Bloom's Taxonomy: Resources and Questions
First three levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy are considered lower order thinking skills (LOCS)—or
foundational thinking skills: Knowledge/Remember, Comprehension/Understand, and
Application/Apply. The higher order thinking skills (HOCS) are: Analysis/Analyze,
Synthesis/Create, and Evaluation/Evaluate. The new, revised Taxonomy level categories have
been changed to active verbs and also flipped the top two levels, because most experts agree that
synthesis/create is more challenging than evaluation/evaluate.
Knowledge/Remember1
Definition
Rote factual knowledge of specific terminology, ways and means (i.e., conventions, trends,
classifications and categories, criteria, methodology), universal axioms and/or abstractions
accepted by the field or discipline (principles and generalizations, theories and structures).
Behavioral Learning Outcome
Ability to recall appropriate, learned information on command.
Cognitive Learning Outcome
Lowest level of learning outcomes.
Key Phrases for Assessment
arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall,
repeat, reproduce, state, describes, enumerates, identifies, matches, reads, records, selects,
views, writes
Teaching/Learning Methods:
Lecture
Memorization
Readings
Podcast
Video
Web information
Formative Assessments
Q & A (Face-to-face2: oral, clickers, minute papers via 3x5” cards; Synchronous: oral,
The first level category title is Bloom’s original, while the second term is the new, revised
Bloom’s Taxonomy category level title.
2 The tools for online synchronous courses will also work for F2F; however, the tools for F2F
don’t always work for online synchronous courses.
1
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
1
1
PollEverywhere3, Socrative4, Kahoot5; Asychronous: oral with VoiceThread6, Canvas
Polls7; Canvas Surveys8; minute papers via discussion board or Canvas Survey) Questions
are convergent, limited answers
Student recitations
Jeopardy-like games
Summative Assessments
Exam items of the form: define, label, list, reproduce.
Items are convergent, limited answers.
Example Assessment
Label the parts of the human eye.
Knowledge/Remember Questions:
o What is…?
o How is…?
o Can you select?
o How would you show…?
o Where is…?
o What does it mean?
o When did ____ happen?
o What happens after?
o Who were the main…?
o What is the best one?
o Which one…?
o Can you name all the …?
o Why did…?
o Who spoke to …?
o How would you describe…?
o Which is true or false?
o When did…?
o Identify
o Can you recall…?
o Recall
o Who was…?
o List, Recognize, or Label
o How would you explain…?
o How did ___happen…?
o Can you list the three..?
3
4
5
6
7
PollEverywhere - https://www.polleverywhere.com/classroom-response-system
Socrative - http://www.socrative.com/index.php
Kahoot - https://getkahoot.com/
Voicethread - https://voicethread.com/
Canvas Polls – https://community.canvaslms.com/docs/DOC-4046
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
2
2
Canvas Surveys – How to make: https://guides.instructure.com/m/4152/l/68346-how-do-i- create-asurvey-in-my-course; How to submit: https://guides.instructure.com/m/4212/l/68347- how-do-isubmit-a-survey
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Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
4
2
Comprehension/Understand
Definition
Understanding the meaning of information and materials.
Behavioral Learning Outcome
Being able to translate materials from one form or format to another by explaining or
summarizing and predicting consequences or effects.
Cognitive Learning Outcome
Represents the lowest level of understanding and interpretation of rote factual
information.
Key Phrases for Assessment
classifies; cites; converts; describes; discusses; estimates; explains; generalizes; gives
examples; makes sense out of; paraphrases; restates (in own words); summarizes; traces;
understands. express identify indicate locate recognize report review select translate illustrates
Teaching/Learning Methods:
Readings
Graphic Organizers
Demonstration
Discussion
Formative Assessments
Q & A (Face-to-face: oral, clickers, minute papers via 3x5” cards; Synchronous: oral,
PollEverywhere, Socrative, Kahoot; Asychronous: oral with VoiceThread, Canvas Polls;
Canvas Surveys; minute papers via discussion board or Canvas Surveys)
Questions are convergent, limited answers.
Student presentations or demonstrations within small groups, peer reviews; face to face,
podcasts, videos, role play
Think-Pair-Share
Summative Assessments
Exam items of the form: describe, explain, summarize, identify or select
Items are convergent, limited answers.
Student Presentations for instructor or evaluator (face to face, podcasts, videos, role play)
Example Assessment
Trace the path the stimulus takes from the time light enters the eye to processing in the visual
cortex.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
3
3
Comprehension/Understand Questions
o How would you classify the type of…?
o How would you compare…? contrast…?
o Will you state or interpret in your own words…?
o How would you rephrase the meaning?
o What facts or ideas show…?
o What is the main idea of ……?
o Which statements support…?
o Which is the best answer…?
o What can you say about …?
o How would you summarize… ?
o Can you explain what is happening…?
o What is meant by…?
o Which are the facts?
o State in your own words.
o Is this the same as …?
o Give an example.
o Select the best definition.
o Condense this paragraph. o
What would happen if …? o
Explain why . . . .
o What expectations are there?
o Read the graph (table). o
What are they saying? o
This represents . . .
o What seems to be …?
o Is it valid that …?
o What seems likely?
o Show in a graph, table.
o Which statements support …?
o What restrictions would you add?
o Outline . . .
o What could have happened next?
o Can you clarify. . .?
o Can you illustrate . . . ?
o Does everyone think in the way that … does? Why or why not? What is the
evidence?
o Describe or explain in your own words, re-tell, or summarize
o Describe ______ to a lay person
o Provide an example of ….
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
4
4
Application/Apply
Definition
Using information and materials to solve new problems or respond to concrete
situations that have a single or best answer.
Behavioral Learning Outcome
Applying learned material such as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and
theories.
Cognitive Learning Outcome
Learning outcomes demonstrate a higher level of understanding of the mechanics of
employing information to a purpose than comprehension.
Key Phrases for Assessment
apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule,
sketch, solve, use, write, acts, administers, articulates, assesses, charts, collects, computes,
constructs, contributes, controls, determines, develops, discovers, establishes, extends,
implements, includes, informs, instructs, operationalizes, participates, predicts, prepares,
preserves, produces, projects, provides, relates, reports, shows, teaches, transfers, uses, utilizes
Teaching/Learning Methods:
Demonstrate problem-solving (Case Studies, text problems, scenarios) Demonstrate
application of rules, laws, or theories (Case Studies, text problems, scenarios)
Demonstrate methods or procedures
Practice in multiple contexts
Formative Assessments
Student demonstrations within small groups (peer reviews)
Q & A (Face-to-face: oral, clickers, minute papers via 3x5” cards; Synchronous: oral,
PollEverywhere, Socrative, Kahoot; Asychronous: oral with VoiceThread, Canvas Polls;
Canvas Surveys; minute papers via discussion board or Canvas Surveys)
Questions may be convergent or divergent.
