Authoritarian States
MAO & HITLER - FACTORS AND CONDITIONS FOR RISE TO POWER
What factors and conditions led to the rise to power of Hitler and Mao?
Similarities: economic difficulties, appeal of ideology (​BUT FOR DIFFERENT REASONS)​​, use of force (​to varying extents)​​, use of propaganda, personal factors. ​Social Factors were different
Prescribed
Content
Hitler
Mao
Economic
Conditions
-
Treaty of Versailles resulted in repatriations of £6.6 billion, crippling Germany’s economy
Industry operated at 47% of pre-war performance
Weimar Republic printing money = hyperinflation, banks were closed in 1932
6 million people were unemployed
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Great Depression => resulted in Chinese GDP shrinking by 35%
Heavy taxes on people (70%), widespread poverty
4% of population controlled 50% of the land
KMT received economic aid from American and British => “not patriotic”
China was then largely an agricultural nation, lagging behind the West
Social
Conditions
-
Treaty of Versailles humiliate Germany
Army was reduced from 4.5 million to 100,000.
Germany had to accept war-guilt
German territory was ceded
Conservative elite still held power in Weimar Republic => supportive of Hitler’s fight for German strength
-
Peasants (80% of population) faced high taxes (up to 70%) under GMT
Warlord Period => even higher taxes, poor working conditions, tough military rule, economic output was
shrinking during Warlord Period
Quality of life much higher in cities, coasts => 20% went to primary school, 1% to secondary school
Land Redistribution in 1924 (allowed peasants to feel like they’d gotten revenge)
Mao’s CCP treated peasants well (under Mao’s orders)
Political
Conditions
(and factors
for Hitler’s
Case)
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Feeling that the Weimar were “November Criminals” (for accepting ToV terms)
Political instability and deadlock - 6 coalition governments between 1924 and 1929
Nazi Party by 1930 had almost 200 seats (majority) of parliament
Hitler manipulated Weimar Constitution superbly
- In 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor after a series of backroom negotiations and
parliamentary elections (Ebert thought this would keep Hitler under control)
- Reichstag Fire occurred - Hitler enacted Article 48 to unilaterally take control of the government,
purging many communists and political foes
- Hitler controlled the Government through Article 48, abolished powers of state, dissolved
parliament
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Personal
Factors
-
Hitler was recalled for many Germans as a golden age of strong rule
Brilliant speaker, good organiser and politician. Different to leaders of Weimar.
Driven, charismatic, proud and determined. Got German people to support him.
-
Shrewd and opportunistic conference: used the 1935 Zunyi Conference to deliver blistering attack on
Bolsheviks, ousting them from China
Humble, working-class background. Father was abusive. Would regularly visit farms (propaganda points)
Adaptive/perceptive visionary: Adopted Marxist-Leninism to suit China, focus on rural population
Communist ideology appealing to peasants - promised them a better life after years of neglect
-
Used Article 48 to purge an estimated 4000 political opponents
Allowed SA to parade the streets, attack political opponents, force people to vote for Nazi Party in 1930
and 1932 elections
Night of Long Knives: assassinated 85 political leaders in one evening (Rohm, Strasser, von Papen, von
Schleicher). Cleared the path for Hitler’s RTP, also, was good as public resented these leaders for their
‘thuggish brownshirt tactics’
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Futian Incident and 1942 Yenan Campaign, Mao killed 10,000 individuals
Purged 2,000 party members in late 1940s claiming an anti-Bolshevik league had infiltrated Communists
Hitler flew across the country visiting villages and towns and meeting people (most of campaign $ was
spent on this)
Cult of personality was developed - portrayed as a strong, saviour of Germany. Newspapers, TV
advertisements, entertainment business (films, poetry, theatre) all containing messages of Hitler’s
strength, and denounced Weimar Republic for “backstabbing Germany”
Students in schools pledged allegiance to Hitler, Nazi teachers in school to indoctrinate children (boys as
soldiers, women as bearers of children)
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Turned 6,000 mile long march into a major propaganda victory (even though 90% of CCP was eliminated)
Used Long March and split following the First United Front to discredit the KMT, assume role of true
nationalists of China
Used events like Luding Bridge Incident to emphasise CCP bravery
Portrayed as a Father figure, “Uncle/Father Mao” - famous posters of him behind a rural Chinese setting
as a god-like figure watching over the peasants
Use of Force
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Propaganda
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Treaty of Versailles and 21 Demands were regarded as unfair and humiliating for China
Defeat to Japan in Sino-Japanese War was extremely embarrassing
Qing Dynasty had collapsed, “dynastic” system of rule had proven to be outdated (abdication of PuYi
1911)
Republic of China failed (YSK bribery, domination of government led to 1915 rebellion against him)
Defeat of China in Sino-Japanese War led to radical new ideologies (New Culture Movement, May 4th
Movement) destroyed Confucian ideals
CONSOLIDATION OF POWER
How did Hitler and Mao consolidate their power/rule?
Prescribed
Content
Political Moves
Hitler
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Economic
Policies
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Nazis replaced old Weimar Legal system (which preached people’s rights and freedoms) with a new
system, which emphasised race and the community above the individual
○ Under this new system of law, highest duty of to Fuhrer citizen was obedience and to show
risrespect was a crime
○ Judges had to swear oath of allegiance to Hitler
○ No one could practice law unless they belonged to League of National Socialist German
Lawyers
Decree for the Protection of People and State February 1933 allowed for indefinite detention without trial
1934 the people's Court was set up to deal with treasonable offences – the court proceedings presided
over by Roland Freisler was secret and there was no right of appeal except to Hitler
Hitler abolished trade unions in May 1933 and made it compulsory for all workers to join the German
Labour front (DAF) – a nazi organisation headed by Dr. Robery Ley
○ Special committees called the Trustees of Labour established to settle disputes between
workers and employers about wages and working conditions
■ Trustees tended to side with employers
○ Most workers enjoy the highest standard of living under the Nazis between 1933-9
■ Unemployment fell from nearly 6 million in 1932 to only a few hundred thousand by 1939
■ Wages higher than they had been in the last years of the Weimar Republic although not
as much as in 1928
○ German Labour Front took over responsibility for the workers Leisure and Recreation
■ Non-Nazi recreational clubs closed down, even chess clubs
○ Ley set up two new organisations called ‘Beauty of Labour’ and ‘Strength through Joy’
■ Beauty of Labour campaigned to persuade employer to provide better working
conditions factory canteens and purple lighting and ventilation
■ Strength through joy held a number of activities with high turn out:
KDF Activity
Number of participants
Concerts
2.5 million
Theatre
7.4 million
Gymnastics Clubs
2.5 million
Holiday Outings
1.4 million
Hikes
1.9 million
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Forceful
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Mao Zedong
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Political Structure: claimed to have “elections” for each official, when really they were all hand-picked.
Politburo was filled with people loyal to Mao, they would just rubber stamp his policies
○ Military Commander and Political Commissar for each of the 6 sections China was divided into
were always from PLA - giving Mao control, regardless of who the Chairman was, of each region
and bureau
100 Flowers Campaign (1956)
○ Initially, was designed to promote discussion/feedback for Mao. Criticism became too intense,
Mao used 100 Flowers Campaign to identify and purge opponents via Anti-Right Campaign
(1957-1959)
■ 500,000 intellectuals were branded rightists, 1,000 were executed.
■ By 1958, 1 million party members had been expelled/sent to re-education camps
Businesses were nationalized in 1953 (including banks)
Collectivization: allowed Mao to have control over richer/poorer groups, and since they were in groups it
was easier to track/control them (Ex: Great Leap Forward)
Anti-movements
○ Series of movement launched against the ‘remnants of the bourgeois class’ whom the CCP
regarded as politically or socially suspect
○ Chinese people were encouraged to inform on anyone they knew who was unwilling to accept
new regime
○ Special govt. Department drew up a dangan, a dossier, on every suspected person
■ If an individual's dossier was dubious he stood very little chance of obtaining housing or
work
Anti-landlord campaign
○ The property of landlords was confiscated and redistributed among their former tenants
○ Some landlords allowed to keep a portion of their land provided that they become peasants but
great majority were put on public trial and denounced enemies of the people
○ As many as 1 million landlords killed during PRC’s land campaign of early 50s
KDF Also launched a scheme to design and mass produce cheap cars that ordinary workers
could afford to buy
■ Originally called KDF-wagen but later became known as People's Car Volkswagen
Concentration camps
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Resist America and Aid Korea Campaign (1950), Three Antis (1951), Five Antis (1952)
Repression/
Handling Dissent
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Propaganda
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Dachau The first concentration camp opened in March 1933
Never fewer than 10000 prisoners in the camps and in total about 225 000 Germans were
imprisoned for Political crimes in the years of 1933 to 1939
○ Discipline in the camps was brutal, the diet poor and living conditions inadequate
○ Prisoners made to do hard labour and was subjected to sadistic beatings and torture
Policing and Security Forces
○ Alongside the ordinary police forces use jobs were to detect crime and keep under a new system
of policing developed – both systems under Himmler
○ Goering set up Gestapo in Prussia 1933
■ Gestapo heavily dependent on denunciations by ordinary Germans e.g. in Wurzburg
54% of all race related charges were initiated by private citizens
○ Gestapo and security service (SD) rooted out and dealt with political offenders and opponent of
the regime
■ SD was set up in 1931 by Himmler increasingly they were given the task of gathering
intelligence and monitoring public opinion
The SS
○ SS created 1925 and became powerful after the Night of Long Knives
○ 220 000 members by 1935
○ Death's Head units of the SS ran concentration camps from 1934
○ Himmler also built up Waffen SS – members who were more highly trained and better equipped
with motorised vehicles and tanks
○ During WWII the SS to control and many factories the SS became a kind of state within a state
and played a major part in the ruling of territories conquered by Nazis and in carrying out what
Himmler called ‘the final solution of the Jewish question’
○ Einsatzgruppen units of SS rounding up and killed thousands of Jews gypsies and slavs in
Poland and Russia from autumn 1939 onwards
Fuhrer Cult
○ Cult of Fuhrer established
○ The book’ The Hitler no-one knows’ sold 420000 copies between 1932 and 1940
○ Hitler's birthday celebrated with mass rallies and parades
○ Kershaw argues that Hitler was an increasingly victim of the Fuhrer myth and began to confuse
fantasy with reality especially in foreign policy
Media and Arts controlled
○ March 1933 ministry for popular enlightenment and propaganda set up by Goebbels
Goebbels regarded radio as the most important medium: the Reich Radio Company brought all
broadcasting under Nazi control
○ Cheap radios was mass produced in 1932 fewer than 25% of households had a radio by 1939
70% did
1933 there were 4700 daily papers in Germany by 1944 1000
○ Eher Verlag (Nazi publishing house) controlled 66% of 1939
○ The sole newsagency permitted was run by the Nazis
All films had to pass censors and about half of Germany's best known film stars emigrated
New rituals created to celebrate the Nazi state: the Nuremberg rallies, celebrations of the Munich
Putsch and Hitler's birthday
Nazis stood for traditional art, music, literature and Drama and they, in common with many ordinary
Germans who were puzzled by and hostile to the highly experimental culture of which Berlin was a
centre in the 1920s
○ Ziegler, the president of the Reich Chamber of Art, and other nazis objected to the abstract
expressionist paintings, they wanted to return to realism
○ Ziegler organised An exhibition of the kind of paintings with the Nazis disapproved calling at the
Exhibition of degenerate of art
■ Nazis blamed Jews and communists for the spread of this kind of art and regarded it as
a conspiracy to undermine German culture
Nazis also wanted literature and Drama which would reflect their ideas
○ May 1933 ‘Burning of the books’ in Berlin
■ Libraries ransacked for books which Nazis disapproved of and student hurled books into
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○ Estimated 250,000 “western sources of influence” purged
○ Extension of previous methods such as Yenan Campaign, to eliminate any new threats
Labour Camps, Public “trials”, Social scrutiny (neighbours policing each-other in the name of
Nationalism), Mass Campaigns. Neighbors spied on eachother.
