MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY AND MATTER (Answers to be written in your ASSIGNMENT
NOTEBOOK)
Answered
Define Chemistry-the branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of
which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties and the ways in which they
interact, combine, and change; and the use of these processes to form new substances
What are the branches of chemistry?
The five major branches of chemistry are organic, inorganic, analytical, physical, and
biochemistry. These divide into many sub-branches.





ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, and preparation of
chemical compounds that consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen.
Organic chemistry overlaps with many areas including
Medicinal chemistry —the design, development, and synthesis of medicinal drugs. It
overlaps with pharmacology (the study of drug action).
Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds
between carbon and a metal.
Polymer chemistry — the study of the chemistry of polymers.
Physical organic chemistry — the study of the interrelationships between structure and
reactivity in organic molecules.
Stereochemistry — the study of the spatial arrangements of atoms in molecules and
their effects on the chemical and physical properties of substances.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and behaviour of inorganic
compounds.
It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds.
Inorganic chemists study things such as crystal structures, minerals, metals, catalysts,
and most elements in the Periodic Table.





Bioinorganic chemistry — the study of the interaction of metal ions with living tissue,
mainly through their direct effect on enzyme activity.
Geochemistry — the study of the chemical composition and changes in rocks, minerals,
and atmosphere of the earth or a celestial body.
Nuclear chemistry — the study of radioactive substances.
Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds
between carbon and a metal.
Solid-state chemistry — the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid
materials.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry involves the qualitative and quantitative determination of the
chemical components of substances.



Forensic chemistry — the application of chemical principles, techniques, and methods to
the investigation of crime.
Environmental chemistry —the study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that
occur in the environment.It relies heavily on analytical chemistry and includes
atmospheric, aquatic, and soil chemistry.
Bioanalytical Chemistry — the examination of biological materials such as blood, urine,
hair, saliva, and sweat to detect the presence of specific drugs.









PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Physical Chemistry —the study of the effect of chemical structure on the physical
properties of a substance.
Physical chemists typically study the rate of a chemical reaction, the interaction
of molecules with radiation, and the calculation of structures and properties.
Photochemistry — the study of the chemical changes caused by light.
Surface chemistry — the study of chemical reactions at surfaces of substances. It
includes topics like adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, formation of colloids,
corrosion, electrode processes, and chromatography.
Chemical kinetics — the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the factors affecting
those rates, and the mechanism by which the reactions proceed.
Quantum chemistry — the mathematical description of the motion and interaction of
subatomic particles. It incorporates quantization of energy, wave-particle duality, the
uncertainty principle, and their relationship to chemical processes.
Spectroscopy — the use of the absorption, emission, or scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by matter to study the matter or the chemical processes it undergoes.
BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that take place in living things. It tries to
explain them in chemical terms.
Biochemical research includes cancer and stem cell biology, infectious disease, and cell
membrane and structural biology.
It spans molecular biology, genetics, biochemical pharmacology, clinical biochemistry,
and agricultural biochemistry.

Molecular biology — the study of the interactions between the various systems of a cell,
such as the different types of DNA, RNA, and protein biosynthesis.




Genetics — the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.
Pharmacology — the study of mechanisms of drug action and the influence of drugs on
an organism.
o Toxicology —a sub-branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of poisons on
living organisms.
Clinical biochemistry — the study of the changes that disease causes in the chemical
composition and biochemical processes of the body.
Agricultural biochemistry — the study of the chemistry that occurs in plants, animals,
and microorganisms.



