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Angel Versetti
A Smart Student’s Guide to Gordon S. Wood’s “the American Revolution”
200+ pages of text intelligently condensed into 17 pages – save your precious time!
PREFACE:
 Abraham Lincoln appreciated the Revolution during the Civil War, noting that the
Revolution created the USA and defined the national purpose of Americans and their
ideals: freedom, constitutionalism, well-being of people and equality
 Revolution was perceived as heroic moral struggle at first and then was viewed as
fulfillment of the democratic destiny of Americans
 Exceptionality of the Revolution: intellectual revolution brought by expectation of
oppression, not actual tyranny
 XX century, 1st half: Revolution as a class and sectional conflict; 2nd half:
constitutional and conservative character of the Revolution; rethinking
 Today: criticisms of the Revolution – slaves not freed, women not politically equal,
Indians not naturalised, economic competition unequal
 No moral judgement is taken by the book; analysis and understanding only
I: ORIGINS
 Pre-revolutionary America: primitive, culturally and politically backward; sense of
inferiority amongst the colonisalists
 1760s: increased control of America by Britain led to resistance >> rebellion; sudden
pride in American way of life; America – a new society ready for a republican future;
change “in the minds and hearts of people” (J. Adams)
 Revolution blew away any remaining traditional European patterns and paved a way for a
new active, flexible, individualistic society
 America saw itself as the grand leader of republicanism and liberty, arts and sciences – the
New World
Growth and Movement of Population:
 Seven Years‟ War – British victory gave it undisputed dominance over North America
 Lack of tight control of London over its North American colonies led to their haphazard
development, loose immigration and cadastral (land) control
 Inefficiencies of the British Imperial system in trade, structure and laws; corruption
 Mid-XVIII century: unprecedented increase of population in the British Empire
 North America: 1 million in 1750, 2 millions in 1770
 Big industrial cities emerge in England – mass emigration to America starts
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 Overpopulation of the East Coast; poor urban areas; pressure on land; mobile migrants
 New towns: York, Philadelphia, Camden – travellers‟ transition points
 New England – most vibrant and overpopulated; spread of migrants to Virginia,
Carolinas, Ohio, West Florida, Tennessee
 Fragmentation of communities; lack of centralised government; conflicts and lawlessness
on the periphery and in distant lands; pressure on Native Americans
 Seizure of lands, deception and use of alcohol against the Indians by white Europeans
 Vigilante groups and alternative dispute resolving groups appear in various colonies
 Tensions between western backcountries and eastern capitals on inequality of
representation of interests in political bodies of the colonies
Economic Expansion:
 1750s onwards: origins of the industrial revolution of Britain; British exports, imports and
industrial production sharply increased; America was part of this British boom
 Increasing colonial trade flows, value of exports/imports from/to America increased
 Deficit of foodstuffs in Britain from 1760s; American goods in bigger demand; supply
expanded  more farms and agricultural enterprises
 Emergence or system of roads and junctions to transport tobacco and grain from western
parts of American colonies to ports in the east; growth around port cities
 Rising standards of living for Americans; consumption of luxury goods increased
 Increase of manufacturing and emergence of industries
 Development of transport; improved communication between colonies; Post Office
 Emergence of regional and intercolonial markets
 Trade deficit of America with Britain emerged; increase of colonial debt to Britain
 Less dependence of small farmers on the elite and aristocracy in America
 More people left the Church of England and established their own religious communities:
Baptists, Methodists and others established their own religious branches
 Two-Penny Acts – setting official value of tobacco at 2p per pound, whilst the real market
price was 6p – resulted in protests of merchants and ministers who were paid in tobacco;
the King of England “a Tyrant, who forfeited his right to our obedience”
Reform of the British Empire:
 Reorganisation of territory acquired from France (Canada) and Spain (Florida)
 Necessity of mediating conflicts between white settles and Indians to prevent wars
 Huge expenses on maintaining security and stability of far-off colonies – large permanent
standing army in America – implied high costs and more strain to budget
 Britain was already choking with taxes; new sources of revenues were needed
 George III came to rule in 1760 – stubborn and impetuous, he further destabilised British
position by refusing to listen to the ministers and the parliament
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 Many government officials & ministers appointed and dismissed by the king in 1760s
 Domestic problems/riots in Ireland (meddling of the British authorities in Irish affairs),
London and North England (over right to vote and be represented in the government)
 First time a mass domestic rioting was against the whole British political system in
general
 Proclamation of 1763: Royal governments of East Florida, West Florida and Quebec
created; Nova Scotia enlarged; Appalachian mountains became Indian reservations;
Schemers and speculators on land, corrupt officials and confused merchants
 The Quebec Act 1774: allowed French law and Roman Catholicism, transferred land
control to Quebec government, redrew and expanded the boundaries: stirred anger,
confusion and fear amongst Americans (arbitrarily redrawn borders and Catholicism)