Video student demonstrations and follow with self-evaluation
Summative Assessments
Student presentation for instructor or evaluator. (Live, video, podcast) Exam
items of the form: apply, use, solve, demonstrate, employ Problem set
Example Assessment
Apply the Opponent Processes color theory to predict how the world appears to the major
varieties of color blindness and color vision anomaly.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
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Application/Apply Questions
o How would you use…?
o How would you solve ___ using what you’ve learned…?
o What examples can you find to…?
o How would you show your understanding of…?
o How would you organize _______ to show…?
o How would you apply what you learned to develop…?
o What approach would you use to…?
o What other way would you plan to…?
o What would result if…?
o Can you make use of the facts to…?
o What elements would you use to change…?
o What facts would you select to show…?
o What questions would you ask during an interview?
o Predict what would happen if ...
o Choose the best statements that apply.
o Judge the effects of …
o What would result …?
o Tell what would happen if …
o Tell how, when, where, why.
o Tell how much change there would be if …
o Identify the results of …
o Write in your own words … o
How would you explain …? o
Write a brief outline …
o What do you think could have happened next?
o Who do you think…?
o What was the main idea …?
o Clarify why …
o Illustrate the …
o Does everyone act in the way that … does?
o Draw a story map.
o Explain why a character acted in the way that he did.
o Do you know of another instance where …? o
Can you group by characteristics such as …? o
Which factors would you change if …?
o What questions would you ask of …?
o From the information given, can you develop a set of instructions about …?
o Predict an outcome using several pieces of information or concepts; use
information in a new context
o Predict what happens to X if Y increases
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
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6
Analysis/Analyze
Definition
Decomposing— to separate or resolve into constituent parts or elements9—materials into their
component parts so they can be examined and understood.
Behavioral Learning Outcome
The student is able to develop multiple conclusions concerning the motives, causes, inferences
and generalizations that can be derived from the material's component parts and organization.
Cognitive Learning Outcome
Learning outcomes involve a comprehension and understanding of the content and
structure of the material.
Key Phrases for Assessment
analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test, breaks down, categorizes, correlates, diagrams,
focuses, illustrates, infers, limits, outlines, points out, prioritizes, recognizes, separates,
subdivides
Teaching/Learning Methods
Case Studies
Simulations (Computer-based, mannequins, part task trainers, role plays)
Discussion
Labs
Graphic Organizers
Formative Assessments
Student presentation within small group (peer review)
Q & A (Face-to-face: oral, clickers, minute papers via 3x5” cards; Synchronous: oral,
PollEverywhere, Socrative, Kahoot; Asychronous: oral with VoiceThread, Canvas Polls;
Canvas Surveys; minute papers via discussion board or Canvas Surveys)
Questions may be convergent or divergent
Graphic Organizers
Summative Assessments
Exam items of the form: analyze, compare, distinguish, examine, test (Take home,
online, or face to face)
Portfolio entries focused on analyzing case studies or clinical experiences.
Essays
Student presentations
Example Assessment
Compare and contrast Helmholtz's (1865) "Place Theory" to Rutherford's (1886)
"Frequency Theory".
9
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/decompose?s=t
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
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Analysis/Analyze Questions
o What are the parts or features of
...?
o How is _______ related to . . . ?
o Why do you think . . . ?
o What is the theme . . . ?
o What motive is there . . . ?
o Can you list the parts . . . ?
o What inference can you make .
..?
o What conclusions can you
draw . . . ?
o How would you classify . . . ?
o How would you categorize . . .
?
o Can you identify the different
parts . . . ?
o What evidence can you find . .
.?
o What is the relationship
between . . . ?
o Can you make a distinction
between . . . ?
o What is the function of . . . ?
o What ideas justify . . . ?
o What is the function of …?
o What’s fact? Opinion?
o What assumptions …?
o What statement is relevant?
o What motive is there?
o What conclusions?
o
What does the author believe? o
What does the author assume? o
State the point of view of …
o What ideas apply?
o What ideas justify the
conclusion?
o What’s the relationship
between?
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
The least essential statements
are …
What’s the main idea? Theme?
What literary form is used?
What persuasive technique is
used?
Determine the point of view,
bias, values, or intent
underlying presented material.
Which events could not have
happened?
If … happened, what might
the ending have been?
How is … similar to …?
What do you see as other
possible outcomes?
Why did … changes occur?
Can you explain what must
have happened when …?
What were some of the
motives behind …?
What was the turning point?
What are some of the
problems of …?
Can you distinguish between
…?
Infer
Understand how components
relate to each other and to the
process as a whole
Interpret data, graphs, or
figures
Make a diagnosis or analyze a
case study
Compare/contrast information
8
8
Evaluation/Evaluate
Definition
Judging value of materials based on personal values/opinions or definite criteria. Concerned
with evaluating material to determine if it fulfills given purpose. Criteria may be internal
(organization; defined by student) or external (relevant to the purpose; provided to student).
Behavioral Learning Outcome
Student is able to produce an end product that fulfills a given purpose rather than being
right/wrong.
Cognitive Learning Outcome
Learning outcomes highest because it contains all other categories and includes value
judgments based on clearly defined criteria.
Key Phrases for Assessment
appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, defend, estimate, judge, predict, rate, core,
select, support, value, evaluate, contrasts, concludes, criticizes, critiques, decides, interprets,
justifies, reframes
Teaching/Learning Methods
Demonstrate process for evaluating research reports based on criteria
Case Studies - Small group discussions of appropriateness of procedures, results
Debates
Formative Assessments
Small group discussions
Q & A (Face-to-face: oral, clickers, minute papers via 3x5” cards; Synchronous: oral,
PollEverywhere, Socrative, Kahoot; Asychronous: oral with VoiceThread, Canvas Polls;
Canvas Surveys; minute papers via discussion board or Canvas Surveys)
Questions may be convergent or divergent.
Debates
Summative Assessments
Exam items of the form: evaluate, argue, assess, defend, judge, predict, rate, support
Student presentations
Example Assessment
Evaluate the ADA guidelines in light of what you have learned about blindness and critique its
strengths and weaknesses. Do you believe the guidelines are effective? Why or why not?
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
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9
Evaluation/Evaluate Questions
o Do you agree with the
actions/outcome…?
o What is your opinion of…?
o How would you
prove/disprove…?
o Can you assess the value or
importance of…?
o Would it be better if…?
o Why did they (the character)
choose…?
o What would you
recommend…?
o How would you rate the…?
o How would you evaluate…?
o How would you compare the
ideas…? the people…?
o How could you determine…?
o What choice would you have
made…?
o What would you select…?
o How would you prioritize…?
o How would you justify…?
o What judgment would you
make about…?
o Why was it better that…?
o How would you prioritize the
facts…?
o What would you cite to
defend the actions…?
o What data was used to make
the conclusion…?
o What information would you
use to support the view…?
o Based on what you know, how
would you explain…?
o What fallacies, consistencies,
inconsistencies appear?
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Which is more important,
moral, better, logical, valid,
appropriate?
Find the errors.
Is there a better solution to …?
Judge the value of … .
What do you think about …?
Defend your position about …
.
Do you think … is a good or
bad thing?
How would you have handled
…?
What changes to … would you
recommend?
Do you believe …?
How would you feel if …?
How effective are …?
What are the consequences of
…?
What influence will … have on
…?
What are the pros and cons of
…?
Why is … of value?
What are the alternatives?
Who will gain and who will
lose?
Determine/critique the relative
value of … .
Determine the merit of … .
Critique an experimental
design or research proposals
Appraise data support of a
hypothesis
10
10
Synthesis/Create
Definition
Using new and creative applications of prior knowledge and skills.
Behavioral Learning Outcome
The student’s ability to produce a new or original end product. Examples include a unique
communication, plan of operations (research proposal), or abstract relations (information
classification scheme).
Cognitive Learning Outcome
Learning outcomes emphasize creativity and the creation of unique patterns or
structures.
Key Phrases for Assessment
arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage,
organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write, adapts, anticipates, collaborates, combines,
communicates, compiles, devises, expresses, facilitates, generates, hypothesizes, incorporates,
individualizes, initiates, integrates, intervenes, invents, models, modifies, negotiates, progresses,
rearranges, reconstructs, reinforces, reorganizes, revises, structures, substitutes, validates
Teaching/Learning Methods
Research/Labs
Plan development
Multiple Case Studies – Class or small group discussions assembling relevant
information to produce a hypothesis, plan to address recurring problems Interviews
with experts
Formative Assessments
Small group discussions
Student presentations in small groups
Q & A (Synchronous: oral, clickers, PollEverywhere, Socrative, Kahoot; Asychronous:
Canvas Polls, minute papers via 3x5” cards; Canvas Surveys, minute papers via
discussion board or Canvas Survey)
Questions may be convergent or divergent.
Summative Assessments
Exam items of the form: develop, plan, prepare, propose, construct, design, formulate, create,
assemble
Portfolio
Design and build a model
Create a work of art
Develop a unique plan to serve some purpose
Student presentations
Example Assessment
Choose a perceptual disorder and create a device that would mitigate its effects.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
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Synthesis/Create Questions
o What changes would you
make to solve…?
o How would you improve…?
o What would happen if…?
o Can you elaborate on the
reason…?
o Can you propose an
alternative…?
o Can you invent…?
o How would you adapt
____________ to create a
different…?
o How could you change
(modify) the plot (plan)…?
o What facts can you compile…?
o What way would you
design…?
o What could be combined to
improve (change)…?
o Suppose you could _____what
would you do…?
o How would you test…?
o Can you formulate a theory
for…?
o Can you predict the outcome
if…?
o How would you estimate the
results for…?
o What could be done to
minimize (maximize)…?
o Can you construct a model
that would change…?
o How is _____ related to…?
o Can you think for an original
way for the…?
o What are the parts or features
of…?
o Why do you think…?
o What is the theme…?
o What motive is there…?
o Can you list the parts…?
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
o
What inference can you
make…? …?
o What ideas justify…?
o What conclusions can you
draw…?
o How would you classify…?
o How would you categorize…?
o Can you identify the different
parts…?
o What evidence can you
find…?
o What is the relationship
between…?
o Can you make the distinction
between…?
o What is the function of…? o
Can you design a … to …? o
Can you see a possible
solution to …?
o If you had access to all
resources, how would you
deal with …?
o Why don’t you devise your
own way to …?
o What would happen if?
o How many ways can you …?
o Can you create new and
unusual uses for …?
o Can you develop a proposal
which would …?
o How would you test …?
o Propose an alternative.
o How else would you …? o
State a rule based on …. o
Create something new
using/combining disparate
sources of information
o Develop a hypothesis o
Design an experiment o
Create a model
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12
Types of Exam Questions10: Bloom’s Taxonomy
Question
Type
Knowledge
Labeling
Fill-inthe-blank
TrueFalse
Multiplechoice
Short
answer
X
X
Comprehension
X
X
XX
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Essay
X
X
Characteristics of multiple-choice questions
Question
Question requires
only requires understanding of
information concept or terms.
recall.
Possible answers
Possible
include
answers do
significant
not include
distractors.
significant
distractors.
11
Question
requires
prediction
of the most
likely
outcome
given a new
situation or
perturbation
to the system.
Question
requires
interpretation
of data and
selection of
best
conclusion.
X
N/A: If
provided
with
choices,
students
only
differentiate
between
possible
answers
rather than
synthesize a
novel
response.
Question
requires
assessment
of
information
relative to its
support of an
argument.
“Blooming Biology Tool” in Crowe, A., Dirks, C., and Wenderoth, M.P. (2008). “Biology in
Bloom: Implementing Bloom's Taxonomy to Enhance Student Learning in Biology.” CBE Life Sci
10
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
Developing
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Educ. 2008 Winter; 7(4): 368–381. Retrieved September 25, 2016
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2592046/).
11 Significant distractors are those answers that represent common student misconceptions on that
topic.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
Compiled–- September 23,
Questions Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
2016
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Tools to Enhance Discussion and Reflection
PollEverywhere - https://www.polleverywhere.com/classroom-response-system
Socrative - http://www.socrative.com/index.php
Kahoot - https://getkahoot.com/
Voicethread - https://voicethread.com/
Canvas Tools:
Canvas Polls – https://community.canvaslms.com/docs/DOC-4046
Canvas Surveys – How to make: https://guides.instructure.com/m/4152/l/68346-how-do- icreate-a-survey-in-my-course; How to submit: https://guides.instructure.com/m/4212/l/68347how-do-i-submit-a-survey
References
Armstrong, P. (2016). “Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Vanderbilt University, Center for Teaching.
Retrieved September 27, 2016 (https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/bloomstaxonomy).
BloomsTaxonomy.org. “Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Retrieved September 23, 2016
(http://www.bloomstaxonomy.org/Blooms%20Taxonomy%20questions.pdf)
Central Florida University, Faculty Center for Teaching and Learning. “Bloom’s Taxonomy.”
Retrieved September 23, 2016
(http://www.fctl.ucf.edu/teachingandlearningresources/coursedesign/bloomstaxonomy)
Crowe, A., Dirks, C., and Wenderoth, M.P. (2008). “Biology in Bloom: Implementing Bloom's
Taxonomy to Enhance Student Learning in Biology.” CBE Life Sci Educ. 2008 Winter; 7(4):
368–381. Retrieved September 25, 2016
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2592046/).
Northern Illinois University, Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center. “Teaching with
the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Retrieved September 25, 2016
(http://www.niu.edu/facdev/programs/handouts/blooms.shtml).
Sample Question Stems Based on Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved September 23, 2016
(http://www.trenton.k12.nj.us/Downloads/05-2Bloom-16-17StemsforInstruction1.pdf).
Bloom’s Taxonomy Resources &
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How to Keep Online Discussions Going: Questions to Ask
Faculty Roles during Discussions
Active Socratic Questioner
With Socratic questioning, an instructor is in the foreground asking questions but not
proposing or suggesting the answers.
