RANGE SYSTEMS STUDY OF RAMECHAP DISTRICT
(THODUNG REGION) OF NEPAL
S.M. Pradhan1, D. Pariyar, J.R. Adhikari and R.C. Ghimire
ABSTRACT
Ramechap district lies in the hill and mountain region of Nepal. Considerable portions of
Ramechap district are at high elevation (1000—4848 m) towards the peak of the Himalayan range
while the southern part comprises the lower elevation of the mid - hill region (700 m). Maize, wheat
and fingermillet as cereal crops and potato as horticulture crop are cultivated in the lower belt bariland
of high altitude pastoral system (2600 -3000 m) where as wheat, nacked barley or barley are major
crops in upper belt (3000 -3800 m). Annual food dificit at high altitude region is severe and substantial
number of population spend their time with animals in transhumane system and dependent on animal
production for their survival. Overgrazing is the main problem at areas from 2600 - 3400 masl. but
above that level the rangeland utilization is less than 50% due to harsh climatic condition and difficult
access. Presence of toxic plant species like Anemone elongata (Jukabikh), Chlorophytum sp. (Choto),
Pieris formosa (Bulu) may pose danger to the grazing animals.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geophysically Remechap district lies in the Hill and Mountain rcuion of Nepal. It is situated
at latitude 27°28” —27°50” and longitude 85°50” 86° 35”. It covers a total area of 1546 square
kilometer. Out of this total the cultivated land covers 26.6% (40050 ha), non - cultivated land 12.7%
(19130 ha), grazing land 8% (11429 ha), Forest land 44% (66152 ha) and other 8. 9% (13433 ha). The
district is elevated from south (700 m) towards North (1000 - 4848 m). The climate varies with the
elevation of the places from cool, temperate to alpine towards northern part. The average annual
temperature is about 11.9°C and maximum is 21.3° The average annual precipitation in the district is
2025 mm.
Livestock are an effective means of utilizing and providing added value to natural resource in
producing human food and additional income. The incremental effect of livestock on output from a
given agroecosvstem form their multipurpose and form positive interactions with soils and crops
(Quereshi, 1992). The stock farming in the high altitude of Nepal faces severe hardships. Large
number of animals are grazed in small grassland areas. Consequently, the condition of grasslands is
poor. This is particularly true for the more accessible grassland which are exposed to continuous
grazing by a large number of animals (Thapa, 1993). Annual food deficit to the entire population is
estimated as 2.5% (NRA, 1997), being severe at high altitude regions. Therefore, substantial number
of population of high altitude regions as well as herdsmen along with animal flocks spend their time in
transhumane system for income and survivability.
2. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are:
•
•
•
•
1
To study the traditional pastoral system of the high altitude rangelands.
To identify major constraints and problems of rearing chauri.
To study productivity and condition of different pasturelands.
To document the indigenous knowledge for maintenance and to sustain high altitude pastoral
system.
National Coordinator, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal.
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted from interview of the herders, field survey and sample collection.
Structured questionnaire was developed to record information on stopover, camping sites, duration of
stay at different sites, animal types, their production systems and marketing of products. Similarly
information were also recorded on grazing systems, range conditions, toxic plants, grazing rights and
socioeconomic status. A standard format was dcvclopcd to collect the plant species found in different
grazing lands. With the help of the herder grasses, legumes and forbes were identified in the field. The
plant species samples were properly pressed and carricd to Kathmandu for botanical identification. A
quadrat of tin 2 was randomly laid out in order to assess the biomass (above ground) production. Fresh
weight was recorded after harvesting it at 2.5 cms above the ground and key species were recorded.
The soil samples of about 1 kg. up to 20 ems. depth was collected from seven grazing lands for their
analysis. For obtaining data on animal herd composition 58 herdsmen were contacted and for
household size, literacy, cropping systems and crop production 19 herdsmen were interviewed.
Clipping scissors, balance, measuring tape, altimeter, compass, plastic and paper bags, auger, marker
pens and other important materials were used to take the field data.
3.1 Description of Grazinglands
The rangelands of Thodung region of Ramechap District are located at altitudes from 2600 to
4000 masl. About 1300 chauries utilize the vast areas of grazing lands (Table 1). Rangelands upto
2800 masl are located in the vicinity of the forest and beyond it the rangeland are called as open
grazingland.