II: AMERICAN RESISTANCE
 Early 1760s – collapse of the economic boom in America; prices of goods tumbled;
financial crisis
 1764 – The Sugar Act: tighter controls to reduce colonists‟ smuggling and corruption; vast
inefficient bureaucracy established; powers of officials increased; bigger and stricter lists
of colonial products to be exported directly to Britain; economic blow to Americans;
increased customs and duties on imports to America to increase British revenues; trade
was very disadvantageous for Americans now; it created crisis of trade and fear of
inability to pay for imports to America
 1764 – First ever intercolonial protests in America and petitions against the Sugar Act
 1764 – Currency Act – the British Parliament prohibited America from issuing paper
money to tackle stagnation – this angered Americans
 1765 – The Stamp Act: tax on all documents, newspapers and papers in colonies to be
paid in British Pounds; unprecedented in America. “This single stroke has lost Great
Britain the affection of all her colonies”
 1765 – protests turn into active angry opposition – anti-British sentiments, economic
boycott of British goods, fiery declarations in meetings and newspapers
 1765 – “No taxation without representation” – Patrick Henry; Virginia‟s de facto assertion
of legislative independence from Britain; constitutionality of the British rule questioned
by Americans across the colonies (e.g. Rhode Island assembly)
 1765 – Stamp Act Congress – 9 colonies denied the Parliament‟s right to tax them
 Mob violence across the colonies against stamp officials; Sons of Liberty – middle class
implementing anti-stamp, anti-British policies; abandoned British stamps
 Unprecedented unity of American colonies against the British oppression
British Reaction:
 1766 – new British government repealed previous policies and the Stamp Act
 Tax from America only amounted to 1/10 of the cost of maintaining the army there
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 British Army reduced in America and removed from the western regions; increased
concentration of the British soldiers in the eastern cities increased Americans‟ fears.
 British policy to prevent popular representation from entering the colonial assemblies
Deepening of the Crisis:
 Late 1760s – widespread disagreement with the Townshend duties – for funding salaries
of the British officials in America; new boycott of the British goods
 1768 – Dissolution of the Massachusetts assembly due to its branding the Townshend
duties “unconstitutional”; mob riots erupted;
 Boston – symbol of colonial resistance; called for an “illegal” convention of town
delegates and ordered its people to arm; British officials called for military help
 British warship seized John Hancock‟s ship for violating the trade acts; triggered violent
resistance in Boston
 Several thousands of British soldiers sent to America to enforce authority
 1770 – the “Boston Massacre” – peak of the conflict between Americans and English
soldiers – British soldiers killed 5 civilians in Boston – Americans become furious
 The British government was confused by these events and acted inconsistently both in
Britain (ministers) and in America (governors) – by 1770 Britain lost effective control
over trade in America and lost any remaining allies amongst American merchants
 Townshend duties repealed; only the symbolical tea duty remained to show the supremacy
of the British Parliament
 1770-1772 period of tranquility; unrealistic hopes to return to pre-1763 conditions
 1772 – sinking of a British naval schooner by Rhode Islanders; Britain tries to show its
judicial supremacy over America; Virginia establishes an intercolonial committee
 Document “The votes and proceedings" published in Boston and distributed to over 250
towns in Massachusetts (more than half of the approved it); complaints about:
o Taxation/legislation without the colonists‟ consent
o Standing army of Britain in peace time
o
Vice-admiralty courts (no jury) powers expanded
o Manufacturing in America restricted
o Threat to establish Anglican bishops in America
 1773 popular discussions of independence of America in the colonies are widespread
 Tea Act established British East India monopoly on tea in America; new protests erupted
amongst affected merchants and patriots
 Boston Tea Party – stalemate between the British orders and American insubordination
resolved by a small group of Americans who dumped a whole shipload of tea into Boston
Harbour
 British outrage at Boston Tea Party resulted in the Parliament adopting Coercive Acts
(1774) against the American colonies in general and Massachusetts in particular
 Coercive Acts intended to give Britain stronger and more direct control over America:
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o Port of Boston closed until damages are paid for wasted tea
o Members of judiciary, legislative and executive branches to be appointed by
British only; Town meetings restricted
o Royal officials to be tried in England, not America
o Legalising expropriation of private buildings for the British troops
 This was the last straw for Americans;
The Imperial Debate:
 18th century: 1/6 of British adult males could vote, compared to 2/3 in America
 The British tried to use the argument of 5/6 of Britons being “virtually” (not directly)
represented in the Parliament and apply it to Americans to calm them down
 MPs were presumed to share interests of all Englishmen and colonists
 Americans only trusted actual representation, proportional to the size of the population
They advocated fullest and most equal participation of people in the government
 British doctrine of sovereignty – there could only be one ultimate, indivisible and
unquestionable authority – Declaratory Act of 1766 – affirmed the Parliament‟s authority
to introduce binding laws on colonists “in all cases whatsoever”.
