THE ADJECTIVE An adjective is a word used to describe or add to the meaning of a noun or pronoun. Example: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) loud cry, weak performance. it was suitable. the lazy boy was punished. the boy is lazy. Classes of adjective Adjectives may be divided into the following classes: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) Adjectives of quality Adjectives of quantity Adjectives of number Demonstrative adjectives Interrogative adjectives Emphatic adjectives Possessive adjectives Adjectives used predicatively Adjectives used attributively Proper adjectives Adjectives of quality Adjectives of quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or quality of a person or thing. Example: (a) (b) (c) (d) Karachi is a large city. He is an honest man. The foolish old crow tried to sing. This is a grammar of the English language. Adjectives formed for Proper Nouns (e.g., French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea, etc.) are sometimes called Proper Adjectives. They are generally classed with adjectives of quality. Adjectives of quantity Adjectives of quantity show how much of a thing is meant. Example: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) I ate some rice. He showed much patience. He has little intelligence. We have had enough exercise. He has lost all his wealth. You have no sense. He did not eat any rice. Take great care of your health. He claimed his half share of the booty. There has not been sufficient rain this year. The whole sum was expended. Adjectives of number/ Numeral adjectives 1. Cardinal Numeral adjectives—e.g. one, two, three etc. 2. Ordinal Numeral adjectives—e.g. first, second 3. Indefinite Numeral Adjective Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are meant, or in what order a person or thing stands. Example: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) The hand has five fingers. Few cats like cold water. There are no pictures in this book. I have taught you many things. All humans must die. Here are some ripe mangoes. Most boys like cricket. There are several mistakes in your exercise. Demonstrative adjectives Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant. Example: (a) (b) (c) (d) This boy is stronger than Hameed. That boy is industrious. These mangoes are sour. Those rascals must be punished. It will be noticed that this and that are used with Singular nouns these and those with plural nouns. Interrogative Adjectives What, which, and whose when they are used with nouns to ask questions are called Interrogative Adjectives. Example: (a) What manner of man is he? (b) Which way shall we go? (c) Whose book is this? It will be seen that what is used in a general sense, and which in a selective sense. Three degrees of the adjective An adjective has three degrees of comparison i.e. positive, comparative and superlative. Positive degree The positive degree shows the simple quality of an adjective. Example: (a) a great man, (b) a beautiful flower Comparative degree The comparative degree shows a higher quality of an adjective. Example: (a) (b) (c) (d) a greater man, a more beautiful flower, a less beautiful flower, Who is abler than our teacher here? Superlative degree The superlative degree shows the highest quality of an adjective. Many short adjectives in the first degree have ‘er’ and ‘est’ after them to become second and third degree adjectives: Positive Comparative Superlative Able Brave Kind Fat Thin Happy Easy True Old Abler Braver Kinder Fatter Thinner Happier Easier Truer Older ablest bravest kindest fattest thinnest happiest easiest truest oldest Early Late Few Wealthy Rich Earlier Later Fewer Wealthier Richer earliest latest fewest wealthiest richest Irregular adjectives Comparatives and superlatives forms of adjectives in an irregular way. Positive Comparative Superlative Good Bad Little Late Many (for number) Far better worse Less Latter More farther, further best worst least last most farthest, furthest There are a great many long adjectives whose second and third degrees can be formed by using “more” and “most”: Positive Comparative Superlative Wonderful Convenient Efficient Decent Difficult Useless Marvellous Extensive Backward more wonderful more convenient more efficient more decent more difficult more useless more marvellous more extensive more backward most wonderful most convenient most efficient most decent most difficult most useless most marvellous most extensive most backward The above adjectives can also have the comparative and superlative degrees in this way: Positive Comparative Superlative Wonderful Convenient Efficient less wonderful less convenient less efficient least wonderful least convenient least efficient Use of some important adjectives The use of some important adjectives is given in the rest of this section. Few, a few, the few Few” means “not many” (in number) (a) He has few books. (b) She can use few English words correctly. (“Few” makes negative sense.) “A few” means “some in number” (a) He has a few books. (b) We met a few persons on the road. “The few” means “those some persons, thing, etc.” : (a) The few friends I have are all very able. (b) Where are the few books which you like to read? Little, a little, the little For Uncountable Nouns “Little” means “not much”. (a) We have little drinking water. (b) There is little truth in your story. (“Little” makes negative sense.) “A little” means “some in quantity, etc.” (a) We have a little drinking water. (b) There is a little truth in your story. “The little” means “that quantity, etc.” : (a) Where is the little honey which you had bought? (b) The little flour here is of good quality. (c) I like him for the little honesty that he has shown. Less, fewer “Less” is used for quantity, size, etc. (a) She has less sugar than she needs. (b) Did he give you less than forty kilograms of wheat? (c) She showed less honesty than her sister. “Fewer” is used for number. (a) I have seen fewer films than my friends. (b) I have read fewer books than my uncle. Older, oldest, elder, eldest “Older” and “oldest” are used for persons, animals, birds, things, etc. “Elder” and “eldest” are only used for members of a family. Now “older” and “oldest” are also used for them in modern English. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Are you older than your friend? He is the oldest person in the village. Perhaps this is the oldest historical building here. Razia is Samina’s eldest sister. She is elder by a year. Anwar is the eldest son of that person. “To” is placed after adjectives ending in “or” given here: superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, interior, (earlier in time), posterior (late in time). (a) This machine is inferior to that. (b) Who came prior to Sumaira? (c) Who said Azam is senior to Kazim in service? (d) Our English teacher, though junior to several other teachers in our college, is extremely (very) able. Later, latest, latter, former “Later” and “latest” are used in relation to time; whereas “latter” and “former” are used in relation to position. (a) (b) (c) (d) She answered this question later than you. He presented me the latest book on this subject. Akhtar and Karim are friends; the former is a shopkeeper while the latter is a farmer. He is a former Prime Minister of that country. Further, farther “Further” means more, in addition to. “Farther” or “further” means “at a greater distance”. (a) (b) (c) (d) Further, I want to tell you that I shall always help you. He said further he could swim. (or.... that he could swim). Our college is farther (or further) from the canal than his college. Whose house is the farthest (or furthest) from this garden. Nearest, next “Nearest” is used in regard to distance and “next” in regard to position: (a) (b) (c) (d) That hotel is the nearest to the station. Which is the nearest bazaar from here? Which building is next to our college? Next to Hameed, Akram entered the room. Or Akram entered the room next to Hameed. THE ADVERB An adverb adds to the meaning of a verb, adjective or some other adverb. (An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun). Example: (a) The soldiers fought bravely. (b) The tower was surprisingly tall. (c) They cried very loudly. The adverb bravely qualifies the verb fought. Surprisingly qualifies the adjective tall. Loudly qualifies the verb cried; very qualifies the adverb loudly. An adverb answers the question: how, when, how often, where, under what conditions or in what manner. Interrogative adverbs When adverbs are used in asking questions they are called interrogative adverbs. Where is Abdul? When did you come? Why are you late? How did you contrive it? (Inter. Adverb of place) (Inter. Adverb of time) (Inter. Adverb of reason) (Inter. Adverb of manner) Example: (a) Show me the house where (or in which) he was assaulted. (b) Here the adverb where modifieds the verb was assaulted. Kinds of Adverb Adverbs may be divided into the following classes, according to their meanings: (a) Adverbs of time (which show when) Example: (i) (ii) I have heard this before. That day he arrived late. (b) Adverbs of Frequency (which show how often) Example: (i) (ii) He often makes mistakes. He seldom comes here. (c) Adverbs of place (which show where) Example: (i) (ii) Stand here. Go there. (d) Adverbs of Manner (which show how or in what manner) Example: (i) (ii) This story is well written. The child slept soundly. This class includes nearly all those adverbs which are derived from adjectives and end in -ly. (e) Adverbs of degree or quantity (which show how much, or in what degree or to what extent). Example: (i) (ii) He was too careless. I am fully prepared. (f) Adverbs of affirmation of negation. Example: (i) (ii) Surely you are mistaken. He certainly went. (g) Adverb of reasons Example: (i) (ii) She sings delightfully. The weather is delightfully cool. The above are all examples of simple adverbs. Adjectives and adverbs Many adverbs are formed by adding “ly” to adjectives. Other adjectives change in other ways. Some words may be used as adjectives or adverbs. Adjectives Adverbs Slow (He is a slow worker) Quick Wonderful Foolish Interesting (She is an interesting writer) Lenient Strict Easy (Your question is easy) Shy Hard (He is a hard worker) Much Best (She is the best teacher) Little Late Enough (They have enough money) slowly (He works slowly) Quickly Wonderfully Foolishly interestingly (She writes interestingly) Leniently Strictly easily (I can easily answer it) Shyly hard (He works hard) Much best (She teaches best) Little Late enough (They are rich enough to buy a car) Early Early Three degrees of the adverb Like adjectives many adverbs have three degrees namely (1) positive (2) comparative and (3) superlative: ORDER OF ADVERBS Generally we place adverbs in the following order : (a) adverbs of place (b) adverbs of manner (c) adverbs of time Example: They have lived here happily for a long time. But we can disturb this order when we want to emphasise one more than the other. Example: Happily have they lived here for a long time. Position of adjectives and adverbs We generally place the adjective before a noun. Example: There we met an able teacher. The adjective can however, come after the noun or pronoun. Example: (a) The teacher we met is able and famous. (b) They will travel to the park by bus at noon. (c) She is living at Clifton happily. The more definite time