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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
Original Article
OPEN ACCESS
A new variant of endemic pemphigus foliaceus in
El-Bagre, Colombia: the Hardy-Weinberg-Castle law and
linked short tandem repeats
Ana María Abreu Velez, MD, Ph.D a,
a
Edinson Villa Robles, MDb , Michael S. Howard, MDa
Georgia Dermatopathology Associates, Atlanta, GA, USA.
b
CES Physician, Medellin, Colombia.
Citation: Abreu Velez AM, Robles EV, Howard MS. A new variant of endemic pemphigus foliaceus in EL-Bagre,
Colombia: the Hardy-Weinberg-Castle law and linked short tandem repeats. North Am J Med Sci 2009; 1: 169-179.
doi: 10.4297/najms.2009.4169
Availability: www.najms.org
ISSN: 1947 – 2714
Abstract
Background: We reported a new variant of endemic pemphigus foliaceus in El Bagre, Colombia. Aims: Our study
performed Complex Segregation Analysis (CSA) and short tandem repeats to discriminate between environmental
and/or genetic factors in this disorder. Materials and Methods: The CSA analysis was carried out according to the
unified model, implemented using the transmission probabilities implemented in the computer program POINTER,
and evaluated by using a software package for population genetic data analysis (GDA), Arlequin. We performed
pedigree analyses by using Cyrillic 2.1 software, with a total of 30 families with 50 probands (47 males and 3
females) tested. In parallel to the CSA, we tested for the presence of short tandem repeats from HLA class II, DQ
alpha 1, involving the gene locus D6S291 by using the Hardy-Weinberg- Castle law. Results: Our results indicate
that the best model of inheritance in this disease is a mixed model, with multifactorial effects within a recessive
genotype. Two types of possible segregation patterns were found; one with strong recessive penetrance in families
whose phenotype is more Amerindian-like, and another of possible somatic mutations. Conclusion: The penetrance of
10% or less in female patients 60 years of age or older indicates that hormones could protect younger females. The greatest
risk factor for men being affected by the disorder was the NN genotype. These findings are only possible due to somatic
mutations, and/or strong environmental effects. We also found a protective role for two genetic loci (D6S1019 AND D6S439)
in the control group.
Keywords: Endemic pemphigus foliaceus, short tandem repeats (STRs), complex segregation analysis (CSA)
Correspondence to: Ana María Abreu-Velez, MD, Ph.D, Georgia Dermatopathology Associates, 1534 North Decatur Road,
NE; Suite 206, Atlanta, GA 30307-1000, USA. Tel.: (404) 3710027. E-mail: abreuvelez@yahoo.com
are found not only in patients, but also often in relatives
of the patients [1-4]. The autoantibodies are less
commonly observed in healthy people living within the
endemic regions [1-6]. Few genetic studies have been
performed in the patients affected by endemic pemphigus
foliaceus.
Introduction
Endemic pemphigus foliaceus (EPF) represents a
geographically restricted, autoimmune disease occurring
in South, in Central America, and in Tunisia, Africa [1-5].
The Brazilian form, known as fogo selvagem (FS),
predominantly affects young people; both sexes are
equally affected. In this disorder, many cases present a
genotype clustered within families; and autoantibodies
The major histocompatibility complex, class II, DQ alpha
1 (HLA-II), also known as HLA-DQA1, is a human gene
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
present on the short arm of chromosome 6 (6p21.3) and
also denotes the genetic locus which contains this gene
[7]. The protein encoded by this gene is one of two
proteins that are required to form the DQ heterodimer, a
cell surface receptor essential to the function of the
immune system [7]. HLA-DQA1 belongs to the HLA
class II alpha chain paralogues. The class II molecule is a
heterodimer consisting of an alpha (DQA) and a beta
chain (DQB), both anchored in the membrane [7]. It
plays a central role in the immune system by presenting
peptides derived from extracellular proteins [7]. Class II
molecules are expressed in antigen-presenting cells
(APCs), B lymphocytes, dendritic cells and macrophages
[7]. The alpha chain contains 5 exons. Exon one encodes
the leader peptide, exons 2 and 3 encode the two
extracellular protein domains, exon 4 encodes the
transmembrane domain and the cytoplasmic tail [7].
Within the DQ molecule, both the alpha chain and the
beta chain contain polymorphisms specifying the peptide
binding specificities, resulting in up to 4 different
molecules [7].
factors in this disorder. We performed pedigrees, and
utilized other genetic tools to further ascertain a possible
model(s) of inheritance for the El Bagre-EPF. We took
into consideration variables such as age, sex, and that the
population of Colombia is an admixture of Caucasoid,
Negroid and Mongoloid peoples in our analysis [18].
Thus, we: performed the pedigrees, created a DNA
repository, searched for a possible major gene, and
applied a unified model of complex segregation analysis
and using the Genetic Data Analysis (GDA) and Arlequin
analysis programs [18-26]. In parallel, based on the
documented findings that down-regulated human
leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I expression is 1)
frequently correlated with allelic loss at 6p21.3 (the
location of the HLA coding sequence) and 2) is further
associated with several microsatellite rich regions
spanning the 4 megabase HLA region, we tested for
selected short tandems repeat loci. Our purpose was to
find either linkage disequilibrium, and/or possibly a
direct contributory gene (s) relevant to the development
of clinical El Bagre-EPF [18-26].
Selected previous studies had addressed the role of HLA
class II alleles in fogo selvagem, suggesting a locus of
major predisposition genes; although contradictory
reports also exist [8-13]. Other previous studies in
endemic pemphigus foliaceus addressed the possible
polymorphism of one of the most common auto antigens
in EPF, namely the desmoglein 1 (Dsg1) gene, and its
interaction in an epistatic manner with the major
histocompatibility complex class II genes [14, 15].
Regrettably, these studies have also demonstrated
contradictory findings [14, 15]. We described a new
variant of endemic pemphigus occurring in a mining
town in northeastern Colombia in the El Bagre area (El
Bagre-EPF). We had performed an 11-year prospective,
controlled
epidemiologic,
humanitarian,
and
immunologic fieldwork case-control survey [16-17].
The disease appeared in 4.7% of middle-aged and older
men and postmenopausal women from these rural areas
[16-17]. The disease differs from previously described
forms of endemic pemphigus foliaceus. El Bagre-EPF
shares some heterogeneous immunoreactivity with
paraneoplastic pemphigus, but is not associated with
malignant tumors [16-17]. The disease resembles
Senear-Usher syndrome (i.e., pemphigus and lupus), but
occurs endemically. El Bagre-EPF manifests either as 1)
a localized form (clinically and immunologically stable),
or 2) as a more florid form, where systemic compromise
seems to occur. The systemic form may affect organs
other than skin, and is characterized by episodic relapses
and poor prognosis in comparison with the localized form
[16-17]. Heterogeneous antigenic reactivity is observed
as in paraneoplastic pemphigus, but with no evidence of
association with neoplasia. In addition, constant
exogenous antigenic stimulation and a genetic
predisposition may be required in the pathogenesis of this
disease [16-17]. Thus, the objective of this study was to
perform complex segregation analysis (CSA) and
associated short tandems repeat (STR), studies to
discriminate between genetic and/or environmental
Materials and Methods
Samples and controls for the genetic study: An active
search was performed of El Bagre population data
collected during the 1992-2001 period. Patients that
fulfilled the clinical and immunologic criteria for a
diagnosis of El Bagre-EPF were included in this study [16,
17]. We randomly selected 33 cases from this pool,
according to a sequential sampling strategy. In addition,
we selected 33 healthy controls from the endemic area
(CEAs) including some relatives of the affected patients,
matched to the affected patients by age, sex, working
activity and living area [16,17].
Subjects of study and obtaining the original clinical
and laboratory data: We studied 50 patients who fulfilled
the diagnosis of El Bagre-EPF as described by us (16, 17],
and 50 controls from the endemic area matched by age,
sex living and working conditions. All patient consents
were obtained, as well as Institutional Review Board (IRB)
permission. We tested a total of 30 families with 50
probands (50 El Bagre-EPF patients; 47 males and 3
females) and tested for the presence of positive
intercellular staining between the keratinocytes by direct
immunofluorescence and by indirect immunofluorescence
[16, 17]. The El Bagre-EPF cases included those who
fulfilled the clinical phenotype, epidemiological and
immunological criteria. To qualify as a case of El
Bagre-EPF, a patient’s sera was required to
immunoprecipitate a Con-A affinity purified bovine tryptic
fragment of pemphigus foliaceus antigen, as previously
described [16,17]. In addition to the above-mentioned
criteria, the sera of the subjects of the study were also
tested by immunoblotting (IB) for reactivity against Dsg1,
as well as other antigens including plakins by ELISA
testing. The El Bagre-EPF cases were required to
recognize desmoglein 1 and or other plakins molecules by
immunoblotting [16, 17]. The sera of some patients
affected by fogo selvagem from Brazil, two sera from
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
cases of sporadic pemphigus foliaceus and healthy subject
sera from the USA were used as controls.
into consideration the population's effective size,
heterozygosity levels, and inbreeding coefficients for
particular individuals [25-28].We utilized a “pointer”
individual (a disease proband, defined as a relative of
extreme phenotype). The pedigrees and data were analyzed
using the genetics data analysis Arlequin and Cyrillic
software systems [18-26, 27-31]. The unified model
allowed the underlying liability for El Bagre-EPF to be
separated into three independent components: a diallelic
single major gene locus component, a polygenic
background component, and a random environmental
component.
Notations,
assumptions,
ascertainment,
and
parameters
the
Hardy–Weinberg-Castle
law:
Mendelian genetics were rediscovered in 1900. However,
it remained somewhat controversial for several years as it
was not then known how the model could account for
continuous characteristics. Udny Yule argued against
Mendelism because he thought that dominant alleles
would increase in the population [27]. William E. Castle,
[28] showed that without selection, the genotype
frequencies would remain stable. Karl Pearson, [29]
found one equilibrium position with values of p = q = 0.5.
The Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law greatly advanced the
genetics field [30, 31]. The basis of the principle follows:
Suppose that Aa is a pair of mendelian characters, A being
dominant, and that in any given generation the number of
pure dominants (AA), heterozygotes (Aa), and pure
recessives (aa) are as p:2q:r. Also, suppose that the
numbers of individuals are large, so that mating may be
regarded as random, that the sexes are evenly distributed
among the three varieties, and that all are equally fertile.
Thus, in the next generation, the numbers will be as
(p+q)2 :2(p+q) (q+r) :( q+r)2, or as p1:2q1:r1. The
interesting question is —in what circumstances will this
distribution be the same as that in the generation before? It
is easy to see that the condition for this is q2 = pr. And
since q12 = p1r1, whatever the values of p, q, and r may be,
the distribution would continue unchanged after the
second generation. No natural population can meet all
the requirements for a Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law
[29-31]. The Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law states that both
allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain
constant—that is, they are in equilibrium—from
generation to generation, unless specific disturbing
influences are introduced. Those disturbing influences
include non-random mating, mutations, selection, limited
population size, random genetic drift and gene flow
[29-31]. The Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law equilibrium is
impossible in nature. Genetic equilibrium is an ideal state
that provides a baseline to measure genetic change. Static
allele frequencies in a population across generations
assume: 1) random mating, 2) no mutation (the alleles
don't change), 3) no migration or emigration (no exchange
of alleles between populations), 4) infinitely large
population size, and 5) no selective pressure for or against
any traits [29-31].
Complex segregation analysis (CSA): A total of 30
families with 50 probands (50 El Bagre-EPF patients) (47
males and 3 females) were ascertained and the complex
segregation analysis was carried out, with the aim to
determine the real value of the genetic component versus
the environmental component (s). This was performed
according to the unified model of Lalouel et al, 1981
[18-26]. The ascertainment probability was calculated
according to Simpson's method for each set of pedigrees in
each syndromic group according to the equation a
(a-1)/a(r-1) where a, number of probands and r, total
number of affected. The model partitions the total
variation in the underlying liability to El Bagre-EPF into
three independent components: a diallelic single major
locus component, a polygenic background, and a random
environmental component [18-26].
Genetic linkage, linkage mapping and linkage
disequilibrium: The amount of crossing over between
different linked genes led to the concept that crossover
frequency might indicate the distance separating genes on
the chromosome [32, 33]. Therefore a genetic map, also
called a linkage map, was created based on the fact that
the greater the distance between linked genes, the greater
the chance that non-sister chromatids would cross over in
the region between the genes [32, 33]. By working out the
number of recombinants it is possible to obtain a measure
for the distance between the genes [32, 33]. This distance
is called a genetic map unit (m.u.) or a centimorgan and is
defined as the distance between genes for which one
product of meiosis in 100 is recombinant [32, 33]. A
recombinant frequency (RF) of 1 % is equivalent to 1 m.u.
A linkage map is created by finding the map distances
between a number of traits that are present on the same
chromosome, ideally avoiding having significant gaps
between traits (to avoid the inaccuracies that will occur
due to the possibility of multiple recombination events)
[32, 33]. Linkage mapping is critical for identifying the
location of genes that cause genetic diseases. In an ideal
population, genetic traits and markers will occur in all
possible combinations, with the frequencies of
combinations determined by the frequencies of the
individual genes. For example, if alleles A and a occur
with respective frequencies of 90% and 10%, and alleles B
and b at a different genetic locus occur with respective
frequencies 70% and 30%, the frequency of individuals
having the combination AB would be 63%, the product of
the frequencies of A and B, regardless of how close
In the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles: the
dominant allele is denoted A and the recessive a and their
frequencies are denoted by p and q; freq (A) = p; freq
(a) = q; p + q = 1. If the population is in equilibrium, then
we will have freq (AA) = p2 for the AA homozygotes in
the population, freq (aa) = q2 for the aa homozygotes, and
freq (Aa) = 2pq for the heterozygotes. Based on these
equations,
we
can
determine
useful
but
difficult-to-measure facts about a population. The
Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law could be used to work
backward from disease occurrence to the frequency of
heterozygous recessive individuals. [30,31]. Thus, we took
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
together the genes are. However, if a mutation in gene B
that causes a disease happened recently in a particular
subpopulation, it almost always occurs within a particular
allele of the gene, [32, 33]. assuming, that the individual in
which the mutation occurred in fact had that variant of
gene B, and there have not been sufficient generations for
recombination to happen between the alleles (presumably
due to tight linkage on the genetic map) [32, 33]. In this
case, called linkage disequilibrium, it is possible to search
potential markers in the subpopulation, and identify which
marker the mutation is close to, thus determining the
mutation's location on the map, and identifying the gene at
which the mutation occurred [32,33].
analyzed and exported as a text file for subsequent
analyses. The PCR products for each allele were further
characterized using a 6% SDS polyacrylamide denaturing
gel and silver staining techniques.
Statistical evaluation: Medical software for Windows, as
well as the POINTER and PRISM GRAPH PAD programs
was utilized for statistical analysis.
Results
We performed our study by first examining 50 El
Bagre-EPF patients and 30 extended members of their
families, and building multigenerational clinical pedigrees.
We then tested 50 controls matched by age, sex and work
occupation from the endemic area, and 50 disease
probands (El Bagre-EPF patients; 47 males and 3 females)
(π=0.76).
We also utilized genealogical data from
several kindreds, displaying a strong aggregation in
families affected by El Bagre-EPF; the average siblingship
size in these families was 5.3.
Family haplotype analysis: Haplotypes were constructed
through the application of the Cyrillic pedigree data
program and by visual inspection, utilizing the minimum
number of recombination events observed in each family.
At each marker locus, an ancestral allele was defined as
that allele occurring in the greatest frequency in the
affected cohort compared with the unaffected cohort. The
assumed ancestral haplotype, presumed to carry the
disease mutation, was then constructed using these alleles
[18, 26].
In Table 1, the complex segregation analysis of our data is
shown. Fifteen hypothetical models were evaluated using
the likelihood ratio test, and likelihood values for each
comparison were examined using the Chi squared (χ2) test.
Parameter estimates corresponding to maximum likelihood
models under each set of constraints are shown for each
model. In the process, 50 probands (47 males and 3
females), and 31 extended and multigenerational pedigrees
were analyzed; they were manifested as 262 nuclear
components and 1642 records.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extraction: The blood
samples were collected in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA) tubes; the DNA extraction was performed using
the Gentra Puregene Blood Kit (QIAGEN, Germantown,
MD, USA) and following the manufacturer’s
recommendations. The precipitated DNA was stored at
–20°C for further amplification.
Molecular Genotyping: The analysis is performed by
extracting nuclear DNA from the cells of the subjects of
the study, and then amplifying specific polymorphic
regions of the extracted DNA by means of the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR). Once these sequences had been
amplified, they were resolved either through gel
electrophoresis and/or capillary electrophoresis, which
allowed determination of how many repeats of the short
tandems repeat sequence were present. We specifically
study the microsatellite loci neighboring the major
histocompatibility complex region on the 6p chromosome,
namely D6S276, D6S265, D6S273 and D6S291. These
regions were amplified by PCR using fluorescently labeled
primers specific for each locus. The PCR procedures were
carried out in 10 μl reactions, containing 30 ng of genomic
DNA, 1 X PCR reaction and 5 picomol of each primer. An
initial denaturation was performed at 95 °C for 2 min, and
then the reaction mix was amplified for 30 cycles using
the following conditions: 1 min 94 °C denaturation, 1 min
56–58 °C annealing, 1 min 72 °C extension and a final 5
min 72 °C extension. The PCR products were denatured at
95°C for 5 min and placed on ice. Then, they were
electrophoresed according to the manufacturer's protocols
on an ABI-PRISM 310 Genetic Analyzer (Perkin-Elmer)
system. The PCR products were identified by their
molecular weights relative to standardized markers.
Detection of fluorescent products was performed
automatically using GeneScan 2.1 software and the data
Based on the fact that transmission probabilities are not
correctly implemented in the computer program
POINTER, we then chose another 17 affected individuals
pointed out by the probands (16 males and 1 female)
(π=0.6531) for correction.
Our results indicate that the best model for this disease is
that of a mixed model (Table 1) with strong multifactorial
effects. Our study revealed more than 81% phenotypic
variance, and a low major gene effect (approximately 19%)
(Table 1). Although the effect of a major gene epistatic
influence in the predisposition to this disease can not be
rejected, its contribution to the phenotypic variance is
weak. The major gene effect is demonstrated in the
approximately 50% of the men from the 2, 3 and 4
susceptibility classes belonging to heterozygote genotypes,
with an actual risk close to 50% (Table 1).
The comparison among the hypotheses of 1) multifactor
component only and 2) that of the existence of a major
gene only (i.e., a comparison between model 2 and model
7) did not show significant differences, although the value
of p was close to 0.05 (χ22 DF = 5.94, p > 0.05). Among
the models postulating a major gene effect only, the
iteration of the t2 parameter of the general model (i.e.,
model 7 vs. model 8) showed significant differences (χ21
DF = 4.44, p < 0.05). It is important to observe that each
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
of the mixed major gene models (i.e., models 9, 10 and 11)
showed a significant better fit than models assuming the
presence of only one major gene. Moreover, it was
impossible to determine significant differences among the
mixed models (Table 1). Also, the values of t (representing
the standard deviations among the homozygotes AA and
aa) were lower than 0.5, indicating an admixture of
distributions as a consequence of the polygenic component.
The model postulating no polygenic component in the
mixed model was rejected (χ21 DF = 5.55, p <0.05). The
model postulating the non-existence of a major gene
component in the mixed model could not be rejected (i.e.,
comparison of models 2 and 12) (χ23df = 0.39, p>0.05).
There were also no significant differences in the fitting of
the general model when t2 (in the major gene component)
and Z (in the polygenic component) parameters were not
restricted. The model of no transmission of major effect
was rejected (χ23df = 38.7, p <0.0001) (Table 1)
Table 1 Models of Complex Segregation Analysis in multiple, hypothetical disease modes of inheritance (left column) are
displayed.
Hypothesis
No Trasmission
(aleatory or sporadic (q=H=O)
Multifactor
No cohort effect
Major Locus
Dominant
Codominant
Recessive
Unrestricted d
Unrestricted d and t2
Mixed Model
Dominant
Codominant
Recessive
Unrestricted d
Unrestricted d and t2
Unrestricted d and Z
No Transmission of Major Effect
(t's equal)
(d)
0
(t)
0
(q)
0
(h)
0
(z)
1
(t1)
(t2)
(t3)
2ln(L)+C
259.54
0
0
0
0.81
1
1
0.5
0
0.54
0.65
1.9
3.7
3.5
3.4
2.6
0.0096
0.0165
0.1905
0.0172
0.0108
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
217.36
216.53
224.32
216.45
212.01
1
0.5
0
0.38
0.72
0.19
0.54
2x10-5
3x10-5
0.46
2x10-5
0.9279
5.563
3.4
0.0078
0.0067
0.4630
0.0084
0.0303
0.0067
0.0172
0.81
0.79
0.65
0.81
0.59
0.76
0
1
1
1
1
1
0.98
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.983
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
0
0.5
0.983
0
0
210.90
210.90
209.09
210.90
208.41
214.31
255.15
210.51
0
0
0
0.983
In the women, the major gene effect is represented exclusively by the heterozygote genotype (with a theoretical risk of
100% representing the probability that new cases will be the fruit of new somatic mutations or environmentally induced),
and is close to 0% (Table2). The presence of female hormones was noted as a possible protective factor in the development
of this disease. The hypothesis of no familial transmission of El Bagre-EPF in these families was rejected (χ25 DF = 48.64,
p < 0.0001) (Table 1)
Table 2 Summarizes the classes of disease susceptibility according to sex and age at disease onset, and respective
correlation of death probabilities (nqx).
Cumulative incidence
nqx
Corrected Cumulative Incidence ( nqx)
Sex
Class
Age
M
M
M
1
2
3
0-19
20-39
40-59
0.00000
0.00633
0.01191
0.009
0.020
0.067
0.00001
0.00621
0.01112
M
F
F
F
F
4
1
2
3
4
60 >
0-19
20-39
40-59
60 >
0.01453
0.00000
0.00040
0.00076
0.00093
0.316
0.004
0.009
0.048
0.267
0.00994
0.00001
0.00040
0.00072
0.00068
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
Table 3 Shows that the onset age of the disease does not comprise individuals younger than age 20, and most of the
affected individuals (approximately 80%) are between 20 and 60 years of age, with a mean age of 45. In females, the
age onset of the disease is within the post-menopausal period (i.e., 45 to 50 years).
Table 3 Correction of onset by age
Liability
Class
(years)
0-9
Cumulative
incidence
distribution
0.00083
Probability of
dying (nqx)
Colombian M
0.00337
Probability of
dying (nqx)
Colombian F
0.00236
Average probability
of dying (nqx)
Cumulative incidence
distribution *
0.002865
0.0008276
10-19
0.00333
0.00809
0.00321
0.005650
0.0033111
20-29
0.00666
0.01944
0.00580
0.012260
0.0065780
30-39
0.00916
0.01929
0.00866
0.013975
0.0090320
40-49
0.00916
0.03084
0.01994
0.025390
0.0089270
50-59
0.00916
0.06659
0.04766
0.057125
0.0086370
60-69
0.00916
0.15426
0.11610
0.135350
0.0079200
70+
0.01000
0.31551
0.26687
0.291190
0.0070880
*: corrected by mortality; M: male; F: female.
Table 4 provides information on Complex Segregation Analysis performed in our study, with total number of subjects,
sexes, probands, and endemic area controls documented.
Total number of
genealogies (30)
Total number of
affected probands
males (31)
Total number of nuclear
families (262)
Total number of affected
probands females (2)
Total number of
individuals (1642)
Total number of non
affected probands males
(17)
Total number of affected/non
affected probands (33/17)
Total number of non affected
probands females (1)
Table 5 summarizes both the linkage disequilibrium analyses and expected Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law genotype
proportions, for both the El Bagre-EPF patients and the controls.