Cultural Revolution​​ (1966-76): abolish “traditional China” to get rid of Confucianism. Eliminate
intellectuals, further Mao’s Cult of Personality.
○ 200 artists killed, all music was to be revolution-related, religious sites were destroyed, 1.5
million were killed
Imposition of military control
○ 1950 in a series of ‘reunification‘ campaigns three pLA armies were despatched west and south
○ Officially they were sent in order to help improve local conditions and troops did contribute to
such schemes as road building
○ Main purpose was to impose martial law and repress any sign of an independence movement
■ One army sent to Tibet
■ A second went to Xinjiang
■ A third went to southern province of Guangdong
Portrayed as the saviour of women in China (banned arranged marriages, child marriages, polygamy,
gave right to vote, and right to property).
○ Enormously popular amongst women, propaganda frequently highlighted his pro-women policies
1.5 million propagandists working under Mao to promote his Cult of Personality
Roadside loud-speakers, posters, all newspapers were controlled, all films were controlled
LITTLE RED BOOK (everyone had to have one) to expose everyone to his Communist ideals, hugely
successful
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a public bonfire
Artists, writers and composers forced to join Nazi organisations in order to pursue their art and refusal to
join these organisations meant that it was impossible to get their work displayed
○ All publications were censored by the government and censors looked at political
views,character and race of it’s author not the content of the book
○ This censorship produced art was boring and unadventurous
INDEPENDENT POLICIES (for specifics, not related to consolidation/RTP)
Comparison between domestic policies of Hitler and Mao (women, economy, society, politics etc.)
Prescribed
Content
Aims and
results of
economic
policies
Hitler
Aims:
Reduce unemployment, rearm, achieve autarchy
Methods:
Unemployment
- RAD (Reich Labour Service): Reich Labour Service Act 1935 → mandatory 6 months of military training
for men aged 18-25, RAD dug ditches of farms, planted forests
- Unemployment Relief Act (1935): Built hospitals, 3,500 km of Autobahn
- Robert Ley’s DAF (German Labour Front): To appease workers after abolishing trade unions, subsidised
holidays, sporting, cinemas, Volkswagen installation payment scheme (10 million DAF holidays in 1938).
- Four Year Plan (1936-1939): Retrained key sectors of the workforce
- Public Works Project
Rearmament:
- “Guns not butter” motto → economy focussed on rearmament at expense of other industries
- Increase number in the army and navy
- Aimed to construct 2 battleships and 21,000 aircraft
Self- Sufficiency (Autarchy):
- Hitler blamed Germany’s dependence on foreign imports of food and raw materials, which were
blockaded during the war
Food:
- Food Through the National Food Corporation, targets were set for every stage of food production from
farmers to shopkeepers
- Peasants resented these policies but they had moderate success
Industrial Raw Material
- Home production of iron, steel and coal were increased
- Germans were unable to produce rubber and oil thus, scientists were put to work to find alternatives
- An alternative to rubber called buna was created and manufactured
Four Year Plan (1936-1939)
- Aimed to achieve Autarchy
- Increase agricultural production (subsidies for farmers)
- Government regulation of imports and exports (high tariffs on all imports)
- Achieve self-sufficiency in raw materials (scientists tried to turn coal into oil, find alternative for rubber,
petrol, cotton and coffee)
Results
Unemployment
- Unemployment from 6 million (1932) to under 1 million (1939)
- Some historians believe that Hitler’s success with unemployment was more due to removing people from
the count (no Jews, women, men aged 18-25 in their military training): Historian Adam Tooze describes
the ‘hidden unemployed’ and calculated that there were still 4 million out of work in 1935
Mao Zedong
1950 Agrarian Land Reform
- Agrarian Reform Land -Redistribution of holdings to middle/low class peasants
- 1953: 90% agricultural land had changed holdings
First Five Year Plan (1953-57)
Goal:
Follow the Soviet model, with planning highly centralised and focused on heavy industry
- 1952-56 - coal, steel, automobile, transport
- Growth rate → 9%, high relative to USSR in 1930s
- Sino Soviet Agreement - 10,000 economic advisors, but China had to pay with reserves and concessions
- China had to pay high-interest loans which soured relations between Mao and Stalin - only 5% of
the capital sent to China was genuine industrial investment
Result:
- Huge new industrial centres were built (e.g. the Anshan steel complex which employed 35,000 workers) and
factory management changed from a team-based approach to one-man management.
- By Feb 1956 nationalised all Chinese private industry and business.
- Boosted urbanisation (Urban population increase from 57 mill in 1949 to 100 million 1957).
- Important infrastructure improvements e.g. Yangzi River Rail and Road Bridge linking Northern and
Southern China.
- Heavy industry output nearly trebled and light industrial output rose 20%
Collectivisation (1950-1959)
Goal:
Increase agricultural output and fulfill their ideological aims
Result:
- 1958-1960 → grain production fell from 200-143m tonnes, meat production from 4-1m tonnes whilst terrified
officials reported huge increases.
- Led to great famine and Mao resigning from state chairman in 1959.
- This was due to stupid policies such as killing sparrows (Four Pests campaign), planting winter wheat in
boggy, frozen ground and planting seeds very close to each other.
Great Leap Forward (GLF - 1958-1961)
Goal:
Aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy into a socialist society through rapid
industrialization and collectivization. Based on two principle assumptions
- Peasants would produce a surplus of food to be sold abroad to raise money for expansion of chinese
industry
- The workers, largely through the mass production of steel, would create a modern industrial economy,
powerful enough to compete with the soviet union and capitalist west
Rearmament
- 100,00 (1933) to 1,400,000 (1939) men in the army
- Only 5,000 aircraft (out of 21,000) made
- Had little to export to get materials for rearmament → national debt almost tripled between 1928 and 1938
Self-Sufficiency:
- Food production increased by 20% (1928 - 1938)
- By 1939 Germany was self-sufficient in bread, potatoes and sugar
- This conflicted with the aim of rearmament as Germany needed high amounts of iron ore
- Imports rose from 4.5 million in 1933 to 21 million in 1938
- Still imported ⅓ of raw materials
- Migration to cities caused labour shortage (seen in farming income rise of 41%)
- In 1937 Hitler abandoned it, but not the wider aim of protecting Germany’s economy in the event of war.
- Wanted to prioritise rearmament
Reasons for:
● Slow economy and agricultural growth
● Lack of revolutionary enthusiasm
● Revolutionary momentum required to avoid capitalism
● Re-establish power after failure of Hundred Flowers
● Over take Soviet Union
Events:
● Teams of peasants mobilised for mass water and irrigation projects
● Co-operative and collectives:
○ End of 1958: 27,000 communes, 11 million tonnes of steel
○ Destruction of family life - shared hospitals, shops, kitchens, schools etc.
● Second Five Year Plan
○ -Agriculture AND Industry: backyard furnaces
○ Massive effort to create industrial base, but unrealistic, idealistic goals
○ Soviet agronomist, Lysenko policies: killing birds to save grain (stupid! mess with food chains), close
cropping --> densely planted seeds
○ State owned enterprises --> centralised industry, failed due to lack of incentives
Result:
- Quickly produced farm machinery produced in factories feel to pieces when used.
- Steel produced by the backyard furnaces were frequently too weak to be of any use and could not be used
in construction - its original purpose.
- The harvest of 1959 was 170 million tons of grain - well below what China needed.
- 1960 was 144 million tons, even lower.
- Between 1959-1962 estimated 20 million people died of starvation or diseases.
- 1959-1962: Great Chinese Famine (Mao: 'I see no famine')
- 80 million lives
- Peng sent private letter to Mao about concerns of GLF's shortcomings → Mao turned on Peng and publicly
circulated the letter, dismissed Peng of his Minister post and threatened to go to countryside to start another
peasant rebellion and overthrow CCP
- Great Famine 1958-61
as many as 80 million people died of starvation
- parents sold their children and cannibalism was rife, but China's leadership did not act
- officials continued to claim that production targets were being met
- speaking the truth was too dangerous
- Mao’s response
- Mao eventually came to accept what was happening but didn't accept blame
- he blamed:
the peasants for hoarding food
- local officials for being incompetent
- bad weather, which had affected harvests
- his reputation was tarnished and he withdrew from the political frontline
- Outcome
- Liu and Deng, who confronted Mao, revoked Mao's reforms
- allowed private farming to operate again
- eventually food supplies improved
- Famine came to an end
- Mao would later punish both Liu and Deng for going against Marxist ideals
Assigned Power:
- CCP gives extensive power to mayors and party secretaries in 700-odd municipalities
- System of promotion incentives to keep them responsive to the central government
- Led to whatever Beijing needs, Beijing Gets, no matter the costs to environment or human rights
Aims and
results of
political
policies
Aims:
● Nazification of politics
● Establishing totalitarian control of Hitler as Fuhrer
● Elimination of of opposition and establishment of support
Methods:
● Gleichschaltung – the process of nazification by which Nazi Germany successively established totalitarian
control
○ 1933-7 was the period with the systematic elimination of non-nazi organisations
● For workers, recreational organization called Kraft durch Freude (Strength through Joy) under the
German Labor Front (DAF) was set up
○ This brough hobbies and private leisure under control
○ 25 million members – largest Nazi Organisation
○ Reichsberufswettkampf, a national vocational competition was held for workers to compete
● Sondergericht – were special courts where Jews, Slavs, Communists were tried (bias and their outcome
was predetermined)
● 1934 – People’s court were used to put enemies on trial, with judges only being from the Nazi Party
● Nuremberg Laws 1935 – could fire someone from their job because they were Jewish
● Note: These are more rise to power but some policies he put in to consolidate political control
○ "First Gleichschaltung Law" (Erstes ;lchschaltungsgesetz, 31 March 1933), passed using
Enabling Act, dissolved the diets of all Länder except the recently-elected Prussian parliament,
which the Nazis already controlled → Giving control of state authority and the Nazis
○ "Second Gleichschaltung Law" (Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz, 7 April 1933) deployed one
Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor)
○ The Law concerning the reconstruction of the ‘Reich’ (Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reiches)
(30 January 1934) formally did away with the concept of a federal republic, converting Germany
into a highly centralized state. States were reduced to mere provinces, as their institutions were
practically abolished altogether. All of their powers passed to the central government.
○ The Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich (1 August 1934) prescribed that upon
the death of the incumbent president, that office would be merged with the office of the
chancellor, and that the competencies of the former should be transferred to the "Führer und
Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler", as the law stated.