 No place for two independent legislatures – used as argument for the British Parliament‟s
ultimate sovereignty
 1774 – Jefferson and Adams argued that only independent American legislatures could be
sovereign in America; The British insisted on the Declaratory Act of 1766
 Stalemate and growing pressure between Britain and America
III: REVOLUTION
 The Coercive Acts of 1774 resulted in an open rebellion of American colonies against
Britain that could not be reconciled
The Approach to Independence
 Remaining royal authority was dissolved in America in 1774
 Booming political activity of the colonists: hundreds of popular meetings, assemblies,
committees across the colonies; replacement of the royal authorities by popular ones
 Local associations and informal government had effective control over all aspects of
American life: courts, taxation, commerce, licensing, government, assossiations
 First Continental Congress of 1774 – recognised the new local authorities in America
 “Enemies of the American liberty” were forced to swear oaths of friendship to people
 Many groups in the colonies used the popular resentment against the British to their own
private advantages or political aims
 Local quarrels in colonies often became entangled with the antipathy towards Britain
 Distrust of Americans towards rich educated gentlemen – interest groups for lower
classes, ethnic minorities, etc. emerged; uneducated men in the government
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 Educated lawyers and landowners had to reason with politically-active butchers and
shoemakers – “the lowest people” – in the new governments and committees
 Increased transparency and accountability of legislative bodies enforced in America
 Popular movements to “change America and the world”; British loyalists bewildered
The Declaration of Independence:
 April 1775: first fighting in Boston and rest of Massachusetts; orders to arrest rebel
leaders and seize rebels‟ arms and provisions; 200+ British redcoats killed in fight
 June 1775: Bunker Hill Battle – 1st battle of the Revolution; Britons win, but 1000+
British soldiers killed in “ungraceful” fights with tactically-superior colonial rebels
 Second Continental Congress assumes power of the central government and creates the
Continental Army with George Washington as commander
 George III: “Americans are rebels”; Thomas Paine: “The King is a Royal Brute”
 Paine‟s pamphlet “Common Sense”(1776) – “for God‟s sake, let‟s come to a final
separation” – appealed to common people in simple language; only quoted the Bible
 Spring 1776: American ports opened to foreign trade; hunt on enemies of America began;
preparation for independence
 4th of July 1776 – Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson approved; King
George III‟s rule is called a period of tyranny, usurpations and injuries to America
 Congress removed condemnation of slave trade from the final Declaration
 1/5 of the American population were in lifetime hereditary bondage, i.e. slavery
 Continuing slavery became the most significant contradiction to the ideals of the
Revolution
 Enlightenment ideals of the Declaration:
o Men are created equal
o Have inalienable rights of life, liberty and pursuit of happiness
o Those are self-evident truths
An Asylum for Liberty:
 American Revolution – a revolution of anticipation of tyranny; preventive in nature
 Conservative, it aimed to preserve old liberties, not to establish new ones
 Not against the principles of English constitution, but on their behalf; Humanity
 Continuous non-violent uprising of country gentry in England against the threat of
expanded powers of Crown and Church , fiscal-military state and corrupted parliament
 Country ideas in England: expanded right to vote, freedom of press and religion, equal
representation of people in the Parliament; prevention of tyranny – inspired Americans
 “Tyrannical conspiracy to enslave Americans” by the decayed and corrupt British Empire
 European-wide rise of aggressiveness of absolutist monarchies extracting money for
warfare, suppressing liberty causes/movements made America “the asylum for liberty”
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IV: CONSTITUTION-MAKING AND WAR
 Need for the colonies to establish a union or confederation for common purposes
The State Constitutions:
 Since May 1776 colonies had been forming new governments under the authority of
people.
