Electric Power
Transmission
System
Engineering
Analysis
and Design
SECOND
EDITION
Turan Gönen
C\ CRC Press
J Taylor & Francis Gro
Group
Boca Raton
London
N e w York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgment
Author
SECTION I
xix
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xxiii
Electrical Design and Analysis
Chapter 1
Transmission System Planning
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
Introduction
Aging Transmission System
Benefits of Transmission
Power Pools
Transmission Planning
Traditional Transmission System Planning Techniques
Models Used in Transmission System Planning
Transmission Route Identification and Selection
Traditional Transmission System Expansion Planning
1.9.1
Heuristic Models
1.9.2
Single-Stage Optimization Models
1.9.2.1 Linear Programming (LP)
1.9.2.2 Integer Programming
1.9.2.3 Gradient Search Method
1.9.3
Time-Phased Optimization Models
Traditional Concerns for Transmission System Planning
1.10.1 Planning Tools
1.10.2 Systems Approach
1.10.3 Database Concept
New Technical Challenges
Transmission Planning after Open Access
Possible Future Actions by Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Chapter 2
Transmission Line Structures and Equipment
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Introduction
The Decision Process to Build a Transmission Line
Design Tradeoffs
Traditional Line Design Practice
2.4.1 Factors Affecting Structure Type Selection
2.4.2 Improved Design Approaches
Environmental Impact of Transmission Lines
2.5.1 Environmental Effects
2.5.2 Biological Effects of Electric Fields
2.5.3 Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields
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2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
Contents
Transmission Line Structures
2.6.1 Compact Transmission Lines
2.6.2 Conventional Transmission Lines
2.6.3 The Design of Line Support Structures
Subtransmission Lines
2.7.1
Subtransmission Line Costs
Transmission Substations
2.8.1 Additional Substation Design Considerations
2.8.2 Substation Components
2.8.3 Bus and Switching Configurations
2.8.4 Substation Buses
2.8.4.1 Open-Bus Scheme
2.8.4.2 Inverted-Bus Scheme
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)-Insulated Substations
Transmission Line Conductors
2.10.1 Conductor Considerations
2.10.2 Conductor Types
2.10.3 Conductor Size
2.10.3.1 Voltage Drop Considerations
2.10.3.2 Thermal Capacity Considerations
2.10.3.3 Economic Considerations
2.10.4 Overhead Ground Wires (OHGW)
2.10.5 Conductor Tension
Insulators
2.11.1 Types of Insulators
2.11.2 Testing of Insulators
2.11.3 Voltage Distribution over a String of Suspension Insulators
2.11.4 Insulator Flashover due to Contamination
2.11.5 Insulator Flashover on Overhead High-Voltage DC (HVDC) Lines
Substation Grounding
2.12.1 Elecric Shock and Its Effects on Humans
2.12.2 Ground Resistance
2.12.3 Soil Resistivity Measurements
2.12.4 Substation Grounding
2.12.5 Ground Conductor Sizing Factors
2.12.6 Types of Ground Faults
2.12.6.1 Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault
2.12.6.2 Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
2.12.7 Ground Potential Rise
Transmission Line Grounds
Types of Grounding
Transformer Connections
Autotransformers in Transmission Substations
Transformer Selection
Transformer Classifications
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Chapter 3
Fundamental Concepts
93
3.1
3.2
3.3
93
93
94
Introduction
Factors Affecting Transmission Growth
Stability Considerations
Contents
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
Power Transmission Capability of a Transmission Line
Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading of a Transmission Line
Loadability Curves
Compensation
Shunt Compensation
3.8.1 Effects of Shunt Compensation on Transmission Line Loadability
3.8.2 Shunt Reactors and Shunt Capacitor Banks
Series Compensation
3.9.1
The Effects of Series Compensation on Transmission Line Loadability
3.9.2 Series Capacitors
Static Var Control (SVC)
Static Var Systems
Thyristor-Controlled Series Compensator
Static Compensator
Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Systems
Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR)
The Use of Static Compensation to Prevent Voltage Collapse or Instability
Energy Management System (EMS)
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Advanced Scada Concepts
3.20.1 Substation Controllers
Six-Phase Transmission Lines
Chapter 4
Overhead Power Transmission
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Introduction
Short Transmission Lines (up to 50 mi, or 80 km)
4.2.1 Steady-State Power Limit
4.2.2 Percent Voltage Regulation
4.2.3 Representation of Mutual Impedance of Short Lines
Medium-Length Transmission Lines (up to 150 mi, or 240 km)
Long Transmission Lines (above 150 mi, or 240 km)
4.4.1 Equivalent Circuit of Long Transmission Line
4.4.2 Incident and Reflected Voltages of Long Transmission Line
4.4.3 Surge Impedance Loading of Transmission Line
General Circuit Constants
4.5.1 Determination of A, B, C, and D Constants
4.5.2 A, B, C, and D Constants of Transformer
