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Social and Cultural Continuity and Change
Focus Study in Selected Country
China
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China Fast Facts
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China is the world’s most populous country with more than
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Estimated Population:
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Capital:
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Political Structure:
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Divided into
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Area- China :
square kilometres
Australia: 9,617,930 square kilometres)
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Language:
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Religions:
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Currency:
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Life Expectancy:
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Literacy:
provinces
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Overview and Brief History
For centuries China stood as a leading civilisation, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts
and sciences, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest,
major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists
under Mao Zedong established an autocratic socialist system that, while ensuring China's
sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of
people. After 1978, Chinese leaders focused on economic development and by 2000 output had
quadrupled. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically and the
room for personal choice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight. China since the
early 1990s has increased its global outreach and participation in international organisations.
China's geography is highly diverse, with hills, plains, and river deltas in the east and deserts,
high plateaus, and mountains in the west. Climate is equally varied, ranging from tropical in
the south (Hainan) to subarctic in north eastern China (Manchuria).China's geography causes
an uneven population distribution; 94 % live in the eastern third of the country. Shandong
province, with its mild coastal climate, has more than 90 million people, but Tibet, with its
harsh mountain plateau climate, has less than 3 million. The coastal regions are the most
economically developed—acting as a magnet for an estimated 150 million Chinese migrants
from the poor rural interior. This figure, from 2008, grows by an estimated 10 million Chinese
each year. By 2030 it's estimated that some 60% of the country's citizens will live in urban
areas.
China has perhaps the world's longest continuous civilisation; for more than 40 centuries its
people created a culture with strong philosophies, traditions, and values. The start of the Han
dynasty 2,200 years ago marked the rise of military power that created an empire—one that
provided a golden age in art, politics, and technology. Ethnic Chinese still refer to themselves
as the "People of Han," and Han Chinese constitute 92% of the country's population.
The first half of the 20th century saw the fall of the last Chinese emperor, Japanese invasion,
World War II, and civil war between Chinese Communist and Nationalist forces—ending with
the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan. The People's Republic of China from 1949 to 1976
imposed state control on the economy. Since 1979, China has reformed its economy and
allowed competition, and today it has one of the world's highest rates of growth, averaging
nearly 10% since the late 1970s.
Rapid industrial development has increased pollution—with China having four of the world's
ten most polluted cities when it comes to air quality. The largest producer and consumer of
coal, the country is turning away from coal toward clean hydroelectric resources, such as the
Three Gorges Dam.
Politically China still maintains strict control over its people. Chinese rule over Tibet remains
controversial, fighting with Muslim separatists in Xinjiang continues, and political issues with
Taiwan remain unresolved. China regained Hong Kong from Britain in 1997 and Macau from
Portugal in 1999.
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Traditional society and culture of China
Some interesting traditional aspects of
society relating to family life before 1911,
which was when the last dynasty ended,
are explored below.
At the start of the 20th century, China was
a largely rural society; only 20 per cent of
the population lived in urban areas. The
rural peasants were poorer that their urban
counterparts but they had more space and
opportunity for subsistence agriculture.
China consisted of feudal states,
particularly during the Zhou dynasty,
during which land was allocated and
CHINESE TRADITIONAL FAMILY 1870'S
managed by local rulers in return for
BY XULIQIN , CC BY 2.0
produce.
The influence of Confucianism in China
has meant long-standing adherence to certain ethical and moral codes such as:
● filial piety – the importance of family and respect for parents and ancestors. Youth hold
the elderly in high esteem
● frugality – to live with minimal requirements, reduce waste and not indulge in
unnecessary or expensive items
● modesty – to act and dress in a conservative manner, and demonstrate humility in
accomplishments
● self-restraint – to control reactions and emotions.
Confucianism also had a tendency to construct and promote elitism in social classes, which
elevated the roles of male nobility such as the gentry (ruling class), scholars and those in
official positions, because people in such positions were considered superior.
Patrilineage in China meant that the eldest males were highly valued and as such they carried
on the family name, keeping the land and property within the family and being responsible for
taking care of their family, including parents and grandparents. The importance of males in
Chinese society was reinforced through education and examinations, which were for boys only.
Women were often subordinated under Confucianism due to practices that reinforced
patriarchy. It taught strict gender roles and submission to male leadership, especially within the
family. The division of labour meant that women were economically and socially dependent on
men. Footbinding was a brutal practice that once indicated higher status, but the deliberate
deformities also meant that, because of their limited mobility, women were allocated only
menial roles and were confined to domestic tasks in the home and therefore considered the
property of men. Other practices associated with family and marriage were possession of
concubines, polygamy, arranged marriages and child betrothal. Large families were the norm,
as was the emphasis on social cohesion and harmony within the local community.
An imperial structure, imposed by the rulers of the day, categorised people into four classes:
landlords, peasants, craftsmen and merchants. It was a strict order in which neighbourhood
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committee at the meso level played a significant role in regulating life by organising sanitation
initiatives, dispute resolution, family planning and helping the less fortunate. To express
personal feelings was equated to selfishness and ignoring the needs of the group.