 By 1777 all colonies had adopted their own constitutions or non-royal charters
 The states, not the congress were responsible for it, to prevent new tyranny
 Written constitutions outlining powers of government and rights of people
 Fear of the Royal-style encroachment of the executive power on liberty and legislature
 Weakened powers of new elected governors or their complete elimination (Pennsylvania)
 Governors could no longer:
o Create electoral districts
o Control meetings of assemblies
o Veto legislation
o Grant lands
o Establish courts of law
o Issue charters of incorporation to towns
o Be re-elected more than a certain amount of times
o Be immune from impeachment
o Pardon crimes
o Appoint people to judicial and executive offices
 Separation of Powers by Montesquieu; distinct and separate executive, legislative and
judiciary branches to prevent abuse of power and tyranny of each in future; to prevent
executive branch from manipulating the legislative and judiciary branches; executive
office-holders or those receiving profits from the government could not be in legislature
 English-style parliamentary cabinet has been prohibited in America ever since
 Powers of governors transferred to popular legislatures; radical shift of power
 People‟s representatives in legislature had most political power – democratic government
 Annual elections with expanded electoral districts and suffrages who were allowed to
instruct their representatives; representation proportional to population
 Necessity of the Senate – upper house of the legislature to counterbalance or correct the
lower house‟s measures [bicameral legislature]; although elected, they did not represent
any particular constituency and were the wise natural aristocrats
The articles of Confederation:
 Few plans of the central government; in 1776 America was the 13 separate Independent
States, not the USA; 13 former colonies with distinct identities, history and symbols
 Transcending political, military and economic power of the Congress over Americans:
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o Maintaining of the Army
o Issuing of the continental currency
o Military code of law
o Definition of crimes against the Union
o Foreign policy
 Legitimacy of the Union was needed: draft for a confederation
 1777-1781 Legal establishment of the Articles of Confederation in all the states; formal
creation of the “United States of America” – continuation of the Continental Congress
 Congress assumed former powers of the British Crown:
o Foreign diplomatic relations
o Requisition of soldiers and money from the states
o Produce and borrow money
o Regulate Indian affairs
o Settle disputes between the states
 States were forbidden to conduct foreign affairs, make treaties or declare wars
 Same rights and privileges for citizens of all states
 No travel or trade restrictions between the states
 Recognition of judicial proceedings across the states
 The USA became a strong republican confederation
 Still, final law-making powers, taxation and sovereignty formally remained with the states
 Arguments of states‟ representation of interests and financial contributions
 1787: Northwest Ordinance – the groundbreaking principle opposing the British notion of
colonies and their settlers being second-rate dependants to the central authority; any
newly-settled Western states could form independent republics and their residents would
be in all legal, political and sovereignty rights and liberties equal to the original states in
all respects; this enabled westward expansion of the US empire
The War for Independence:
 Constitution-making required independence to be effective
 No point in stopping for Americans: War with the British troops had been going on for 1
year before the Declaration of Independence; Fight until the end to defend the cause!
 From regional disobedience to the British authority to the worldwide struggle for liberty:
Americans inspired the French Revolution and South American Independence struggles
 Heavy casualties for the British in 1775 (Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hill)
 Mob from Massachusetts with the leader from Virginia (South) – Washington – for unity
 1776: Commander of the British Army Sir William Howe + 30‟000 Britons went to NY
to cut off Washington‟s army and defeat them. Good luck to them. They will fail.
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 Britain in 1778: 11 million people, biggest navy in the world, 50k of troops in N.America
+ 30k German mercenaries; professional army
 USA in 1778: 2 million free people; Continental army ~5k people + militia; amateurs;
“innkeepers were captains and shoemakers were colonels”; Americans often asked French
officers “what‟s your profession?”