Thus, although there are FIVE main branches of chemistry, there are many subbranches.
There is a huge overlap between Chemistry and Biology, Medicine, Physics,
Geology, and many other disciplines.
Provide examples of the importance of chemistry in everyday life ?
Because if you breathe it, drink it, eat it, smoke it, drive it, it's chemistry.
Describe the scientific method?
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations
and answer questions. ... When direct experimentation is not possible, scientists modify
the scientific method.
Differentiate among hypotheses, theories, and laws?
In general, a scientific law is the description of an observed phenomenon. It doesn't explain why
the phenomenon exists or what causes it. The explanation of a phenomenon is called a
scientific theory. It is a misconception that theories turn into laws with enough research.
• Describe the basic properties of each physical state of matter: solid, liquid, and gas ?



liquid: A substance that flows and keeps no definite shape because its molecules
are loosely packed and constantly moving. It takes the shape of its container but
maintains constant volume.
gas: A substance that can only be contained if it is fully surrounded by a container
(or held together by gravitational pull); a substance whose molecules have
negligible intermolecular interactions and can move freely.
solid: A substance that retains its size and shape without a container; a
substance whose molecules cannot move freely except to vibrate.
Define the following Terms ?
a. Solid-The constituents of a solid tend to be packed together much closer than the particles
in a gas or liquid.
a. Liquid-Liquids consist of atoms or molecules that are connected by intermolecular
bonds.
b. Gas-as a state of matter consisting of particles that have neither a defined volume
nor defined shape. It is one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with solids,
liquids, and plasma.
c. Plasma- is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of positively
charged ions and negatively charged electrons.
d. Kinetic energy-Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses due to its
motion.
e. State of matter-Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with
component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place.
f. Energy- is 'the ability to do work. Chemical energy is a type of potential energy that
is energy due to the position of an object or objects. The potential energy is in the form
of chemical bonds that are forces that hold the atoms together in a chemical.
Define the following terms (Phase changes)
a. Condensation- is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid
water. In other words, the water in the air, a gas known as water vapor, from your
hot shower cooled when it met the surface of the cold mirror. This caused the
water vapor to condense, or turn into its liquid form
b. Deposition - In chemistry, deposition occurs when molecules settle out of a
solution. Deposition can be viewed as a reverse process to dissolution or
particle re-entrainment.
c. Evaporation- s the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous
state due to an increase in temperature and/or pressure. Evaporation is a
fundamental part of the water cycle and is constantly occurring throughout
nature.
d. Freezing- The process through which a substance changes from a liquid to a
solid. All liquids except helium undergo freezing when the temperature becomes
sufficiently cold.
e. Melting- or fusion, is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a
substance from a solid to a liquid. This occurs when the internal energy of the
solid increases, typically by the application of heat or pressure, which increases
the substance's temperature to the melting point.
f.
Sublimation- is the transition from the solid phase to the gas phase without
passing through an intermediate liquid phase. This endothermic phase transition
occurs at temperatures and pressures below the triple point.
g. Vaporization- is the process that occurs when a chemical or element is
converted from a liquid or a solid to a gas. When a liquid is converted to a gas,
the process is called evaporation or boiling; when a solid is converted to a gas,
the process is called sublimation.
Define and give examples of atoms and molecules ?
Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. These bonds form
as a result of the sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms. The atoms of
certain elements readily bond with other atoms to form molecules. Examples of
such elements are oxygen and chlorine
How is matter classified as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous mixture
with regard to its physical state and composition ?
If it is pure, the substance is either an element or a compound. If a substance can be
separated into its elements, it is a compound. If a substance is not chemically pure, it is
either a heterogeneous mixture or a homogeneous mixture. If its composition is uniform
throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture
• Make a diagram indicating the classifications of matter.
Matter
Pure subtances
Elements compounds
mixtures
homogeneous
heterogeneous
• Define the following Terms
a. colloid - a colloid is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble
or soluble particles is suspended throughout another substance.
b. compound -A
compound is a substance formed when two or more chemical
elements are chemically bonded together. In mixtures, the substances present
are not chemically bonded together.
c. element -An element is a substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons:
another way of saying this is that all of a particular element's atoms have the same atomic
number. Elements are chemically the simplest substances and hence cannot be broken down
using chemical reactions
d. mixture -Any substance that has a uniform and unchanging composition is considered to be
pure. ... A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances in which each pure
substance retains its individual chemical properties. Mixtures can be composed of solids,
liquids, or gases.
e. solution -A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. A solution may
exist in any phase. A solution consists of a solute and a solvent. ... For example, in a
saline solution, salt is the solute dissolved in water as the solvent
f. suspension- is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute-like particles settle out of a solvent-like
phase sometime after their introduction.
g. crystal-is a substance in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a
regularly ordered, repeating three-dimensional pattern.
Distinguish between mass and weight?
There is a basic difference, because mass is the actual amount of material contained in a body
and is measured in kg, gm, etc. Whereas weight is the force exerted by the gravity on that
object mg. Note that mass is independent of everything but weight is different on the earth,
moon.
What are physical properties? Give examples What are chemical properties? Give examples.
Recognize the difference between physical and chemical, and intensive and extensive,
properties.

All properties of matter are either physical or chemical properties and physical
properties are either intensive or extensive.

Extensive properties, such as mass and volume, depend on the amount of matter
being measured.

Intensive properties, such as density and color, do not depend on the amount of
the substance present.

Physical properties can be measured without changing a substance’s chemical
identity.

Chemical properties can be measured only by changing a substance’s chemical
identity.
Define extensive properties and give examples.?
Intensive properties and extensive properties are types of physical properties of
matter. The terms intensive and extensive were first described by physical
chemist and physicist Richard C. Tolman in 1917. Here's a look at what intensive
and extensive properties are, examples of them, and how to tell them apart.
Define the following Terms:
a. chemical property - a property or characteristic of a substance that is observed during a
reaction in which the chemical composition or identity of the substance is changed:
Combustibility is an important chemical property to consider when choosing building materials.
b. flammability - is the ability of a chemical to burn or ignite, causing fire or combustion. The
degree of difficulty required to cause the combustion of a chemical is quantified through fire
testing
c. mass- Mass measures the quantity of matter regardless of both its location in the universe and the
gravitational force applied to it. An object's mass is constant in all circumstances; contrast this with its
weight, a force that depends on gravity.
Your mass on the earth and the moon are identical. Your weight on the moon is about one-sixth of your
weight on the earth.
d. matter - matter is the term for any type of material. Matter is anything that has mass and
takes up space. At a minimum, matter requires at least one subatomic particle, although
most matter consists of atoms
e. physical property - include: appearance, texture, color, odor, melting point, boiling point,
density, solubility, polarity, and many others.
f. reactivity - is the tendency of a substance to undergo chemical reaction, either by itself or with
other materials, and to release energy.
g. volume- is the quantity of three-dimensional space occupied by a liquid, solid, or gas.
Common units used to express volume include liters, cubic meters, gallons, milliliters,
teaspoons, and ounces, though many other units exist.
MODULE 2 CHEMISTRY CALCULATIONS (Answers to be written in your ASSIGNMENT NOTEBOok
Describe the properties and units of length, mass, volume, density, temperature, and time?
Measurements provide the macroscopic information that is the basis of most of the hypotheses,
theories, and laws that describe the behavior of matter and energy in both the macroscopic and
microscopic domains of chemistry. Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the
size or magnitude of the measurement (a number); a standard of comparison for the
measurement (a unit); and an indication of the uncertainty of the measurement. While the
number and unit are explicitly represented when a quantity is written, the uncertainty is an
aspect of the measurement result that is more implicitly represented and will be discussed later
Define accuracy and precision?
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value. For example, if in
lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is
10 kg, then your measurement is not accurate. In this case, your measurement is not close to the known
value.
Distinguish exact and uncertain numbers ?
In scientific work we recognize two kinds of numbers: exact numbers (those whose values are
known exactly) and inexact numbers (those whose values have some uncertainty). Exact
numbers are those that have defined values or are integers that result from
counting numbers of objects.
What are the tpes of errors? Differentiate each?
1) Gross Errors
Gross errors are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating measurement and
recording data results. The best example of these errors is a person or operator reading pressure gage
1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It may be due to the person’s bad habit of not properly remembering data at the
time of taking down reading, writing and calculating, and then presenting the wrong data at a later time.
This may be the reason for gross errors in the reported data, and such errors may end up in calculation of
the final results, thus deviating results.
2) Blunders
Blunders are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty recording or due to a wrong
value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while reading a scale.
These blunders should stick out like sore thumbs if one person checks the work of another person. It
should not be comprised in the analysis of data.
3) Measurement Error
The measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true value. Usually,
Measurement error consists of a random error and systematic error. The best example of the
measurement error is, if electronic scales are loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is 10002
grams.
Write the rules for rounding off of numbers?
Here's the general rule for rounding: If the number you are rounding is followed by 5,
6, 7, 8, or 9, round the number up. Example: 38 rounded to the nearest ten is 40. If
the number you are rounding is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, round the number down.
Write the rules for writing significant figures?
In science, only the numbers that have significance (derived from measurement)
are written.