Chinese traditional society underwent considerable change in the first half of the 20th century
but the pace of change increased considerably after 1949 with the establishment of the
Communist People’s Republic of China. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) pursued a range
of modernisation campaigns, most notably the 1958 Great Leap Forward, which aimed to shift
society from its rural and agricultural basis to an industrialised and urbanised society. The
Great Leap Forward caused a collapse of the agricultural basis of the economy and resulted in
food shortage and famines that caused the death of approximately 30 million people.
Describe the traditional Chinese society that existed before 1911.
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Use the ‘Chinese social hierarchy’ website to help you construct a diagram showing the social
structure in traditional society and the roles of each group.
https://www.hierarchystructure.com/chinese-social-hierarchy/
Complete this in the space provided below
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How and why have Chinese families changed?
Family life and population changes
China has the population (1.37 billion) that is more than 50 times the population of Australia.
Some provinces in China have populations larger than some countries in the world.
China’s population growth has always been fast – the number of people doubled and doubled
again well before the Industrial Revolution.
In 1978/1979, the Chinese government, namely the Family Planning Commission introduced
family planning policies following a significant baby boom during the 1950s and 1960s. These
polices were introduced in response to concerns about the social, environmental and economic
consequences of continued population growth
The Chinese government refers to it under the official translation of family planning policy.
Polices were highly ambitious and controversial. Like previous programs of the 1960s and
1970s, the one child policy employed a combination of propaganda, social pressure, and in
some cases coercion. Government rhetoric began to link reproduction and family size to
economic cost or benefit marking a shift in national and personal values. There was a strong
emphasis on developing strong collective national values – ‘everyone together can work
towards a better China’ thinking.
The ‘one-child’ policy (abolished in October, 2015) was the only one of the total family
planning policies introduced in the late 1970s and 1980s. The one child policy officially
restricts the number of children married urban couples can have to one, although it allows
exemptions in some cases.
The policy remains controversial both within and outside China because of the manner in
which the policy has been implemented, and because of concerns about negative economic and
social consequences.
Nonetheless, a 2008 survey undertaken by the Pew Research Centre showed that over 75% of
the Chinese population supports the policy.
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Despite criticism, the one child policy has generally been accepted and can be heralded as
successful. Authorities claim that the policy has prevented 250 million births between 1980 and
2000. It can also be attributed to easing some of the pressures of rapid population increase on
communities and environments.
Implementation has been more successful in urban areas than rural areas. Social and economic
reforms have made rigorous implementation of the policy more difficult. (Kane and Choi,
1999).
Total population in China, Europe and The United States of America (compared with
India, Brazil and Nigeria), 1950-2100
Exa
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observe. How could this information be useful to someone conducting further research into
changes in family and population in China since 1950?
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Changing Marriage Norms and Laws
Legislative changes have resulted in a significant improvement in Women’s rights. In the
1950’s marriage laws abolished arranged marriages and emphasised free choice of partner,
monogamy, equal rights of both sexes, respect for the old and care of the young. The changes
also meant couples were free to divorce. The institution of marriage continues to be highly
valued in Chinese society. However, the average age of marriage has risen as a result of
government policies and characteristics linked to modernisation, such as delayed child bearing.
Government campaigns in the 1970s promoted later marriage, but trends indicate a ‘marriage
squeeze’ because of the lack of marriageable women. This has negatively affected the welfare
of adult men, which some researchers believe has exacerbated the spread of pornography,
trafficking in women and other antisocial behaviours.
Changes to marriage laws in 1981 addressed the issue of equality and also allowed for
compensation in divorce, which has not previously been dealt with effectively. The number of
divorces tripled from 319000 in 1979 to almost 1.2 million in 1998.
China has experienced a steady increase in nuclear families and a decline in the number of
traditional, multigenerational and extended families. Changes in marital laws – such as the
acceptance of divorce and separation – are considered for the emergence of single-parent
households.
Birth rates have fallen steadily since 1989. The number of children born fell faster in the
wealthier and more urbanised eastern provinces first. Death rates have also fallen and stabilised
which indicates increased life expectancy. This is likely a result of modernisation, where those
with higher incomes, better health and education tend to have fewer children and live longer.
The reduction in death rates means that the population is ageing. Even though filial piety is
required by law, some families do not or will not look after their parents, which indicates rapid
changes in ideals and individualism. Children are still expected to act and behave as part of a
collectivist society by serving society’s goals, but growing Western influence creates a conflict
in values and priorities. As a result of OCP (one child policy), there is a shrinking number of
young adults available to care for the elderly. There is also social stigma attached to moving
into a ‘care home’ for the elderly. So, there are acute implications for the elderly, as they are
left more vulnerable without support networks and with no pension scheme currently in place.
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A preference for boys has led to female infanticide, child
abandonment, underreporting of female births, sex-selective
abortion and an imbalance of gender ratios. The OCP has
created many issues associated with gender imbalances, the
long-term effects of which are not yet known. One wellknown program I response to this is called ‘Care for girls’. It
directly affects 100 million people, aiming to protect the
rights and participation of women in education, employment
and general society.