 War tough for Britain: far away from home, difficulty in supplies delivery; American
terrain and expansive territories unusual for the British troops; no central key points to
conquer – difficult to focus; Washington‟s army evasive in defensive or guerilla strategies
stealing supplies and ambushing them; confusion; American population for independence
 In 1775 top British officers favoured and attempted reconciliation and truce with
Americans; left them weakened and confused; lower officers plundered American lands
 March 1776: America‟s New Hope: USA gains control of all main ports; the stronghold of
the British Empire in America is destroyed; the rebels‟ spirits are up
 November 1776: The British Empire Strikes Back: NY and NJ reclaimed by the British;
worst time for American patriots; Britain offers America: “Let‟s rule together – you and I;
the father and a son” suggests returning everything to pre-1763 and allowing America to
govern their domestic affairs; many people offer surrender for pardon and claim loyalty to
the crown again; loyalist militias reappear in some areas
 January 1777: Return of the Washington: the new stronghold of the Empire is destroyed:
Trenton and Princeton – key points reclaimed by Washington‟s army; guerilla wars
intensify; The Force is strong with Washington: patriotism is higher than ever amongst
Americans
 1777: 10k British army with General Burgoyne from Canada sets towards Albany; but
moves very slowly due to terrain and guerilla attacks on supplies and soldiers; many
redcoats were defeated by the American militias
 September 1777: Battle at Saratoga; Burgoyne loses to an army of 10k Americans and
surrenders his army; Turning point for the War; France enters
 France had been giving Americans money and weapons for the war to avenge Britain;
Franklin – ambassador of America to France; French ports opened to America; French
officers joined the Continental Army of the US; Commercial and military alliance USFrance;
 Spain joins against Britain; Russia and Europe – neutral; Diplomatic Isolation of Britain
 Benedict Arnold‟s failed plot to surrender American West Point to the British – treason
 Washington – not a military hero, but a political hero with stoic, dignified character;
prudent, loyal, wise – he had support of the civil government and fellow officers
 1778-9 Britain was betting on the South‟s loyalty: due to scatterness, fears of slave and
Indian rebellions – retaking Georgia, Savannah; 1780 Surrender of B. Lincoln and his
army of 5.5k to Britain; South Carolina retaken
 Bloody mutual guerilla attacks started in the South between loyalist militias and patriot
guerillas
 1781 Nathaniel Greene, 3rd American Southern Army – defeat Britain, change course in
the south
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 October 1781 – Yorktown battle, British general Cornwallis surrenders 8k of his soldiers
to Washington‟s 17k army – the War for Independence effectively won by America
 Diplomatic efforts of Franklin, Adams and Jay – fooled both Spain and France who
supported them and got much bigger boundaries that France and Spain were interested in;
 September 1783 – treaty of Paris - War officially ended; Britain recognised the USA
V: REPUBLICANISM
The Need for Virtue:
 Republicanism – radical and groundbreaking for 1780s; promised new character of the
American society
 Classic Republican ideals – good life, citizenship, political health, social morality
 Utopian idealistic vision of the Early Roman Republic as a model for liberty of citizens
 Absolute equality: farmer=intellectual; egalitarianism of all classes; equal participation
 Republicanism was striking at all features of monarchy – blood ties, interdependence,
kinship, inherent corruption, hierarchy of titles, rituals, strong role of religion
 Order from below, not above; need of citizens to be more virtuous and conscientious
 Individual ownership of land was vital – attachment to the community; voting power
 Unlike landless workers in England, most Americans owned land and were thus presumed
to act in the interest of the common good, the Republic
The Rising Glory of America:
 Whilst rejecting European corruption and hierarchy, Americans wanted to embrace
European culture through arts and sciences; Ancient Greek and Roman ideals in the US
 New world receiving the torch of the western civilization and give fire to rest of world
 Republican arts: no overrefinement and luxury to prevent European-style decadence
 Architecture in Washington, DC: “Grandeur of conception, a Republican simplicity”
 Neoclassical symbolic: Senate, Capitol, epic poems, liberty symbols, Syracuse and Troy
Equality:
 Talent above heredity; ability above birth; meritocracy above favoritism
 Creation of “artificial” aristocracy – disinterested heroes of antiquity
 Well-educated gentlemen equal to goody oldie simple folks; people are trustworthier
 Challenge to aristocratic contempt of the “brainless herd”, i.e. usual Americans
 All men are born with a blank sheet and through education move up; equal sensibility
 Only education and cultivation separated men; men are equal – the Enlightenment‟s pillar
 Even if intelligence and reason are not given to all, all possessed moral intuition
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 Differences in people are created by experience/environment; Lockean stance
 Love between humans – gravity of post-revolutionary America; non-Christian
love-thy-neighbour philosophy; natural attraction of people
 Birth of social sciences in America; belief that moral philosophy will become as natural as
Newton‟s Laws of Physics
 Virtue evolved from ancient self-sacrifice to modern willingness to get along with others
for the sake of peace and common good
 Jefferson & Paine: Natural harmony of society might replace government authority
 Government and all socio-political mechanisms only limited the pure virtuous human
nature; Paine: “Society is produced by our wants and government by our wickedness”
 Liberal Jeffersonian philosophy: minimal government  maximal harmony of society
 First years after the Revolution idealistic and hopeful vision of American future
A New World Order:
 End of tyranny and promoting peace amongst nations – objective of the USA and
significant effect of the Revolution on the Global Scale
 US views: Elimination of monarchy  no corruption  no dynastic ambitions  no wars
 Peace-loving democracy, commercial-based relations; trade politics without wars
 Liberal international relations and free exchange of goods shaped foreign policy
 America has no need for military alliances, only commerce and peace with Europe
 Society holds by mutual affection, international world by commerce; monarchy disturbed
both the commerce and peace
 Same treatment of all merchants – domestic or international – reciprocal commercial
freedom – would avoid wars;
 In practice they agreed on political and military alliance with France in 1778
 Other European nations refused free trade with America (excl. Prussia and Sweden –
peripheral countries at the time)
 Commerce influencing international politics – non-importation measures “peaceful
coercion” – links to today‟s economic sanctions against rogue states
VI: REPUBLICAN SOCIETY
Effects of the War:
 Departure of 100k+ of loyalists to Britain or Canada during and after the revolution,
mostly upper classes, office-holders or other benefactors of the British Empire; many
loyalists in Western States of the USA that were oppressed by the East (New England,
Virginia, etc.); New Jersey and Pennsylvania relatively loyal; Deep South very loyal.