Results:
● Hitler able to establish control over Germany, and declare himself Fuhrer
● Established and enforced Nazi control over Germany
Hundred Flowers Campaign
● WHY did Mao launch the campaign?
○ April 1956: Mao declares 'Let a hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools of thought contend.'
○ Encouraged critical debate to promote progress in the fields of art, literature and science.
● February 1957: speech, Mao encouraged criticism saying the CCP thought it could learn from the people
and be rectified.
● April 1957: campaign underway
● June 1957: campaign was out of hand and CCP criticised all over China for: -poor policies -authoritarianism
-corruption -poor living standards
● June 1957: Mao ended the campaign
● Results – Anti-Rightist Movement
○ Suppressed all those that spoke out during Hundred Flowers
○ End of 1957: 300,000 condemned as rightists, including writer Ding Ling
3 Antis Campaign 1951
● The Three-anti Campaign was launched in Manchuria at the end of 1951
● It was aimed at members within the Communist Party of China, former Kuomintang members and
bureaucratic officials who were not party members.
● Three antis imposed were:
○ corruption
○ waste
○ bureaucracy
5 Antis Campaign 1952
● The Five-anti campaign was launched in January 1952. It was designed to target the capitalist class
● The Communist party set a very vague guideline of who could be charged, and it became an all out war
against the bourgeoisie in China. Deng Xiaoping warned the people "not to be corrupted by capitalist
thinking"
● Five antis imposed were:
○ bribery
○ theft of state property
○ tax evasion
○ cheating on gov't contracts
○ stealing state economic info
Terror
Aims:
● To control the German state
Methods:
● Reichstag Fire Decree, suspended the provisions of the German constitution that protected basic
individual rights, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of assembly. Also
permitted increased state and police intervention into private life, allowing officials to censor mail, listen in
on phone conversations, and search private homes without a warrant or need to show reasonable cause
Results:
Aims and
results of
cultural
policies
Aims:
- Hitler considered himself an art expert and wanted all forms of art to represent Nazi ideals and ideology.
- Gain control of cultural life
- Hitler created the Reich Chamber of Culture headed by Joseph Goebbels.
Historiography
- Henry Grosshans = Adolf Hitler who came to power in 1933 (quote): "saw Greek and Roman art as
uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modern art was [perceived by him as] an act of aesthetic violence
by the Jews against the German spirit.
Art
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LIN BIAO
○ Revolutionary art
○ Uniting/education people
○ Revolutionary aims -Eliminating bourgeoisie
○ PLA paintings+posters → featured RED = morality, revolution
Jiang Qing
○ Model revolutionary operas and ballets
Methods:
Paintings
- Hitler had stated clearly in ‘Mein Kampf’ where his thoughts lay with regards to modern art as found in
Dada and cubism: “This art is the sick production of crazy people. Pity the people who are no longer able
to control this sickness”
- Popular themes
the Volk at work in the fields, a return to the simple virtues of Heimat (love of homeland), the
manly virtues of the National Socialist struggle, and the lauding of the female activities of child
bearing and raising symbolized by the phrase Kinder, Küche, Kirche ("children, kitchen, church").
Music
- Music was expected to be tonal and free of jazz influence
- regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was considered degenerate and
Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical German music
- Nazis promoted the works of German composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van
Beethoven, Anton Bruckner, and Richard Wagner, while banning performances of pieces by "non-Aryans"
such as Felix Mendelssohn and Gustav Mahler
Literature
- The most widely-read-or displayed-book of the period was Hitler's Mein Kampf
- Promoted writers such as writers such as Adolf Bartels and Hitler Youth poet Hans Baumann
- Themes of War as a Spiritual Experience, Blood and Soil and historical ethnicity
- Banned ‘un-national’ literature
- Book burnings
- 1933 Book Burning (25,000 books burnt)
- 2,500 German writers left (1933-1939)
Artitecture:
- Nazi architecture adopted many elements of neoclassicism and of art deco in keeping with Adolf Hitler's
personal fascination with Ancient Rome
- favored hugeness
- designed to make the individual feel small and insignificant through its use of high ceilings
- "Theory of Ruin Value”
- Postulated that if a society was to exist past their existence, aesthetically pleasing art and
architecture must remain
Rallies:
- Nuremberg Rallies to show German military power, glorify state
- Emphasised order and discipline
Radios:
- Controlled by Goebbels’ Reich Radio Company
- Cheap (35 marks) → 70% of population had one, good method of control
- Daily ‘hour of the nation’
- Limited range so no foreign influence
Sport:
- 1936 Berlin Olympic Games aimed to demonstrate Aryan superiority
- 10 African Americans won 13 medals, Jesse Owens broke 11 records, event backfired.
- Nazi Germany won the most medals, a total of 89, with 33 gold medals.
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'Three Prominences' = positive characters, heroism, central character
1960s: Opera for revolutionary purposes
Encouraged 'socialist realism' style → utopian vision, spread revolutionary message
Destroying four olds: 'historic culture, Han Chinese, Buddhist Tibetan, Muslims'
Religion:
● Marxist ideology against religion: Opium of the masses
● Banned religion (religious clothing and practice were illegal), public loudspeakers denounced religion
● China = atheist state
● Devotion and loyalty to CCP → Maosim=religion
● Marxist ideology against religion:
○ Opium of the masses
● Religious Affairs Bureau (RAB)
○ implicitly and, more often than not, explicitly banned religions
● Wall posters, the traditional way by which Chinese governments spread their propaganda and loud speakers
at every corner kept up a running condemnation of religion
● Foreign nuns and priests were expelled from China
● Priests and monks were not allowed to wear their traditional dress
○ Cases of police encouraging the public to strip the clothes off the clergy who dared to walk abroad in
their traditional distinctive clothing
● Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity all condemned and denounced in mass propaganda
● Priests, monks, temples, shrines, monasteries all forbidden/destroyed
● Religious/superstitious rituals/customs replaced by political discussions held by the CCP
● Patriotic churches = allowed to stay open if they professed support for CCP and had no other authority
● Sparked clash with Vatican + Pope in Rome
● Impact of Cultural Revolution
○ Attacked as one of the 'four olds'
○ No religious practiced permitted
○ Monasteries, churches, mosques, temples destroyed
○ Priests rounded up and imprisoned
○ Cemeteries attacked and destroyed, vandalised
○ Mao worship created as form of religion: -'Asking for guidance, thanking for kindness and reporting
back'
○ Bowing 3 times, reading passages from 'Little Red Book', wishing Mao 'ten thousand years'
○ Loyalty dance - honouring his portrait
Results:
- Extensive control of German life
- Book burnings meant many essential texts were destroyed and humanity lost information contained within
them
Aims and
results of
social
policies
Youth
Aims:
● Indoctrinate with Nazi ideology
● Create loyalty & willingness to sacrifice to greater good of nation → nationalism/anti-individualism
● "Separate spheres" → boys were to be strong fighters & girls were to bear children
Family
● Constitution: upheld traditional values BUT Maoist policies contradicted:
○ Split families up via communes
○ Undermined filial piety → communal living
○ 'Loyalty to state and party' = children encouraged to speak out against parents, youth told to take
revolutionary action against older generation
●
●
●
●
1933 - Government takes over and increases in supporters → expansion of movement
1936 - Membership and all other youth organizations banned
Camping outdoor activity, fun games → intimidation and oath to loyalty
Later, greater focus on military drills and Nazi ideology → separate for boys and girls
Methods:
● 1926 – Hitler Youth established
○ By 1933 its membership stood at 100,000, and 1936 4 million
○ 1936 it was compulsory to join
● Boys joined Deutsches Jungvolk which promoted military athletics
● Girls joined the Bund Deutscher Madel where they were prepared to become good housewives and
mothers
● By 1934 education was coordinated by the Reich
○ 15% of the timetable was physical education
○ History was changed to idolise Hitler
○ Biology changed to make Aryans to appear like the superior race
Results:
● Successes
○ 95% loyal to Hitler
○ Rapid membership increase after 1933, plus compulsory membership
○ Brainwashed kids → students prepared to sacrifice themselves for Nazi loyalty
○ Hitler Youth became dominant monopoly over German's Youth's spare time
● Failures
○ Many youth managed to escape the "compulsory memberships" and rival groups emerged
○ Many turned away from Hitler Youth in later 1930s
○ The Hitler Youth became less successful with more military training and Nazi lectures etc.
○ Growing opposition to Hitler Youth - rejection of it + non-Nazi ideas
○ Universities saw a great decrease in numbers as a result of anti-intellectual stress → Brain Drain
Other
● Volksgemeinschaft → German expression meaning "people's community which sought to unify Germany
racially and socially, and rejected Old religions, ideologies and class divisions instead forming a united
German identity based around ideas of race, struggle and state leadership
Impact of
social
policies on
women
Women
Aims:
● Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church)
○ Promote nuclear family
○ Housewife
○ piety
● Hitler’s concern of birth rate drop
○ Kinder, Küche, Kirche
○ fewer women allowed in universities
○ no women allowed in civil service
○ abortion was made illegal
● Impact of War
○ abrupt change in policy
■ conscription into army
■ reintroduced women in the workplace
○ war destroyed social conventions
Health
●
●
●
●
●
Life Expectancy - 1957: 57 → 1958: 68
Infant Mortality - 1954: 139/1000 → 1980: 20/1000
Hospitals in communes, barefoot doctors had 3-5 months training
Education of epidemic diseases
The Four Pests: 'rats, flies, mosquitoes, mice'
Education
● Mao’s view on education
○ Condemned old-style education through books, Western influence on curriculum
○ Believed in education through experience
○ Education: vital for building of socialist state, economic development
○ Mass literacy required for political indoctrination
● Primary Education
○ 1956: Less than half of children 7-16 attending school → 1976: 96% attending
○ Only 6.4% of national budget spent
○ Cultural Revolution undermined progress
● Literacy
○ 'key schools' → best teachers, difficult examinations for students (supposedly meritocratic), though
children of high ranking officials got most places
○ Higher education expanded, universities remodelled
○ Students sent to USSR universities in 1950s
○ 1949-1966: Peasants taught to read, simplified characters, 1500 basic characters
○ 1962-66: Socialist Education Movement sent students to countryside to organise party
administration → 3 -isms 'collectivism, patriotism, socialism' and 4 clean ups 'politics, economy,
CCP ideology and organisation'
○ 1966: only 10% under 45 illiterate
● Cultural revolution Impact
○ 1965: 'The more books you read, the more stupid you become' ~1966-1970: 130 million stopped
attending school/university
○ Progress undermined by new policy that all education had to be centred around Mao and revolution
○ 1966: Beijing University (and others), teachers dragged out of classes, beaten, made to wear dunce
hats, abused by students. All universities closed for 2 years.
○ 1966-1976: 12 million young people sent to countryside to experience peasant work, instead of
attending school
○ Manual labour rather than formal education - harmed long term success of young people, unable to
graduate ~Scholars, writers, intellectuals, teachers - all imprisoned/killed.