Table 1. Description of grazinglands of Thodung regions of Ramechap, 1999.
S.N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Name
of Grazing
Grazinglands
Area
(ha)
Chamru
18
Camaru
19
(Serding-2)
Dhupi Kharka
25
Surke
12
Thodung
15
Dovan
15
Serding-1
10
Pancha Pokhari 12
Bhirkarta
15
(Sebuk)
Pumnasa
11
Gamigaps/
10
Dumsetu
Elevation
(masl)
Aspect
Average
Slope (%)
Soil pH
2950
3000
SE
NW
10-12
10-15
4.2
4.4
3600
2890
3170
3450
3400
4000
3170
N
NW
NW
SW
SW
NW
NW
40-45
40-45
10-20
35-40
5-10
40-45
35-40
4.5
4.2
4.2
4.6
4.2
4.0
4.2
3450
3600
NW
NW
30-40
54-45
4.0
4.2
3.2 Soil sample analysis
The pH value of the soil from the samples of seven major grazing lands ranged from 4.0 to 4.6
which indicates the acidic nature of the soil. Available Phosphorous (P 205 kg/ha) in the soil was also
low (14.2 -30.05 kg/ha). Full dose of phosphorus is needed to get optimum forage production from
those grazingland. As in sailung rangeland (Shrestha & Pariyar, 1998) available potash and organic
matter content is high. The soil texture varied from sandy loam to loamy sand.
3.2 Grazing route and stopovers
Five district grazing routes are used by 60 herds of high altitude regions of Thodung region
and the stopover! camping points are fixed for every route and herd (Table 2). Almost all the herds
spend 4-6 months in Winter in the low altitude grazing lands (2600-2800 mast), 2-4 months in
transitional zone while moving up in March to June and returning back in September and October at
an altitude of 2900 - 3200 mast. In the grazinglands above 3300 mast. the duration of grazing shortens
to about 1-3 months particularly in the months of June to August (Table 3.). In Far-Western Hills of
Nepal also the farmers graze their animals in high altitude pastures from June! July to
Septernber!October (Rajbhandary and Pradhan, 1981).
Table 2.
The major stope-over points and rangcland for the different grazing herds’ in highaltitude area of Thodung of Ramechhap district, 1999.(not shown)
Table 3. The major stopover points and duration of stay.
Grazing
land
Duration
Grazing
land
Duration
Grazing
land
Duration
Rout I
Phokte
Rout II
Bnajyang
Rout III
Deurai/Yak
nagi
Oct. To Mar 6 Nov-Mar 5 Nov-Apr 5
months
months
months
Thodung
Thodung
Phoke
Apr-Jun
(Sept)
4
months
Dhupikharka
Apr-May
(Oct)
3
months
Gairy
Jul-Aug
months
Jun (Sept)
2 months
2
Grazing
land
Duration
-
Danfebhir
-
Jul-Aug
months
Grazing
land
Duration
-
-
-
-
2
May
month
1
Rout IV
Sebuk/Thot
ne Kharaka
Nov-Mar 5
months
Kosing
Kharka
Apr (Oct) 2
months
Serding
Majhakater
a
Jun (Oct) 2 May (Sept)
months
2 months
Dhupikhark Sirankatera
a
Jul (Sept) 2 Jun-Aug 3
months
months
Panchpokh
ari
Aug
1
month
-
Rout V
Jamruk
Nov-Feb 4
months
Serding
Mar-Apr
(Oct)
3
months
Dhupikhark
a
May-Jun
(Oct)
3
months
Dhupikhark
a
May-Jun
(Sept)
3
months
Panchpokh
ari
Jul-Aug 2
months
Note: Months in brackets indicate staying period on the way coming down.
3.3 Animal types and their population
The 58 herders of Thodung region rear mainly ruminants. Their herds were composed of
1279 chauries, 57 local breeding bulls, 78 goats and only 2 poultry birds. All the chauries in the
herd were in milking which may be due to selling of unproductive animals for meat or other
purpose in the Tibetan boarder. In contrast to herd composition of Sailung region of Ramechap
district no sheep were reared and poultry was also negligible. On an average a herd was composed
of 22 ehauries, 1 breeding bull and 1.3 goats.