“What do you think is the main issue here?”
“How does this relate to other core concepts?”
Summarizer
Read discussion threads, summarize, clarify back to the class.
Encourager
Encourage learners to participate, etc.
Short Questions to Keep the Discussion Going and On Track
Underdeveloped Post
“Tell us more about why you believe…, and what from your reading this week might
support this view?”
Have Students Do the Heavy Lifting
“Imagine you are (a position opposite of their own), what would be your two or three
arguments against your current position?”
Student Is Missing an Important Integrative Element
“How would one’s view of
(the topic you think they need to consider)
affect the thoughts expressed in your post?”
One-sentence replies that lead students to higher-order thinking.
1. “How would you define
?” Here you are pulling a significant word
from your student’s post, one that may be loaded with assumptions that you want them
to question. This also demonstrates that you’re paying attention to what they are
writing.
2. “What reasons do you have for saying ‘
’?”
3. “What do you think might be the implications of your statement, ‘
’?”
4. “What arguments would you expect others to bring against your viewpoint?”
5. “Tell us more about
?”
6. “How have your views on this changed over the last 5 years? Why did they change
or not change?”
7. “Share something from your course reading that supports your viewpoint in this
post. Explain the connections.”
Questions to Keep the Discussion Going
Developing Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
9/26/16
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15
Summary Posts
Posts that the instructor writes after the discussion is over.
Professor sums up the discussion and makes some final comments.
Send it out as an email to ensure that students will see it.
Variation: Have students create their own summary posts.
To Encourage Disciplined Online Discussions
“How does your observation relate to the topic of discussion?”
“What is the connection between your comment and what was just said?”
“Can you explain how your idea is helping us make sense of this subject
matter?”
“We seem to have wandered away from the main topic. What do we need to do
to get back on track?”
“Who has a comment or question that can help us regain our focus?”
Synthesis Questions
“How has this discussion changed the way you are thinking about this topic?”
“What is the most memorable thing you have learned in this discussion?”
“What question or questions does this discussion prompt you to ask?”
“What is something that you learned or relearned in this discussion?”
“What do you know now that you did not know before this dialogue began?”
“What assumptions you had about this topic have been confirmed or questioned for you
by this discussion?”
Questions to Keep the Discussion Going
“What additional evidence is there to support your thinking about X?”
“What assumptions are we making about X? How would our interpretation be different
with an alternate set of assumptions?”
“What don’t we know about X, and how might that help us consider this issue
another way?”
“Can you articulate your point another way or provide an example to clarify it?”
“How else might you interpret X?”
Questions that Ask for More Evidence
“How do you know that?”
“What data is that claim based on? What does the author say that supports your
argument?”
“Where did you find that view expressed in the text?”
“What evidence would you give to someone who doubted your interpretation?”
Questions to Keep the Discussion Going
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Questions that Ask for Clarification
“Can you put that another way?”
“What’s a good example of what you are talking about?”
“What do you mean by that?”
“Can you explain the term you just used?”
“Could you give a different illustration of your point?”
Linking or Extension Questions
“Is there any connection between what you’ve just said and what Rajiv said?”
“How does your comment fit in with Neng’s earlier comment?”
“How does your observation relate to what the group decided last week?”
“Does your idea challenge or support what we seem to be saying?”
“How does that contribution add to what has already been said?”
Open Questions
“Sauvage says that when facing moral crises, people who agonize don’t act, and people
who act don’t agonize. What does he mean by this?” Follow-up question: “Can you think
of an example that is consistent with Sauvage’s maxim and another that conflicts with
it?”
“Racism pervaded American society throughout the twentieth century. What
are some signs that things are as bad as ever? What are other signs that racism has
abated significantly?”
“Why do you think many people devote their lives to education despite the
often low pay and poor working conditions?”
Summary and Synthesis Questions
“What are the one or two most important ideas that emerged from this
discussion?”
“What remains unresolved or contentious about this topic?”
“What do you understand better as a result of this week’s discussion?”
“Based on our discussion today, what do we need to talk about next time if we’re
to understand this issue better?”
“What key word or concept best captures our discussion today?”
Questions to Keep the Discussion Going
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References
Boettcher, J. V., and Conrad, R. M. (2010). The Online Teaching Survival Guide: Simple and
Practical Pedagogical Tips. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D., and Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and
Techniques for Democratic Classrooms, 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 85-89.
Johnson, A. (2013). Excellent! Online Teaching: Effective Strategies for a Successful Semester
Online.
Palloff, R. M., and Pratt, K. (1999). Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace: Effective
Strategies for the Online Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass, Inc., p. 119.
Questions to Keep the Discussion Going
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ASKING MORE EFFECIVE QUESTIONS
William F. McComas and Linda Abraham
Rossier School of Education
Introduction
From the development of the Socratic method, to the 1860 edition of Barnard’s American
Journal of Instruction that states, “to question well is to teach well,” educators have long known
that questioning is a useful way to aid in the transfer of knowledge from instructor to pupil
(Ross, 1860). Over the past 100 years, multiple U.S.-based studies have focused on the use of
questioning as a successful and universal pedagogical approach. Yet despite these studies and
their findings, not much has changed in terms of the manner in which teachers ask questions.
Leven and Long found that teachers in 1912 spent approximately eighty percent of the school
day asking questions – a statistic that was replicated by their study of classroom teachers and
their use of questioning in the 1980s (Leven and Long, 1981). And Wilen’s work shows that the
vast majority of questions asked by teachers are low-level cognitive questions that require
students to focus on the memorization and recall of factual information rather than questions
which foster deeper student understanding (1991).
Questioning plays a critical role in the way instructors structure the class environment, organize
the content of the course and has deep implications in the way that students assimilate the
information that is presented and discussed in class. Given that questioning can be a
tremendously effective way to teach, and recognizing that teachers are willing to engage in the
process of asking questions while instructing (Leven and Long’s research shows that the typical
teacher asks between 300-400 questions per day), the purpose of this paper is to articulate a
taxonomy of questions that will help instructors to recognize how to more effectively use
questioning as a pedagogical strategy (1981).
A Taxonomy of Question Types
Multiple approaches to classifying questions exist in the education literature. In fact, according
to William Wilen, one study which reviewed classification systems for classroom questions
found over 21 systems in place in 1974, with many more appearing since then (1991). The
taxonomy presented below is based on the research of William W. Wilen, and informed by the
work of Angelo V. Ciardiello, both of whom have published extensively on best practices in
questioning skills. Wilen’s simplified classification system is based on the taxonomy presented
by Gallagher and Aschner’s research from 1963 and takes into account the Bloom’s categories of
learning (1956) (See Appendix A).
The taxonomy presented separates questions into four quadrants with paired criteria: Questions
can be either high or low order, and can be either convergent or divergent in their design. A low
order question is one that requires the student to simply recall a single fact, while a high order
question asks the students to recall facts but to show that they comprehend the topic, situation or
solution to a stated problem. A high order question will require that a student understand the
relationship between a fact or piece of knowledge within the greater context of the situation.