China has the largest urban population in the world (758
million people). It has six mega-cities already and will add
one more by 2030, according to the United Nations. People
are attracted to the cities by prospects of improving their
quality of life, but this is often not the case. The hukou
system of household registration binds people to their
locality, so they can only move if granted permission by the
government. If they are allowed to move to the city, rural
migrant workers often suffer poor working and living
condition, long working hours and wage inequality. According to sociologist Serena Liu, they
are seen as a ‘second class’ that resides in urban areas but appear to be slightly better off than
the unregistered ‘floating population’ who are denied access to education and health care and
are perceived as a drain on society,
Power and authority in China
The ‘dynastic cycle’ in traditional Chinese society is an important political theory to address
when examining Chinese history. The rise to power and subsequent demise of all dynasties can
be explained by the dynastic cycle.
The role of power and authority has changed greatly overtime in China, particularly during the
20th century. At the start of the 20th century, China was ruled by Qing dynasty. After the
foundation of the Republic of China 1912, a long period of political and social instability
followed. In the 1920s and 1930s, the political order was dominated by the Nationalists, who
were closely associated with urban elites, while many regions were ruled by ‘independent’
warlords. The Nationalist government also conducted a ‘civil’ war against the CCP. While
between 1937 and 1945, the Nationalists and CCP sometimes cooperated to fight the Japanese,
the underlying conflict between the two political movements continued until 1949. The CCP’s
victory in this civil war led to the establishment of People’s Republic of China, an authoritarian
communist dictatorship headed by Mao Zedong. The CCP has rules China since Mao’s death
in 1976, but has increasingly emphasised programs of economic liberation and ‘opening up’.
The authority of the state and its direct intervention in people’s lives has continued in the postMao era. There are no free and fair elections, and secretary is rife and linked to those holding
power. It extends to restricting freedom of speech and censorship at micro level. It was not
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until relatively recent times that notable challenges to authority attracted the interest of the rest
of the world. Often, such challenges are dealt with swiftly and harshly to prevent the
deterioration and criticism of the 65-year reign of the CCP. Some examples of defiance and
opposition to the current holders of power and authority include:
● Tiananmen Square protests for democracy and freedom of speech in 1989, where a
violent crackdown by the Chinese military and 15 days of martial law were imposed
● Documentaries such as ‘Ai Wei: Never Sorry’, and ‘Ai Wei Wei: The Fake Case’
(2013) about contemporary artists and prominent anti—communist activist Ai Wei
Wei, whose name is now banned on the Chinese (domestic) Internet.
According to psychologist Jenny Yau the newer generations of Chinese children have a
different sense of authority amd power from that their parents as they do not yet have a mature
understanding of social position. Yau’s research found that young Chinese people were more
challenging of authority due to their assessment of the nature of the event (moral, personal), the
familiarity with the authority figure (mother, teacher, stranger) and the context (in public, at
school, at home). Youth prefer decision making based on personal choice and autonomy rather
than taking advice from adults. However, Yau claims that their strong traditional morals
remain the same.
Access the website to see ‘Ai Wei Wei: Never Sorry’ film trailer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MYFOzP6Xns
How are challenges to power and authority dealt with in China?
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Impact of continuity and change on individuals and groups in China
According to Harvard sociology professor Martin Whyte, the three most significant forces if
change in China are economic development, cultural diffusion and state social engineering.
Economic development has triggered massive social change and has had a profound influence
on individuals and groups. The effects of this have been researched by Quach and Anderson
and are elaborated on below. The Open Door Policy (ODP) was implemented by the Chinese
government in 1978 to attract Western business, technology and investment into China, with
the aim of revitalising the Chinese economy. At a macro level, technology and science were
imported from the West while attempting to maintain Chinese customs and beliefs such as filial
piety, collectivism and fidelity to the government.
Until the 1980s lifetime employment, egalitarian wages and welfare benefits were
commonplace, but due to economic liberation and subjectivity to global market forces, this has
changed significantly.
China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a result of economic change
At a micro level, it is evident that filial piety has diminished considerably. Quach and
Anderson state that the indicators of this were increased numbers of women seeking
employment and higher education – for example, women’s participation in the workforce rose
by 7 per cent between 1978 and 1995. Employment also modified family roles and blurred
gender demarcation lines, reinforcing the need for improved, if not equal, status for women in
society. The economic impact of family poverty was positive – particularly on rural poverty,
which has reduced by 89 per cent since 1978 – but simultaneously emphasised the importance
of monetary resources, which represent a deep shift in values since the Confucian disdain for
commerce and financial success.
Since the death of Mao in 1976, there has been an increased acceptance and/or rejection of
various values associated with Confucianism, communism, democracy and capitalism. The
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most abhorrent changes during the Cultural Revolution of 1966 were by the systematic
destruction of values, particularly traditional values and those associated with capitalism and
democracy, which left a cultural vacuum and high trauma. Since China opened up its economy,
the adoption of more Western values, by both individuals and groups, has gained momentum.
At a meso level, Western scholars were permitted to enter China to teach business, sociology
and humanities, thereby diffusing foreign cultural elements within Chinese institutions.
Similarly, thousands of Chinese scholars were sent abroad to learn the ways of other cultures
and industries.
Cultural diffusion has led to the decline of Sino-centrism, the belief that China is the cultural
centre of the world. Changing concepts of beauty are most apparent in Shanghai, where women
dye their hair and pay for plastic surgery to make their noses and eyes more ‘Western’.
Adolescents in urban settings are more
supportive of modern individualistic values
such as egalitarianism and open-mindedness,
whereas rural adolescences are more
supportive of traditional collectivist values
such as obedience to authority and support
for authority.
State social engineering refers to the
influence of government over the attitudes
and actions of the population within its political boundaries. At a meso level, for example, the
granny police, who once worked in shifts as ‘public security volunteers’ keeping the peace in
local hutongs (courtyard lanes) and reporting acts of public wrongdoing to the police. Since
2003, for example, couples have been allowed to marry or divorce without authorisation from
their work unit and newly married couples have been permitted to live on their own.
The impact of social engineering on human rights in China is huge. The government tightly
controls the media and political commentary at a macro level to manipulate what it wants the
population to hear, see and believe at a micro level. Imprisonment of political opponents and
journalists has been common, but widespread international news coverage has brought humanrights abuse and social engineering practices in China to the fore. For example, in 2008, during
China’s crackdown on protests in Tibet, the Chinese government blocked foreign broadcasters
and websites that showed video footage of the violent anti-China demonstrations in Lhasa, the
capital of Tibet.
Some other interesting changes at a micro level:
● Personal expression of feelings and opinions is much more accepted now in China.
Previously, people would keep their views to themselves, applying the old principle of
‘closing the mouth, so that the flies do not enter’. There is now a tendency to be unique
– but such a strategy of differentiation addresses an identity issue. People also talk
about subjects such as love and sex, which were taboo before.
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● The types of books Chinese readers seek out is an objective indication of the evolution
of their social mores and expectations. Major modern bookstores sell more books on
success in business and personal development than books on love and romance.
● Increased personal responsibility and emphasis on personal achievement mean the
expression of personal feelings and emotions are more acceptable. People want a
personal return for their efforts, but children are expected to serve society’s goals rather
than individual goals.
In terms of cultural continuities, social engineering and a modernising autocratic government
led to an average of one new museum opening in China each day in 2011, bringing China’s
total number of museums to 3415. The target of the Five-Year Plan was 3500 museums by
2015 – this was easily achieved, with 3866 museums opened by the end of 2012. The Chinese
Communist Party’s practices of censorship man that in some museums, no reference exists to
the Tiananmen Square massacre in Beijing or the abuse at the hand of Chairman Mao.
Therefore, China’s collective cultural history is subject to state politics.
The Long Museum West Bund in Shanghai
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Using the information provided and some research of your own, complete the table below
showing the impacts of continuity and change in the micro, meso and macro levels of society.
Impact
Micro Level
Meso level
Continuity
Change
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Macro Level
Family life and population changes.
For the last two decades, Chinese families have gone through numerous dynamic changes.
Much of the old structure and many of the old values of the traditional Chinese family have
been replaced by a new structure and new values of the modern Chinese family.
We need to be able to identify the main features of traditional Chinese family and then
compare / contrast these with the features of modern Chinese family.
The ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius once described the harmony between husband and
wife and children as “the music of lutes and harps”. Confucianism is similar to a code of
conduct that dictates how society should be structured so as to maintain social balance.
Confucius identified five relations—sovereign and subject, father and son, man and wife, older
and younger brother, friend and friend—in which respect for mutual obligations created
balance in society generally”.
The influence of Confucius on Chinese family life is significant - particularly his teachings on
filial piety and on the relationship between stable family life and a stable state - is still felt
today.
Traditional Chinese Family
The traditional view of the Chinese family or ‘jia’ was that of a large extended family, with
several generations and immediate families all living under one roof, being a self-sufficient and
self-help institution for its members, providing child care and the care of the elderly.
The Chinese for "family" is jia, which generally means the basic family group, those who are
related by blood, marriage, or adoption, living and managing their finances together. In a jia,
the males are all agnatic kin (i.e., blood relations). Sons live in their father's house with their
wives, who have been brought in from outside the family.
As soon as daughters come of age, they are married out, that is, they join another jia. They are
members of their parents' jia only as long as they are unmarried. During the wedding ritual,
daughters officially sever their ties to their father's patriline, and are pledged to serve their new
family, including its ancestors. Males are permanent members of the family they were born
into; females, however, are expected to eventually leave their natal family. Women, therefore,
are only assured a place in a patriline -- that of their husband, not their father -- when they give
birth to a son.
The jia shares living space and finances. One male, the patriarch (the oldest competent male)
has ultimate authority in all family matters. In the ideal jia, three, four, or five generations live
under one roof. Sons obediently follow their father's direction in choosing a career and a mate,
and every member of the jia works together for a single objective: sustaining and increasing the
jia's wealth and status. Such a large, multi-generational jia can grow to be very complex.
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For women and children, especially in the large, wealthy, sheltered elite families, the jia
was essentially both the centre and the limit of the world. The wealth, reputation, and
status of the jia, however, rested largely on the success or failure of men operating outside
the jia.
Chinese Sense of Family
The Chinese have a very different view of' family'. The sense is much broader compared to the
narrow Western definition of the 'nuclear family' of parents and children, and sometimes even
broader than other common definitions such as the traditional extended family in Italy and
middle Europeans. At times the term 'family' may encompass members unrelated biologically
or by marriage, but with other connections, in the same way some cultures call people from the
same region 'cousin'. The meaning of the word 'family' can often change depending on the
circumstances. Here are five definitions that may apply when a Chinese talks about ' family':
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1. The nuclear three-generation 'Chinese' family. It includes three generations- grandparents,
parents and children. In this definition grandparents include all in-laws from both the husband
and the wife.