D6S1019
D6S439
D6S272
D6S291
D6S1019
0.199
0.499
0.04
0.283
D6S1019
D6S439
D6S272
D6S291
D6S1019
0.144
0.0015
0.363
0.448
CONTROLS
D6S439
D6S272
D6S291
0.582
0.301
0.661
EL BAGRE EPF
0.137
0.122
0.414
D6S439
D6S272
D6S291
0.18
0.851
0.794
0.45
0.59
0.039
Table 6 Markers detected in people affected by El Bagre-EPF and by controls from the endemic area matched by age, sex,
and living activities.
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El
Bagre-E
PF
CODE
EPF 1
EPF 2
EPF 3
EPF 6
EPF 7
EPF 9
EPF 10
EPF 11
EPF 12
EPF 13
EPF 14
EPF 15
EPF 16
EPF 17
EPF 18
EPF 22
EPF 26
EPF 29
EPF 34
EPF 38
EPF 66
EPF 68
EPF 69
EPF 70
EPF 71
EPF 74
EPF 75
EPF 76
EPF 88
EPF 91
EPF 92
EPF 93
EPF 94
EPF 95
EPF 96
EPF 97
North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
D6S1019
D6S439
D6S272
D6S291
CONTRO
LS CODE
D6S1019
D6S439
D6S272
D6S291
222-236
222-236
222-234
234-234
212-232
224-230
212-234
232-232
222-232
234-236
222-222
210-222
210-222
230-234
210-222
222-234
222-232
212-232
232-232
210-234
234-234
232-232
222-232
222-232
222-232
228-230
212-234
212-222
234-234
222-232
212-222
222-230
212-222
212-222
212-230
212-222
280-280
280-282
272-280
280-280
280-286
278-284
280-280
272-278
282-284
280-282
276-280
280-286
278-280
278-280
272-276
276-280
280-280
278-280
282-282
286-288
278-280
284-284
282-284
280-280
280-280
282-288
280-282
280-282
278-278
280-280
280-280
278-280
276-280
280-280
280-282
280-284
180-190
188-190
172-180
180-186
180-180
186-188
180-186
180-188
180-186
180-190
182-186
180-190
188-190
180-188
180-190
180-186
188-190
180-190
180-188
180-180
180-192
180-182
180-192
172-180
172-180
172-180
174-192
180-190
180-180
180-180
180-182
172-180
180-180
180-192
180-186
180-192
202-202
200-208
202-202
202-202
202-202
204-210
200-202
206-210
202-206
202-210
202-206
202-206
202-208
198-210
202-206
202-208
202-202
200-208
202-04
200-208
200-200
202-202
200-202
204-210
204-204
202-204
204-216
204-210
206-210
202-204
204-204
202-204
200-202
204-206
202-204
200-208
102
117
118
123
124
127
128
130
133
134
135
138
139
140
142
146
147
149
150
151
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
161
181
191
192
195
197
90
212-232
222-232
212-230
232-234
212-222
220-222
222-232
212-232
222-222
222-234
212-232
212-222
222-232
226-230
212-222
222-222
222-230
210-232
212-222
212-232
212-222
222-230
212-232
222-222
228-240
222-232
212-232
212-232
210-232
212-234
212-222
212-222
222-228
222-232
280-288
278-282
280-282
280-286
278-280
280-282
N/A
280-290
280-282
N/A
276-280
278-282
278-284
278-280
278-282
278-282
272-278
280-280
280-280
278-280
280-286
280-280
N/A
280-282
272-284
280-280
282-282
280-282
280-282
276-280
280-286
280-290
272-282
280-282
172-180
176-190
172-182
188-190
172-180
182-186
N/A
180-192
180-186
186-190
180-190
180-192
190-192
180-192
180-182
186-188
182-188
180-184
176-190
172-180
182-186
180-190
182-190
180-190
180-190
180-188
176-192
172-180
180-190
178-180
172-180
180-190
186-190
180-190
202-204
206-208
204-212
200-204
204-212
204-204
202-206
202-216
200-202
206-208
198-204
202-204
202-204
202-202
204-210
210-216
200-200
198-204
198-202
204-206
204-210
204-210
208-212
202-202
200-210
202-206
200-202
204-206
202-204
204-212
202-204
204-210
204-212
200-202
Figure 1A shows the penetrance for males
(affection/genotype by sex) in people affected by El
Bagre-EPF. B. Shows the penetrance for males
(affection/genotype by sex) in people affected by El
Bagre-EPF. C. Shows the risk for males for developing El
Bagre-EPF (affection/genotype by sex). D. Shows the risk
for
females
for
developing
El
Bagre-EPF
(affection/genotype by sex).
