BASIC LECTURE IN RESEARCH & SCIENTIFIC WRITING PROF. DANILO K. VILLENA, Ph.D. What is Research? • A systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem than would be possible. • A scientific investigation of phenomena which includes the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data and information aimed at solving a particular problem. Nature and Characteristics of Research • • • • • • • • • • Systematic Controlled Empirical Inquiry Objective Analytical and Critical Replicable & Cyclical Logical Diversified procedure Variety of forms PURPOSES OF RESEARCH • The principal goal of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life. • The purpose of research is to serve man • The goal of research is the good life. Basic Types of Research 1. Basic or Pure Research done to test a theory Intended to add knowledge of basic principles and scientific laws advances further scientific inquiry Concerned exclusively with knowing, explaining and predicting natural and social phenomena Starts with a theory, a basic principle or a generalization 2. Applied Research Concerned with the application and development of research-based knowledge Aimed at producing knowledge relevant to providing solution to a general problem Aimed at solving an immediate practical problem 3. Action Research Involves the application of the steps of scientific method Focuses on the situation of day-to-day problem at the local level Involves more precise sampling techniques Classification of Research by General Methodology 1. Quantitative or Statistical Research This is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study Usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square and analysis of variance are used to test hypothesis 2. Qualitative Research This is usually true in alternative research such as anthropological ethno cultural studies, indigenous and participatory where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than qualitative data. TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The best way to establish cause-and-effect relationships among variables Researchers manipulate the independent variable and decide the nature of the treatment (that is, what is going to happen to the subjects of the study), to whom it is to be applied, and to what extent. Usually involves two groups of subjects: an experimental group and a control or comparison group 2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH at least one variable is manipulated to determine the effect of manipulation intact, naturally formed groups are used random assignment of subjects is not possible the same as the true experimental research; differs only in assigning the subjects or samples 3. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Done to determine the relationships existing among two or more variables and to explore their implications for cause-and-effect. Seeks to investigate the extent to which one or more relationships of some type exist. helps make more intelligent predictions 4. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH Done to determine the cause for or the consequence of differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals. The group difference variable in this research is either a variable that cannot be manipulated or one that might have been manipulated but for one reason or another has not been. also referred to sometimes as “ex post facto” (“after the fact”) research 5. SURVEY RESERCH done to describe the characteristics of a population studies the incidence, relationships and distribution of variables studies the variables as they exist in a situation manipulates no experimental variables 6. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH the most complex of all research methods the emphasis is on documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of individuals by observing and interviewing them and relevant others the key tools are in-depth interviewing and continual, on-going participant observation of a situation Researchers try to capture as much of what is going on as they can 7. HISTORICAL RESEARCH The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and thereby understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past. Uses documents and artifacts to reconstruct the past through a process by critical inquiry. Information collected from the past serves as data to be interpreted. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM • Elements : 1) aim or purpose (why); 2) subject matter or topic (what); 3) place or locale (where); 4) period or time of the study (when); and 5) population or universe (who or for whom) • Characteristics: specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound VARIABLES • The basic elements that are measured in any study • They are quantities or characteristics that have two or more mutually exclusive values or properties of objects or people that can be classified, measured or labeled in different ways. TYPES OF VARIABLES 1. Discrete variable – one that can take on only finite or potentially countable set of values. Ex. The number of people living in a city. 2. Continuous variable – one that can take on an infinite set of values between any two levels of the variables. They are the result of measurement. Ex. measurement of weights, heights; psychological variables such as anxiety or intelligence. 3. Independent variable – the stimulus variable, which is chosen by the researcher to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. Also called the cause, object and variable of the investigation. Ex. The Effects of NCLEX Percentile Rank on Job Performance of Nurses 4. Dependent variable – the response variable, which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. Sometimes called effect, results, criterion in the study. It is the observed event, factor that is expected to be affected by the independent variable. 5. Moderate variable – secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship between the independent and dependent variable. 