BIOL 152L Test 1 Study Guide
Macromolecules:
-Polymer vs. Macromolecule:

Polymer: Made up of repeating units known as monomers.
 Macromolecule: A molecule containing a large number of atoms. Not all macromolecules have a monomer (lipid).
-Monomers & Polymers
Molecule
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acid
Monomers & Polymers
Monomer: Monosaccharide
Polymer: Polysaccharide
N/A
Monomer: Amino Acids
Polymer: Polypeptides
Monomer: DNA and RNA
Polymer: Nucleic Acid
Covalent bonds through dehydration reactions: When monomers combine with each other via covalent binds to form polymers, the monomers release water molecules as byproducts. The removal of -H from one monomer and the removal of –OH from another monomer allows the monomers to share electrons and form a covalent bond.
Functional Groups Structure
Hydroxyl
Carbonyl
Carboxyl
Amino
Sulfhydryl
Phosphate

Proteins:
-4-levels of folding and bonds that hold them together

Primary: peptide bonds

Secondary: hydrogen bonds between groups along the peptide-bonded backbone
 Tertiary: Bonds between R-groups/ R-groups and peptide-bonded backbone

Quaternary: Bonds between R-groups and backbone with different polypeptides
Enzymes:
-Structure=function meaning
 Primary: Linear array of amino acids connected by peptide bonds.

Secondary: α helix or β-pleated sheets from Hydrogen bonds.
 Tertiary: 3D structure of a polypeptide
 Quaternary: Several polypeptide chains linked together
-What happens when a change of temperature, Ph, Etc.: The change in ph can change the shape of the enzyme. The increase in temperature will increase the enzyme activity and the decrease in temperature will decrease the activity, Enzymes can become denatured at higher temperatures.
Diffusion:
-Membrane Structure:
Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophilic heads face toward the water
 Hydrophobic tails face inward with each other
-What easily diffuses: Small, non-polar molecules such as O2,CO2, and H2O

Scientific Method:
-Independent and Dependent variable

Independent: One variable that is manipulated in order to test hypothesis.
 Dependent: Variable that will be measured in response to experiment.
-Controls and importance

Control variable: Variables kept constant for the whole experiment.

Control group: Serves as a benchmark to decide whether the predicted effect is really due to the independent variable.
-Be able to define: Hypothesis vs theory

Hypothesis: Suggested possible outcome that is testable.
 Theory: A tested explanation backed by evidence.
Osmosis & Diffusion:

Osmolality: Solute concentration expressed as molarity.
 Hypertonic: Solution with higher concentration. Water moves out of the cell and the cells shrinks.
 Hypotonic: Solution with lower concentration. Water moves into the cell and the cells swells.
 Isotonic: Solute is equal on the outside and inside of the cell. and the cell stays the same.
There is no net water movement
-Osmosis vs. Diffusion

Osmosis is moving water across lipid bilayers. Diffusion is spontaneous movement.
-Solute vs. Solvent
 A solvent is the substance in which the solute is being dissolved in. A solute is the substance that is being dissolved. (Example: salt/sugar is solute and water is the solvent)
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote Cell Structures:
-Organelles
Prokaryotes
Bacteria & Archaea
Very small cells
No nucleus
Ex: Bacteria
Eukaryotes
Eukarya
More complex cells
Has nucleus
Ex: plants, animals, fungi, protists

-Structures
Plant Cell
Cell Wall
Chloroplast
Vacuole
-DNA
Both
Nucleus
Smooth & Rough ER
Cytoskeletal Element
Ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Plasma Membrane
Animal Cell
Centrioles
Lysosome
Prokaryote DNA
Found in cytoplasm
Contains plasmids
Not bound to anything
Circular in shape
Found in nucleus
Does not contain plasmids
Bound to histone proteins
Linear in shape
Eukaryote DNA
DNA Extraction:
-Molecular motion: Slowed down molecular motion and minimize the contact between DNA and re-natured DNases.
-EDTA: The EDTA bonds to metal ions and acts as a cofactor to DNase, so the DNA will not break down.
-Formaldehyde: Nonpolar. components separate out membrane lipids. You are trying to extract
DNA so the cell membrane needs to be removed.
Protein Experiment (Enzyme Function):
-Temperature: The optimal temperature for amylase is between 23-55 degrees C. The higher the temperature, the quicker the reaction will take place. If the temperature becomes too high, the proteins can become denatured.
-Reagent – why used and results
 Adding more starch to the amylase increased the amount of product being produced. At
0 degrees C, the reaction was very slow. At 23 degrees the reaction became faster, at 55 degrees the reaction was very fast and at 100 degrees the proteins were denatured.


Biuret regent was used to determine a solution containing proteins. The solution turns from blue to purple if proteins are present. When copper ions in Biuret reagent react with peptide bonds in the chain, purple color forms. The two samples that had peptide bonds present was the milk and egg whites.
Lipids:
-Sudan Red: Lipid soluble dye. When the dye is added to a mixture of lipids and water, the dye moves into the lipid layer coloring it red.
-Non-polar/ why?: Because of their hydrophobic tails. They are insoluble in water.
-Structure:

Glycerol linked to a phosphate group bonded to charged or polar molecule.
 Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
Carbohydrates:
-Starch, Iodine, amylase experiment, explain results:
 The dark blue color corresponded to low enzyme activity because reacting starch and iodine together turns the solution dark blue, and since the enzyme did not break down the starch, the color stayed blue. The amylase broke down the starch.
 Sucrose is a disaccharide

Glucose is a monosaccharide
 Starch is a polysaccharide
Microscopy:
100X
Light Microscope
Viewed directly
Viewing cells directly
Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)
Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM)
100,000X 1,000,000X
viewed on florescent screen Image viewed on monitor
Provided image of the surface at a lower magnification
Electron source
Objective lens
Allows to examine very thin sections of cells at extremely high magnification
Electron source
Condenser lens
Ocular
Objective lens
-Parfocal: Requires little refocusing when moving from one lens to another.
-Total Magnification: Ocular x Objective. (Example: 10X ocular and 4X objective = 40X mag.)

-Parts of a microscope: