GENERAL OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM
According to Pratt (1994, p.5) and Barrow and Milburn (1990, p.84), the word “curriculum” is
derived from the Latin verb currere, “to run.” “Currere” became a diminutive noun and meant a
“racing chariot” or “race track.” An extension was made by Cicero who associated the term with
curriculum vitae that means “the course of one’s life.” He also associated it with curricula mentis
that metaphorically refers to “the (educational) course of the mind.” It was not until the nineteenth
century that the term was commonly used in the educational field. The term curriculum refers to
the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or program. In
dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it is rarely used in
such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators define or employ the
term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which
includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet; the units and
lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials,
videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and other methods
used to evaluate student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum, for example, would be the
specific learning standards, lessons, assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a
particular course. When the terms curriculum or curricula are used in educational contexts without
qualification, specific examples, or additional explanation, it may be difficult to determine
precisely what the terms are referring to—mainly because they could be applied to either all or
only some of the component parts of a school’s academic program or courses.
In many cases, teachers develop their own curricula, often refining and improving them over years,
although it is also common for teachers to adapt lessons and syllabi created by other teachers, use
curriculum templates and guides to structure their lessons and courses, or purchase prepackaged
curricula from individuals and companies. In some cases, schools purchase comprehensive,
multigrade curriculum packages—often in a particular subject area, such as mathematics—that
teachers are required to use or follow. Curriculum may also encompass a school’s academic
requirements for graduation, such as the courses students have to take and pass, the number of
credits students must complete, and other requirements, such as completing a capstone project or
a certain number of community-service hours. Generally speaking, curriculum takes many
different forms in schoo. It is important to note that while curriculum encompasses a wide variety
of potential educational and instructional practices, educators often have a very precise, technical
meaning in mind when they use the term. Most teachers spend a lot of time thinking about,
studying, discussing, and analyzing curriculum, and many educators have acquired a specialist’s
expertise in curriculum development—i.e., they know how to structure, organize, and deliver
lessons in ways that facilitate or accelerate student learning. To noneducators, some curriculum
materials may seem simple or straightforward (such as a list of required reading, for example), but
they may reflect a deep and sophisticated understanding of an academic discipline and of the most
effective strategies for learning acquisition and classroom management.
CURRICULUM DEFINED
According to Kelly (1999), curriculum is negatively viewed as a “syllabus which may limit the
planning of teachers to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge they wish to
transmit or a list of the subjects to be taught or both” (p83). In other words, simply convey subject
knowledge is insufficient to be an effective curriculum. It should offer much more than a statement
about the knowledge-content in order to be a productive curriculum.
But in the Hong Kong Yearbook published in the year of 2006, curriculum is more positive in
nature, which could achieve the objective of motivating learning, enhancing knowledge and
abilities and developing positive values or even attitudes. These elements could help achieve
whole-person development of students.
Curriculum, however, can be defined as prescriptive, descriptive, or both.
Some prescriptive definitions include John Dewey(1902) Curriculum is a continuous
reconstruction, moving from the child’s present experience out into that represented by the
organized bodies of truth that we call studies . . . the various studies . . . are themselves
experience— they are that of the race. (pp. 11–12) Franklin Bobbitt (1918) Curriculum is the entire
range of experiences, both directed and undirected, concerned in unfolding the abilities of the
individual. (p. 43) Harold O. Rugg (1927) [The curriculum is] a succession of experiences and
enterprises having a maximum lifelikeness for the learner . . . giving the learner that development
most helpful in meeting and controlling life situations. (p. 8) Hollis Caswell (1935) in Caswell &
Campbell The curriculum is composed of all the experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers. . . . Thus, curriculum considered as a field of study represents no strictly limited body of
content, but rather a process or procedure. (pp. 66, 70) Ralph Tyler (1957) [The curriculum is] all
the learning experiences planned and directed by the school to attain its educational goals. (p. 79)
(1967) Robert Gagne Curriculum is a sequence of content units arranged in such a way that the
learning of each unit may be accomplished as a single act, provided the capabilities described by
specified prior units (in the sequence) have already been mastered by the learner. (p. 23)
James Popham & Eva Baker (1970) [Curriculum is] all planned learning outcomes for which the
school is responsible. . . . Curriculum refers to the desired consequences of instruction. (p. 48) J.