This is the most common Chinese family unit. It is common practice for the family to get
together at least weekly, usually at the grandparents' house for half or even a whole day. Some
families can also spend the whole weekend with relatives. In general, Chinese parents and
children spend a lot more time together than families in the Western society.
It is regarded as the parent's duty to house, support and look after the children until they get
married. Some may live with their parents even after marriage perhaps due to financial
constraints. When married couples have children, the grandparents would usually take care of
the grandchildren until they reach school age.
The Chinese have always been devoted to their family and children, and in turn, the children
are expected to care for and comfort their parents and grandparents. For the past 25 years,
families have been restricted by the 'one child' policy. This has had the impact of focusing
parent's attention to just one child. While slightly modified, the policy still exists. Many
Western families have only one child, however, in China the majority are 'single' child families
creating a stark cultural difference.
It is generally expected that the children will provide for, and look after, the parents and
grandparents, until the parents and grandparents pass away. It is never expected that any social
security system or nursing home will replace unwavering family support. A child now is
expected to care for six aging relatives - parents, maternal grandparents and paternal
grandparents.
The Chinese have a phrase ‘shang you lao, xia you xiao’ which describes middle-age couples
who not only have to look after their own young children, but also their aging parents.
Those who fail to support their parents both financially and physically are criticised as ‘bu
xiao’ (failing their duties of filial piety - one of the Confucius doctrine's six key elements). The
word has meaning far beyond just being irresponsible.
2. Traditionally Chinese family includes ancestors from previous generations (which may have
long passed away) and everyone with the same surname traceable through the family tree' are
connected. This family is called ‘jiazu’ and often has its own rules and regulations passed
through generations.
Chinese are very proud of their long family history. It can date back thousands of years. Some
famous families can trace their ancestors and details of each preceding generation. The most
famous is probably the Kong (Confucius) family.
Haihua has met a woman who was the 23rd generation dai of the Kong family - and therefore
related to Confucius. She proudly told Haihua that in her long family tree her name and her
five-year-old daughter's name can be seen.
3. The sense of long family history and respect for ancestors also extends the sense of family to
those who are born in the same village, city or region. There is a Chinese saying that' one
would cry when one runs into a person from the same hometown' laoxiang jian laoxiang,
liangyan lei wangwang, acknowledging the underlying emotional link between two potential
strangers.
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Such extended 'family' sense is particularly strong when Chinese move away from their
birthplace, especially when they are overseas. For example, in most cities where there are
overseas Chinese communities you would always find an association formed by people from
the same city or province - called tongxiang hui, the association often serves as the platform for
a new migrant in that city to get oriented and/ or form various relationships, including business
connections.
Within certain ethnic groups such sense of family can be even stronger. When Haihua worked
with a Mongolian ethnic Chinese client to form overseas business ventures, he would meet
with his fellow Mongolian (local) friends in each European city he visited, after his business
meetings. The strong bond that they have can only be described as an extended 'family' bond.
4. A Chinese 'family' can also be formed by close friends or business partners. We shall look
closely at the relationship between friends and business later, however, the concept of 'friends
are family' is reflected in the informal ways that northern Chinese call their friends ' brother'
gemen or 'sister' jiemen.
No one goes into a business relationship with someone they regard as a stranger. Often
business partners spend more time with each other than with their real family. Therefore it is
only logical for partners to become ' family members'. As an example, two of Haihua's Chinese
friends who are in business together have become the surrogate father to each other's children if one is travelling the other would act as the 'father' for the partner's child. On one occasion
when a partner's child was ill, this friend drove the child and the wife of his partner to the local
hospital at midnight
Many successful Chinese entrepreneurs will not do business with anyone they regard as
strangers, no matter how good a deal is presented to them. They consider this to be the core of
their continued success.
5. The last concept of 'family' for every Chinese is China as a country. Such sense is not unique
- anyone who is patriotic call relate to this. The strong emotional link between Chinese and
their nation is due to the cultural heritage and the long history China has enjoyed. When
Chinese grow older, invariably they are drawn back to the motherland regardless of where they
have spent most of their lives.
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Main features of the traditional family pre 20th Century
• Belief in the central importance of family.
• Family - the central most important unit in society. Traditionally the family unit was the
most important society (group) that a person could belong to. (in many ways this is still
correct but nature of families have changed)
• Large family size made up of extended family – traditionally between two and four
generations of family living under one roof.
• Continuation of family or ‘clan’ name based upon patrilineal descent. Need for a male
heir to continue family name.
•Belief in importance of having a large number of children (especially boys) – link to
importance / significance of patrilineal descent and the need to maintain agricultural way
of life. There was a reliance on farming to ensure family’s existence / wealth.
• Importance of sacrifice to and veneration of ancestors where the eldest living male cares
for the ancestral tablets and is responsible for ancestral rituals.
• Arranged marriage
• Legally recognised concubinage (many wives) - under the law, a man could have more
than one wife.
Patrilineal (male-base) lineage
• A person was descended from both a mother and a father, of course, but one inherited
one's family membership from one's father
• The term ‘patrilineal’ means that descent or identity was calculated through men. Family
identity, names, history was determined by looking at the male lineage. Traditionally
family name, property, status passes from father to sons to grandsons.
• China was extreme in that a woman was quite explicitly
removed from the family of her birth and affiliated to her husband's family.
•When wills clash, it was expected (and legally enforced) that the will of a family superior
should prevail over the will of a family inferior.
• Family land was owned collectively by the male members of family, not by an
individual. The patriarch managed it for the family.
• Property was divided equally among brothers at their father's passing (although the eldest
often received an additional share since he was obligated to maintain the ancestral shrine).
22
Modern Chinese Family
According to recent statistics, China has 340
million families, with 3.63 people per
household on average. In general, a Chinese
family is composed of a couple and their
children, but big families with three or more
generations can also be found in China. With
the pursuit of personal freedom, the trend of
forming small families with only directly
related members is now prevalent.
In the past, each Chinese family had a
"head"; who had absolute authority at home,
and had the final say in family affairs.
Chinese people have the tradition of
respecting the old and loving the young. Though
many young couples do not live with their parents, they maintain close contact with them.
Grown-up children have the duty to support and help their parents. The Chinese people attach
great importance to relations between extended family members.
Since the days of Confucius, however, a great deal has changed, especially since the creation of
the People’s Republic (1949). In 1950, the new communist rulers introduced a new marriage
law; it was the first law enacted in communist China. By outlawing age-old practices like
concubinage, bigamy, the bartering of brides and dowry, the new rulers signalled a break with
the feudal marital system and redefined the relation between family and state.
Family life in China has undergone equally
radical changes in the post-Maoist era. The
first single parent’s club in China was recently
set up in Beijing, reproductive services have
been made legal for single women, telephone
advice lines for those in same sex relations
have been set up in Shanghai, and the Divorce
Club of Shanghai was launched in 2006. With
increased urbanisation, a rising level of
prosperity and education, and growing private
responsibility and individualism Chinese
family life is increasingly reflecting trends in
the West.
In contrast to the rural population, young educated urban professionals are facing very different
problems when it comes to marriage and family life
Family planning has been pushed forward as one of the basic state policies in China.
The basic requirements of family planning are late marriages and late childbearing, so as to
have fewer but healthier babies, especially one child per couple.
23
With the increased privatisation of education, health care and care for the elderly, they are
under enormous pressure to get high grades, to get into university and compete for good jobs.
That means postponing marriage until they can afford to buy houses and provide well for a
child. The average marrying age is now 28 for men, 27 for women.
Moreover, family members increasingly share the housework, making the division of labour
and gender roles more equal. This shows changes in roles and status over time.
With reference to ‘family’, describe changes that have occurred in China.
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24
Is all change necessarily progress in China?
Progress in society refers to improving the quality of life for all people. In some circumstances,
change does mean progress, but in other circumstances, it does not – not all change is
considered progress for all people. There are advantages and disadvantages to all changes.
The implementation of the One Child Policy could be considered as progress. Slowed
population growth has contributed to a more sustainable total population and improved
economic circumstances overall. However, other changes to society as a result of the OCP
cannot be considered progress. Here are just a few of the ‘failures’ of the policy evident in
family life:
● The 4-2-1 problem, where one child is pressured to look after his/her two parents and
four grandparents
● The rise of the ‘little emperor’ syndrome through changed parenting practices as a
result of having one child has led to over-protection, overindulgence and excessive
concern when the child is ill. Not having siblings can hinder social and emotional
development of the child
● Problems associated with human rights and forced abortions as well as reports of mass
sterilisation in rural areas and the fact that unregistered children do not legally exist and
therefore cannot attend school.
Population changes associated with urbanisation, such as better infrastructure and quality of
life indicators in the cities, including access to transport, education, health care,
entertainment and employment, can be seen as sign of progress. But if the urbanisation
happens too quickly and planning authorities cannot cope, this can create problems, such as
smog and water pollution, on a massive scale. Beijing and Guangzhou have environmental
problems as a result of rapid urban sprawl.
Access this website (China’s most famous ‘nail houses’):
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2014/apr/15/china-nail-houses-in-picturesproperty-development
These are the dwellings of people who refuse to leave when construction crews arrive to begin
redeveloping the area.
25
Which groups benefit from change?
The general goal of society is to benefit the majority of people. The flooding of Chinese
markets with foreign goods and services, more choice and better education and health care, for
example, have increased some individuals’ material wellbeing. Government decisions and
economic policies such as the Open Door Policy are largely responsible for creating winners
and losers in society. Although a significant role for government is to assist people with limited
ability and capacity in enjoying a comparable standard of living and quality of life, ethnic
minorities such as the Tibetans have not benefited from change in China. In general, the groups
that are the most likely to benefit from change in China are:
● younger people, because they are more willing to embrace change. They are
accustomed to a rapidly changing world with exponential developments in technology,
efficient means of production, new growth industries and different forms of social
interaction. Not only have they grown up with personal computers and electronic
devices, but they use them in everyday life for completing assignments, social
networking and entering the workforce.
● Educated people, because they are able to better understand the need for change. They
have greater sense of awareness and capacity to grasp rationale for change as they are
better informed and often keep abreast of new developments, demands, policy options,
economics and politics.