Marriage Act of 1950:
● arranged marriages were discontinued
● concubinage was abolished
● the paying of the bride-price was forbidden
● women and men who had previously been forced to marry were entitled to divorce their partners
● husbands could not insist on their wives having bound feet
● all marriages had to be officially recorded and registered
● Women were legally allowed to sell land and property
○ however, undermined by the collectivization program in which ended the private holding of land by
either men or women and required people to live in communes
Results:
- many women used their new freedom to divorce and remarry
- Disruptive to society: some women had four husbands in four year
Pros for Women
● 1950-51: upsurge in divorces initiated by women
● 1954: Equal pay, education, work opportunities
Methods:
● Workplace discrimination, forced women from employment through bribes of social benefits
○ Women banned from professional posts (1933) and judicial roles (1936)
○ Hitler reduced amount of women at universities to 10%
● Law for the Encouragement of Marriage
○ Loan of 1000 marks from government
○ Money can be claimed by birth of children
○ Women needed to give up job
● Cross of Honor of the German Mother
○ Awarded for 4+ babies
● Laws against make up, hair perming/colour
● Lebensborn (1936)
○ SS members meet Aryan girls to impregnate and increase Aryan race
● Law for Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring
○ Sterilised women “unsuitable” to have children i.e. non-Aryans
● German Women’s Enterprise
○ All women’s societies dissolved and merged into this
○ Ran “mother schools” to train housewives and mothers
Impact of
social
policies on
minorities
Minorities:
- Jews
- Gypsies / Romani
- Black people
- Disabled people
- Homosexuals
- Anyone that was not pure “Aryan”
Methods​​:
- 1933-1934: Exclusion of Jews from public life (banned from being civil servants, public positions,
practicing law)
- 1935: Legal segregation - Nuremberg Laws
Impacts:
- Hitler used the Jews as scapegoats and blamed the loss of the war on them
- Similarly blamed them for the post-war economic deprivation
- Jews were stereotyped as frugal and unpleasant individuals ​- I.e.​​ films such as the ​Eternal Jew​​ would
stereotype Jews - played in cinemas to spread anti-Jew propaganda
●
●
1958-59: 3.2 → 8m - Women working in industry
1976: 45% female primary school students, 41% middle school, 24% university
Cons for Women
● First 5 year plan:
○ Communes: Women now worked, ate in masses therefore no need to cook at home
○ 80% field work done by women, but paid 25% less
○ Less than 13% CCP members were women
○ Prejudice within society still prevalent (female babies)
● Famine on Women:
○ Wife/teenage daughter selling
○ Mothers had to sacrifice daughters for sons
○ When mothers were sold, children left abandoned → sold as slaves
○ Girl infants dumped at hospitals, railway stations etc.
○ Prostitution became widespread → sex for food
Minorities:
● Tibetans
● Uighurs
● Hui Muslims
● Mongols
Impacts​​:
● No authority over themselves, Communist party firmly believed that they knew what was best for the
minorities
● Promised independence during the revolution but were given “autonomy” in the end
● Given rights to develop/express culture and representation politically, with limits
● Followed Stalin’s guidelines on treatment of minority
● Cultural Revolution
○ 6,000 monasteries destroyed in Tibet
○ 790,000 people persecuted in Inner Mongolia
○ Schools destroyed, books burned
● Shadian Incident
○ 1,000 Hui killed by PLA
● Tibet
○ 1950 PLA Reunification Campaigns → Xinjiang and Tibet.
○ Mao claimed that Tibet was originally part of China (but they were actually separate in culture, race
etc.)
○ 1950: Within 6 months, despite 60,000 Tibetans resisting, CCP gained control over Tibet
○ 1951: CCP control over Xinjiang (Mao feared their independence/association with S.U.)
○ Reconstruction of Tibert
■ 17 point agreement: No socialist land reform to be carried out
■ Wiping out Tibetan identity:
● Renamed 'Xizang'
● Tibetan language, history and teachings of Dalai Lama prohibited → Mandarin
Chinese official language
● Those who resisted were imprisoned
● Mass migration of Chinese to Tibet → many Tibetans ended up in Sichuan after
reorganisation of provincial boundaries
○ 1955: Tibetans in Sichuan sparked open fighting in resistance to land reform
○ 1959: Revolt and Genocide -PLA sent to suppress demonstrations → destroyed their religion:
○
Extent of
authoritarian
control
priests, nuns, monasteries -March 1959: Dalai Lama fled -4 million died as a result of the Genocidal
Famine (purposely extended to Tibet by Mao)
Tibetan Government in Exile
Propaganda:
- 13th March 1933 Joseph Goebbels was appointed minister for the Reich Ministry of Popular
Enlightenment and Entertainment
- The media (radio, cinema, poster, speeches, and rallies were used expansively
- “Its most important role was in strengthening the regime.” (Herzstein)
Cult of Personality:
- that he was the “messiah” or savior come to help Germany in her time of need.
- Portrayed as a great hero, with many attributes.
- This increased public awareness of the Nazi party, and made Hitler highly popular and favorable.
- The propaganda method gave Hitler a way to instill his regime into the minds of the nation.
- All textbooks and homes had a picture of Hitler
Cold War
IMPACT OF COLD WAR ON COUNTRIES OTHER THAN US & USSR + IMPACT on Cold War
Social
Germany
Political
Economic
Brain drain due to the divide: ​Skilled workers left East Germany as
refugees to West Germany (by 1961, the flow was 1,800 per day)
Became a focus of the Cold War - conflict in Germany led to separate states
until East/West Germany was reunited.
The Berlin Wall: ​social split to occur between eastern and western
germans these differences caused the East Germans to view their western
relatives as pampered and privileges. Families were separated. People who
tried to escape were killed (140 people were killed whilst escaping
East Germany: political identity stripped. Anti-Communists purged, Soviets
controlled East Germany
The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine:
- Policy of containment, 13 billion USD to rebuild Europe, West
Germany received 1.5 billion USD
- American company heads/economic advisors guided Western
Germany Economy. Approximately 200 vocational centers opened.
- East Germany: millions of POWs used as slaves, 30% of economic
resources stripped from Germany. Mineral-rich land given to
Poland. Industrial output dropped 13%
West Germany: guided by Americans, but, still had parties of their own
(SPD, CSU, CDU) who gave German people voice
Improved Living Standards in West Germany:
- Between 1950 and 1965, level of car ownership in West Germany
increased by 6 times.
- Plentiful supply of consumer goods and generally low inflation
Living Standards in East Germany:
- East Germany lacked national identity and was economically
stagnant
- People were constantly being spied on by the Stasi and by
eachother (6 million East Germans were spies)
Vietnam
Bombing​​: Health issues, agricultural setbacks as a result of “Rolling
Thunder” and “Agent Orange”. This destroyed Vietnam’s natural
environment and led to widespread illnesses.
-
Biological Warfare:
“Agent Orange“, one of major herbicides used, has left a serious ecological
and human impact on Vietnamese people’s lives. Today there are still many
children in Vietnam growing up with various diseases and disabilities
affected by the harmful chemicals carried out in the war.
Massively decreased quality of life: ​3 million wounded, 2 million dead.
More Communist support - the French (initially) prevented an
election from taking place before they left Vietnam because they
knew the Communists would win
Political turmoil for future leaders; next generation of Communist
leaders in Vietnam had a weakened military, but still had to defend
themselves against Khmer Rouge in Cambodia
-
Industrial output dropped by 50% as 70% of industrial sites were
destroyed
Transportation routes damaged - trade routes (by road) no longer
used.
Agricultural output decreased by almost 13%
Many children still growing up with diseases and disabilities from the
chemical warfare.
Refugees fled Vietnam (200,000-400,000 deaths at sea).
Continued danger due to unexploded bombs and mines.
Infrastructure and communications destroyed.
Estimated 700,000 Vietnamese with some form of PTSD
TWO COLD WAR LEADERS START OF COLD WAR
Compare and contrast the impact of two cold war leaders (and their policies/actions) on the start of the Cold War.
TRUMAN (1945-53)
Main foreign policies
related to the Cold War
When Truman came to power as president he had limited FP experience.
US came to realise that in order for European recovery, Germany had to be revitalised, and needed a
working economy → sought to stimulate economic recovery
Containment
- 1946 Truman wrote to Secretary of State 1946: Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong
language another war is in the making
- Saw communism as a threat to access to markets, and saw communism as a political threat
- Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan
STALIN (1929-53)
Salami tactics & creation of buffer zone
- Given that it took so long for European nations to start the second front with USSR (not until 1944),
and Stalin saw Britain & France;s appeasement directly targeted at him, he mistrusted west and
wanted a buffer zone for protection
- Communists who were loyal to Stalin took leading positions in national parties, then joined
coalitions with left wing parties so that they soon dominated provisional govt. By controlling judicial
& repressive systems of state communists able to rig elections< Political opponents disappeared or
harassed.
- Between 1947-8, 6 states turned communist
- Political system controlled, as well as economy, culture, land and media
Stalin feared a German recovery → wanted to crush Germany
Cold War Events
1945
-
1946
1947
-
-
Potsdam Conference July 1945
- Conference considered a failure in some regards, as there was heated debate over
Stalin’s policies → some argued that this was Truman’s fault
During conference Truman informed that A-bomb would work, but decided not to inform Stalin in
spite of the facts that Soviets promised to help Americans in defeating Japan
- Last attack of WW2 and first attack of Cold War
February – Long telegram
- Gave intellectual basis for containment
September Stuttgart speech
- Announced support for a revival of Germany
Truman Doctrine
- Signified shift away from isolationism and was replaced with an active world role
- Gave right to intervene where, and US should aid all 'free people' being subjugated
- Initially his request for money was only intended for Greece and Turkey, but soon
expanded globally and would extend to Korea and Vietnam
June Marshall Plan
- Economic help offered to most european nations at first, including communist ones
- Soon rejected by USSR and satellites
- Marshall stated in speech: “Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but
against hunger, poverty and desperation.”
Yalta February 1945
- Stalin committed himself to free elections in countries liberated from Nazi control
- Declaration of Liberated Europe
- USSR promised to join UN and help US defeat Japan
- Zonal divisions of Germany agreed upon
Potsdam Conference July 1945
- USSR accused of violating agreements made at Yalta by not allowing free elections → sharp
exchanges over development in these countries
1946 – March Churchill delivers Iron Curtain speech in Missouri
- Stalin tightened grip on Eastern Europe
- Created tensions between west and Stalin
1947 – Stalin saw Truman Doctrine and Marshall aid as economic imperialism
- Eastern european countries forced to reject economic aid
1948
-
-
All eastern European states under USSR control except for Yugoslavia
- Could not allow for ‘national communism’ → withdrew military advisers and country
expelled from Cominform (accused them of bourgeois nationalism)
- Eastern European Bloc announced economic blockade and cut off diplomatic relations
- US offered financial assistance
- Became non-aligned, non-stalinist communist state
Czechoslovakia – ruled by non communist coalition
1948
-
1949
-
1950
-
-
Effect on the development
of the Cold War
March US, Britain and France announced their willingness to establish a new currency in Western
zones, and to form a west germany government
June Start of Berlin blockade
- Operation vittles
- US propaganda victory
1949
-
Federal Germany Republic proclaimed May
NATO formed
- Was set up in order to counter soviet aggression
- Full military alliance
National Security Report 68 (NSC-68) was a top secret policy paper presented to Truman in April
- Recommended a substantial military build up to handle USSR
- Outlined US policy
- Truman initially against it but with outbreak of NK attacking SK, Truman implemented the
plan
- This included the decision to develop the hydrogen bomb
- Truman signed it September 1950
NK attacked SK June
- Truman appealed to UN the same day → they were able get UN support to fight as USSR
boycotted UNSC when decision taken
- US pushed forces back and proceeded to go past 18th parallel, once they reached the
Yalu river China intervened and now both were involved in a direct conflict
- Truman fought a limited war → containment not rollback
Orthodox historian – Truman policies were an attempt to defend the world, and he was responding to
soviet aggression.