L. McBrien & R. Brandt (1997) [Curriculum] refers to a written plan outlining what students will
be taught (a course of study). Curriculum may refer to all the courses offered at a given school, or
all the courses offered at a school in a particular area of study. Indiana Department of Education
(2010) Curriculum means the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials,
resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. (n.p.)
Descriptive definitions of curriculum include Hollis Caswell & Doak Campbell (1935) All the
experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.
Thomas Hopkins (1941) Those learnings each child selects, accepts, and incorporates into himself
to act with, on, and upon, in subsequent experiences. W. B. Ragan (1960) All experiences of the
child for which the school accepts responsibility. Glen Hass (1978) The set of actual experiences
and perceptions of the experiences that each individual learner has of his or her program of
education. Daniel Tanner & Laurel Tanner (1995) The reconstruction of knowledge and
experience that enables the learner to grow in exercising intelligent control of subsequent
knowledge and experience. D. F. Brown(2006) All student school experiences relating to the
improvement of skills and strategies in thinking critically and creatively, solving problems,
working collaboratively with others, communicating well, writing more effectively, reading more
analytically, and conducting research to solve problems. E. Silva (2009) An emphasis on what
students can do with knowledge, rather than what units of knowledge they have, is the essence of
21st-century skills.
Combatively, the definitions provided for prescriptive and descriptive curricula vary primarily in
their breadth and emphasis. It would seem that a useful definition of curriculum should meet two
criteria: It should reflect the general understanding of the term as used by educators, and it should
be useful to educators in making operational distinctions. The curriculum is the plans made for
guiding learning in the schools, usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of
generality, and the actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners
and as recorded by an observer; those experiences take place in a learning environment that also
influences what is learned.
BASIC MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM
In Ghana, the Ministry of Education recognizes the unique role mathematics plays in the overall
development of the child. As a sequel, mathematics is a core subject at the pre-tertiary level of
education. Teachers are required to provide mathematical experiences that will enable the child to
acquire problem solving skills, communication skills, logical thinking, cooperative attitudes, and
deep sense of understanding of mathematical concepts and processes (MOE, 2010). If children are
to develop these concepts, skills and values, then instructional processes must locate mathematics
learning in the social domain of children. The mathematics curriculum is built on the constructivist
principles with emphasis on opportunities for students to explore mathematical situations in the
environment to enable them make their own discoveries (MOE,2010).
The school curriculum is a major factor in shaping the quality of education (CRDD, 2007). It has
been recognized that the quality of mathematics education directly affects learning in other
scientific disciplines, hence influencing the development of human resources in the field (see for
example, Awanta, 2005 CRDD, 2007). This is seen most necessary in a developing country such
as Ghana, where every citizen needs to become mathematically literate (CRDD, 2003).
Mathematics has become a ‘critical filter’ in the social, economic and professional development
of individuals and forms a core component of the school curriculum in most countries. It is upon
this utilitarian nature of mathematics to the individual and the society as a whole that the school
mathematics curriculum has been undergoing a number of restructuring over the last three decades.
In Ghana, a new mathematics curriculum was introduced in September 2012 which aims
aims to:

help children appreciate the value of mathematics and its usefulness to them, to develop
confidence in their own mathematical

ability, to foster a sense of personal achievement and to encourage a continuing and
creative interest in mathematics;

develop in children the skills, concepts, understandings and attitudes which will enable
them to cope confidently with the mathematics of everyday life;

help children develop a variety of problem solving strategies involving mathematics and
develop the ability to think and reason logically;

help children become mathematically literate in a world which is information technology
(IT) oriented:

provide a foundation for those children who may wish to further their studies in
mathematics or other subjects where mathematical concepts are essential.
School mathematics curricula have been undergoing numerous changes and the evolution of these
new school curricula and methods are designed to find ways to empower students to use practical
and investigative approaches when learning mathematics (Thomasenia, 2000). For example in the
USA, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) ]Agenda for Action in 1980,
which was documented in 1989, provided a new wave of change affecting how mathematics should
be taught and learned in schools. In this agenda, it was noted that there was the need to pay
particular attention to how mathematics is taught instead of concentrating on what mathematics
was taught in schools (NCTM, 1989). The purpose of this agenda was to increase students’
participation and engagement in the teaching-learning process by decreasing memorisation of
algorithms and reducing teachers’ power of being the disseminators. NCTM. (1989). NCTM.
(1991).
In Ghana, a new mathematics curriculum was introduced and implemented in the year 2007 and
aim of this new curriculum was based on the twin premises that all can learn mathematics and that
all need to learn mathematics with a view to achieving a curriculum that reflects individual
students’ needs (Ministry of Education, Science and Sports; MoESS, 2012). The ultimate goal of
the current curriculum is to enable all students’ acquire the mathematical skills, insight, attitudes
and values needed to be successful in their chosen careers and daily lives by increasing the
students’ self-oriented learning abilities to the maximum. The new curriculum therefore
encourages the acquisition of more skills and use of varied teaching methods and resources to help
students to develop the mathematical skills that they will need in their daily activities (MoESS,
2012). The new curriculum also aims at bringing a shift from a teacher-centered approach of
teaching and learning to a more participatory teaching and learning methods to help students
develop their skills through the application and experimentation of different problem solving skills
(MoESS, 2007). The new national mathematics curriculum therefore highlights the importance of
students’ active role in the teaching-learning process, which represents a shift from a teachercentered approach to teaching to a student-centered approach.
The new curriculum like other school curricula around the world is underpinned by the
epistemologies of constructivism and it advocates for a change in teachers’ role as custodian of
knowledge to facilitators in the teaching-learning process.
Mathematics is a logical, reliable and growing body of concepts, which makes use of specific
language and skills to model, analyse and interpret the world. It provides a means of
communication that is powerful, concise and precise. As a human activity, mathematics involves
creativity in the discovery of patterns of shape and number, the recognition of relationships, the
modelling of situations, the interpretation of data and the communication of emerging ideas and
concepts. Mathematics is one of the essential areas of learning. Everyone needs to develop
mathematical concepts and skills to help him/her understand and play a responsible role in society.
Mathematics education aims to provide students with those skills and understandings. The need
for people to be numerate has always been identified as an important outcome. Mathematics
education aims to contribute to the development of a broad range of numeracy skills. In an
increasingly technological age the possession of problem solving and decision making skills is an
essential requisite. Mathematics education provides the opportunity for students to develop these
skills and encourages them to become flexible problem solvers. Achieving these requires a sound
mathematics curriculum, competent and knowledgeable teachers who can integrate instruction
with assessment, classrooms with ready access to technology, and a commitment to both equity
and excellence. The Mathematics Curriculum has been designed to provide knowledge and
mathematical skills to pupils from various backgrounds and levels of ability. Today’s world
demands that young people should be able to use numbers competently, read and interpret numeric
data, reason logically, solve problems involving calculations and mathematical reasoning, as well
as communicate effectively with other people using accurate mathematical data and
interpretations. Acquisition of these skills will help them in their careers later in life and in the
process benefit the society and the nation. That is, the curriculum emphasizes mathematical
knowledge and skills that should help the young person to develop basic numeracy competence to
be able to function effectively in society. Several factors have been taken into account when
designing the curriculum. These are: mathematical concepts and skills, terminology and
vocabulary used, and the level of proficiency of English among teachers and pupils. It is hoped
that with the knowledge and skills acquired in Mathematics, pupils will discover, adapt, modify
and be innovative in facing changes and future challenges. The learning of mathematics at all
levels involves more than just the basic acquisition of concepts and skills. It involves, more
importantly, an understanding of the underlying mathematical thinking, general strategies of
problem solving, communicating mathematically and inculcating positive attitudes towards an
appreciation of mathematics as an important and powerful tool in everyday life.
The Ghana Kindergarten Mathematics curriculum comprise
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2
3
4
5
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TOPIC
TITLE
Self Assessment
Self Assessment – Kindergarten
Using and applying number
The numbers 1 to 5
Using and applying number
The numbers 6 to 9
The number system
Ordinal numbers 1 to 9
Using and applying number
Zero and counting numbers 1 to 9
Using and applying number
The number 10
Using and applying number
Numbers 11 to 20
Using and applying number
Using place value to order numbers up to 20
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TOPIC
TITLE
Reasoning
Simple addition up to the number 10
Calculations
Subtraction up to the number 10
Time, days of week
Days of the week
Time, duration
Duration
Exam
Exam – Kindergarten
The mathematics curriculum at the primary level covers five main areas, namely, Numbers, and
numerals, Number operations, Measurement, Shape and Space, Collecting and Handling Data.
Problem Solving and Application. Numbers and numerals cover ways numbers are
represented/recorded and the quantities for which they stand; the use of symbols, notation to
represent and communicate quantities/numbers. Number operations cover the basic operations on
numbers (+, −, × ÷) and accuracy, efficiency and confidence in using them in calculations,
mentally, and on paper. Number operations also provides opportunities for the development of
pupils ability to estimate and to make approximations, and check the reasonableness of results of
calculations; recognise patterns and relationships in mathematics and the real world; and develop
the ability to use symbols, notation, graphs and diagrams to represent and communicate
mathematical relationships and solve problem. Measurement, Shape and Space cover geometrical
relations in two and three dimensions, and provides opportunities for recognising and appreciating
their occurrence in the environment. This content area also provides opportunities for pupils to
develop spatial awareness and the ability to recognise and make use of the geometrical properties
and symmetries of everyday objects; as well as use geometrical models as aids to solving practical
problems in time and space. In addition, the content area also provides opportunities for pupils to
develop knowledge and understanding of systems of measurement, their use and interpretation as
well as their confidence and competence in using instruments and measuring devices. Collecting
and Handling Data covers identifying situations/problems for data collection, developing the skills
of collecting, organising and analysing data, as well as interpreting data presented in tables, charts
and graphs of various kinds. Problem Solving and Application. This syllabus does not include
Problem solving and Application as a distinct topic. Rather nearly all topics in this syllabus include
solving word problems as activities. These activities relate to issues in real life situations. Teachers
are expected to pose problems and set out questions which will help students to think and apply
scientific principles using mathematical theory. It is hoped that teachers and textbook developers
will incorporate appropriate problems that will require mathematical thinking rather than mere
recall and use of standard algorithms. Other aspects of the syllabus should provide opportunities
for the pupils to work co-operatively in small groups to carry out activities and projects which may
require out-of-school time. The level of difficulty of the content of the syllabus is intended to be
within the knowledge and ability range of the Primary school.
The basic mathematics curriculum specifies a problem solving approach to the teaching and
learning of mathematics ie balanced mathematical programme incorporates concept learning and
the development, maintenance and application of skills.. Real-life problems are not always closed,
nor do they necessarily have only one solution Critical reflection may be developed by
encouraging children to share ideas, to use their own words to explain their ideas and to record
their thinking in a variety of ways, such as words, symbols, diagrams and models.
The medium of instruction is the official medium of instruction in the lower primary is the
children’s first language (i.e. Ghanaian language). But for mathematics, teachers are encouraged
at this level to sometimes combine this with English when teaching the subject because there are
no readily available words in many Ghanaian languages for several mathematical terms and
symbols. Once this objective is achieved, however, it is essential that children be exposed to the
mathematical ideas in English and listen to adults using the words correctly. Care must be taken
to ensure that the English language used is simple and accessible; hence it should be presented in
very short sentences in situations involving the appropriate mathematical language. The use of
flash cards, displaying the specific mathematical language, is recommended. In the younger classes
pictures and real-life objects should be used to facilitate the children’s understanding of the
language, as do consistency and repetition. At the upper primary level children should be
encouraged to express and articulate their explanations, thinking and reasoning in English to
strengthen their mathematical communication skills. However, on no account should the use of
either language (Ghanaian language or English) be to the detriment of children learning
mathematics.
Children’s failure to understand mathematical vocabulary manifests itself when they fail to answer
questions during lessons, when they fail to carry out a set task and when they do poorly in tests
and examinations. Possible reasons for this failure could be that: they do not understand the spoken
or written instructions; (e.g. draw a line . . .; put a ring around one of these numbers . . . ) they are
not familiar with the mathematical vocabulary; (e.g. difference, sum, product, one-third,
estimate,..)
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Allan Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools.
1)Recommended curriculum- proposed by scholars and professional organizations.
2)Written curriculum- appears in school, district, division or country documents.
3)Taught curriculum- what teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms and schools
4. Supported curriculum- resources textbook computers, audio visual materials which support and
help in the implementation of the
curriculum.
5. Assessed curriculum, that which is tested and evaluated.
6. Learned curriculum-what the students actually learn and what is measured and
7. Hidden curriculum- the unintended curriculum.
CONCEPTION OF THE BASIC MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM
CURRICULA AS PLANS
A curriculum can be seen as a plan, or a sort of blueprint for systematically implementing
educational activities. This sense of the term combines content with instructional methods and
hence has a wider scope than the former two curricular paradigms because of the inclusion of
methods. In this vein, Tom (1984) canvasses curriculum as “a plan for teaching or instruction”
(p.89). Similarly, Pratt (1994) conceives it as “a plan for a sustained process of teaching and
learning” (p.5) with a specific focus on content and the process of teaching and learning. What is
worth noting is that this view of curriculum is not pragmatically equated with methods themselves
in action. Pratt (1994) further explains this by stating that “actual teaching and learning is not
curriculum, for curriculum refers to plans for instructional acts, not the acts of instruction
themselves" (p.5).
-GUIDED EXPERIENCE
The curriculum, as per the modern concept of the term, is the sum-total of activities and
experiences of the learners, conducive to the social wellbeing and progress. The curriculum, which
is based upon and centered round some activities having educational bearing, is called the activity
curriculum. In this sense, the experiences mean the possible learning experiential encounters that
learners would engage themselves in inside or outside the classroom. All interactions that students
are exposed to, in an academic environment, can be considered part of their curriculum. Hence,
the whole range of experiences students are likely to undergo in the course of their education, such
as school clubs, assemblies, excursions, fetes, and academic competitions, are parts of the extended
curriculum. In this light, the experiences of teaching and learning can be viewed as post-curricular
activities. In the same vein, the American Educational Research Association’s Encyclopedia of
Educational Research defines curriculum as “all the experiences that a learner has under the
guidance of the school” (Kearney & Cook, 1961, p.358). Barrow and Milburn (1990) echo this by
describing a curriculum as “all the experiences that a child has in school” (p.85). Thus, the subject
matter provided for students, the actions of teachers (attitudes and motivations) in the classroom,
the actions of students (reactions, attitudes, and motivation), and the instructional materials can all
be understood as facets of the experiential curriculum.
CURRICULUM AS ENDS
Curriculum as ends tends to be tangible, for example reports, tests, brochures, speeches or
performances. It reflects student understanding. It involves providing challenge, variety and
choice, giving students options about how to express required learning (for example, create a
puppet show, write a letter, or develop an annotated diagram). It further allow students to help
design products around learning intentions/goals. It encourage students to express what they have
learned in varied ways. It allows for varied working arrangements – alone, with a group. It provide
or encourage the use of varied types of resources in preparing products, It provides product
assignments at varying degrees of difficulty to match student readiness. There is use a wide variety
of assessments work with students to develop rubrics that match and extend students’ varied skill
levels, It uses a continuum - simple to complex and less independent to more independent clearly
defined to ‘fuzzy’ problems
CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION
Curriculum innovation is a complex educational approach because of the various factors embedded
in the teaching process. A key factor on which the success of curriculum innovations depends is
the in-servicing of teachers in the use of new approaches. Educational curricular innovation is the
starting point of a long process towards educational change. In many countries with a mandated
national curriculum for schools, there is a tendency to include all the components which make up
the school curriculum in teacher education programmes. Teacher education has the role of assisting
student teachers to adapt to external values and norms to meet the local reality. The problem that
starts from this study is that educational change focused on schools often proceeds in advance of
changes in the teacher education curriculum. This has always created a gap between teacher
education and schools that might take several years before harmonization.
When a new curriculum is introduced, one of the problems to face is a problem of change. During
innovation educators are expected to respond at both the empirical and pedagogical level in ways
that build broader political support. If that is the case, great attention needs to be paid to the
education of teacher educators. There is little attention paid to the development of a curriculum for
educating teacher educators, or policies that might support the development of what teacher
educators need to know and do in order to meet the complex demands of preparing teachers for
the 21st century.
Change and innovation in the curriculum are necessitated by factors in a country’s political, social,
economic, cultural and technological environments. The education system changes in order to
address these emerging needs and demands. Educational changes and innovations in most
countries, including your own, are products of these factors. Educators are agreeing with the fact
that curricular innovation represents a major phenomenon because of there is the need to report
the perceptions of the key stakeholders. The knowledge and attitudes of teachers regarding
curriculum innovations need to be reported, by not only educational policy makers and curriculum
designers. Key Factors of Curriculum Innovation in the context of curriculum innovation. These
include the political, social and cultural, psychological, pedagogical, economic, technological,
legal. Educational curricular innovation may result from external factors such as international
educational policies or from internal needs such as educational values and goals of a group of
people.
CONSTRUCTION
AND
EVALUATION
OF
THE
BASIC
MATHEMATICS
CURRICULUM
There are some principles which guide us in constructing an ideal curriculum. To make the
curriculum more effective it should be lifecentric and must not be merely theoretical. There should
have ample scope for learners’ active participation. The curriculum, properly constructed, will
foster in an individual the sense of serving the society and thus enable the society to progress. The
curriculum must have its basis upon the nature, age, demand and interest of the learner. It means
that an ideal curriculum should have a scientific outlook. Naturally, curriculum should be graded
in accordance with the varying demands, interests of the different age- groups.
Curriculum construction should aim at meeting the physical needs of the student such as reflexion,
meditation, developing their abilities of critical thinking and adjustment, nourishing their creative
urge and developing their capability of aesthetic appreciation in different areas. All these will lead
to the development of integrated personality and character. To enrich the society with productive
individual imbued with social sense, curriculum should be activity- oriented. All the great
educators of all the countries and recent Education Commissions and Committees have attached
great importance to activity-based and experience-centered curriculum which will considerably
make learning effective and instrumental to social change and progress. The principle of
curriculum construction should not be blindly conserving the social heritage and transmission of
the same to the next generation. It should also enact developing the social condition and making
social progress, even at the cost of traditional norms and customs, if necessary. It is not an easy
task to reform a society, whatever is evil and what is wrong in the light of the modern concept. It
needs strength, confidence and courage to face the consequences. Again, tradition means values,
which are inculcated in an individual from the very childhood. It is really difficult for an individual
to disobey his tradition and values. It is also a very general tendency of human being to live in a
group and behave in the most similar acceptable way. So even by realizing many wrong ideals
people are not eager to point it out in front of others. This weakness should be eradicated from the
very childhood stage. This does not mean that all old values are full of mistakes and should be
changed or modified. What I mean to say is merely that from the primary stage a child should learn
to judge each and every value of life without accepting it blindly only because those are taught by
the elder’s.Children should have the strength and power to face the truth of life.
And our curriculum should be constructed in such a way so that children can get some space to
explore their own views by comparing them with the received values.
All curricula are composed of certain elements – a statement of aims and specific objectives, some
selection and organization of content, certain pattern of learning and teaching. Also, the curriculum
includes a programme of evaluation of the outcomes. In a scientific curriculum development, these
criteria may come from various sources – from tradition, social pressure, the learners’ capabilities,
the nature of learning processes, etc. Therefore, curriculum development requires a study of culture
and tradition of the society for whom it is developed, religious and political ideologies of the
society, their customs, habits and aspirations. A statement of aims and specific objectives is
undoubtedly the starting point in curriculum making. But what the assumptions underlying the
objectives are, is a fundamental issue in the field which indicates the usefulness of objectives in
terms of both their role and function. Ivar K. Davis (1976) in his book, Objectives in Curriculum
Design has referred to three schools of thought emerging from the foregoing question of objectives
in curriculum making. They are:
I. The classical theory assumes the learner as a passive receiver, the teacher as the custodians and
benevolent autocrats.
II. The Humanistic approach assumes the pupils having their own values and attitudes which are
goal oriented.
III. The modern approach goes further and assumes the children as decision makers and problemsolvers. This concept is essentially process- oriented and demands increased professionalism
among teachers, human relationship in the school and objectives having an enabling and
expressive purpose.
Generally, aims and objectives are used synonymously, but to be specific, aim is a statement which
attempts to give both shape and direction to a set of more detailed intentions for the future. While
‘aim’ is a starting point, an ideal, ‘objective’ is the ‘end’ in the ‘means- endmodel’. The
determination of both aims and objectives is necessary in curriculum construction, one serving as
a fundamental rationale and other as a more detailed plan to be involved. While an aim is broken
down into a set of objectives, each represents a turning point and this involves the question of
ordering the objectives on priority basis in the context of relevance and worthwhile ness. Each
goal can be further explained in behavioural terms, these are what a student will think, act and
behave at the end of a ‘learning experience’. These are behavioural objectives or objectives in
specification with which the classroom teacher is more concerned. Hilada Taba’s (1962)
classification approach to objectives has two levels, ‘general objectives’ which she calls ‘schoolwide outcomes’ and more ‘specific objectives’ that describe the ‘behaviour to be achieved Davis
has also discussed about broad diversions of activity framework and developmental framework for
objectives. All these doctrines indicate that identification of objectives in curriculum making
inevitably ranges over the question of classification and priorities. Again, determination or fixation
of an objective must be prescribed within a total framework at a detailed and specific level. A
comprehensive outline for curriculum making has been given by Ralf Tyler (1950) in a syllabus,
where he has emphasized his belief concerning the instructional organization and evaluation.19
Taba (1962) has reformulated the sequences proposed by Tyler and has stated that pursuing such
an order will result in a more thoughtfully planned and more dynamically conceived curriculum.
These are: (1) Diagnosis of need (2) Formulation of objectives (3) Selection of content (4)
Organization of content (5) Selection of learning experience (6) Determination of what to evaluate
and the ways and means of doing it. Curtis and Bidwell (1977) have visualized the needs of teacher
and of emerging adolescents and in that context have shown different roles of a teacher which also
reflect the role of a teacher as curriculum constructor.
To serve such a function, a teacher must perform the role of I. a model II. a planner III. a
diagnostician IV. a manager V. a guide to resources
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
Curriculum must be implemented if it is to make any desired impact on students and to attain its
goals. And unless it is implemented, it cannot be evaluated for betterment. In spite of careful
planning and design, it is possible that a curriculum fails to meet the needs for which it is
developed. In our experience, we would have also come across educational programmes that do
nothing more than gather dust on shelves. Further, much that is planned and developed often does
not get implemented. There are few issues involved in implementation. Curriculum
implementation has never been considered a crucial stage. In fact, it has surprisingly been taken
for granted. It has to be, on the contrary, treated as important as the other stages in the curriculum
activity. It will certainly ensure the success of a curriculum.
Implementation: a process of change
Although many curricularists agree that implementation is an essential aspect of curriculum
development, it is only in the last fifteen years that implementation has become a major educational
concern. Many assume that implementation is simply another step in the curriculum planning
process. They, therefore, expect to proceed from the planning and design stages to the actual
implementation stage with relative ease. Fullan and Pomfrat (1977) remark that "effective
implementation of innovation requires time, personal interaction and contact, in-service training
and other forms of people-based support". There is, therefore, no substitute for the primacy of
personal contact among implementers, and between implementers and planners/consultants, if the
difficult process of unlearning old roles and learning new ones is to occur. Leithwood (1982), like
most other curricularists, considers implementation a process that attempts to reduce the difference
between existing practices and the practices suggested by innovators or change agents. In other
words, it occurs in stages and it takes time to win people over to a change. Ornstein and Hunkins
(1988) sum up these observations and view implementation as a separate component in curriculum
action cycle. It is the logical step once a programme has been developed and piloted. However,
they point out that implementation involves attempts to change individuals knowledge, actions and
attitudes. Obviously. it takes time. They also suggest that implementation is an interaction process
between those who have created the programme and those who are to deliver it and we may add
those who are to use it. Thus the purpose of curriculum development, regardless of level, is to
effect a change in order to enable the students to attain the society's and perhaps more importantly
the students' own goals. And, implementation, as an essential part of curriculum development,
brings into existence the anticipated changes. The changes can occur in several ways. The two
most obvious ways are: i) Slow change: For example, when we incorporate minor adjustments in
the course schedule, when we add some books to the library or when we update the unit plan, etc.
ii) Rapid change: It is the result of new knowledge or social trends influencing the curriculum,
such as computers being introduced in the curriculum, etc. For curriculum change to be
successfully implemented, whether slowly or rapidly, we need to consider the following
guidelines: The changes designed to improve student achievement must be technically sound. It
means that changes should reflect research about what works and what does not work as opposed
to the bandwagon effect, under which we go along with whatever designs for improvement happen
to be popular presently or in the future. There needs to be a change in the existing structure of
allocation of responsibilities to students and teachers. One familiar context to us, for example, is
that of the distance education system. The proposed changes have to be manageable and feasible.
We should not attempt to incorporate ideas concerning critical thinking or problem solving when,
for instance, students do not have basic language ability. The implementation of successful change
efforts must be organic rather than bureaucratic. Strict adherence to rules and monitoring
procedures, meant for the pre-change system, are not conducive for effecting change. We need to
replace this bureaucratic approach with an organic or adaptive approach that permits a necessary
deviation from the original plan and recognizes the problems at the grassroots level. It is essential
to avoid the "do something, do anything syndrome". We need to focus on building a definite
curriculum, the content and activities of which are sound and rational. The guidelines clearly
indicate that they are systematically interrelated and that they apply equally well to all levels of
education. However, it is common knowledge that there has been resistance to change. It is more
so in the case of education, and therefore, curriculum. There might be various reasons for the
resistance to change. Here we shall take up a few factors that might have immediate relevance to
us. They are as follows.
i) The psycho-social barriers that people place between themselves and efforts at change: We have
traditions that we cherish and therefore, we do not wish to change them.
ii) The element of inertia among the staff, the administration and the community: Many, for
example, are happy with the current institutional setup as a bureaucracy.
iii) As a consequence of item (i) above, the belief that things do not need to be changed. For
instance, some of us still feel that the present system of education caters adequately to the changing
needs of the society and all that it requires is a 'facelift', i.e., that is to be maintained. As a corollary,
we may feel that a change being suggested is unwise and will thus be unproductive.
iv) By and large, the indifference of the teaching community and its lack of effort in staying abreast
of the knowledge explosion which might require a change in role-domains: More often than not,
it views new curricular programmes as requiring it to learn new skills in interpersonal relations,
acquire new competencies in curriculum development, etc.
v) The rapidity of change: Many feel that if something is implemented one year, it will most likely
be discarded when another innovation appears. As a result they become information and action
shy.
vi) Lack of knowledge: Some either do not know ahout the innovation at all or have little
information about it.
vii) Lack of incentive: Many seem to resist change because they feel they do not get incentives
worth their efforts, i.e., financial/temporal support, etc. The two main causes-factors for the
resistance to change:
i j psycho-social attitudes; and
ii) little reward for being an innovator in education.
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Stufflebeam (1971) considers evaluation a continuous process and suggests that four types of
decisions are required in evaluation efforts. The four types are: planning decisions; structuring
decisions; implementing decisions; and recycling decisions.
Corresponding to these decision types there are four types of evaluation: context, input, process
and product
Context evaluation: It involves studying the environment in which we run the curriculum.
Stufflebeam maintains that context evaluation is the most basic type of activity that provides a
rationale for determining objectives. It helps us define the relevant environment; portray the
desired conditions pertaining to that environment; focus on unmet needs and missed opportunities;
and diagnose the reason for unmet needs. It should suggest that context evaluation is not a onetime activity. It continues to furnish baseline information regarding the operations and
accomplishments of the total system.
Input evaluation: The purpose of this stage is to provide information for determining how to
utilize resources to meet curriculum goals. At this stage we evaluate alternative designs in terms
of how they will contribute to the attainment of objectives stated and in terms of their demands
upon resources, time and budget. We should consider them in the light of their procedural
feasibility. In contrast to context evaluation, input evaluation is ad hoc and micro-analytic. It
evaluates specific aspects or components of the curriculum plan.
Process evaluation: This stage addresses curriculum implementation decisions that control and
manage the plan or curriculum. Through process evaluation, we can determine the level of
congruency between the planned and actual activities. Stufflebeam (1988) presents the following
three main strategies for process evaluation:
i) to detect or predict defects in the procedural design or its implementation during the diffusion
stages. In dealing with plan or curriculum defects, we should identify and monitor continually the
potential sources for the failure of the curriculum. The sources may be logistical, financial, etc.;
ii) to provide information for curriculum decisions. Here we should make decisions regarding test
development prior to the actual implementation of the curriculum. Some decisions may require
that certain in-service activities be planned and carried out before the actual implementation of the
curriculum; and'.
iii) to maintain a record of procedure's as they occur. It addresses the main features of ihe project
design, for example, the particular content selected, the instructional strategies planned or the time
allotted in the plan for such activities.
As process evaluation occurs during the production stage of the curriculum, it helps us anticipate
and overcome procedural difficulties and to make preprogrammed decisions.
Product evaluation: It helps us determine whether the final curriculum product in use
accomplishes the intended goals. Depending on the data collected, we can decide whether to
continue, terminate or modify a curriculum
CONCLUSION
How a curriculum is planned poses itself as one of the most important factors that predetermines
the success and effect of curricular implementation. Curriculum planning and instruction are
closely connected to each other, and so are the curriculum planning and outcomes. In order to
achieve satisfactory outcomes, the issue as to what the essence of “curriculum” is about should be
clarified before any curricular endeavors, such as curriculum planning, implementation, and even
evaluations, are attempted.
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