 Crown and Tory property seized by patriots and revolutionaries and put on market; often
overthrow of the British created free spaces at top and those were filled by patriot leaders
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 South US lost most during the war: Britons freed many slaves to fight for them; tobacco
and other crops markets were disrupted; trade for the South halted
 For other US states the war stimulated economic and social mobility: new opportunities in
urban centers for fringe merchants and provincial family producers; search for new
markets: expansion of America
 New sources of supply across the states, new patterns of commerce and trade participants
 Domestic manufacturing kicked-off due to wartime collapse of British exports
 Protective legislation for American manufacturing – trading across the states than
internationally; first signs of protectionism; internal commerce; new roads and channels
 Needs of the army for clothing and provisions expanded entrepreneurship and
manufacturing interests; new farmers entered more connected market
 States were reluctant to tax, but needed supplies for the war; they paid the suppliers in
paper money – bills of credit to be redeemed at later date; also borrowing to finance war
 Strong inflation in early 1780s, depreciation of states‟ bills
 Creditors, wage-earners were hit, but merchants reselling the goods had huge profits
reselling goods quickly; government bills allowed farmers to break out of barter economy
Effects of the Revolution:
 1780s – the fastest growth of American population; early marriages and hopeful future
 Huge westward expansion of population: Kentucky 1779: 170 people; 1785: 30k+ people
 Northwest Ordinance; Americans displacing Indians and taking their lands and property
 American sense of liberty: cultivate your plot of land; Indian: roam and hunt at all lands –
conflict of ideals; Indians lands were taken and no compensation given
 Denial of cultivating to Indians – justification to take their lands for white men
 Many Indians fought on the British side which added to the enmity towards them
 Indians were British subjects, but did not become American citizens
 Weak Confederation could not enforce the law on western frontiers, anarchy, chaotic
occupation of lands, violations of treaties with Indians  Wars and bloodshed
 Contempt of the aspiring middle class at the Cincinati society – attempt to create
hereditary Order of officers of the revolution – widespread protest
 Any distinctions, luxury and private social clubs angered pro-equality Americans
 Breeding, education and good manners became a political liability for US gentlemen
 White servants decreased from 40-50% to 0 by 1800; growing egalitarianism
 Wealth became unevenly distributed after the Revolution: relationships based on money,
not social position or heritage; auctioning of church positions to the highest bidders
 Self-made man – not through connections or birth, but by accumulating money/lands
 Masters and apprentices became business employers and hired workers
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Republican Reforms:
 Libertarian mindset of Americans removed all prejudices – people celebrated birth of the
prince of France in 1782 – heir to Catholic French Monarchy – open-minded Americans
 Building a virtuous society – American philosophy of moral and social excellence
 To educate the society is necessary in order to preserve its rights and liberties.
Republicans‟ ideals to create a network of public school systems – responsibility of state
 Expansion of printed materials, new magazines, newspapers; Webster‟s Speller of 1783
sold 3 million+ copies; establishment of scientific societies; charities and humanitarian
societies created for various causes in the US: poor, debtors, orphans, sick, etc.