Revisionist historian – US took advantage of their nuclear monopoly and soviet weakness, and used the
Truman Doctrine and Marshall aid to establish economic dependence of various countries, which would
ultimately lead to political control. Truman’s dollar-imperialism created Cold War.
1950
-
- After disputes non communists resigned
- When elections held communists won 237 of 300 seats and soon other parties dissolved
- Only eastern european bloc with multiparty system became single party state
Berlin Blockade
Both Czechoslovakia and Berlin Blockade seen as instances of Soviet aggression
German Democratic Republic proclaimed October 1949
North Korea attacked South Korea
- Kim Il-Sung pressed Stalin to finally approve invasion
- Kim armed by USSR and when north attacked, it was a major escalation which Stalin with
his support and foreknowledge was to some extent responsible for
- Gromyko, FM, later admitted that the USSR boycott of UN was a trick to involve US in a
war in Asia while USSR neutral
Orthodox historian – blaming Stalin and USSR, and that they were responsible for the outbreak of Cold
War. Stalin had signed Declaration of Liberated Europe → which he then violated. All states in Eastern
Europe had communist single-party systems by 1948. Impossible to cooperate over Germany, and Stalin
seen as aggressive in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Korea and Berlin.
Revision historian – responsibility of the US. USSr devastated by war – 1700 cities destroyed, 60000
villages were in ruins and 25 million russians killed. US had increased industrial input by 90% and had a
nuclear monopoly. Stalin’s desire to control Eastern Europe was entirely defensive (wanted to control
eastern states as they had previously used as precursors prior to attacks on USSR). US issues Truman
doctrine which gave them right to intervene anywhere, and Marshall aid seen as economic imperialism.
This intimidated Stalin.
TWO COLD WAR LEADERS DEVELOPMENT OF COLD WAR
Compare and contrast the impact of two cold war leaders (and their policies/actions) on the development of the Cold War.
EISENHOWER (1953-61)
Main foreign policies
related to the Cold War
Eisenhower had even more aggressive stance against USSR than Truman. When Eisenhower won
presidential elections by attacking Truman administration for being ‘soft on communism’ → containment no
longer enough, there should be a rollback of communism. He was seen as a Cold Warrior → strongly
anti-communist
New look
- Communism should still be contained
- Secretary of State Dulles expressed desire of ‘rollack’ of communist controlled areas
KHRUSHCHEV (1953-64)
Khrushchev decided to reduce size of red army unilaterally.
1956 – Khrushchev gave secret speech
- De-Stalinization process opened up for new opportunities
- Peaceful co-existence with capitalist west → breaking from Stalin’s policies and vaguely insinuated
a new relation could be established with satellites in Eastern Europe
Khrushchev travelled abroad, unlike Stalin, and participated in a number of summit meetings.
-
Support by Eisenhower but only through peaceful means
-
He met both Eisenhower and Kennedy
- Left meeting in Paris when Eisenhower refused to apologise for U2 Incident
Massive Retaliation
- Nuclear weapons now regarded as weapons of first resort, not last resort
- Less reliance on conventional forces, and stopping of fighting of limited wars
- Nuclear weapons produced and US army reduced
Cold War Events
Year
1953
1954
1956
1960
US Army Size
1 534 000
1 405 000
1 026 000
871 000
Alliances against communism formed
1954
- Creation of SEATO by US, France, Britain, Australia, new Zealand, Philippines, Thailand and
Pakistan, with the main aim of preventing communist expansion in SEA
1955
- Baghdad Pact formed between Britain, Iraq and later Iran and Pakistan with aim of excluding USS
from Middle East. US did not join for tactical reasons but stood behind organisation
- Germany offered full membership in NATO
New foreign policy and rollback tested
1953
- Revolt in East Berlin against communist rule → no US support given
1956
- Hungary revolted against soviet control → US gave no support
- During Suez Crisis 1956 US refused to support her allies Britain, France and Israel → stood on
same side as USSR
1958
- During second Berlin Crisis Eisenhower declared that he wanted to avoid war
Nevertheless involved in Cold War:
1954
- Coup d’etat in Guatemala → covert operation undertaken by CIA which deposed democratically
elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz whom the US considered to be leftist
- US committed to defend Taiwan during Taiwan Strait Crisis
- US supported Diem in Vietnam after France had left. In 1954 it was Eisenhower who articulated
Domino Theory when looking at communism in SEA
1956
- Eisenhower authorised reconnaissance spy planes crossing RUssian territories
1957
- Eisenhower Doctrine passed by Congress stating that US would defend with arms any state in
middle east threatened by communist aggression
1961
- Bay of pigs invasion
Positive changes related to Cold War:
1953
- Korean war armistice signed
1954
- Peace conference arranged at Geneva to deal with Indochina War, under the chairmanship of
USSR and Britain
1955
- Great power summit Geneva between USSR, US, Britain and France → leaders met for first time
since Potsdam. New positivity → ‘spirit of Geneva’
- Occupational forces of Austria decided to end the occupation and re-establish full independence of
the country → Not possible for Korea and Germany
- Soviet troops withdrawn from Finland
- Khrushchev went to Yugoslavia to heal rift between two states and to show that USSR could
accept existence of a communist regime not controlled by Moscow → break with Stalin’s policies
1956
-
-
1958
-
Poland announced reforms but Khrushchev was eager to secure that Poles didn’t go too far
Hungary he couldn’t control developments and when Imre Nagy announced that free elections
would be allowed and perhaps leave the Warsaw Pact, Red army invaded. Major consequences:
- Strained China-uSSR relations
- Brought an end to ‘spirit of Geneva’
- Eisenhower had talked about rollback of communism → words were empty
- Damaged reputation of USSR internationally
- Showed extent of the new relations that the USSR would allow
During Suez Crisis 1956, Khrushchev given an opportunity to extend soviet influece to Middle East
- Stalin had only armed or given support to countries bordering USSR
- Khrushchev more adventurous and involved USSR in Middle East and Latin America
- Departure from Stalin’s policies and escalation of Cold War
He put pressure on western powers to find solution to Berlin and German problems
He gave a six month ultimatum to find a solution of Berlin to GDR (which wasn’t recognised by
west)
Second Berlin Crisis led nowhere when Khrushchev extended time limit
Berlin wall finally erected 1961 and in the west it was a symbol of communist repression
But did stabilize German issue → now no need for German peace treaty
1962 – Cuban missile Crisis
- Khrushchev secretly provided Cuba with nuclear weapons → brought world to brink of a nuclear
conflict between superpowers
- When Khrushchev finally agreed to withdraw missiles, US agreed not to invade Cuba and to
secretly remove missiles from Turkey
- This conflict had a sobering effect on the super powers → line between Kremlin and white house
established, and 1963 Test Ban Treaty Signed
Effect on the development
of the Cold War
During Eisenhower’s Farewell address to the Nation January 1961 said: “we must guard against the
acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, byt the military-industrial complex. The
potential for disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and, will persist. We must lenev let the weight of this
combination endanger our liberties or democratic processes.”
Khrushchev brought both detente and confrontations to the Cold war. He talked about creating “many
vietnams” and addressed Western ambassadors at reception at Polish EMbassy in Moscow 1956 with “we
will bury you.” On the other hand → introduced peaceful co-existence
Khrushchev very impulsive.
Both politicians contributed to confrontations and detente, while Stalin and Truman were more Cold War Warriors Khrushchev can be argued to be more unpredictable.
TWO COLD WAR LEADERS END OF COLD WAR
Compare and contrast the impact of two cold war leaders (and their policies/actions) on the end of the Cold War.
REAGAN (1981-9)
Main foreign policies
related to the Cold War
Reagan administration continued Carter’s tough stance, and Reagan had attacked Carter by saying that
the USSR had manipulated the Detente period to pursue their own gains.
Eventhough US was in a recession, 1982 military budget was increased by 13%
Systematic challenge
- New weapons to be developed which would be difficult challenge by USSR
- New weapons would make USSR weapons obsolete which would put pressure on Soviet
economy
GORBACHEV (1985-91)
Mikhail Gorbachev elected General Secretary of age of 54. He introduced a number of reforms – he was
originally a leninist who made attempts to reform system to survive. Gorbachev’s plan for reconstruction
contained two main points:
- Cooperation of west to end the COld War in order to reduce cost of arms race
- A reconstruction of the USSR. Key aspects:
- Glasnost (openness)
- Perestroika (restructuring)
- Demokratizatsiya (democratisation)
Reagan started largest peacetime military buildup in US history – between 1981-8 military spending went
from $117 billion/year → $290 billion/year
Cold War Events
1981
-
Reagan comes to power
1983 - lowest point in second cold war
- Western alliance starts deployment of Pershing 2 and Cruise missiles in Western Europe
- 1977 USSR started to deploy SS-20 intermediate range weapons in Eastern Europe
- Response to US and NATO
- Nato responded by announcing deployment of missiles
- Led to years of discussions and anti-war demonstrations
- USSR responded by calling off Strategic Arms Reduction Talks
- Reagan announced his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – star wars project
- Aim was to develop new and expensive technology – a shield protecting the US in space
- Played a major role in arms talks and part of systematic challenge
- October Reagan ordered US forces to invade Grenada where a 1979 coup had established a
marxist-Leninist govt.
- First military operation conducted by US forces since Vietnam war → results in US victory
and 19 US soldiers killed and 116 wounded
- Raegan describes USSR as an ‘evil empire’
1985
-
1986
-
Washington treaty signed
1988
-
Agreement between superpowers made at Geneva on the ending of Afghan war
1989
-
Opening in relations between superpowers when Gorbachev came to power. Gorbachev wanted
constructive dialogue. Gorbachev wanted constructive dialogue because he realised USSR could
27th party congress – Gorbachev announced that he believes that far-reaching economic reforms
when needed and that Afghan war was a bleeding wound
second summit between Gorbachev and Reagan in Reykjavik
1987
-
1981-5 Reagan’s first four years in office, problematic → Soviet leadership suffered from health problems.
1982-5 three General Secretaries passed away: Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko. This made
constructive dialogue with summit meetings difficult to organise. Reagan’s first four years characterised as
years of confrontations and no constructive talks.
1985
-
Gorbachev made his first visit to the west France as Soviet leader. he proposed that the
superpowers should reduce their strategic weapons by 50%. Gorbachev and Reagan annually in
four different Summits – the first summit Geneva 1985.
- No major agreements were made except for the fact that they agreed to meet again there
had been no summons for 5 years so meeting important in establishing personal relations
-
Early 1989 talks in Poland lead to free elections being scheduled to June – first free elections in a
communist state since 1940s.