6. Control variable – variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable. 7. Intervening variable – a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent variables, but its effects can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables. This is an observed event or factor that is expected to affect possibly the relation between the independent and dependent variables. ASSUMPTIONS • • They are statements related to the problem which are presumed to be true on the basis of observation or experience. They are used to provide general direction to the study and do not require confirmation or discussion in the study nor statistical computation. HYPOTHESIS • • • • • • A statement of what one expects to find; A statement to be proven; An initial answer to the research questions; A common sense statement An expected relationship between variables; An explanation of the phenomena. FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS 1. Null hypothesis (Ho) – this says “there is no difference,” meaning, the independent variable does not affect the dependent variable. 2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha) – this says “there is a difference,” meaning that the independent variable affects the dependent variable. THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK • • • • They provide clear explanations regarding the relationships of the variables. They serve as legal basis to describe properly the process of the study. Theoretical framework is a symbolic construction based on existing theories which link the study. Conceptual framework presents specific and well-defined concepts which are called constructs. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES • • Related Literature – composed of a discussion of facts and principles to which the proposed study is related; found in books, encyclopedia, professional journals, magazines, newspapers etc. Related Studies – composed of researches , inquiries or investigations already conducted to which the present study is related; found in unpublished materials such as theses, dissertations, etc. RESEARCH DESIGNS/METHODS • • Methodology refers to the overall process of formulating the theoretical and the conceptual framework, the operationalization of variables, methods of data collection, and data analysis and interpretation Research design is the final plan and structure of the investigation used to obtain evidence to answer research questions; describes the procedures for conducting the study; includes the research methods, population and sampling techniques, data gathering instrument and a plan of analysis of the collected data. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS A. Quantitative 1. Experimental Research Designs a. Single-group design – involves a single treatment with two or more levels. Ex. Teaching surgical nursing in three different methods to a group of subjects using the single group. Achievement of subjects is treated with ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) 2. Two-group design – the comparable groups are employed as experimental and control groups. Ex. Determining the effectiveness of teaching surgical nursing using lecture method (control group) and problem-based method (experimental group). The t-test is used to determine the effectiveness. 3. Two-pair group design – this is an elaboration of the two-group design wherein there are two experimental groups and two control groups. 4. Parallel-group design – this is a design in which two or more groups are used at the same time with only one single variable (control group) manipulated or changed. The experimental group varies while the parallel group serves as control for comparative purposes 5. Pretest-Posttest Design- tinvolves the experimental group and the control group which are carefully selected through randomization procedures. Both groups are given pretest at the beginning and post test at the end of the study. 6. Counterbalanced or Latin Square Design – this design is also called rotation design. It involves an exchange of two or more treatment taken by the subjects during the experiment. Ex. Determining the effectiveness of the four methods of teaching surgical nursing taught by four nursing instructors to four groups of subjects. 7. Randomized Complete Block Design – this is designed in which a group of test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent treatment is applied to determine the cause of change. 8. Correlational Design – it is used to determine the relationship between two dependent variables (X and Y ) on how they are manipulated by the independent variable. Ex. Determining the weight and length relationship of cultured group in a concrete tank using fishmeal as supplemental feed. Fishmeal is the independent variable and weight and length of a cultured group are dependent variables. B. Qualitative Research Involves collecting data within natural settings, and the key data collecting instruments are the researchers themselves Data are verbal not numerical The basic purposes are to describe, to interpret, to verify and to evaluate. The method for data collection are participant observing, interviewing, scanning records and files, using checklists and conducting case studies 1. Historical Research Design – a systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using the critical method in the understanding and the interpretations of facts which are applicable to current issues and problems. 2. Descriptive Research Design – focuses at the present condition. The purpose is to find the new truth. a. Descriptive Survey – appropriate wherever the object of any class vary among themselves and one is interested in knowing the extent to which different conditions obtain among these objects b. Descriptive-normative survey. Used to ascertain the normal or typical condition, to practice or to compare results with a state or national norm or standard. c. Descriptive-status. This approach to problem-solving seeks to answer questions to real facts relating to existing conditions. It stresses current conditions with the assumptions that things will change. d. Descriptive-analysis. This method determines or describes the nature of an object by separating it into parts. Its purpose is to discover the nature of things. e. Descriptive –classification. This method employs collections, identification and classification. f. Descriptive-comparative. This considers two entities (not manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which it can compare and which it can conclude which of the two is better. g. Correlational-survey. This is designed to determine the relationship of two variables, whether the relationship is perfect, very high, marked or moderate, slight or negligible. 