 New network of public libraries; reading clubs, debating societies
 Reform of penal codes: no more whippings/mutilations/executions; establishment of
prisons with solitary cells; death sentence for murder only (PA)
 Rethinking of the family: equal treatment of children; new inheritance laws
 Rights of women: higher equality; right to divorce, education and doing business  still
no right to vote, but exerted political influence
Anti-Slavery:
 500‟000 black slaves in US in 1780 – inconsistent with “all men are equal and free”
 Expansion of slavery in South USA; decline and less radicalism of slavery in North USA
 Early 1800s emancipation of black people in northern states; end of import of slaves
 1810 free blacks in North from 500 to 50k people; Slavery forbidden in Northwest
Territory
 1790s-1800s – South becomes apparently more pro-slavery than the north
Republican Religion:
 American Church was not against republicanism or revolution; it was against European
decadence and love for luxury
 Protestant ministers were prominent leaders of the Revolution
 Americans were very religious and the church played great role at shaping their political
opinion, promoting the Revolution and liberty from evils of monarchy to them
 Complete disestablishment of the Church of England; opposition to Anglicanism
 Democratization of truth; egalitarianism of truth; America – a nation of dilettante farmers
 Mixture of sciences and spirituality; natural and supernatural; charlatans and doctors
 Rise of Evangelical Christianity in 1820s; new and new denominations and sects of
Christians were founded; new non-orthodox churches; egalitarian religious communities
 Methodist and Baptist churches were growing fast; Baptist: 100900 congregations
(1760-1790); largest denomination in Ameica; Methodists 0700 for the same period
 Competing range of religious denominations
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 Religious opportunities for lowly, illiterate, blacks and women; denominations with
priestesses  allowed increasing admission of population to Christian denominations
 Increasing African-American ex-slave involvement in churches and Baptist movement
 Paganism, superstitions, folk-tales, folk-music, spirituality, fortune-telling, astrology
became widely popular and mixed with enlightenment and Christianity
 Personal religion; people related to each other and God; religion for the masses
 No monopoly of orthodoxy amongst the competing churches
VII: THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 Weakness of Confederation both at home and abroad
 Popular state legislatures given too much power in 1776
 1787 – Federal Constitution – limited authority of the states; concentration of power at
federal level
The Critical Period:
 1780s – experiment of republicanism became dangerous; low classes threatened elites
 Discontent of the gentlemen in the north due to uneducated people getting powerful
 Moneymaking and self-interest were destroying public spirit – Democratic Despotism
 State Houses of Representatives had 35 well-educated members; soon it expanded to 100
and included uncouth farmers from the fields who were the majority of local governments
 Shift of state capitals from colonial locations to new cities; multiple new elections;
legislature seats; politicised population; assembly proceedings open to public and media
 Ability to bypass traditional hierarchies to achieve leadership in politics/legislation
 “A spirit of locality was destroying a bigger sense of community” J.Madison
 Socio-economic interests of small communities – top agenda of representatives
 Conflicting economic interests of landowners, merchants, creditors, entrepreneurs, etc
 Constant fluctuation of legislation – instability
 State became exercising independent judiciary and executive policies – contrary to the
1776 revolutionary constitutions
 Fear of tyrannical legislatures – attempts to revise state constitutions to get more power
 MA 1780 - Rehaul of constitution – returning some powers to governors, similar to softer
version of the British governor; strengthening of senate; executive and judiciary powers
 VA and PA also reduced power and authority of popular legislatures; creation of senates
and making their power more stable and terms longer; independence of governors from
legislature; independence of judges
 By 1790s all the 13 original colonies passed reforms to curb the popular power
 Necessity to create a fundamental set of laws that would be above all other legislation
 Model for new constitutions: form through elected convention and ratify by people
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 Initial beginnings of Judicial Reviews by Supreme Court justices  review of legislation
 Need for the central government and nationwide constitution to stop chaos
 1780: Congress was weak, inflation was soaring, war was dragging on; weak leadership
 No support of Congress by the state; no contributions; Congress stopped paying interest
rates on its debt; Continental Army had no salary and was falling out
 Creditors were interested in strengthening of the Congress and promoted it
 Replacement of old popular radicals by younger authoritarian and pro-stability leaders like
Hamilton and Madison:
o Attempt to strengthen the Continental Army
o Reverse localist sentiment in the states
o Removing committees and appointing ministers for foreign affairs, military and
financial sectors
o Economic and financial policies to stabilize the economy: limit paper money,
contribution to national expenses in gold/silver, establishment of national bank
 Introduction of 5% duty on import goods; Congress could pay its debts and attract new
investors
 Inability of the Congress to pay back salaries and pensions to the Army after Yorktown
victory led to military crisis and nearly resulted in coup d‟état. Plans of military action
against confederation for the debt to the officers (1783). Washington pacified it.