- Solidarity won 99 out of 100 seats in the Senate
Poland first country in eastern bloc to get a non communist Prime Minister
Hungary announced that Iron Curtain would be opened
Test of gorbachev's willingness to abandon Brezhnev Doctrine
Communist rule brought to an end in satellites: Poland, Hungary. German Democratic Republic,
Bulgaria, Romania
Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan completed
not keep up with arms race. Reagan feared a nuclear showdown
1986
-
-
1987
-
1988
-
-
Second summit meeting between Gorbachev and Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland
- Gorbachev announced that he was prepared to withdraw his SS-20 millies from Europe if
US withdrew their Pershing and Cruise missiles
- Acceptance of Reagan’s zero-option policy
- Also proposed a 50% reduction of all long-range missiles, and in return US would call off
SDI
- Reagan refused
- Gorbachev shocked americans by proposing the abolition of all nuclear weapons within 10
years → Raegan’s commitment to SDI couldn’t allow this
- Meeting showed agreements could be made
Became known that funds from arms deals with Iran had been secretly used to finance Contras in
Nicaragua fighting the left wing govt. In country
- Violated US laws and Reagan claimed he didn’t know
- Scandal affected popularity or president
1990
-
Washington treaty (INF treaty) signed → all missiles based on lan in Europe and Asia with a range
of 500-5500 km should be destroyed within 3 years
- Dispute which had lasted over 10 years brought to an end
Agreement between superpowers made at Geneva on the ending of Afghan war
Gorbachev announced that soviet armed forces should be reduced to 500 000 soldiers
(unilaterally)
Announced gradual withdrawal of troops from GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary
Gorbachev announced that USSR would no longer interfere with affairs of satellites → Brezhnev
Doctrine dead
Reagan visits Moscow for fourth summit → said he didn’t think of USSR as an evil empire
anymore
1991
-
-
Effect on the development
of the Cold War
Reagan had resigned when communism collapsed in 1991. Many have argued that his policies,
systematic challenge, led to fall of USSR. Yet USSR did not accelerate spending after Reagan’s buildup.
Reagan who was a fierce communist must be credited for his open dialogue, Gorbachev and Reagan
ended a conflict that had lasted for 40 years.
Cold war brought to an end
Gorbachev elected to a new office president of USSR
- Way of creating his own political platform independent of Communist Party
March the Congress removed article 6 in constitution – Communist Party no longer had a political
Monopoly
Economy in critical situation
GNP went down by 4% in 1990 and 15% in 1991
Severe shortages of basic food supplies, meat and sugar
Communist hardliners criticise Gorbachev and nationalism in Baltic states, and Georgia posed an
enormous problem to go Gorbachev who committed himself the democratic solutions
In the Congress of people's deputies yeltsin had been offered a new platform criticising the
president
Gorbachev’s solution to the mounting nationalist problem was a union treaty giving the Republics
within the Soviet Union more autonomy – didn't seem to satisfy some Republics and by the end of
the year many hardliners were given key positions in the Soviet government
- Foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze in resigned dramatically in December claiming
that dictatorship is coming
Two German states allowed to merge 1990 USSR accepted that West German state could also
be a member of NATO
USSR supported UN decision in the Gulf war supported Americans in the conflict showing cold
war was over
January local branches of KGB and armed forces work together to seize TV tower in Lithuania
most likely without any for knowledge of Gorbachev
- 14 civilians killed
- Made new Union treaty even more important to Gorbachev
Boris Yeltsin elected President of Russia June 1991 and question of Russia’s willingness to sign a
new union treaty key question
- without Russia membership in the USSR, would be dead
August hardliners attempted coup before Union Treaty → Yeltsin took leadership
- Coupe seen as collapse of old system
- Yeltsin gained authority from coup while Gorbachev in hands of president
December – leaders from Russia Ukraine and Belarus declared that the USSR no longer existed
and founded the commonwealth of independent States
Later 11 former Republics joined
25th of December Gorbachev had to resign
- without Soviet Union Gorbachev had no political platform
- 31st of December USSR cease to exist
Gorbachev wanted to reform the Soviet system in order to make it survive. For different reasons this
failed and the Empire collapsed. the war in Afghanistan was brought to an end. Soviet control of Eastern
Europe ended and the USSR cease to exist. Cold War had been brought to an end. Gorbachev
witnessed process without using violence probably the most important individual to bringing the end of the
Cold War
TWO COLD WAR CRISES
Compare and contrast two Cold War crises from different regions.
Causes
Events
Consequences
Berlin Blockade
(1948)
SU felt threatened by Bizonia and establishment of West Ger.
gvt, and ​Deutschmark introduction. Marshall aid​​ seen as
threat to USSR’s dominance in the region. USA worried about
Domino Theory.
USSR blocked water, road and railroad transport into West
Berlin, hoping that East Berlin would turn to Soviet control
Berlin Airlift: US air force transported 1.5 million tonnes of
supplies into West Berlin, avg 13 k tons per day, for 323 days of
airlift. Containment/propaganda success. Stalin looks bad.
Formation of 2 governments.
Cuban Missile
Crisis​​ (1962)
America had placed nuclear weapons in Turkey - very close to
the USSR. USSR retaliated by placing weapons in Cuba.
Tension between Cuba-America as USA tried to oust Castro
through failed Bay of Pigs Invasion.
Escalation of conflict, nuclear warfare seems imminent.
Closed-doors meetings between USSR and USA. USSR forced
to take blame (USA wins propaganda). The world is saved.
Phone-line between USSR and USA is created.
America wins Propaganda War (for CMC at least)
Castro feels left out, but closer to USSR (vs USA).
America’s tactic of Mutually Assured Destruction prevailed
The Cuban missile crisis: Perspectives
USA
Causes
●
●
●
Goals
●
●
●
USSR
Kennedy’s national security assistant, McGeorge Bundy
took photos of Soviet U2 planes flying over Cuba
○ Showed Soviet soldiers setting up nuclear-armed
missiles
Berlin Blockade and Berlin Wall
Soviet Union continued to build missile bases in Cuba
despite objection from the US
●
Protect the security of the western hemisphere
Minimum action to protect the West
Protect half a million of West-Berliners under Soviet threat
behind the Berlin wall
●
●
●
●
●
●
Actions
●
●
●
ExComm and the secret tapes
○ Assembled a small group to discuss Cuba situation
and nuclear exchange
○ Secretly taped meeting
Quarantine
○ US announced that USSR had installed missiles in
Cuba and requested to order a blockade
○ Demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles
immediately
Authorised day-time surveillance and continued U-2 flights
○ Also agreed to night-time coverage
○ Had US navy plans to stop Soviet submarine from
crossing quarantine line
●
●
●
●
Cuba
USA had more than 250,000 nuclear missiles
○ USSR did not have half as much
Believed that the US had no right to intervene in Soviet
relations with Cuba
○ No right to impose quarantines
○ Believed that US were violating terms written in the
UN Charter
●
●
●
●
US tried to reverse revolution through covert means
Diplomatically isolated Cuba
Put military pressure on Cuba by training near them
Attempted assassinations on Cuban leaders
To prevent US invasion of Cuba.
○ Help Cuba’s self-defence
○ Solely for offensive purposes
Believed that “It is high time that America learned what it
feels like to have her own land and her own people
threatened.”
Wanted to improve image after Berlin Wall
‘Bargaining chip’ against US missiles in Europe
Believed that US intervention was a threat to international
trade and national sovereignty
●
●
Prevent US invasion of Cuba.
Ignored the US quarantine and sent ships to Cuba
Later, 6 ships turned back
Demanded that US agree not to invade Cuba in a telegram
Later demanded that the US also remove missiles from
Turkey
●
Cuban militants lead by Raoul Castro shot down U-2 plane
over Cuba without Soviet permission, escalating tensions.
Wasn’t really included in any of the negotiations (so
couldn’t take much action)
●
Consequenc
es
●
●
Quarantine constituted as an ultimatum for Khrushchev felt threatened
○ US would air-attack Cuba in 1-2 days if Khrushchev
did not take action
Deteriorated relations with the USSR because Khrushchev
felt that US actions were unnecessary
●
●
●
Humiliation for Kruschev
○ Angry that he backed down
○ Military already angry about cuts
○ Managed to maintain and keep peace
Had to rebuild relationship w Castro and Cuban regime and
to prevent Sino-Cuban alliance
Contributed to his fall from power in 1964
●
●
●
●
Angry at not being included in negotiations
○ Castro was not included
Became determined not to be a ‘pawn’ in the East-West
struggle and to have independent foreign policies
Havana became a centre for revolutionary training for other
countries
Threatened to create Sino-Cuban alliance
International Consequences:
● France left NATO after missiles in Turkey were removed, angry at lack of protection from USSR
Why was Kennedy determined to stand against communism?
● Many countries turning to communism, communism spreads → domino theory, spreading in Southeast Asia, considered South/Latin America as their own backyard
● Monroe doctrine, 1880 US foreign policy to oppose European colonialism
● Young, first president to deal w Berlin, only verbally condemned (no military action) Had to deal with congress and the public
○ Did not want to start a war, though his advisors encouraged it to send a strong message
○ Did not want to appear weak in front of Soviets → did not want to show that Khrushchev could push him around
● Also criticised for the Bay of Pigs → perceived as a weak leader
Compare and Contrast Cuba and Berlin
Causes
Similarities
Differences
Consequences/Significance
Both initiated by the West in order to strengthen their sphere of influence
- BB: bizonia formed, Deutschmark implemented, to prevent the spread of
communism
- CMC: put missiles in Turkey, in striking-distance of Moscow, to expand sphere of
influence
USSR was humiliated (Stalin/Khrushchev backed down)
- BB: Stalin took down the blockade when he realised it was insignificant, West
placed embargoes on strategic exports from Eastern Germany
- CMC: Khrushchev took down the missiles in Cuba (it wasn’t known that Turkey
missiles were removed until 1996)
USSR justification: taking defensive measures against the West, US, capitalism
- BB: Felt that the economic security of East Germany was threatened, wanted to
take West Berlin in order to strengthen it
- Felt threatened by U.S. policy of containment (Truman doctrine, Marshall
Plan) and alliances with Britain and France (Bizonia → Trizonia)
- CMC: USSR felt they needed missiles similar to those in Turkey, and also wanted to
defend Cuba
Ended peacefully, did not escalate into violence
- BB: The Soviets did not disrupt the airlift for fear this might lead to open conflict,
Stalin retreated in the end without conflict
- CMC: No one died/no clashes except for that one U-2 pilot
Type of motivation:
- BB: Economic, due to Deutschmark
- CMC: Military, ICBMs
Length of altercation
- BB: 232 days
- CMC: 13 days
International involvement
- BB: International aid sent to West Berlin, European leaders more involved
One had outcomes detrimental to relations, one had outcomes that were beneficial
- BB: Separated Germany (East and West), formation of NATO
- CMC: More negotiation, formation of the USSR US direct line of communication
(Moscow-Washington hotline)
-
CMC: Only US, USSR and Cuba involved
TWO COLD WAR CONFLICTS
Compare and contrast two Cold War conflicts from two different regions.
Combatants/Allies
6-day War 1967
Egypt, Jordan, Syria VS Israel
USSR/USA supported respective parties
Causes
-
Change of Syrian Government in 1996
(Ba’thists were extremely hostile,
Israel/Syria clashed in Sea of Galilee)
Syrian & Egyptian Defence Pact 1996
Syrian & Israeli air clash in 1967
Egyptian President Nasser blockaded
Straits of Tiran, led to hostilities between
Israel and Arab world
-
Caused by South Korean President (Syungman
Rhee) boasting he could destroy the North
Korean army (led by Kim Il Sung). Previously,
Stalin had split North Korea (Potsdam). Kim Il
Sung retaliated, invaded South Korea. South
Korea pleaded for America help (and Soviets
helped the North). Started a war, USA disguised
its military effort through a UN Peacekeeping
Intervention. Pushed above 34th parallel, made
it to China (who then felt threatened and pushed
America back down to the 34th parallel).