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
in this way are said to be linked, and are referred to as
"linkage groups." For example, in fruit flies the genes
affecting eye color and wing length are inherited together
because they appear on the same chromosome. But in
many cases, even genes on the same chromosome that are
inherited together produce offspring with unexpected
allele combinations [31, 32]. These events result from the
process of crossing over. Our results point to possible
crossing-over in our population. At the beginning of
normal meiosis, a chromosome pair (made up of a
chromosome from the mother and a chromosome from the
father) intertwines and exchange sections or fragments of
chromosome [31, 32]. The pair then breaks apart to form
two chromosomes, with a new combination of genes that
differs from the combination supplied by the parents.
Through this process of recombining genes, organisms can
produce offspring with new combinations of maternal and
paternal traits that may contribute to or enhance survival
[31, 32].
Discussion
The objective of this study was to perform complex
segregation analysis (CSA) and associated short tandems
repeat (STR), studies to discriminate between genetic
and/or environmental factors in patients affected by a new
variant of endemic pemphigus foliaceus in El Bagre,
Colombia, South America.
We performed pedigrees and utilized other genetic tools to
further ascertain a possible model(s) of inheritance for the
El Bagre-EPF.
In this study we also used linkage disequilibrium to try to
search potential markers in the subpopulation affected by a
new variant of endemic pemphigus foliaceus in El Bagre,
and try to identify which marker any such mutation is
close to (thus determining the mutation's location on the
genetic map and identifying the gene at which the
mutation occurred).
We were unable to locate a
particular gene on a chromosome (gene locus) at this time.
However, by using genetic linkage (that occurs when
particular genetic loci or alleles for genes are inherited
jointly) we were able to determine some degree of genetic
linkage.
Our complex segregation analyses constitute initial steps
to address the disease susceptibility inheritance of people
affected by this new variant of El Bagre-EPF. Specifically,
the effect of a major gene submitted to epistatic influences
in the predisposition to this disease cannot be rejected, and
its contribution to the phenotype variance was found to be
weak. The major gene effect is represented in the
approximately 50% of the men from the 2, 3 and 4
susceptibility classes belonging to heterozygote genotype,
and with a risk close to 50%.
Our findings constitute a preliminary basis for further
genetic molecular studies, based on the fact that genetic
loci on the same chromosome are physically connected
and tend to stay together during meiosis, and are thus
genetically linked, i.e., autosomal linkage [31, 32]. Alleles
for genes on different chromosomes are usually not linked,
due to independent assortment of chromosomes during
meiosis. Because there is some crossing over of DNA
when the chromosomes segregate, alleles on the same
chromosome can be separated and go to different daughter
cells [31, 32]. In this variant of El Bagre-EPF, there is a
greater probability of such separation if the alleles are far
apart on the chromosome, and more likely that a
cross-over will occur between them. The relative distance
between two genes can be calculated using the offspring of
an organism showing two linked genetic traits, and finding
the percentage of the offspring where the two traits do not
run together [31,32]. The higher the percentage of
descendants that do not show both traits, the farther apart
on the chromosome the two genes must be [31, 32].
Thus far, the most parsimonious model is that of a mixed
model with strong multifactorial effects (polygenes,
mercury, metals, metalloids, tropical disease agent(s),
ultraviolet radiation and other environmental effects, plus
a lack of female hormones; more than 81% of the
phenotypic variance) and a low major gene effect
(approximately 19%). Although the effects of the major
gene on the mixed model are very low, its existence is
evidenced in rejecting the “non-existence of major gene
effect” hypothesis and observing the existence of epistatic
effects which were detected when the t2 parameter was
iterated. The effect of a major gene submitted to epistatic
influence in the predisposition to this disease can not be
rejected; however, its contribution to the phenotypic
variance is weak. The major gene effect is represented in
approximately 50% of the men from the 2, 3 and 4
susceptibility classes belonging to heterozygote genotype
and with a risk close to the 50%. In the women, the major
effect is represented exclusively by the heterozygote
genotype and with a risk of 100%, with the probability that
new cases will be the fruit of new somatic mutations or
environmentally induced close to 0%.
Among individuals of an experimental population or
species, some phenotypes or traits occur randomly with
respect to one another in a manner known as independent
assortment. Today, scientists understand that independent
assortment occurs when the genes affecting the
phenotypes are found on different chromosomes or
separated by a great enough distance on the same
chromosome that recombination occurs at least half of the
time [31, 32]. An exception to independent assortment
develops when genes appear near one another on the same
chromosome.