3.4 Breeding and calving pattern
The main breeding season for chauries is in summer (June - July) which was similar to that
in Sailung region. Parturition takes place after 9 months which is generally in February-March.
Though during this time there is shortage of feeds, but due to high price for off season production,
the farmers prefer calving in dry season.
The breeding bulls kept by farmers are of small size but are active for breeding use. Less
problem of dystokia is faced by the farmers and rare case of abortion was observed.
Incase of goats, 3 kidding in two years is common in high pastoral area whereas kidding twice
a year is common in the lower belt of the region.
3.5 Health care and mortality in animals
Occasional occurrence of Red water, Mastitis and Foot and mouth disease were reported.
Locally available herbs are used to treat the animals. Pneumonia was the major problem in goat kids.
Some casualties were reported in chauries due to falling from steep mountain slopes and the meat is
shared by the herders.
3.6 Livestock Products
3.6.1 Milk
Sale of raw milk is the main source of income to the farmers. Both the Dairy processing
plants (Dairy Development Corporation and private Dairy) have 3 collection centres each with
permanent infrastructures at different altitudes. The herders have to walk not more than two hours to
supply their milk to the collection centres. Average milk production from a chauri in 270 days
lactation period was estimated to be 630 litres. The milk production was around 3 litres/day during
April-May and increases upto 4-5 litres/day during June-August Which drops down to 1-1.5 litres/ day
in September-December. The farmers get gross benefit of NRs. 2,07,900 per year from a average herd
of 22 chauries only by selling milk at the rate of NRs. 1 5/Litre. Supposing fifty percent of the income
is spent on feed, medicine and management, a farmer’s family get net benefit of NRs. 1,03,950 per
year from their herd.
3.6.2 Animal sale and purchase
Herders purchase 1 to 1.5 years old young hcifers to replenish their herd from Namche bazar
and khumjung areas of Solukhumbu district. The heifers are mated at about 3 years of age and give
first calve around the age of 4 years. A chauri is kept for 9-1&’ lactation. Generally the milk
production drops down from 9th lactation. So the herders sell their chauries after S “‘ lactation to
Tibetan traders. Tibetan traders occasionally come to buy the animals.
A few herders practice buying young stock at 1.5 years of age for NRs. 3000-4000 and rear
them upto the age of 6 years or second lactation and sell at the price of NRs. 15,000-20,000 for a
chauri.
3.6.3 Hair and chamar
None of the herders reported harvesting hair from chauri but the chamar (Tail part) of dead
chauri is sold for performing religious ceremony. A chamar fetches NRs. 200-800 according to color
of the chamar. Whitish color fetches maximum price followed by mixed (white and black) and brown
colour.
3.6.4 Manures
There is the practice of manures collection and storing in the major grazing lands up to height
of 3200 masl. Above this height it is difficult to collect, store and carry manures to the bariland. They
pile the manures at different places of the major grazing land and carry to the higher areas in dried
form only. They carry the dried dungs in sacks or Thumse. Large amount of dry manures are put
inside a pit to decompose it for a month and use for the cultivation of crops in bariland at high
altitudes.
3.6.5 Hides
The hides of chauri is used for bedding.
3.6.6 Marketing
There is no problem of marketing as such. Fresh raw milk is sold to Dairy Development
corporation and three private cheese factories. The herders have to carry the milk to the collection
centres by walking a distance of not more than two hours. Most of the milk is processed to make
cheese, which have good market in Kathmandu as well as trekkers and expedition groups going to
Solukhumbu.
3.7 Feeding and Grazing
Over 60 herders rear the ruminants solely on available forage from the grazing lands in
transhumane system of grazing. These herds are moved upwards ahd downwards through five district
routes and utilize the biomass through rotational grazing system. Chauries are provided 50-100 gins of
salt per day and maize flour is provided to the chauries during the calving and after calving for about 2
weeks. Some weak chauries are also provided maize flour. In a year about 11 kg (5 Pathi) maize flour
is provided to a chauri. Medicines are hardly used only during difficult times.
The herders opinion and system of grazing is different in Thodung than from sailung area. In
their opinion sheep graze to the surface like chauries and there is competition for nutrition and
palatable grasses, forbes and legumes if they rear sheep. The herdsmen prefer goat to sheep for the
reason that they are browsers and do not compete with chauries for feed. The herders also believe that
the chauries do not graze in the particular area already grazed by sheep due to the odor or bad smell of
urine and dropping of sheep. The herdsmen graze goats only up to 3200 masl.