-
-
Korean War
1950-1953
PRC, North Korea, South Korea, USSR, USA
Short-term impacts
-
Israel had control of Gaza Strip, Golan
Heights, Sinai Peninsula
Demonstrated power of Containment
Estimated 20,000 deaths
Long-term impacts
-
-
-
-
-
Estimated 2.5 million deaths, over 4
million wounded (American Policy of
“Scorched Earth”)
Affirmed America’s “Domino Effect” fear,
showed the world it was ready to do
anything to stop Communism
Established China as a global
superpower
Increased American military expenditure
by almost 300% during years of the war
- start of “Massive Retaliation” policy to
follow
Soviets facing economic difficulties - war
made this worse
-
-
-
USA saw Israel as a valuable asset in
the Middle East, brought Israel/USA
closer
USSR’s prestige was damaged as they
were supporting Arab Nations
Increased tension between USSR/USA
Opened the Cold War to the
international stage as Vietnam War
came next
Heightened distrust between
PRC/USSR (as USSR “loaned” Chinese
equipment and supplies)
Increased tension between USA and
USSR
USA increased support for CSK/KMT in
Taiwan
US LEADERS COLD WAR (POLICIES/BIG EVENTS)
Truman
(1945–1953)
Policies
‘Iron fist’
Truman Doctrine
Political, military,
economic assistance to all
democratic nations under
threat.
Marshall Plan
American initiative to aid
Europe (13$ billion to 17
countries) to rebuild
economies after WW2.
Leftist parties in Western
Europe lost support
Eisenhower
(1953-1961)
Kennedy
(1961-1963)
Johnson
(1963-1969)
Nixon
(1969-1974)
Ford
(1974-1977)
Eisenhower Doctrine
1957 policy that US would
economically assist any
Middle eastern country
against communism
($200 million to Middle
Eastern economies)
‘Flexible response’
Less conventional forces,
more nuclear weapons.
Expanding available
means of fighting against
it.
Hard-line communist
approach, especially in
Asia
Defend South Vietnam
from Communist
aggression.
“Ping pong diplomacy”
Normalisation of Sino-US
relationship
Continuation of Nixon’s
Policies
August 14 1974 Ford met
with Soviet FM Anatoly
Dobrynin and joint test
flight of
Continued friendly
relations with USSR
Negotiated the SALT II
Treaty in 1978-9 and
agreed on limited
warheads.
Led to:
Brinkmanship
Aggression from both
parties to the threshold of
confrontation to gain a
more advantageous
position over the other, to
the edge of potential
disaster.
Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution
Legal basis for Vietnam
War
Helsinki Accords
1975 diplomatic
agreement to reduce
tension
Tough-line with USSR
Economic embargo
against USSR (banned
grain imports to the
USSR)
Cuban missile crisis
Brinkmanship in action
Vietnam War
New Look
National security policy,
stress weapons
deterrence and prevent
Soviet extension outside
of established areas
Public pressure to reduce
risk of war after Vietnam
led Nixon to begin
Detente
(Signed Salt I, European
Security Conference)
Carter
(1977-1981)
Continued Nixon’s
policies in Asia
Reagan
(1981-1989)
“Tear down this wall”
1987 West Berlin
Continued tough-line
stance esp in Asia
Aimed to make the
USSR’s nuclear missiles
obsolete
INF Treaty
1987 Intermediate- Range
Nuclear Force Treaty
(USSR abandoned their
INF Forces)
Anti-nuclearism
Korean War
Supported SK with
economic & military aid,
left SK by 1949
How put
into
practice
Potsdam
Went worse than Yalta
where Roosevelt, friendly
with Stalin, was in power
(issues with German
division, German
reparations, Polish
government)
Berlin Airlift
Lebanon Crisis
15,000 troops to Lebanon
to quell a communist
uprising.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Agreed with Khrushchev
to limit nuclear testing to
reduce environmental
damage and health risks.
Rolling Thunder
Intensive aerial bombing
campaign to weaken
military potential of
People’s Army of Vietnam
Vietnam and China
Began withdrawing troops
from Vietnam,
emphasised
Vietnamisation.
Vietnam
Ended American
involvement in Indochina.
Vietcong succeeded in
taking Saigon in 1975
Began to end involvement
in Taiwan, ‘not a matter
for US to decide’
Helsinki Accords
Helsinki with leaders →
signed accords which
eased tensions
Vietnam War
Extended war to
communist sanctuaries in
Cambodia.
Halted arms sales to
Taiwan, established full
diplomatic relations with
PRC
Chose not to ratify the
SALT II Treaty due to
Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan
Fall of Southeast Asia:
In the late 1975 Laos,
Cambodia and Vietnam
all fell to communism.
Increased military
spending between
1981-1988
117 billion to 290 billion.
USSR could not keep up
with his spending, for
USSR reforms.
Hardline approach to
USSR in Afghanistan
difficult for USSR to
continue war
SOVIET LEADERS COLD WAR (POLICIES/BIG EVENTS)
Policie
s
Stalin (1923-1953)
Khrushchev (1953-1964)
Brezhnev (1964-1982)
Gorbachev (1985-1991)
Spread the world Revolution:
Comintern (Communist International)
Expansion of Marxist-Leninist ideology
Secret Speech​ (beginning of Sino-Soviet Split)
Brezhnev Doctrines:
The actions of one socialist country were recognised as
affecting all - collective action to deal with any threat to
the socialist community was viewed as justified and
necessary
Perestroika: ​restructuring the economy - initiative that
allowed limited market incentives to Soviet citizens.
Satellite States
Peaceful coexistence
Idea of peaceful coexistence introduced Khrushchev in
1956: “You do not like communism. We do not like
Glasnost:​ openness - principle that the regime should
be open to public scrutiny
Stalin’s foreign policy was based in the aim of taking
advantage of the military situation in Europe to
strengthen Soviet influence and to prevent another
invasion from the west.
The west was afraid of a worldwide communist
revolution
However we know now that Russia just wanted a buffer
zone,
Saw the survival of his state much more important
Capitalism. There is only one way out – peaceful
coexistence”
USA and USSR systems might compete in the
international market or for influence over other countries
→ but would avoid war with each other because it would
mean the destruction
De-stalinization
Consisted of a series of political reforms in the Soviet
Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin
in 1953, and the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to
power. De-Stalinization meant an end to the role of
large-scale forced labour in the economy.
USSR had the right to intervene in any communist state
where the ‘Eastern bloc’ where ‘socialism’ was under
threat.
An attempt to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia
Creation of the Brezhnev Doctrine not initially seen as
threatening by the West → saw it was a policy behind
the Iron Curtain, did not threaten the international
balance of power
Repression
Brezhnev's stabilisation policy included ending the
liberalising reforms of Khrushchev, and clamping down
on cultural freedom. The trial of the writers Yuli Daniel
and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966 — the first such public
trials since Stalin's day — marked the reversion to a
repressive cultural policy.
Proposed the introduction of multi-party democracy
Sinatra Doctrine
In 1989, Gorbachev jokingly mentioned that he would let
satellite states do things “their own way”.
Foreign Policy
- Based on cooperation not confrontation
- Conciliatory
- Withdraw USSR from Afghanistan
- Signed INF treaty
Nuclear Policy
- Reduce weapons
- End arms race
- “Reasonable sufficiency”
Détente
Détente is the idea of releasing tension under political
circumstances, the name was given to a period of
improved relations between the United States and the
Soviet Union that began around 1971. It took decisive
form when President Nixon visited the Secretary
General of the Soviet Communist Party, Leonid I.
Brezhnev in Moscow, 1972.
How it
was
put
into
practic
e
Salami Tactics:​ Provoking splits and divisions among
coalition partners who were then accused of being
anti-soviet or fascists. Control was imposed on Eastern
Europe countries such as Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland,
Romania, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
Security in Europe through the establishment of satellite
states → alarmed the US and led to the formation of the
US policy of containment
Cominform (The Communist Information Bureau):
Countries of Eastern Europe were expected to fall into
line behind Soviet foreign policy.
It encouraged the adoption of the Soviet model of
economic development, such as collectivisation in
agriculture and nationalisation of industry, rejecting the
idea that there could be alternative routes to “socialism”.
Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance):
Founded in 1949 as a reaction to the Marshall Plan. It
attempted to support collectivisation and development
of heavy industry. However, in the early years the plan
did not do much in terms of financial aid.
Korean War 1950-3
June 25 1950 the war began when 75000 soldiers from
NKPA invaded South Korea. By July American troops
Peaceful coexistence:
Designed to defuse the arms race with the USA,
signifying a change in Soviet attitude. USSR and allied
socialist states applied this to nations of the western
world (NATO, Warsaw Pact). It was designed to reduce
tension between the two superpowers in fear of nuclear
war. He demonstrated it by attending peace
conferences such as the Geneva summit as well as
visiting abroad (Camp David in 1959). The World
Peace Council was founded in 1949 was largely funded
by the Soviet Union.
- Geneva Summit
The Warsaw Pact 1955
The pact was USSR’s response to the admittance of
West Germany into NATO. It was a military alliance
formed in 1955 coordinating defense of the Eastern
Bloc. In reality the pact was dominated by the USSR.
De-stalinization:
Gave his de-Stalinization speech in Feb 1956 which led
to challenges to Soviet control in the Eastern bloc.soc
Invasion of Hungary (1956)
After Imre Nagy rebelled against the communist
government, won, and attempted to withdraw Hungary
from the Warsaw Pact, Khrushchev sent 1,000 Soviet
tanks into Hungary, killed 4,000 Hungarians, executed
Nagy and installed new government.
Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)
After increased liberalisation of Czechoslovakia, USSR
sent in Warsaw Pact troops to ‘quell (non-existent)
unrest’.
Invasion of Afghanistan:
In 1979, the Soviets invaded and occupied the country.
Initially stationed 50,000 troops but results in >100,000
troops.
SALT I
- ABM Treaty
- Interim Treaty
- Basic Principles Agreement
SALT II
- Limit on the # of strategic nuclear delivery
vehicles (ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers)
- Ban on testing/deployment of new types of
ICBMs, heavy mobile ICBMs, and rapid reload
systems
Moscow Treaty 1970:
Signed by USSR, West Germany and Poland
- Accepted border between East/West Germany
- Formally accepted the post-World War Two
border in the East with Poland
The Final Quadripartite Protocol 1972:
Perestroika 1980s-91:
Started with the overhaul of the top members of the
communist party. Also replaced the centralised
government planning with a greater reliance on market
forces.
Glasnost 1985-9:
Eased strict social controls – gave greater freedom to
the media and religious groups, while also allowing
citizens to express divergent views.
By 1988 Gorbachev had expanded his reforms to
include democratisation, moving the USSR toward an
elected form of government.
Move away from Satellite States:
Gorbachev refused to send military support to defend
the previous satellite states of the USSR, greatly
weakening their Communist regimes.
