PHYS 352 What the Course is About Overview of Measurement Systems Transducer Characteristics Learning Objectives core “unique” engineering physics course measurement, instrumentation → transducers general characteristics of transducers survey of different types of transducers for a variety of purposes experiment (engineering) design noise, amplifiers, filters, data acquisition, (digital) signal processing radiation detectors, radiation safety, nuclear instrumentation and analytical techniques exposure to MATLAB and LabView in the laboratory physicists and engineers want to learn how to design measurement systems in order to, for example: to build better experiments to design control systems (always involves measurement) 1 More Learning Objectives you tell me what you want to learn from this course – send me an e-mail and tell me! I’m the “tour guide” I want your PHYS 455 thesis projects to not suck! we will try a case study approach to engineering design by examining past 455 thesis designs Teaching/Learning through Inquiry I’m keeping 2010 course content on the web page, like last year’s assignments and solutions. I’ll flag when NEW material is posted and/or when there are updates for 2011. That way, you will be able to and will read through material prior to coming to lecture. then, I don’t have to lecture you and I can be here to answer your questions if you don’t ask me questions…I will ask you questions 2 Measurement Systems block diagram of a measurement system physical effect e.g. amplifiers, filters transducer signal transmission line signal conditioning electronics e.g. amplifiers, filters ADC could be here signal conditioning electronics data acquisition and display analog-to-digital conversion digital signal processing noise may enter or may be present in any element of the system we will examine almost all of these aspects in this course Transducer translates a measured physical effect into a voltage or current signal with a magnitude related to the quantity being measured e.g. Hall probe, hot-wire anemometer, capacitance level probe, photodiode light meter, vacuum pressure gauge, antenna transducer specs often include the following characteristics… 3 …but first, let’s consider the familiar the liquid-in-glass thermometer as a transducer relies on thermal expansion of liquids with temperature [physical property] works between the freezing and boiling point of the liquid [range of the transducer] slow due to the thermal conductivity of glass and heat capacity of the liquid [response time] calibration done at fixed reference points; relies on thermal expansion being linear some content from Sayer Transducer Characteristics accuracy: It is the conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard, or true value. It defines the limit the errors will not exceed when the instrument is used under stated operating conditions. resolution: The smallest difference between measured values that can be discriminated. For example, it corresponds to the last stable figure on a digital display. calibration: The degree to which an instrument is known to conform to an accepted standard is termed as its calibration. Both the accuracy and reliability of an instrument depends on its construction and on how well it holds its calibration. e.g. The liquid-in-glass thermometer gives a liquid height that corresponds to the temperature. Calibration converts the liquid height measured by ticks on the glass into temperature. The thermometer may be accurately calibrated to a standard; but if the glass flows over time, the thermometer distorts and may not hold its calibration. An instrument with high resolution might make a precise measurement that is not accurate because it is poorly calibrated. 4 Characteristics cont’d repeatability: The repeatability is the agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for the same value of the input – under the same operating conditions and when approached from the same direction. reproducibility: It is known as the agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same value of the input over a period of time under the same operating conditions and when approached from either direction. hysteresis: The effect in which a measured value differs for the same value of the input if the input is applied in an increasing direction versus a decreasing direction, is called hysteresis. Hysteresis examples where it can occur magnetism mechanical coupling (static friction) gear backlash photoconductive cells “light history effect” 5 Characteristics cont'd linearity: For successive equal increments of the input, the linearity is the deviation of the plotted transducer output from a straight line. This is often defined in terms of a percentage of the maximum or full scale output. sensitivity: It is the ratio of the change in the magnitude of the output to the change in the input which caused it after the steady state has been reached. The slope of the linearity curve is the sensitivity. which is more linear? which has higher sensitivity? More on Linearity differential linearity: quantity y related to quantity x; a small increment of the effect in x gives a small increment in the response in y and if those steps are uniform, that's referred to as differential linearity (how constant is the slope?) integral linearity: is the relation of y to x over a range, typically expressed as percent of full scale independent, zero-based (fixed zero), terminal or end-point (fixes both ends) terminal independent differential linearity of an ADC 6 Transducer Characteristics cont’d noise: Noise (in the transducer) consists of signals generated within the transducer, independent of the input signal, which contribute to the output. Such signals may be intrinsic to the transducer (for example, due to thermal fluctuations of carrier concentrations in a semiconductor), or be generated by interaction with the environment (for example, by RF pickup). threshold: The minimum value for which a noticeable or measurable response is produced. A relevant consideration especially for active elements (as opposed to passive). May be related to noise characteristics of the transducer in which case it is called the… noise floor: The lower limit of what can be measured set by the noise levels of the transducer. saturation level: The maximum input level before significant non-linearities in the output appear. maximum input: The highest input signal which gives a calibrated output. This level can be set due to saturation, damage to the transducer, safety, output signal degradation. dynamic range: The ratio of the maximum input signal to the noise floor or threshold. Often reported in decibels: DR = 10 log10(Max/Min) (how it changes versus time) Dynamic Characteristics response time: it is the time interval between a change in the measured quantity and the time an instrument reads a new equilibrium value, often defined in terms of three characteristic times: dead time (tD): time during which a new signal or variation in a signal cannot be detected due to some physical characteristic of the system or the transducer example: a Geiger counter fires when a particle/radiation enters the tube and during the time the Geiger counter is producing a signal, another particle/radiation entering the tube is not observed because the counter is in the middle of responding to the first one rise time (tR): the time taken by the instrument to respond to a step change in a measured quantity, often defined as the time taken to change from 10% to 90% of the final value. settling time (tS): the time required for an instrument to attain a stable reading within a stated percentage of its equilibrium output, often taken to be the time to the first minimum of the oscillation 7 Plot of Time Response at time t = 0, the input physical quantity makes a step change output level rise time Steady-State Frequency Response of a Transducer a transducer produces a sinusoidal output (within its operating range) in response to a sinusoidal input [eventually, in steady state, after some transient response that can be ignored mostly] there will be a maximum (and often a minimum) frequency at which the transducer can respond if the input varies faster, with a higher frequency, than the transducer can respond to, the transducer output will be reduced the frequency at which the output signal is decreased to half of the nominal output is described as the “corner frequency” or the −3dB frequency bandwidth: the difference between the maximum and minimum 3dB frequencies of the transducer 8 Electrical Modelling of Transducers transducers produce electrical signals – they act electrically either as voltage sources, current sources, or their resistance or capacitance might change as a function of the quantity being measured: V(Q), I(Q), R(Q), C(Q) thus, in addition to understanding how transducers respond to the effect being measured (the physics), you need to understand the electrical behaviour most generally, there will be a frequency dependence there can be noise sources intrinsic to the transducer starting point is an equivalent circuit: usually the source model includes output resistance and capacitance Equivalent Circuit for a Transducer: General Example the quantity being measured is light intensity and the transducer outputs a voltage V(Q) physical effect produces ideal voltage source that depends on quantity Q being measured Ro output impedance Vo actual transducer voltage output Io actual transducer current output Co output capacitance intrinsic noise in the transducer 9 Summary we examined some of the general characteristics of transducers understanding these helps us choose the appropriate transducer for the required measurement system understanding these helps us estimate possible systematic errors related to transducer properties transducers are electrical: measurement system is thus amenable to “basic” circuit analysis once an equivalent circuit source model describes the electrical behaviour of the transducer 10