3.8 Fodder trees
The practice of feeding leaves and twigs of fodder trees are rare in high altitude. Leaves and
twigs of Arundinaria sp. (Shrub) and Ouercus semicarpzfolia (tree) which are found upto the height of
3100 masl is fed to the animals for about 10 days after calving. The annual production of fodder from
a Qyercus semicarpzfolia tree and Arundinaria sp. shrub is 30 kg. and 8-10 kg. respectively
3.9 Botanical composition and biomass production
A total of 63 native and naturalized plants species have been collected and 30 were identified
as forbes, 15 as grass, 8 as shrub, 4 as tree, one as legume and five species not identified in Thodung
region (Table 4). The species which were not identified was due to poor samples. Trifolium repens c.v.
Huia which was introduced during 1974-75 was the only legume specie in that area. In some of the
stopover place white clover is still growing well because of rotational grazing.
Three samples each from nine randomly selected grazing lands situated at an altitudes of
2800, 3100 and 3300 masl were taken using 1m2 quadrant to record avenge biomass yield.
From an altitude of 2800 to 3300 masl, not much difference in vegetation was found . The
predominant species found at 3300 masl were Danthonia sp., Pogonatherum paniceum and Anaphalis
cornorta. The productivity of the green matter (GM) was recorded to be 0.5 U’ ha in the first cut in
May-June, 1999. From three cuts that could be taken in the growing season of May-August, the
average yield per hectare was estimated at 1.5 t.
In the open grazing lands at 3170 masl the dominant species were found to be Danthania sp.,
Pogonatherutn paniceum, Tr:fo/ium repens and mixture of other species produce almost 2.8t/ha.
However in the fenced area, the dominant species were found to be Dan (hon/a sp., Pogonadierum
pan/ce urn, Trrfoliurn repens, call/ia palunri, anaphahs con(orta and Gal/urn aparine and the yield
was 7.0 ton per hectare.
In the lower altitude rangelands of Deuralil Yaknagi, where Anaphalis contorta,
Pogonatherum paniceurn, Anaphal/s rnargaritacea were dominant have produced 2.4 ton per hectare
GM production
The vegetation coverage increased with the increase in elevation. The vegetation coverage
in the grazing lands around 2800 mast was 40-70%, at 3170 masl. was 60-70% and at 3300 masl. it
was 70-90%. Table 4.
3.10 Toxic species and serious weeds
There was an acute problem of toxic plants in the grazing lands of Thodung area where as in
Sailung area there was no problem like this(Shrestha and Pariyar, 1998). Anemone elogata
(Jukabikh), chorophytum sp. (Choto) and Pieris formosa (BuIu) are the main toxic plants..
Chorophytum sp. was rated highly toxic in comparision to Anemona elongata and Pierisformosa.
Chauries and goats die within shor period of two hours if they graze on chlorophytum sp. and no
antidote was known locally to the herders. Chlorophytum sp. are more fatal to new and young stock
because they graze the tender parts of chlorophytum sp. due to lack of, selcctivity of species in the
begining chlorophytum sp. at younger stage is more poisonous than old and semi-dried plants.
Chlorophytum sp. coverage of grazing land is growing at a faster rate and farmers demanded an
effective program to eradicate this species.
Rarely any animal has died by consuming Anemone elongata and Pieris formosa but it
causes production loss for some days due to bloating and indigestion in the ruminants.
3.11 Range condition
The condition of rangeland was poor to medium. Over grazing was a common problem in
low altitude areas (2600-2800 masl) due to grazing of animals from lower belt as well as higher hills
and longer stay of almost six months.
Due to favorable climatic condition, easy access and easy stay the herds stay for longer
duration (8-10 months) in the lower belt grazing lands (2600-3400 masl) and the vegetation
utilization is over 90% upto Thodung (route 1 and 2), Phokte (route 3) Koshi kharka (route 4.) and
Serding (route 5).
Table 4.
Identification of Plant Species Found In Different Grazing Lands of Thodung Rgion
of Ramechhap Districts, 1999.
S.N.