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Comparing Low and High Order questions:
Low order: What color is the lion in that diorama?
This question checks a student’s ability to recognize color and identify the color. There is a very
narrow range of possible answers (tan, light yellow, fawn)
High order question: Why do you suppose the lion is that color?
This question allows the student to recognize and identify color, but then asks the student to
consider the relationship of the lion’s color to other things (its environment, other lions, other
species of animal, its place on the foodchain)
The descriptor convergent refers to the limits placed on the response to a given question. A
convergent question by its nature has a more narrowly defined correct answer – the answer is
generally short, requires little reflection and requires that the responded recall from memory a bit
of factual information. Convergent questions may also be referred to as “closed-ended”
questions, meaning that the instructor is looking for an anticipated response that requires little
original thought on the student’s part. Convergent questions will not require students to put
original thought to the development of an answer. In other words, the answer will have been
provided within the context of the lecture or readings assigned by the instructor. A divergent
question on the other hand, is open-ended by nature. To respond to a divergent question, a
student must be able to recall some information from memory, but must apply that knowledge
and other knowledge to explain, extrapolate or further analyze a topic, situation or problem.
Divergent questions are broader in nature, can have multiple answers, and require then a higher
level of thinking on behalf of the student.
Comparing Convergent and Divergent questions:
Convergent: What other animals can you think of that use color as camouflage?
This question checks a student’s ability to identify what role camouflage and animal coloration
play in nature and suggest other examples. (The responses are fairly easily anticipated and
require that students recall other examples of animals they have seen or studied).
Divergent: Suppose the lion had been born with a much darker colored coat, what do you predict
would happen to that lion in the wild?
This question allows the student to consider a scenario, use knowledge regarding camouflage,
coat coloration and the environment the animal lives in to create an original answer that is logical
and correct.
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Lower Level Convergent
Emphasis
What is required of
the student?
What Cognitive
Operations are
involved?
What typifies these
questions?
Signal Phrases
Example
Memorization, recall, rote drilling
Recall or recognize information (identify or name, quote or
define).
Call for the transfer of information in predictable ways.
Questions at this level will determine if students can organize
and select facts as well as state the main ideas.
Answers are easily anticipated by the teacher and are often
closed – requiring a “yes” or “no” answer. Questions found at
the back of the textbook chapter are typically low-level
convergent questions.
Who, what, where, when
“According to our study of plant physiology, what conditions
are required for photosynthesis to occur?”
Aligned to Bloom’s
taxonomy of learning Knowledge level
Pros
Easy to develop questions and to anticipate student responses,
so directing class discussion becomes routine. Helps identify
students with large deficits in general knowledge.
Cons
Least effective method for enhancing knowledge transfer.
Students who respond correctly may have memorized material
but without understanding it.
Higher Level Convergent
Emphasis
What is required of
the student?
What Cognitive
Operations are
involved?
What typifies these
questions?
Reasoning and critical thinking which usually requires some
direction from the instructor
Demonstration of understanding and ability to apply the
information (students describe, compare, contrast, rephrase,
summarize, explain, translate, interpret or provide an example).
Explaining, stating relationships, comparing and contrasting
Students will look for evidence to support their response, and
may break ideas, situations or events down into their component
parts
Why, how and in what ways
“In what way do plant cells differ from animal cells?”
Signal Phrases
Example
Aligned to Bloom’s
taxonomy of learning Comprehension and application levels
Pros
Helps students to make connections between facts and begin to
understand relationships. Fosters critical thinking and skills
such as comparing and contrasting.
Cons
Can lead to digressions in lesson plan, answers are longer and
more elaborate and may not be easily anticipated by teacher.
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Lower Level Divergent
Emphasis
What is required of
the student?
What Cognitive
Operations are
involved?
What typifies these
questions?
Signal Phrases
Example
Synthesis of information and analysis of information to develop
response.
Think critically about information, ideas, opinions. Students
discover motives, reasons or causes, draw conclusions,
inferences or generalizations.
Hypothesizing, reconstructing
Questions that ask students to think of alternative ways of doing
something, or require them to synthesize a number of elements
to create an original idea.
How could…, What are some possible consequences…,
Imagine…
“How might life be different if peace was declared in the middle
east?”
Aligned to Bloom’s
taxonomy of learning Analysis level
Pros
Focuses on critical thinking skills and allows for in-depth
student discussions. May lead to more student-generated
questions and conversations thus engaging the learner at a
deeper level.
Cons
More difficult for teachers to determine in what direction the
lesson might be drawn. Requires more pre-planning, energy
and effort on behalf of the instructor.
Higher Level Divergent
Emphasis
What is required of
the student?
What Cognitive
Operations are
involved?
What typifies these
questions?
Signal Phrases
Example
Motivate students to higher levels of thinking and encourage
creative thinking
Students produce original communications, make predictions,
propose solutions, create, solve lifelike problems, speculate,
construct, devise, synthesize, develop/judge ideas, problems
solutions, express opinions, and make choices and decisions.
Predicting, inferring, performs original, creative and evaluative
thinking
Teachers are required to think of the content they are presenting
I different ways by creating different contexts for learning the
material.
Defend, Judge, Predict, If… then, Can you create, What is your
opinion…
“Suppose you are the President of USC. How would you devise
a plan to increase the retention rate of minority first-year
students?”
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Aligned to Bloom’s
taxonomy of learning
Synthesis & Evaluation Levels
Pros
Cons
Stimulate knowledge-seeking and hypothesis generation.
Difficult and more energy intensive. Teacher must challenge his
or her own way of thinking and encourage the learner to as well.
More difficult to assign grades as the responses to these
questions may be highly original or personal.
Another way to classify or evaluate the level of questioning in a classroom can be illustrated by
Christenbury and Kelly’s model of the Questioning Circle. The three intersecting circles
represent domains of cognition, and rather than presenting a hierarchical approach to classifying
questions, they present an overlapping model with a high degree of flexibility. To Christenbury
and Kelly, the three circles each represent a different aspect of reality: (1) the Matter – the
subject of discussion (issue, problem, topic), (2) the Personal Reality – the student’s relationship
with the subject, and (3) the External Reality – the broader perspective of the subject. According
to the Christenbury-Kelly model, the most significant questions are higher-order and are
developed from areas where the circles overlap (Wilen 1991, Christenbury and Kelly, 1983).
Bringing the student’s personal perspective into the questioning schema begins to introduce a
constructivist view towards question generation.
The Matter
The Personal Reality
The External Reality
“Following are sample questions representing the circles and their interactions from one incident
in Huckleberry Finn:
1. The Matter – What does Huck say when he decides not to turn Jim in to the authorities?
2. Personal Reality – When would you support a friend when everyone else thought he or
she was wrong?
3. External Reality – What was the responsibility of persons finding runaway slaves?
4. The Matter/Personal Reality – In what situations might someone be less than willing to
take the consequences of his or her actions?
5. Personal Reality/External Reality – Given the social and political circumstances, to what
extent would you have done as Huck did?