● Wealthy people, because they can afford change and because money is associated with
power. Many changes - such as higher taxes, integrated public transport and private
education – cost money. Privatisation (selling government utilities) of once-public
resources, usually costs the taxpayer more money. The wealthy can afford
technological change and therefore benefit earlier from advances such as digital
television, fast Internet and telecommunication. They also have the financial capacity to
resist change should they choose to. The poor do not benefit at all. In Shanghai, beggars
are periodically swept out of the city, as happened during the World Expo in 2010.
● Urban people, because cities are where the most rapid changes and developments take
place. They are the first to experience the benefits of sound political and economic
decisions that positively affect daily life such as better education systems, better
employment prospects, better transport facilities, better entertainment and more choice
in everything. They are in close proximity to services and centres of administration and
usually have a higher standard of living than their rural counterparts. Urban income is
approximately double rural income.
● Powerful people, because they can initiate and influence change. They are most likely
to be in the ethnic majority and make decisions that benefit like-minded people. They
have the capacity to direct the change through their economic, referent or political
power for an outcome that serves their interest.
26
What is China’s floating population? How are they disadvantaged by change?
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Debate the statement: ‘All change is not progress and all movement is not forward’.
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27
How has access to technologies affected the rate and direction of change?
In Chinese tradition, a decent life means being able to have access to the ‘seven necessities’:
firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar and tea. Globalisation and modernisation have now
set different standards and requirements concerning food, clothing, transport, information,
entertainment, fitness and owner ship of assets. For example, the ‘television, refrigerator and
washing machine’ trilogy of the 1980s is being replaces by digital televisions and smart mobile
devices.
The Chinese government, which tightly controls the direction of change in China, is restrictive
regarding which information and communication technologies people can access. Some
technologies, and in particular social-media platforms as we know them, are prohibited in
China. They country has its own version of the Internet, Twitter, Gmail, YouTube and
Facebook, all of which are regularly blocked and/or closely monitored by the Chinese
government which is opposed to the status quo being quashed. For example, in 2012, the
founder of an online group that opposed the CCP was sentenced to eight years in prison for
‘subversion of state power’.
The West
China
Internet
ChinaNet
Google
Baidu
Twitter
Weibo
Facebook
Renren
YouTube
Youku
China has demonstrated extreme caution when approaching democracy and capitalism, Leaders
used China’s Internet to warn people of the dangers of becoming too westernised and to steer
away from the social and political principles that the West represents. The CCP issued a
directive to government officials to combat ‘dangerous’ Western values and other perceived
ideological threats.
Communication technologies reflect the demands of society and they also shape society. New
social norms are being created, such as ‘text speak’ and emotions, altered social interactions
via online dating, the establishment of virtual communities and online gaming. China is the
first country in the world to label ‘Internet addiction’ as a disorder. There are even boot camps
where ‘web junkies’ go for rehabilitation and counselling.
Restricted access to communication technologies within China has slowed the rate of social
change, but the direction towards Westernisation and modernisation is clearly already in
motion. The push for democratisation via social media will be China’s next big thing and the
rest of the world will become acutely aware of this via World Wide Web.
28
Access TED Talk that gives an insight about the shift of balance of power in China:
https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_anti_behind_the_great_firewall_of_china
How the microbloggers could be about to shift the balance of power in China?
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How can access to technologies empower people?
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29
Application of the social-change theory to China
No single theory of social change can fully explain all the continuities and changes in a
country. Some, but not all, elements of social-change theories can be applied to China. It is
worth noting that interactionist theory is not as applicable to large-scale social change because
it was developed as a micro-level theory.
Complete the missing areas in the table below.
There are some areas for each of the theories that are completed for you.
Evolutionary Theory
Selected elements of theory
Assumption that
industrialised and
modernised societies are
better
Can this
be applies
to China?
Yes
Evidence
China’s Open Door Policy actively pursues
economic development. Also reflects the
ethnocentric view in China’s treatment of
Tibetans and other ethnic minorities as inferior
and primitive.
Development follows a
linear path
Demonstrates characteristics
of a post-industrial society
Development equates to
progress
No
Theory applies to the whole
country
No
Loss of cultural heritage and filial piety is not
necessarily progress. Many groups such as the
‘floating population’ do not benefit from
economic development in society.
The eastern seaboard has followed the linear
path but the central, west and north of China
have not.
30
Conflict Theory
Selected elements of theory
Authorities use legitimate
power to enforce property
rights
Can this
be applied
to China?
Yes
Class consciousness and
tensions building
Yes
Continuing conflict
Yes
Change is abrupt and
revolutionary
No
Society develops from
feudalism to capitalism
through to socialism
No
Owners of resources make
use of their economic power
to gain control of the state
and in turn serve their own
interests
No
Religion serves capitalist
interest by pacifying the
population
No
Evidence
Authorities have bulldozed housing areas in the
name of development leaving ‘needle’ houses
in the middle of freeways and cities. The
hukou household registration system is
administered by the government and ties
residents to the local area.
This was the case during Chairman Mao’s
time. While economic change is considered
relatively rapid, social change is not. Trends in
family size and structure and women’s status,
for example, have been established over the
past 30 to 40 years.
While feudalism did exist pre-1911, China has
not been, and is not considered to be, socialist.
Elements of capitalism are evident, but China
is far from being purely subject to global
market forces.
Private ownership of media is extremely
limited to ensure the state maintains control.