1. Longitudinal-survey. This involves much time allotted for investigation of the same subject at two or more points in time. SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES Sample – refers to persons, events, places, or things used as sources of data. Population – refers to a group of people, objects or events. Sampling – is the process of selecting a representative portion of the population that can be the source of data to test the hypothesis. Types of Sampling Designs 1. Probability Sampling – each of the unit in the target population has the same chance of being included in the sample. a. Simple or pure random sampling- the basic probability sampling design which gives every unit of the population an equal chance and non-zero probability of being included in the sample. b. Systematic sampling – this is used when there is a ready list of the total universe of population. Uses every nth in the list as the sample. c. Stratified sampling – this scheme is used to ensure that different groups of a population are adequately represented in the sample. d. Cluster sampling – this is used in large-scale surveys. Selected by simple or stratified sampling. e. Multi-stage sampling – this is usually used for national, regional, provincial or country level studies. 2. Non-probability sampling – no way that each of the units in the target population has the same chance of being included in the sample. a. Accidental or convenience sampling- obtained when the researcher selects whatever sampling units are conveniently available. b. Purposive sampling – the sampling units are selected subjectively by the researcher who attempts to obtain a sample that appears to be representative of the population. c. Quota sampling – the researcher determines the sampling size which should be filled up. d. Snowball sampling – starts with the known sources of information, who or which will in turn give other sources of information. Used when there is inadequate information for making the sampling frame. e. Networking sampling – used to find socially devalued urban population such as addicts, alcoholics, child abusers etc. Data Collection Instruments 1. Questionnaire • A set of questions which when answered properly will supply the necessary information to complete a study 2. Interview • A purposeful face-to-face relationship between two persons, the interviewer and the interviewee 3. Observation • Perceiving data through the senses, the most direct way and the most widely used in studying behavior 4. Other data collection techniques : tests, inventories, rating scales and mechanical forms such as videotaping, teleconferencing , surfing the internet, etc. Statistical Treatment Analysis & Interpretation of Data for Describes the kind of statistical treatment of data based upon the nature of the problem and the nature of data gathered Explicit hypotheses determine the kind of statistics to be used Statistics refers to the method of organizing and analyzing quantitative data Descriptive Statistics – transforms a set of numbers or observations into indices that describe or characterize the data. Inferential Statistics –used to make inferences or predictions about the similarity of a sample to the population from which the sample is drawn Types of Statistical Tools 1. Frequency count/Proportion When to Use in Research When certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such as age, height, income, etc are desired to be known 2. Measures of Central Tendency When the typical, normal or average is desired to be known 3. Weighted Mean When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that they can’t be counted individually such as adequacy, extent, excellence and seriousness 4. Measures of Variability When the variability of the population is desired to be known such as homogeneity and heterogeneity 5. Point Measures When the relative placements of the scores or positions are desired 6. Chi-Square of Equal Probability – Single When the significance of the trend of reaction or Group opinions of persons as a group toward a certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be known 7. Chi-Square of Equal Probability – Two When the significance of the difference between groups the reactions or opinions of two distinct groups on which there is neutral position is desired to be known 8. Coefficient Correlation To determine how one variable varies with another 9. T – test of Significance If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two groups about a certain situation is to be studied 10. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things to which different randomized groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test is given to the different groups. 11. Partial and Multiple Correlation To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which they are related 12. Chi-square of Independence To determine the association between two independent variables. The Research Process D. Analysis, Presentation And Interpretation Of Data 1. Analysis The process of breaking up the whole into its constituent parts of categories Usually precedes presentation 2. Presentation The process of organizing data into logical, sequential and meaningful categories and classification Ways of presenting the data: a. Textual presentation – uses statements with numbers to describe the data b. Tabular presentation – uses statistical tables to systematically arrange related data in row or in column. c. Graphical presentation – uses different graphs (bar, line, pictograms, frequency polygon, give, etc. ) to show the quantitative variations or changes of the variable itself, or quantitative changes of a variable in composition with those of another variable in pictorial or diagrammatic form. E. Summary, Conclusions And Recommendations 1. Summary of findings Brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or respondents, period of study, method of research, instruments and sampling design. Textual generalizations Includes important findings, highlights of data Findings not explained nor elaborated 2. Conclusions Inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, general statements and/or generalizations based upon the findings Answer the specific questions raised at the beginning Points out what were factually learned from the study. 3. Recommendations Suggested resolutions that appeal to people or entities to help solve the problems discovered in the inquiry. Given to further research purposes Aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in the investigation. Given for the continuance of a good practice or system.