6. The Matter/External Reality – What were the issues during the time which caused both
Huck’s and Jim’s actions to be viewed as wrong?
7. The Matter/Personal Reality/External Reality – When is it right to go against social
and/or political structures of the time as Huck did when he refused to turn Jim into the
authorities?”
(Christenbury and Kelly, 1983)
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Research shows that only 5% of teacher directed questions are higher-order divergent (Wilen,
1987). While the taxonomy above articulates a wide breadth of question types and while teachers
know that asking multiple types of questions is good pedagogy, the research indicates that
teachers consistently revert to asking lower level convergent questions far more often that any
other type of question. The following table illustrates a number of studies that sought to
determine the number of higher-order or divergent questions teachers asked compared to lowerorder convergent questions. The studies are summarized in “Questioning Skills, for Teachers”
by W. Wilen (1991). The results of each study illustrate the magnitude of the problem we face in
using questions well.
Study
Haynes (1935)
Floyd (1960)
Davis & Hunkins (1966)
Trachtenberg (1974)
Gall (1987)
Wilen (1991)
% higher order
% lower order
17
6
20
5
% operational
77
42
90
95
60
20
Study after study reveals that although educators know that the higher-order divergent questions
hold significantly more power to engage the learner and ensure transfer of knowledge, we
consistently retreat to using lower-order, convergent style questions when teaching and testing
students.
Techniques for Asking More Effective Questions
The first step in asking better questions is to identify the types of questions we are currently
asking, why we are asking them, and finally, what techniques can we utilize to improve the
questioning that occurs in our classrooms. Questions help teachers fulfill multiple agendas in the
classroom. Questions are used to help teachers ascertain the level at which their students
understand (or misunderstand) concepts presented during lecture, they are used to engage or
encourage students’ active participation in a lesson, they are used to allow students to express
their thoughts and hear explanations offered by their peers, and they are used to keep students
alert or on task during class time (Brualdi, 1998). Focusing on why questions are asked leads us
to ask the deeper question of how questions are being asked. When we look within the broader
context of classroom interaction, how questions are asked has a tremendous impact on learneroutcomes. These outcomes are shaped not just by how the instructor phrases and uses questions,
but are also shaped by the ways in which students are encouraged to generate their own questions
(Wilen, 1991). How questions are asked and answered has broader implications than mastering
content. Effective instructors “model the process of inquiry and organizing the search for
solutions for their students” (Teach Talk, 1995).
Teach Talk, a newsletter for educators dedicated to promoting best practices in the classroom,
suggests that successful questioners utilize several skills when crafting and asking good
questions. These include: phrasing and sequencing questions effectively, responding to questions
so that class time is used efficiently, keeping questions from leading to digression (unless the
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digression is useful), and using the right tone and delivery both when asking and responding to
question. (1995)
Techniques for Successful Questioning
1. Phrasing; teacher communicates the question so that the students understand the response
expectation (ie: no run-on questions).
2. Adaptation; teacher adapts the question being asked to fit the language and ability level
of the students.
3. Sequencing; teacher asks the questions in a patterned order indicating a purposeful
questioning strategy.
4. Balance; teacher asks both convergent and divergent questions and balances the time
between the two types. The teacher uses questions at an appropriate level or levels to
achieve the objectives of the lesson.
5. Participation; teacher uses questions to stimulate a wide range of student participation,
encouraging responses from volunteering and non-volunteering students, redirects
initially asked questions to other students.
6. Probing; teacher probes initial student answers, and encourages students to complete,
clarify, expand or support their answers.
7. Wait Time (Think Time); teacher pauses three to five seconds after asking a question to
allow students time to think. The teacher also pauses after students’ initial responses to
questions in class.
8. Student Questions; teacher requires students to generate questions of their own.
The techniques listed above are straightforward points that most instructors are familiar with.
However, even though we know that these simple techniques make for best practice in the
classroom, many of us simply forget to employ them regularly. Most often forgotten is the
practice of “wait time.” Research shows that instructors wait between .7 seconds and 1.4
seconds for pupils to respond to questions. Furthermore, teachers will wait less than .7 seconds if
they believe that their students might not know the answer to the question posed. “Wait time” –
or the time an instructor waits silently between asking a question and expecting an answer – can
impact the classroom dynamic tremendously. Mary Bud Rowe first described the positive
outcomes associated with “wait time” in 1972. Rowe’s research indicated that when teacherdirected questions were followed by at least three seconds of undisturbed silent time for students
to formulate responses, the students answered the question more successfully. Student success in
formulating answers was not the only positive outcome observed when “wait time” techniques
were introduced to classrooms. Other researchers found that regular use of “wait time” had
positive impacts on both students and teacher attitude and behaviors.
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Student behaviors observed when increased “wait time” was introduced to the classroom:
1. Decrease in “I don’t know” responses
2. Length and accuracy of answers increased
3. The number of volunteered, appropriate responses by larger number s of students
increased.
4. Achievement test scores rose.
Teacher behaviors observed when increased “wait time” was introduced to the classroom:
1. Questioning strategies became more flexible and varied.
2. The quantity of questions asked decreased, while the quality and variety of questions
increased.
3. Higher-order, divergent questions were asked more often.
In 1985, Stahl updated Rowe’s conception of “wait time” with the introduction of “think time”.
Stahl’s idea is based upon Rowe’s research, but goes a step further, defining this time as a
“distinct period of uninterrupted silence by the teacher and all students so that they can both
complete appropriate information processing tasks, feelings, oral responses and actions” (Stahl,
1994). Stahl articulates his preference for the term “think time over “wait time” in a 1990 article
published by the Arizona State University:
1. It [think time] names primary academic purpose and activity of the period of silence thus
allowing students and teachers to complete “on-task” thinking.
2. There are numerous places where periods of silence are as important as those “wait time”
periods reported in the literature.
3. There is at least one exception labeled “impact pause time” that allows for periods of less
that 3 seconds of uninterrupted silence.
Whether calling it “wait time” or “think time,” instituting breaks between the questions and
anticipated student responses proves to be a technique that makes questions more powerful
teaching tools.
Questioning at post-secondary level
Few students, even those at graduate levels are skilled at asking higher-cognitive questions in
class, and observations of college-level instructors reveal that even at the post-secondary level,
teachers are not modeling high level divergent questioning for their students (Ciardiello, 1991).
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APPENDIX A
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF THINKING SKILLS WITH BEHAVIORIAL
OBJECTIVES
Illustrative General Instructional Objectives
KNOWLEDGE
Remembering or recalling learned
material
Knows common terms
Knows specific facts
Knows methods and procedures
Knows basic concepts
Knows principles
Behavioral Terms for Learning Objectives
Example; List the bones or muscles in the
arm.