Private business ownership is booming, and
economic power of individuals is growing but
there has been no evidence of wanting to
overthrow the government as a result of this.
Religion oppressed by Chairman Mao but there
has been a limited revival of Confucian values.
31
Functionalist Theory
Selected elements of theory
Can this
be applied
to China?
Collective norms create
conformity and stability
yes
Formal social control
mechanisms imposed
Yes
Society becoming
increasingly complex
Yes
Seeks to avoid or limit
change
Yes
Manifest and latent functions
evident
Yes
Institutions are
interdependent
No
Change occurs through
consensus
No
Social systems work to
maintain equilibrium
No
Sees sources of change as
external
No
Evidence
People are cooperative to save face, filial piety
reflects commitment to do the right thing by
Looking after the family.
Manifest functions: increased wealth,
population control and opening up to West.
Latent functions: higher divorce rates, ‘little
emperor’ syndrome, gender imbalance.
The Chinese Communist Party influences most
institutions, limiting the chance for families,
schools, churches and other institutions to
develop networks. Institutions are largely
dependent upon the direction and authority of
the CCP.
There is no democracy. Dissidents are often
imprisoned. Also does not explain the massive
economic changes as a result of the Open Door
Policy. Changes are determined from the top
down.
Achieved through socialisation and learning
the basic values but values are changing with
the younger generations … individualism,
materialism
Chinese government is autonomous and creates
changes internally.
32
Assess (make a judgement/critically evaluate) the appropriateness of ONE social theory in
explaining continuity and change in China.
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33
China’s probable future directions (5 to 10 years)
Although China continues to have
the world’s largest population,
current trends indicate that its
population will peak at
approximately 1.5 billion in the
next 15 to 20 years. There will most
likely be further relaxation of the
OCP, especially for people who are
from generations of one child each.
The aging population and
individualistic youth may create
tensions, even though filial piety
has been enshrined in law.
Changing dependency ratios mean
that there are fewer younger people
to look after the growing elderly
population and that smaller families
and geographically mobile populations will put pressure on the government to provide support.
Likely Changes to family life and population
Any changes to families and the population in China over the next five to ten years will likely
determine the direction of the next few decades.
Individuals and groups in China may feel more empowered as a result of opportunities for
entrepreneurships and subsequent wealth. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the
late 18th century, China was an economic superpower, home to 30 per cent of the world’s
wealth. Its wealth had declined to 5 per cent of the global total by the middle of the 20th century
and is expected to rise again to about 25 per cent over the coming decade.
There have been pushed to abolish the Hukou system. It is discriminatory and restrictive and
goes against the mega-trend of urbanisation and the human right to freedom of movement.
Pilot programs have been carried out in more than 10 cities, including Shanghai, Shenzhen and
Guangzhou, where governments began to grant permanent residency and access to social
welfare to non-locals working and living in the cities.
Probable continuities
The trend of urbanisation will continue in China and significant environmental and social
problems. It is estimated that by 2025, 350 million rural Chinese residents will have left their
farms and moved to China’s cities. That will bring the urban population from approximately
760 million to close to 1 billion, changing China into a country where more than two-thirds of
its people are city-dwellers.
34
Most Chinese will continue to consider that marriage is for life. In the shirt-term, couples will
continue to marry in their 20s, but as China becomes more modernised and Westernised, the
average age of marriage will increase by a few years. The family structure of three generations
under the one roof will continue. Women are likely to have children later in life, as they will
delay starting a family to complete higher levels of education and enter the workforce.
There will be many opportunities for China to redress imbalances associated with human
rights, although some human rights will continue to be denied. Every person in the world is
entitled to the same 30 basic human rights. Human rights can be compromised by civil, social,
political, cultural, environmental and economic instability. Creating a nation free from
discrimination against minority groups based on gender, ethnicity, sexuality and disability is a
key challenge for China at a macro, meso and micro level.
Access the website and articles by Ron Gluckman:
https://www.gluckman.com/China%27sFutureShock.html
https://www.gluckman.com/ChinaList.htm
Evaluate (make a judgement/ascertain the value of) the impact and implications for the family
life and population of:
● Likely changes
● Probable continuities for China
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35
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36
Prediction of the importance of technologies to China
Technology will become a crucial tool
for the government in controlling the
population and maintaining a stable
environment in which the CCP can rule.
Censorship is the norm in China so there
will continue to be digital boundaries to
democratic thoughts, actions and
influences. But communication
technologies will be harnessed by
China’s millions and millions of socialmedia and Internet users.
China is now attempting to shift to the next level of economic development by promoting
creativity and building upon innovation and design. However, piracy and plagiarism are
widespread. Western countries continually threaten to impose sanctions against China for
piracy and products, ranging from computer software to movies and semi-conductors. As
society becomes more and more dependent on technologies, this may present issues for China.
State of the art technologies will become crucial in resolving China’s many environmental
problems. It is in China’s interest to focus on sustainability because issues such as traffic
congestion, atmospheric pollution and overall environmental quality directly affect people’s
wellbeing.
Using the course concepts, predict likely changes and probable continuities in China by
completing the table below.
China
Continuities
Changes
Authority
Beliefs and
values
37
Conflict
Cooperation
Culture
Empowerment
Gender
Globalisation
38
Identity
Modernisation
People
Power
Society
Technology
Tradition
Westernisation
39
40