 Loss of importance of Congress in peace-time: need for representatives to go home
 1786: converting of 1/3 of federal securities into state bonds to increase the interest of
investors into sovereign states
 Europeans had no confidence into the US securities;
 No protection of the British crown resulted in attacks on US trade ships; no money for
ransom to pay to corsairs and pirates in North Africa
 Peace agreement with Britain did not work for old debts, real estate and property
 North-South conflicting interests in trade and access to the sea – Spanish and British
intrigues
 1780s trade was not going well for America; Britain barred American goods, but America
could not do the same, because of state jealousies;
 Need for commercial regulatory power to open up European markets to American goods
The Philadelphia Convention:
 Inevitability of Revision of Aricles of Confederation: February 1787 states recognised
need to revise the articles and sent delegates to Philadelphia
 Need for the Confederation Congress to have more powers: authority to tax and regulate
trade;
 Problems of credit, commerce, trade and foreign policy
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 The New Constitution of 1787 transformed structure and made stronger national Central
Government and weakened states;
 Unjust and confusing laws coming from state legislatures created need for general reform
 1786: Rebellion of debtor farmers in MA – wanted debtor‟s relief; 1787 laws reformed
 Democratic despotism and tyranny of popular legislation needed some control; internal
political abuses of the states
 Stronger national government could:
o Prevent competition from the British imports
o Stop unproportional representation of growing population (Virginia)
o Gentry across the states were afraid of the tyranny of state legislatures
 Philadelphia Convention: well-educated and experienced members of political elite:
congress members, state constitution drafters, lawyers, governors, veterans of army
 Washington gave up his powers in 1783 and was reluctant to attend, but was persuaded
 Madison: first working proposal; too radical – wanted a single national republic instead of
series of states; national government superimposed on the states
 Weakening of state authority proposed by Madison was too radical – refused
 New Jersey Plan – nearly opposite – maintain sovereignty of states
 Decided to let the congress tax, borrow and print money and regulate commerce
 New Constitution: state were barred from having foreign relations, tariffs, money minting,
emitting bills of credit, etc  states became economically incompetent, all went to
Congress
 Strong and single executive – president – command over armed forces, foreign relations,
power to appoint executive and judicial branches, 4-year term with infinite re-elections
 Election of president by „electors” – 5 most popular candidates would be voted by the
hosue of representatives to become a president.
 Separate National judiciary
 Proportional representation in houses to population of state was demanded;
 House of reps – based on population, but senate only 2 people per state, any state
 No congressional veto of state laws
 Only 9/13 approvals was necessary for the Constitution to take effect
The Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists:
 Constitution created a strong government with powerful president and senate
 Single republican state for the whole of continent to encompass diverse interests of the
whole American society
 Debates over ratification of constitution: 1787-8: allegations of federalists‟ violations of
revolutionary principles; resembled monarchy; would end up being a tyranny;
individuality of states would be sacrificed for strong central government
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 Constitution being the supreme law, anti-federalists thought the central government would
also destroy sovereignties of states
 American society 1776-86 – transformed all sovereignty from political institutions to
people;
 1780s – organisation of numerous committees, conventions, extralegal bodies to achieve
political aims for people; vigilantes and mob action
 Even to their representatives people do not lose their full sovereignty
 1787-8 legal reality of sovereignty of people at large, not political institutions
 Constitution went beyond the articles of confederation and established a new government
 Ratification of constitution by special state conventions
 Two simultaneous legislatures: state and federal level
 Only partial representation of people – no reps, senators, governors or presidents who
would fully represent people – short-tern govt officials recallable by sovereign people
 Popular election – sole criterion for representation – for legislators, executive, judiciary
 Hume‟s argument that a republic operates better on a large scale – used by Federalists
 Madison: Extended Territory of America – the source of its greatest strength
 States include many people in their legislatures, federal government lets people elect only
a few: federal government would act as a filter, as people would only choose most
educated and reasonable men, instead of illiberals or demagogues promoting interests of
small factions and localities. More refined and educated federal government reps
 Popular language of constitution to curb populist forces
 Anti-Federalists feared new aristocracy: Federealists had to disguise elitist elements of the
Constitution
 Not reversing the effects of Revolution, but attempting to save it from its excesses
 Federalists were more talented and persuasive in ratifying conventions of 1787-8
 Anti-federalists more localist, less educated, less socially and intellectually influent
 90% of newspapers were pro-Federalist
 Bigger states (MA, VA, NY) were more reluctant to ratify the constitution and did so on
narrow margin, with promise of future amendments (in 1791 first 10 amendments were
ratified also known Bill of Rights)
 No more confederation congress, so an alternative to Constitution is governmental chaos
 Anti-Federalists backlash in 1800s weakened central government and shaped the culture
and society of America their way; democratic interest group politics
 Middle-class people with no college degrees and with interests had same rights to political
office, as college-educated gentry: American equality
 it became legitimate for candidates to public office to promote voters‟ interests: set stage
for electioneering, public campaigning, promotion of interests in legislation, new
chartered banks and corporations; political parties and groups representing religious and
ethnical groups; legislators no longer impartial umpires, but have clear interests
 1790s: Emergence of middling democracy; civil faith; complex practical democracy.