table 8.4 presents an example of a muscle strength circuit. In this example, ten stations have been
selected. The activity at each station depends upon the purpose of the circuit, in this case, building muscle
strength. Each task time is set between thirty and sixty seconds. A pretest establishes standards for the
circuit. During the pretest, as many repetitions as possible are completed during the allotted task time, with
a short period of recovery allowed after each task. The number of repetitions for each circuit task then is
determined by adding the total time allowed for each task and multiplying by three.
When developing a circuit, try to make the strength exercises as specific as possible to those used in
the particular sport for which you are training. Also, for each weight-resistant task in your circuit, periodically
increase the intensity to ensure overload. Another important guideline is to separate tasks so that two
monitor your heart rate to maintain your target heart rate training effect level.
Table 8.5 presents an example of a muscle strength and cardiorespiratory circuit training program.
Table 8.4 Example of Muscle Strength Circuit
Station
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Exercise
Allotted task time
Vertical jumps
60 sec.
Push-ups
30 sec.
Arm curl
30 sec.
Leg press
60 sec.
Back Hyperextension
60 sec.
Upright rowing
60 sec.
Bent-knee sit-up
45 sec.
Bench press
30 sec.
Leg curl
45 sec.
Standing overhead press
30 sec.
Total circuit time
Pretest repetitions
40
10
15
20
10
4
12
6
8
8
One-half of pretest reps
20
5
8
10
5
2
6
3
4
4
7 ½ min x 3 = 22 ½ min
Conditioning Cycle
The conditioning cycle is a period of active rest following a competitive season. The cycle consists of a
moderate number of sets (four to six) and repetitions (eight to ten) at low intensity (60 to 70 percent of
repetition maximum). Approximately every three weeks, a slightly higher intensity is employed to maintain
strength. The conditioning cycle prevents deconditioning and allows for a mental and physical break from
training.
23
Table 8.5 Muscle Strength and Cardiorespiratory Circuit Training Program
Duration
Frequency
Circuits/Session
Time/Circuit
Total time/Session
Load
Repetitions
Rest
Ten weeks
Three days per week
Circuit A: 3; Circuit B: 2
Circuit A: 7 ½ min; Circuit B: 15 min
Circuit A: 22 ½ min; Circuit B: 30 min
40 to 55 percent of 1 RM
As many as possible in 30 seconds
50 seconds between stations
Muscle Strength
Circuit A
Station
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Exercise
Bench press
Bent-knee sit-ups
Knee (leg) extension
Pulldown-lat machine
Back hyperextension
Standing (overhead) press
Dead lift
Arm curl
Leg curl (knee flexion)
Upright rowing
Cardiorespiratory
Circuit B
Station
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Exercise
Running (440 yd)
Push-ups or pull-ups
Bent-knee sit-ups
Vertical jumps
Standing (overhead) press
Bicycling (3 min)
Hip stretch
Rope jumping (1 min)
Bent-over rowing
Hamstring stretch
Upright rowing
Running (660 yd)
Physiological Changes Due to Weight Training
It should now be clear that programs designed to improve muscular strength can only do so by increasing
muscular size and/or by increasing the number of muscle fibers recruited.
How do muscles increase in size? Muscle size is increased primarily through an increase in fiber size called
hypertrophy. However, research has shown that strength training can also promote formation of new muscle
fibers called hyperplasia. Increase in muscle due to strength training can also depend on diet, muscle fiber
type (fast fibers may hypertrophy more than slow), blood levels of testosterone, and the type of training
program.
Although strength training does not result in significant improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness, a regular
weight training program can provide positive changes in both body composition and flexibility. For most men
and women, rigorous weight training results in increase in muscle mass and a loss of body fat, the end result
being a decrease in the percent of body fat.
If weight training exercises are performed over a full range of motion possible at a joint, flexibility can be
improved.
24
5 Benefits of Circuit Training
1. IT BOOSTS YOUR METABOLISM
Your body can definitely feel the metabolic burn within a humble 30 minutes of circuit training. Switching
between intervals of weights and cardio — with short rests in between — activates your metabolism to burn
calories in just one circuit training session.
According to Harvard Medical School, you can burn 240 calories in a half-hour of general circuit training if
you weigh 125 pounds; 298 calories if you weigh 155 pounds; and 355 calories if you weigh 185 pounds.
And you even get a bonus round since your body will continue to torch calories at a faster rate throughout
the day.
2. IT HELPS YOU HIT YOUR TARGET HEART RATE
If getting your heart rate up to a certain level during a workout is a priority for you, you'll love accomplishing
this in just 30 minutes. One of the benefits of circuit training is that you can hit your target heart rate in a
short period of time. With this exercise format, you can get your heart pumping at the desired rate much
faster than if you were walking on the treadmill for the same amount of time.
3. IT'S FIT FOR BEGINNERS
Working through a circuit is accessible for anyone and it's a great place for gym newbies to start. Since
there are no surprises with circuit training, beginners know exactly what to expect. Each step is planned for
you, so all you have to do is follow along at your own level. No more fretting over creating a workout or
deciding what machines to use.
4. YOU CAN DO IT ANYWHERE
Being able to take your workout on the road is one of the most convenient benefits of circuit training. Once
you've become comfortable with a routine, you never have to miss a workout when traveling. Even if you
don't have access to a gym when you travel, you can modify your circuit to be done in your hotel room or
even outdoors. With so many flexible options, you can design a workout to meet your needs anywhere you
go.
5. IT WORKS EVERY MUSCLE GROUP
Circuit training works all of your muscle groups — from your core to your glutes and everything in
between. Each station is designed so that, when combined as part of a circuit, so you are engaging your
whole body in the 30-minute timeframe. This means you'll finish your workout feeling stronger all over.
Circuit training saves you time while offering a full body workout that's packed full of benefits. Adding a
circuit to your exercise schedule (one to three times a week) can keep your mind and body engaged, and
have you looking forward to your next gym session.
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