Rule 1: Non-zero digits are always significant. ...
Rule 2: Any zeros between two significant digits are significant. ...
Rule 3: A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant.
Write the rules for writing scientific notation?
To create the scientific notation form, start by counting digits left or right from the existing
decimal point. The number of digits counted becomes the exponent, with a base of ten. Count
left and the exponent is positive; count right, and it is negative
Explain the dimensional analysis (factor label) approach to mathematical calculations involving
quantities?
These calculations are examples of a versatile mathematical approach known as dimensional
analysis (or the factor-label method). Dimensional analysis is based on this premise: the units
of quantities must be subjected to the same mathematical operations as their associated
numbers. This method can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit conversions to
more complex, multi-step calculations involving several different quantities.
What is Density? Why is it important as a property of matter?
Density is the amount of substance (mass) per volume. The units of density can be g/mL, g/cc,
or g/cm3. The unit of density for gases is generally g/L.
All matter is characterized based on its properties. In this lesson, you will learn about the different
chemical properties of matter and ways to identify them.
What is the formula for density and its derivative formulas for mass and volume?
The volume of a rectangular solid is calculated as the product of its length, width, and height.
The density of an object is calculated as its mass divided by its volume. A given derived
quantity is always expressed in the same type of units. For example, area is always expressed
in squared units, such as cm2
How is the volume of a cube determined? A cylinder?
The volume of a figure is the number of cubes required to fill it completely, like blocks in a
box. Volume of a cube = side times side times side. Since each side of a square is the same, it
can simply be the length of one side cubed.
MODULE 3 INSIDE THE ATOM (Answers to be written in your ASSIGNMENT NOTEBOOK)
Compare and contrast protons, neutrons, and electrons. ?
neutron does not have a mass and is found in the nucleus together with the protons.
... Protons are found in the nucleus and electrons are found in an electron cloud around the
nucleus, arranged in several orbitals. Protons are positively charged and electrons are
negatively charged
Describe the forces that hold the particles of atoms together.?
An atom is held together by forces of attraction between the electrons and the protons. The
neutrons help to hold the protons together. Protons and neutrons are believed to be made up
of even smaller particles called quarks.
Define the following terms
• atomic mass unit(uma)- n chemistry, an atomic mass unit or AMU is a physical constant equal to onetwelfth of the mass of an unbound atom of carbon-12. It is a unit of mass used to express atomic
masses and molecular masses. When the mass is expressed in AMU, it roughly reflects the sum of the
number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus (electrons have so much less mass that they are
assumed to have a negligible effect). The symbol for the unit is u (unified atomic mass unit) or Da
(Dalton), although AMU may still be used
• atomic number - The atomic number or proton number (symbol Z ) of a chemical element is the
number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element.
• electron - Electrons are the smallest of the particles that make up an atom, and they carry a
negative charge. The number of protons and electrons is equal in a neutral atom
• ion - an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of one or more
electrons, as a cation (positive ion), which is created by electron loss and is attracted to the
cathode in electrolysis, or as an anion (negative ion), which is created by an electron gain and
is attracted to the anode
• isotope - are atoms with the same number of protons, but differing numbers of neutrons. In other
words, the have different atomic weights. Isotopes are different forms of a single element.
• mass number- The mass number (symbol A, from the German word Atomgewicht (atomic
weight)), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons
and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus
• neutron - A neutron is a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of atoms that differs from the
other subatomic particles (called "protons") in the nucleus of atoms because neutrons have no
(zero) charge whereas each proton has a positive charge of +1.
• nucleus- In chemistry, a nucleus is the positively charged center of the atom consisting of
protons and neutrons. It's also known as the "atomic nucleus". ... Nearly all the mass of an
atom is contained within the nucleus since protons and neutrons have much more mass than
electrons
• proton - proton is a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of every atom. The particle has a
positive electrical charge, equal and opposite to that of the electron. ... The number
of protons in an element's nucleus is called the atomic number.
• quark- is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to
form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the
components of atomic nuclei.
History of the Atom
• State Democritus’s ideas about the atom.?
Around 400 B.C.E., the Greek philosopher Democritus introduced the idea of the atom as the
basic building block matter. Democritus thought that atoms are tiny, uncuttable, solid particles
that are surrounded by empty space and constantly moving at random
• Explain how Thomson discovered electrons?
Summary. J.J. Thomson's experiments with cathode ray tubes showed that all atoms contain
tiny negatively charged subatomic particles or electrons. Thomson proposed the plum pudding
model of the atom, which had negatively-charged electrons embedded within a positivelycharged "soup
Describe how Rutherford found the nucleus.?
Rutherford overturned Thomson's model in 1911 with his well-known gold foil experiment in
which he demonstrated that the atom has a tiny and heavy nucleus. Rutherford designed an
experiment to use the alpha particles emitted by a radioactive element as probes to the unseen
world of atomic structure.
Modern Atomic Theory
• Define energy levels?
Energy levels inside an atom are the specific energies that electrons can have when
occupying specific orbitals. Electrons can be excited to higher energy levels by
absorbing energy from the surroundings. Light is emitted when an electron relaxes from a
high energy state to a lower one.
• Describe the electron cloud and orbitals.?
It is used to describe where electrons are when they go around the nucleus of an atom.
The electron cloud model is different from the older Bohr atomic model by Niels Bohr. Bohr
talked about electrons orbiting the nucleus. ... These atomic orbitals are not all spheres
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
State the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.?
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know simultaneously the
exact position and momentum of a particle. That is, the more exactly the position is determined,
the less known the momentum, and vice versa.
Module 4 NAMING OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS (Answers to be written in your ASSIGNMENT
NOTEBOOK)
What are the rules for naming of binary ionic compounds & give 5 examples?




Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds.
NaCl – sodium chloride.
BaF2 – barium fluoride.
NH4OH – ammonium hydroxide.
CO2 – carbon dioxide
What are the rules for naming covalent compounds & give 5 examples?
However, simple covalent compounds are generally named by using prefixes to
indicate how many atoms of each element are shown in the formula. Also, the ending of
the last (most negative) element is changed to -ide. The prefixes used are mono-, di-,
tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, and so forth.
Write the rules for naming of binary acids & give 5 examples?
When naming a binary acid, we use the prefix 'hydro' and suffix 'ic.' Examples of binary
acids include hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), and
hydroiodic acid (HI).
Write the rules for writing and balancing of Chemical Formulas?
Balancing Equations. The numbers of H atoms on the reactant and product sides of
the equation are equal, but the numbers of O atoms are not. To achieve balance, the
coefficients of the equation may be changed as needed.
MODULE 5 MOLE CONCEPT AND CALCULATIONS (Answers to be written
in your ASSIGNMENT