adverbs are used before the more general i.e. time will come first then the date, then the month, then the year. Example: We shall fly to Karachi at 10 a.m. next Friday. ADVERBS, PRONOUNS, CONJUNCTIONS: EXPLANATIONS AND USES Too, enough “Too” gives a negative meaning and “enough” gives a positive meaning. (a) (b) (c) (d) He is too weak to run. (He is very weak). The room is too small to be made a class-room. We are able enough for this post. (We are quite able). That house is big enough for our family. Very much, quite “Very much”, “quite” is placed before adjectives in the first degree. (a) The story is very much true. (b) The question is quite easy. “Much” may be placed before adjectives and adverbs in the second degree. (a) Sahir is much abler than other students. (b) He writes much faster than they. Fairly, rather “Fairly”, “rather” both these words mean “to some extent”. But “fairly” often gives a positive meaning and “rather” a negative meaning. (a) They are fairly good at English. (b) We are fairly advanced in agriculture. (c) The plan is rather difficult. (d) He is rather foolish. Sometimes “rather” gives a positive meaning: (a) Their is a rather good team. Other uses of “rather”. (a) We would rather not take (prefer not to take) the examination than to fail. (b) She will rather study in Pakistan. Some, any “Some” is used in affirmative sentences and “any” in negative and interrogative: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) We visited some new places. They did not visit any new place. Did you visit any...? She has eaten something. Nighat hasn’t eaten anything. Have you eaten anything? When “some” is used in a question, the answer is “yes”. (a) You look hungry. Do you want some food? (b) Of course I want some. Each other, one another Quite often “each other” is used for two persons or things and “one another” for more than two. But there is no strict rule about it. (a) The two parties helped each other. (b) All countries should assist each other (or one another). Seldom “Seldom” means “Not often, rarely”. (a) We seldom read a story. (b) We seldom, if ever, read a story. Anyway, all the same “Anyway”, “all the same” means “Whatever the situation is”. (a) We do not have any good clothes, anyway we shall go to the party. (b) He had no mood to go out, all the rain he went to the zoo with his friend. As soon as, no sooner had “As soon as” “no sooner had” means “At once”. (a) As soon as I gave her the money she bought the book (b) No sooner had I given her the money than she bought the book. (c) She replied to me as soon as she got my letter. (d) No sooner had they got the books than they started reading. As well as “As well as” means “in addition to” (a) (b) (c) (d) The players are present as well as the captain. The students are playing and the teachers as well. Study, work hard and enjoy life as well. Sing, dance, play, but work as well. Either, or, neither ... no (a) Either you or your friend has broken the chair. (b) Either the teacher or the students have closed the doors. (c) Neither you nor he is at fault. The helping verb is used according to the latter noun or pronoun. (a) Either for negative sentences (as also is for affirmative). (b) Kabir did not go to the park, and Hassan did not go either. (c) They didn’t play, and we didn’t either. Either, neither “Either”, “neither” means “for one or other of two”. (a) I know either of the two brothers. (both of them) (b) She studies in neither of the two classes. All, none “All” for “everyone, everything”; “none” for “not any” or “not anyone”. (a) We met all the people at the party. (b) They saw none of the (five) films there. (c) It got all the wood, they got none. Lest “Lest” for “fear that”. (a) They obeyed the police lest they should get punished. (b) The team will play well lest it should fail to win. Of course “Of course” is used “to show a natural result”. (a) We slept during the film, of course it was bad. Unless, until “Unless” shows condition and “until” denotes time. (a) Unless you work hard you cannot pass. (condition) (b) Until you come we shall be staying here. (time) At least “At least” shows the minimum limit of anything. (a) I need at least five thousand rupees. (b) You should at least admit your fault. Ago, before “Ago”, “before” means “back in time from now”; “earlier than that”. (a) I went to Quetta two years ago. (b) I reached there before you did. So as to “So as to”, means “in order to”. (a) Shama bought a sewing machine so as to sew her clothes. (b) Ride your bicycle carefully so as not to hit anyone. So... that “So that” means “to such a degree”, “in such a way”. (a) Rashid spoke so fast that no one could understand him. (b) They started early so that they might reach college on time. Though, although “Though”, “although” means “in spite of the fact that”; “notwithstanding the fact that”. (a) Although (though) he is my friend, he never helps me. (b) We all played for several hours even though the examination was near. However “However” means “all the same”, or “in whatever way”. (a) They ran a lot, however, they did not get tired. (b) You can never be a good singer however much you may try. Nevertheless “Nevertheless” means “however” or “yet”. (a) She studies a lot, nevertheless she gets low grades in her examinations. (b) Kazim and Shama have fought, but they like to meet nevertheless. Hardly “Hardly” means “scarcely” or “with difficulty” or “not at all” or “almost not”. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Kiran could hardly answer such questions. They hardly ever visit us. I could hardly get help from my friends. They had hardly gone out when it started raining. I could barely (hardly) visit two friends out of so many.