One socioeconomic issue that should be accounted for in
the etiopathogenesis of El Bagre-EPF is the practice of
inbreeding in the families of Amerindian origin, due to
difficulty of travel and other social aspects of possessing
the disease itself [29-32]. Our hypothesis regarding such
possible inbreeding practices is evidenced by 1) the
malodor that characterize some open blisters of the
When genes occur on the same chromosome, they are
usually inherited as a single unit [31, 32]. Genes inherited
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North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2009 September, Volume 1. No. 4.
affected patients; 2) several ancestral Amerindian tribes
(such as the Zenues and Embera-Catios) that have
historically lived in closed communities, and practiced
interracial outbreeding. Of note, in reviewing pedigrees of
individual patients whose facial and anthropologic features
most closely resembled the Amerindians, we detected 5
affected males in one family of 7 individuals. In contrast,
on review of pedigrees from affected individuals who had
lived briefly in the endemic area, the only individuals
affected were indeed the probands.
Other studies in fogo selvagem with Brazilian Mestizos
and with Xavante and Terena Indians indicate the
possibility that some human leukocyte antigen alleles
confer increased risk for endemic pemphigus disease. In
fogo selvagem, family cases are frequent and not everyone
living in endemic region develops this disease, suggesting
that host factors play a role in determining whether
exposed individuals will be affected. Other authors’
previous work with Brazilian Mestizos and with Xavante
and Terena Indians indicate the possibility that some HLA
alleles confer increased risk for endemic pemphigus
disease. Many studies have been performed in order to try
to correlate the HLA system with the pemphigus disease
Many pedigrees represented an intermediate presentation
between these extremes. Given these findings, we
believe that additional community-based studies may be
more useful if those studies are include the presence of
autoantibodies to El Bagre-EPF antigens, in
contradistinction to strictly physical phenotypic data. We
base our recommendation on the high rate of
autoantibodies found by us, and reported by others in
relatives of patients affected by endemic pemphigus
foliaceus [16, 17].
A short tandem repeat in DNA occurs when a pattern of
two or more nucleotides are repeated and the repeated
sequences are directly adjacent to each other. The pattern
can range in length from 2 to 10 base pairs (bp) (for
example (CATG) n in a genomic region) and is typically
in the non-coding intron region. By identifying repeats
of specific sequences, it is possible to create a genetic
profile of an individual. There are currently over 10,000
published short tandem repeat sequences in the human
genome, because short tandem repeat analysis has become
the prevalent analysis method for determining genetic
profiles. In our study of El Bagre-EPF patients, the
application of the Hardy–Weinberg-Castle law to short
tandem repeats from HLA II favors the locus D6S291 for
disease susceptibility, and suggests a protective role for
loci D6S1019 and D6S439 in our controls (matched by sex,
age, living and working conditions) from the endemic area.
Based on the medical literature regarding HLA loci, it is
likely that in El Bagre-EPF, the HLA region exerts an
epistatic effect over multiple autoimmune control genes.
In regards of the short tandems repeats and to the genome
per se, and our wide linkage analyses had identified a
locus encoding susceptibility to El Bagre-EPF, and placed
this gene between in the 12 cM interval between markers
D6S426 and D6S276 on chromosome 6p21.3;. This area
represents a broad region, encompassing the human
leukocyte antigen complex [7]. There are 4 commonly
encountered DQA1 alleles: DQA1*0101, *0102, *0103,
*0104. These alleles are always found in haplotypes with
HLA-DQB1*05 (DQ5) and HLA-DQB1*06 (DQ6). DQ1
is a serotype, rare among serotypes for human class II
antigens, in that the antibodies to DQ1 react to the alpha
chain of HLA DQ, these DQA1 allele gene products [7].
The other DQA1 alleles have no defined serotype. There
are 5 groups, DQA1*02, *03, *04, *05, *06. DQA1 within
these groups are either invariant or produce the same
α-chain subunit. DQA1*02 and DQA1*06 contain only
one allele. DQA1*03 has three alleles which each produce
nearly identical α3. For DQA1*05, the DQA1*0501 and
DQA1*0505 produce identical α5. Other DQA1*05 exist
that produce variant α5var, but these are rare [7]. We have
sought to localize the susceptibility gene more precisely
by exploiting linkage, haplotype, and linkage
disequilibrium information available through genotyping.
Conclusions
Our results suggest that other linked genes and/or
environmental factors should play a facilitating role in the
outbreak of endemic pemphigus foliaceus. Thus, our final
question is what social and environmental features might
fogo selvagem patients and El Bagre-EPF patients have in
common? First, we suggest an increase in population
intermarriage (due to religious beliefs, and/or geographic
isolation) compared to other human populations. Secondly,
it is likely that in both El Bagre-EPF and in fogo selvagem
an association may exist with ambient pesticides, selected
ambient elements, electrically charged molecules and/or
other tropical diseases,, raising the host’s susceptibility to
somatic mutations.
Pemphigus vulgaris is reported to be associated with HLA
DR4 and/or DR6, and some studies in patients affected by
pemphigus vulgaris pointed to a possible common
ancestral origin for disease susceptibility [33]. Pemphigus
vulgaris is reported to be associated with human leukocyte
antigen DR4 and/or DR6 whereas few data are available
on pemphigus foliaceus, including fogo selvagem, which
is reported to be associated with DR1 and DR4.
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