Common name
Scientific Name
Family
Categories
1
-
Swertia sp.
Gentianaceae
Foribes
2
Padik
Anemone elongata D. Don
Renanculaceae
Foribes
3
Budajhar
Grass
Gramineae
Grass
4
Siru
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beaur.
Gramineae
Grass
5
Lunja
Aconogonon molle (D.Don) Hara
Polygonaceae
Shrubs
6
Lasep
Senecio wallichii DC.
Compositae
Foribes
7
Lunja
Aconogonon
Hara
8
Chake
Danthonia sp.
Gramineae
Grass
9
Cherping
Sorbus microphylla Wenzig
Rosaceae
Trees
10
Surkusi
Selinum sp.
Umbelliferae
Foribes
11
Chauribhago
Heracleum nepatense D. Don
Umbelliferae
Forbes
12
Lokta
Dphne bholua Buch. Ham. ex D. Don
Thymelaeaceae Shrubs
13
Romsok
Polygonatum verticillatum (L.)All
Liliaceae
14
Un identified
UNIDENTIFIED
UN
IDENTIFIED
15
Memkhanaiy
Gautheria nummularioides D. Don
Ericaceae
Grass
16
Bulu
Pieris formisa (Wall.) D. Don
Ericaceae
Trees
17
Tapatir
Cattha palustris L. var. himalensis (D. Ranunculaceae
Don) Mukerjee
Forbes
18
Menthoserma
Senecio laetus Edgew
Gentianaceae
Forbes
19
Jukabikh
Anemone elongata D. Don
Ranunculaceae
Foribes
20
Un identified
Anemone rivularis Buch. Ham. ex DC.
Ranunculaceae
Forbes
campaulatum
(Hook.f.) Polygonaceae
Shrubs
Forbes
21
Chake
Pogonatherum paniceum (Lam.) Hackel Gramineae
Grass
22
Ghangaru
Cotoneaster
Lindley
Forbes
23
Un identified
Thalictrum sp.
Ranunculaceae
Foribes
24
Kalo lahara
Lonicera sp.
Caprifoliaceae
Forbes
25
Un identified
UN IDENTIFIED
UN
IDENTIFIED
26
Seto lahara
Clematis montana Buch.-Ham ex DC.
Ranumculaceae Shrubs
27
Dhupi
Juniperus recurva Buch. - Ham ex D. Cupressaceae
Don
Trees
28
Gurans
Rhododendron arboreum Sm.
Ericaceae
Trees
29
Chiw
Kobresia curvata Kukenthal
Cyperaceae
Grass
30
Lasu
Senecio wallichii DC.
Compositae
Forbes
31
Chotto
Chlorophytum sp.
Liliaceae
Forbes
32
Chiw
Poa annua L.
Gramineae
Grass
33
Patuk
UN IDENTIFIED
UN
IDENTIFIED
34
Halhale
Rumex nepalensis Spreng
Polygonaceae
Forbes
35
Asare
Viburnum erubescens Wall ex DC.
Caprifoliaceae
Shrubs
36
Chakinama
Hydrocotyle sp.
Umbelliferae
Forbes
37
Preyanga
UN IDENTIFIED
UN
IDENTIFIED
. 38
Harkatta
Carex sp.
Cyperaceae
microphyllus
wall.
ex Rosaceae
Grass
S.N. Common
name
Scientific Name
Family
Categories
39
Panijhar
Grass
Gramineae
Grass
40
Maljhar
Galium aparine L.
Rubiaceae
Forbes
41
Memro
Geranium Wallichianum D. Don Geraniaceae
ex Sweet
42
Laris
UN IDENTIFIED
UN
IDENTIFIED
43
Kaunum
Euphorbia sp.
Euphorbiaceae Forbes
44
Toganminda Primula denticulata Sm.
Primulaceae
45
Sottar
Polystichum sp. .
Dryopteridacea Forbes
e
46
Harkatta
Carex sp.
Cyperaceae
Grass
47
Un identified Carex sp.
Cyperaceae
Grass
48
Swar
Roscoea auriculata K. Schum.
Zingiberaceae
Forbes
49
Gangiu
Rubus sp.
Rosaceae
Shrubs
50
Tapakir
Caltha palustris L.Var. himalensis Ranunculaceae Forbes
(D.Don) Mukerjee
51
Un identified Ranunculus diffusus DC.