COMPREHENSION Understanding or
grasping meaning of material
Understands facts and
principles Interprets verbal
material Interprets charts and
graphs
Translates verbal material to mathematical
formulae Estimates future consequences implied
in data Justifies methods and procedures
APPLICATION
Using learned information in new
situations Applies concepts and principles to new
situations Applies laws and theories to practical
situations Solves mathematical problems
Constructs charts and graphs
Demonstrates correct usage of a method or procedure
ANALYSIS
Critically reducing arguments to elements to see
their relationships, organization and principles
Example; Explain how muscles operate in pairs.
Recognizes unstated assumptions
Recognizes logical fallacies in reasoning
Distinguishes between facts and
inferences Evaluates the irrelevancy of
data
Analyses the organizational structures of a work (art,
music,
writing)
Break down, diagram, differentiate,
discriminate, distinguish, identify, infer,
outline, point out, relate, select, separate,
subdivide
SYNTHESIS
Forming a new whole from various
parts
Writes a well-organized theme
Gives a well-organized speech
Writes a creative short story (or poem, or music,
etc.) Proposes a plan for an experiment
Integrates learning from different areas into a plan
for solving a problem
Formulates a new scheme for classifying objects
(or events, or ideas, etc.)
EVALUATION
Developing Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
Define, describe, identify, label, list,
match,
name,
outline,
recognize,
reproduce, select and/or state
Convert, defend, distinguish, restate,
rephrase, estimate, explain, extend,
generalize, infer,
give examples, paraphrase, predict,
rewrite, summarize
Example; Show the similarities between
the bones and muscles of the arms and legs.
Apply, change, compute, demonstrate,
discover, illustrate, manipulate, modify,
operate, predict, prepare, produce, relate,
show, solve, use
Example; Show the similarities between
the bones and muscles of the arms and legs.
Example; Design an artificial limb that will have
the structural and functional abilities of an arm
or leg.
Categorize, combine, compile, compose,
create, devise, design, explain, extend,
generate, modify, organize, plan, propose,
question, rearrange, revise, reconstruct,
relate, reorganize, restructure, rewrite,
summarize, tell, write
Judging based on defined
criteria
27
Judges the logical consistency of written
material Judges the adequacy with which
conclusions are supported by data
Judges the value of a work by use of internal criteria
Judge the value of a work (art, music or writing) by
using external standards of excellence
Developing Engaging Questions for Online Discussions
Example; Compare the parts of a human
limb and an artificial limb in terms of
durability, flexibility, etc.
Appraise, assess, compare, conclude,
contrast, criticize, describe, differentiate,
discriminate, document, explain, interpret,
judge, justify, relate, summarize, support
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APPENDIX B
THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
The taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain extends from least committed to
most committed:
1.
Receiving: Being aware of or attending to something in the environment, this is the I'lllisten-to-the-concept-but-I-won't-promise-to-like-it level.
2.
Responding: Showing some new behavior as a result of experience; at this level a person
might applaud after a concert or hum some of the music the next day.
3.
Valuing: Showing some definite involvement or commitment; at this point a person
might choose to go to a concert instead of a film.
4.
Organization: Integrating a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some
ranking among one's general priorities; this is the level at which a person would begin to
make long-range commitments to concert attendance.
5.
Characterization by value: Acting consistently with the new value; at this highest level,
a person would by firmly committed to a love of music and show it openly and
consistently.
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. and Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational
objectives.
Handbook II: The affective domain. New York: David McKay and Co.
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Asking Better Questions
Transcript of Questions from Teaching Video: BSAP (South Carolina Science Program)
Soil Texture and Color – 8th grade science class. Even without watching the video itself, you can
examine the questions asked and make judgments about their level and potential to engage
students.
Segment A 06:53:08 – 09:52:00
T “Okay now what did we get on that sheet of paper? When we poured those layers out, where
you very surprised about our results? Sean, what did we get? What did that first layer look like?
Do you remember that?
S “Rocks”
T “Okay it was mostly rocks right? What else might have been in there?”
S “Um little grains”
T “Okay, good, grains. Okay, what else?”
S “Sticks or roots”
T “Sticks, roots, acorns, very good. But mostly it was very large pieces and then these were
graded down to the very finest pieces, and Ryan, what did that very finest layer feel like to you?”
S “It was rough”
T “Okay some particles were very rough, but mostly what did it feel like? Latrika?”
S “Like powder”
T “Okay, like powder, like powder that you would even, like face powder like talcum powder or
something, okay it was very fine. Okay, so that one thing we noticed. Another thing that we
noticed from that activity were the different colors of the soil, right? Alright Corey, the different
colors of the soil, name a few of the colors that we saw.
S “Dark orange and like an orangey color”
T “A dark orange and orangey color, alright, what else? April, do you remember? Help him out
a little bit.”
S “Brown”
T “Okay some different shades of brown, alright now where did our soils come from? Sean?
Where did our soils that we used in that seive activity come from?”
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S “Around the surrounding areas of Saluda”
T “ Alright around the surrounding areas of Saluda, and if you look up on the map of Saluda
County, we have a different soil sample from various areas of the county. If you can see that
okay? And what you see mostly –up at the top up here – are the reddish soils, alright, then these
are more brown over in here and these types of soils down here by Ridge Spring, Willy, what
type of soils do you mostly find in the Ridge Spring area?”
S “Clay”
T “Okay some clay, and what else? Brian?
S “Sand”
T “Sandy soils right? A little bit of clay in there, but mostly a lot of sand mixed in with that clay
because that’s a very sandy area.
T “Today’s activity is going to be about the texture of soil, okay? Now what does texture mean
to you? Brian, texture, tell us a little bit about texture. What are you going to do?”
S “Um, you’re going to observe it and perhaps run your fingers through it, and it’ll give you how
it feels and how it looks.”
T “Okay, how it feels and how it looks. And what is that thing Robby that we call when we use
or 5 senses? What skill are we using when we use our 5 senses to look or feel at something?”
S “A guess or hypothesis”
T “Right, okay we could be doing that. April?”
S “Observation”
T “Observation, very good, we’re going to observe.”
Section B
28:15:00 30:31:0
T “Okay, now what is the manipulated variable here? Willy, which is the manipulated variable ?
S “The type of soil”
T “The type of soil. We changed the kind of soil, right? Now when we changed that type of soil,
Tamika, which is the responding variable?
S “How much water you get (out of it)” ( )
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T “Alright how much water over here, so those are the 2 things we’re looking at, those are the 2
variables in this activity. Now, who can tell me what a control is? Name Corey a control that we
have in our activity here.
S “How much water we put in it.”
T “That was what?” That was how much water we put in initially?”
S “That was how much water we put in all 3 of them.”
T “Well, not really, that’s not really a control.” Okay? A control, remember is something that
stays the same. It’s something that we’re going to control for in the activity. Sean, what is a
control?”
S “How much drained of the soil when we put water in and let it drain.”
T “Well, that would be our responding variable wouldn’t it? How much water that drained out.
Alicia?”
S “The amount of water we started with.”
T “Alright you started with what?”
S “150 ml”
T “150 ml Very good. Okay, on all of them. That could be one control. Brian, what is another
control?”
S “The size of what we put the soil (samples in).”