Refusal to use Force:
- Abandoned Brezhnev doctrine
- Wanted to loosen grip on Eastern Europe
December 1988 Gorbachev made a speech at the UN
where he declared that all nations should be free to
choose their course without interference.
By the summer of 1989, Eastern Europeans were given
more degrees of freedom. Gorbachev refused to use
force to put down demonstrations. By November, the
had entered the war – Americans saw it as fighting the
force of communism. July 1953 Korean War came to an
end.
The Berlin Crisis 1961
By July 1961, 30000 East Germans were fleeing each
month and nearly 3 million people had left from East
Germany to the West. The country was experiencing
brain drain and the survival of East Germany was
threatened. As a response, Khrushchev ordered the
construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 that stops
East Germans from fleeing the country. It was a huge
propaganda victory for the Western bloc as East
Germany was depicted as a country whose population
had to be penned in to stop them from escaping.
Agreed to the maintenance of the ‘status quo’ in Berlin
- Confirmed that the West had a legal basis for its
access routes to the city
- Gave West Berlin greater degree of security
Basic Treaty 1972:
Signed by East and West Germany
- Accepting the existence of each other
Helsinki Agreement 1973:
- Recognised that Europe’s frontiers were
‘inviolable’ and cannot be altered by force
- Called for closer ties and collaboration in
economic/scientific fields
- Signatories agreed to human rights/individual
freedoms → conflicted with Soviet control
- 3 Baskets → security, co-operation and human
rights (respectively)
Aggression in Africa:
In Africa, USSR funded and supported revolutionary
movements that looked to upset the balance of power in
the region. In 1975, USSR massively increased its
funding for Popular Movement for the Liberation of
Angola (MPLA) during the Angolan Civil War.
- Looked as if USSR was seeking to increase its
influence in Africa
Repeated by the USSR in 1977
- Sent military supplies to Ethiopia during its
invasion of Somalia - Seemed to confirm Soviet
intentions in Africa
Berlin Wall was pierced.
1989 Communist regimes fell in Poland, Hungary, East
Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania.
Reunification of Germany in October 1990. 1990
Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize.
- Peaceful collapse
Ending the Arms Race
Gorbachev and Reagan took part in 5 summits between
1985 and 1988, which resulted in the signing of the
Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.
HL Content (Asia and Oceania)
REFORM MOVEMENTS
Compare and contrast different attempts at reform – why were some successful and others not?
Causes
Actions Taken
Success/Failure + Results
Natural disasters
Commodore Perry’s expeditions (his “Black
Ships” highlighted Japanese military
deficiency)
Economic stringency + governmental debt
Weakening of Bakufu Military Authority
(leading to breakdown of Tokugawa)
Sought “Western technology, Japanese Spirit”
(aka “Sonno Joi”)
Acronym:​​ CISSI-B
SUCCESS
95% of students went to school by 1905
In a position to defeat China in Sino-Japanese War, reversing tributary system
Japan had become one of the most urban nations in the world (estimated 30% of
population living in Urban settings)
Industrial output doubled, agricultural production increased by nearly 30%
Steel production grew 20% - but Japan doesn’t have access to much steel (thus
invasion of Manchuria)
Selfstrengthening
Qing on brink of collapse following First
Opium War
Treaty of Nanking (First) and Convention of
Beijing (Second) were deeply embarrassing
and damaging
Similar treaties had been signed with France
(Whampoa) and others
Acronym:​​ NICoFT (like Nic Choi coughed)
100 Days Reforms
(1898)
Followed Taiping Rebellion, exact same
reasons as Self Strengthening Movement
above.
Lost Sino-Japanese War
Acronym:​​ MENUP (like man-up but men-up)
Meiji Restoration
4 Modernisations
-
-
Enacted by Deng Xiao Ping, known to
be pragmatic (“it does not matter if the
cat is white or black, if it catches the
mouse, it is a good cat”
Failure of Great Leap Forward
C​​onscript army created powerful military force
I​​wakura missions and Hirobumi Misisons => Japanese learning from West
S​​amurai/Daimyo classes were abolished. No more $ given to them.
S​​chooling for masses (95% went to school by 1905)
I​​ndustrialisation of Japan (output increased 70% during Meiji Restoration,
Zaibatsu formed formidable corporate bloc). Daimyos returned land to Meiji.
B​​oshido was renewed, along with Emperor Worship.
N​​ational Defense: Arsenals, shipyards, military schools built
I​​ndustry: new enterprises set up, focus on mining coal
Co​​mmunication: railways, lighthouses, shipping lines all improved
F​​oreign Office: Formal foreign office was set up. Prince Gong promoted
diplomatic missions on behalf of Qing Government
T​​rade: Trade in/outside of China was promoted
M​​ilitary: Increase military capacity, build new schools, more $ spent
E​​ducation: Reform education, have more modern/conventional subjects
N​​ewspaper was published
U​​niversities were to be established
P​​rogressive-minded officials were to be appointed
-
Implementation of Open Door Policy (success seen in Singapore and
Taiwan encouraged Deng)
Implementation of Household Responsibility System (farmers own land,
can sell excess production for a profit)
STEM research (800,000 new scientists)
New military schools, 300 billion USD expenditure on military by 1985.
Improved salaries.
State owned enterprise => collective ownership
Special Economic Zones (Shenzhen, Zhuhai) introduced
Land could be leased out for 50 years
FAILURE​​, only extended Qing’s lifetime by roughly 50 years
Conservatives didn’t believe in Western values or Western technology
Cixi was corrupt (spent 50 million pieces of Silver on her summer palace)
Officials were incompetent
Farmers resisted some industrial work being done as it was against Feng Shui
Conservative Bloc formed by Cixi resisted significant government/societal
restructuring
FAILURE
None of this happened. These discussions were held in court but no action was
ever taken.
Qing neither had the will nor the budget at this time to enact reforms.
SUCCESS
Steel production increased 300% between 1985 and 1999
Coal production doubled
Electricity production increased 10% each year
Grain production topped 400 million tons for the first time
Expendable income grew by 11%
Inflation around 15% => emergence of new classes
Income inequality (urban workers earned 40 USD a month, rural earned 7).
Dissatisfaction with this (led to Beijing Bus Drivers Protest in 1990s)
Crisis of confidence (younger generation not so sure about
REBELLIONS
Compare and contrast causes and effects of different rebellions.
Taiping
Causes
Events
Short-term Consequences
Hong Xiu Quan - charismatic speaker, advocated
for removal of Manchus from power (perpetrator of
anti-Manchu, pro-Han sentiments). Claimed he was
brother of Jesus
Civil War - estimated 30 million deaths.
Western intervention protected Qing Dynasty prevented collapse, however, were able to “carve
up” China .
-
Emerging sense of Dynastic Decline (the Qing had
“lost their mandate from Heaven). This was
because:
Yuan Shi Kai was able to lead warlords - who were
all given essentially full autonomy from Qing Central
government - to resist Taipings for 14 years.
-
-
-
Tonghak
Rebellion
(1894-1895)
Boxer Rebellion
-
-
Economy was stagnating (0.6% in
production)
Population was booming, agricultural
production was not enough = resulting in
famine/malnourishment
Corruption in the Qing Court (Grand
Council in particular)
High taxes (up to 70% for some regions of
China)
Propaganda attracted peasants and
working-class who were frustrated with
Qing Dynasty
Opium Wars - brought shame and unequal
treaties
Importance of secret societies (Qing
Government spent almost 50% of annual
budget fighting White Lotus + Heavenly
Reason Sect, and White Lotus Rebellion)
Similar to Boxer Rebellion. Koreans did not
like foreign intervention, sought to maintain
Confucian Ideals. Rebelled against Korean
Government. Korean Government was in a
similar position to Qing Government prior to
Boxer Rebellion (confucian, stagnant
economy, corrupt)
-
Operated under Motto “fight the foreigners,
protect the Qing”. Sought to rid China of
foreign influence and presence
Dissatisfied with Unequal Treaties,
humiliation of China, famine, poor harvest,
foreign monopoly over Chinese industry
Claimed to be “bullet-proof”
Cixi secretly supported Boxers
(supplies/weapons)
-
-
-
Joseon Dynasty leadership could not
handle the Rebellion, requested for
Chinese assistance. Qing sent army in, as
did Japan (without an invitation)
Donghak Rebellion was quickly crushed,
but China vs Japan started
-
Battles started in 1900, Christians were
targeted (close to 1 million killed)
September 1901 50,000 foreign troops
(Russia, America, Britain, Japan) arrived in
China, destroyed Boxers in Battle of Beijing
Cixi fled, Beijing was captured
-
-
-
Long Term Consequences
30 million dead
Power was decentralised (warlords had
power)
Humiliation of Qing + China on an
international level
Country was economically drained.
Damage and rehabilitation efforts were too
great
Lingering sympathy for Taiping’s Cause in
lower/farmer class of China. They were still
not satisfied.
-
sparked the first Sino-Japanese War
(1894–95)
Estimated 70,000 deaths (numbers vary
greatly)
-
Boxer Protocol (China could not have arms,
land conceded once more)
Russia occupied significant parts of
Manchuria
New Policies Reform implemented
(essentially changing education). Nothing
happened from this.
-
-
-
-
Weaken chinese imperial government
Reliance on foreign countries to defeat
taiping
Taiping also led to many other rebellions
which further weakened the government
Opened china to the west
China’s defeat in first S-J war was deeply
humiliating, upset tributary system
Announced Japan’s arrival to the
international arena
330 million USD in reparations to Western
nations
Highlighted Qing Decadence
Provided momentum for SYS to spark
Xinhai Revolution
JAPAN ANNEXATION OF KOREA AND TAIWAN
Causes
Korea
-
Qing cession of Taiwan (Fermosa) and Korea following First Sino Japanese War
Japanese wanted colonies for international prestige
Japan wanted colonies for their resources (people and natural resources, especially food and labour)
Results
Elimination of Korean culture:
- newspapers censored (only one allowed), korean not taught in classrooms, military police,
170k Japanese bought Korean land. Historical sites (Inner Court) destroyed. Japanese
surnames had to be adopted by all Koreans
Modernisation of korea:
- Railways, foreign ministry, moved away from feudal system. Education. Productivity and
output increased (Kabo Reforms enacted in 1894)
Took advantage of Korea:
- Comfort women, exploited resources (estimated 400 tons of natural resources taken every
week), slaves (500 estimated)
- Treaty of Kanghwa: Open Korea up to trade
- Assassination of Queen Min (sent political leadership into disarray)
Taiwan
Rapid Economic Progression (Initial) for Taiwan:
- Initially, railways, highways, electricity stations, were built
- However, expansion of Pacific War halted progress as Taiwanese fought in Japanese Army
(industrial output dropped 33% as a result of this)
Democracy was protected, local officials were given power:
- Taiwanese were “integrated” into Japanese culture (rewarded if they spoke Japanese, but not
always forced)
- A local parliament was established, with a Taiwanese Governor General
- Laws were passed to strongly advocate for Japanese last names (but again, not forced)
Deaths (killed early resistance to Japanese rule):
- Estimated 1,500 natives killed/jailed following establishment of Japanese rule
- Freedom of thought + right to protest were heavily suppressed (small militia forces continue to
rally against Japanese, but they never really worked)