Ranunculaceae Forbes
52
Harkatta
Carex sp.
Cyperaceae
Grass
53
Chake
Danthoriia sp.
Gramineae
Grass
54
Jhapro
Arundinaria sp.
Gramineae
Shrubs
55
Un identified Grass
Gramineae
Grass
56
Buki
57
Un identified Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming
58
Un identified Hypericum choisianum Wall. ex Hypericaceae
N. Robson
Anaphalis controta (D.Don) Hook. Compositae
f.
Rubiaceae
Fotbes
Forbes
Forbes
Shrubs
Forties
59
Un identified Thalictrum foliolosum DC.
Ranunculaceae Forbes
60
Un identified Carex sp.
Cyperaceae
Grass
61
Un identified Anaphalis margaritacea
Compositae
Forbes
62
Un identified Caltha palustris L. var. himalensis Ranunculaceae Forbes
(D.Don) Mukerjee
63
Clover
Trifolium repens
Legume
The grazing lands above 3400 to 4000 masi are utilized less than 50% and contains palatable
native forage species called Tapavir (callha palustris). Rajbhandary and Pradhan (1981) also reported
under utilization of alpine pasture to the extent of 45% only. Herds stay in these area for shorter
duration (2-3 months) due to harsh climate, difficult access and stay.
The Village Development Committee (VDC) have facilitated the herders by constructing trail
and drinking water facilities for which they have to contribute Rs. 500 -1000 per herd to the respective
VDC's.
3.12 Grazing rights
Traditional demarcation for the use of grazing areas are still maintained. The herds of Thodung
(Ramechap) region utilize grazing lands of chuchure VDC, Bamti VDC and Gumdel VDC. No
specific grazing rights system exists except to the traditional utilization law, which has fixed five
routes and has identified the herdcrs for utilizing grazing lands.
3.13 Socio-economic status
The average family size of herders was 5.3 of which 52% were female and 48% were males.
The literacy rate in males was 26% and that in females was 18%.j| On an average of 19 herdsmen,
1.27 ha (25.4 Ropanis) of cultivated uplands is owned by each family.
For lower belt bariland (2600-3000 masl.) of high altitude pastoral system Maize, Wheat and
Fingermillet were major cereal crops and Potato as vegetable crop. They produce two crops in 1.5 year
and their cropping pattern was rotational.
Incase of higher altitude bariland (3000-3800 masl) they cultivate one crop in a year. Wheat,
Nacked barley, and Barley arc major cereal crops and Potato vegetable crop. The cropping pattern in
rotational system is.
Only 18% requirement of food crops of the total family is met by their production. The people
in those areas need income generating activities to sustain their life and which may be main reason
that the people living in that are attracted towards chauri farming.
3.14 Constraints
•
Toxic plants: Invasion of rangelands by toxic plants like Anemone elongata (Jukabikh),
chlorophytum sp. (Choto) and Pieris formosa (Bulu) is the major concern to the herders.
• Overgrazing: Overgrazing in the areas upto 2900 masl was one of the other major problems to
chauri herders.
• Low productivity of Rangeland: Although there were large number of grazing land, the productivity
was very poor, which may be due to less coverage by legumes and low production from available
native species. Low production from native species may be due to lack of protection oftliese
species and overgrazing by large number of animals with resulting in loss of soil fertility.
• Diseases: Red water. Mastitis, Foot and months disease and Pneumonia cause health hazards into
the flocks.
3.15 Suggestion by herders and an outline for future activities
An effective initiative should be taken by Government agencies to eradicate the toxic plants in the
grazing fields.
• An orientation program or training should be organized to create awareness among the herders to
make them able to manage the rangeland effectively.
• A study should be carried out with high yielding native species as well as less fertilizer demanding
improved species through participatory approach of Research, extension and users group.
• The herders should be provided opportunities to qualify for semi-skilled technician by providing
training in animal health care and management.
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Quereshi, A.W. (1992). Sustainability of Animal Agriculture and Furure Food demand in Asia:
Proceedings of the 6th AAAP Animal Science Congress. (Eds. Pokapen Bunya vejchu,.. Sattarat
Sandid and Kamokwan Hangsanct) Vol 2, 11-12, Thailand.
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