T “Alright, did we all use the same size tuna fish cans here? We did, didn’t we? Everybody had
the same size can. We all had one giant can and one small can. That’s one control. Alright, what
about the minutes we let it sit? Franklin?
S “We let it sit about at least five or ten (minutes).”
T “Alright, about the same range of time. You let them sit all exactly the same time. What about
the way Sylvester, what about the way that the soil was put into the can? Did you really pack it
in on one and just leave it laying loose in another sample?”
S “No ma’am.”
T “What did you do?”
S “ We hung it, we put it on the side and let the water just drain out from the side.”
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T “Right, that’s exactly right. You let the water drain out the same way and you had the types of
soil samples packed in there the same way, didn’t you? So all those things are controls.”
Segment C
38:29:12 – 39:54:05
T “Okay, most of you are finished with your graph right now, let’s think a little bit about the
activity that we just completed, alright? Let me ask you some questions. Okay, first of all, Brian,
we stated that we were going to find out about soil texture right? Okay, what did you find out
about the texture of your soils? In other words, what did you find out about the water that
drained in and drained out?”
S “It was sometimes the color of the soil and it had many particles in it (the soil).”
T “What did that tell you when it was the color of the soil? For example, clay, right? That clay,
when that clay drained out, man that water was muddy wasn’t it? You could tell it came from
clay couldn’t you? What did that tell you about that soil sample?”
S “That when the water drained out of it washed away with it.”
T “Okay it washed away that clay, didn’t it? How many of you have driven by roads in our
county that have been cut or stripped and you see that red clay? What do you notice about that
red clay? Robby?
S “Its been washed (away)”
T “Its been washed. Right and what color, and we had all those rains a few weeks ago, what
color was that water running out in front of that ditch in front of school?
S “(red)”
T “Red,what did that tell you? Where did that water wash over?”
S “Clay”
T “Alright some clay, that’s exactly right. Good.”
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15
APPENDIX C
HOW DOES YOUR QUESTIONING BEHAVIOR
RATE?
1.
How often do you challenge students by asking questions that arouse their curiosity? Do you make
them want to know more?
2.
How often do you use questions to establish a foundation for new work?
3.
To what extent do your questions encourage students to listen to each other’s responses, opinions?
4.
How do your questions help reveal or clear up misconceptions?
5.
To what extent do your questions verify the degree of comprehension of your students?
6.
To what extent do your questions promote self-evaluation by your students?
7.
To what extent do your questions ask students to interpret, to analyze, to think critically, to
see relationships, or to judge?
8.
Does your question asking regime help build class rapport?
9.
Do you ask questions to discover special interests of your students?
10. Does your question asking regime help students to feel that each one has something positive to
contribute to the class?
11. To what extent do you preplan key questions you want to ask during the lesson?
12. To what extent do you consider possible responses to these key questions and strategies to use in the
event that something goes astray?
13. To what extent do your questions call for students to think for themselves?
14. Do you ask a variety of questions— recall vs. thought questions?
15. Do you get all students involved in class discussions?
16. Do you distribute your questions both to students who volunteer to answer and to those who do not?
17. Do you distribute your questions in a widespread fashion rather than limiting them to one group of
students or one part of the room?
18. Do students speak to each other when responding or only to you?
19. Do you wait a reasonable time for students to think about their responses before calling on them
or permitting them to speak?
20. Do you accept student responses in a neutral manner or do you use verbal rewards (Good! Fine idea!
Great!) or sanctions (No! Wrong!)?
21. Do you consistently repeat students’ responses?
22. Do you encourage your students to ask questions?
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References Cited
Brualdi, Amy C. (1998). Classroom questions. ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and
Evaluation, Washington DC.
Ciardiello, Angelo, V. (1998). Did you ask a good question today? Alternative cognitive and
metacognitive strategies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 42(3), 210-219.
Leven, T. and Long, R. (1981). Effective instruction. Washington DC: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Ross, W. (1860). Methods of instruction. Barnard’s American Journal of Education 9, 367-79.
----- (1995) Question: What makes a good question. Teach Talk 8(1).
Wilen, William W. (1991). Questioning Skills for Teachers, third edition. National Education
Association, Washington DC.
Source:
Asking More Effective Questions, USC Center for Excellence in Teaching
1.
Why should assessments, learning objectives, and
instructional strategies be aligned?
Assessments should reveal how well students have learned what
we want them to learn while instruction ensures that they learn it.
For this to occur, assessments, learning objectives, and
instructional strategies need to be closely aligned so that they
reinforce one another.
To ensure that these three components of your course are aligned,
ask yourself the following questions:


Learning objectives: What do I want students to know how to do
when they leave this course?
Assessments: What kinds of tasks will reveal whether students have achieved the learning objectives I have
identified?
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
Instructional strategies: What kinds of activities in and out of class will reinforce my learning objectives and
prepare students for assessments?
1.
What if the components of a course are misaligned?
If assessments are misaligned with learning objectives or instructional strategies, it can undermine
both student motivation and learning. Consider these two scenarios:
Your objective is for students to learn to apply analytical skills, but your assessment measures only
factual recall. Consequently, students hone their analytical skills and are frustrated that the exam
does not measure what they learned.
Your assessment measures students’ ability to compare and critique the arguments of different
authors, but your instructional strategies focus entirely on summarizing the arguments of different
authors. Consequently, students do not learn or practice the skills of comparison and evaluation that
will be assessed.
2.
What do well-aligned assessments look like?
This table presents examples of the kinds of activities that can be used to assess different types of
learning objectives (adapted from the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy).
Type of learning
objective
Recall
Recognize
Identify
Interpret
Exemplify
Classify
Summarize
Infer
Compare
Explain
Apply
Execute
Implement
Analyze
Differentiate
Organize
Attribute
Examples of appropriate assessments
Objective test items such as fill-in-the-blank, matching, labeling, or multiplechoice questions that require students to:

recall or recognize terms, facts, and concepts
Activities such as papers, exams, problem sets, class discussions, or concept maps
that require students to:





summarize readings, films, or speeches
compare and contrast two or more theories, events, or processes
classify or categorize cases, elements, or events using established criteria
paraphrase documents or speeches
find or identify examples or illustrations of a concept or principle
Activities such as problem sets, performances, labs, prototyping, or simulations
that require students to:


use procedures to solve or complete familiar or unfamiliar tasks
determine which procedure(s) are most appropriate for a given task
Activities such as case studies, critiques, labs, papers, projects, debates, or concept
maps that require students to:



discriminate or select relevant and irrelevant parts
determine how elements function together
determine bias, values, or underlying intent in presented material
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Evaluate
Check
Critique
Assess
Create
Generate
Plan
Produce
Design
Activities such as journals, diaries, critiques, problem sets, product reviews, or
studies that require students to:

test, monitor, judge, or critique readings, performances, or products against established
criteria or standards
Activities such as research projects, musical compositions, performances, essays,
business plans, website designs, or set designs that require students to:

make, build, design or generate something new
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