4.5.3 Asymmetrical я and T Networks
4.5.4 Networks Connected in Series
4.5.5 Networks Connected in Parallel
4.5.6 Terminated Transmission Line
4.5.7 Power Relations Using A, B, C, and D Line Constants
Bundled Conductors
Effect of Ground on Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines
Environmental Effects of Overhead Transmission Lines
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Chapter 5
Underground Power Transmission and Gas-Insulated Transmission Lines
197
5.1
197
Introduction
xii
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
Contents
Underground Cables
Underground Cable Installation Techniques
Electrical Characteristics of Insulated Cables
5.4.1 Electric Stress in Single-Conductor Cable
5.4.2 Capacitance of Single-Conductor Cable
5.4.3 Dielectric Constant of Cable Insulation
5.4.4 Charging Current
5.4.5 Determination of Insulation Resistance of Single-Conductor Cable
5.4.6 Capacitance of Three-Conductor Belted Cable
5.4.7 Cable Dimensions
5.4.8 Geometric Factors
5.4.9 Dielectric Power Factor and Dielectric Loss
5.4.10 Effective Conductor Resistance
5.4.11 Direct-Current Resistance
5.4.12 Skin Effect
5.4.13 Proximity Effect
Sheath Currents in Cables
Positive- and Negative-Sequence Reactances
5.6.1
Single-Conductor Cables
5.6.2 Three-Conductor Cables
Zero-Sequence Resistance and Reactance
5.7.1
Three-Conductor Cables
5.7.2
Single-Conductor Cables
Shunt Capacitive Reactance
Current-Carrying Capacity of Cables
Calculation of Impedances of Cables in Parallel
5.10.1 Single-Conductor Cables
5.10.2 Bundled Single-Conductor Cables
Ehv Underground Cable Transmission
Gas-Insulated Transmission Lines
Location of Faults in Underground Cables
5.13.1 Fault Location by Using Murray Loop Test
5.13.2 Fault Location by Using Varley Loop Test
5.13.3 Distribution Cable Checks
Chapter 6
Direct-Current Power Transmission
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Introduction
Overhead High-Voltage DC Transmission
Comparison of Power Transmission Capacity of High-Voltage DC and AC
High Voltage DC Transmission Line Insulation
Three-Phase Bridge Converter
Rectification
Per-Unit Systems and Normalizing
6.7.1
Alternating-Current System Per-Unit Bases
6.7.2 Direct-Current System Per-Unit Bases
6.8 Inversion
6.9 Multibridge (B-Bridge) Converter Stations
6.10 Per-Unit Representation of B-Bridge Converter Stations
6.10.1 Alternating-Current System Per-Unit Bases
6.10.2 Direct-Current System Per-Unit Bases
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Contents
6.11 Operation of Direct-Current Transmission Link
6.12 Stability of Control
6.13 The Use of "Facts" and HVDC to Solve Bottleneck Problems
in the Transmission Networks
6.14 High-Voltage Power Electronic Substations
6.15 Additional Recommends on HVDC Converter Stations
Chapter 7
Transient Overvoltages and Insulation Coordination
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
Introduction
Traveling Waves
7.2.1
Velocity of Surge Propagation
7.2.2 Surge Power Input and Energy Storage
7.2.3 Superposition of Forward- and Backward-Traveling Waves
Effects of Line Terminations
7.3.1 Line Termination in Resistance
7.3.2 Line Termination in Impedance
7.3.3 Open-Circuit Line Termination
7.3.4
Short-Circuit Line Termination
7.3.5 Overhead Line Termination by Transformer
Junction of Two Lines
Junction of Several Lines
Termination in Capacitance and Inductance
7.6.1
Termination through Capacitor
7.6.2 Termination through Inductor
Bewley Lattice Diagram
Surge Attenuation and Distortion
Traveling Waves on Three-Phase Lines
Lightning and Lightning Surges
7.10.1 Lightning
7.10.2 Lightning Surges
7.10.3 The Use of Overhead Ground Wires for Lightning Protection of the
Transmission Lines
7.10.4 Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines
Shielding Failures of Transmission Lines
7.11.1 Electrogeometric (EGM) Theory
7.11.2 Effective Shielding
7.11.3 Determination of Shielding Failure Rate
Lightning Performance of UHV Lines
Stroke Current Magnitude
Shielding Design Methods
7.14.1 Fixed-Angle Method
7.14.2 Empirical Method (or Wagner Method)
7.14.3 Electrogeometric Model
Switching and Switching Surges
7.15.1 Switching
7.15.2 Causes of Switching Surge Overvoltages
7.15.3 Control of Switching Surges
Overvoltage Protection
Insulation Coordination
7.17.1 Basic Definitions
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Contents
XIV
7.17.1.1 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)
7.17.1.2 Withstand Voltage
7.17.1.3 Chopped-Wave Insulation Level
7.17.1.4 Critical Flashover (CFO) Voltage
7.17.1.5 Impulses Ratio (for Flashover or Puncture of Insulation)
7.17.2 Insulation Coordination
7.17.3 Insulation Coordination in Transmission Lines
7.18 Geomagnetic Disturbances and Their Effects on Power System Operations
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400
404
Chapter 8
Limiting Factors for Extra-High and Ultrahigh Voltage Transmission: Corona,
Radio Noise, and Audible Noise
411
8.1
8.2
Introduction
Corona
8.2.1 Nature of Corona
8.2.2 Manifestations of Corona
8.2.3 Factors Affecting Corona
8.2.4 Corona Loss
Radio Noise
8.3.1 Radio Interference (RI)
8.3.2 Television Interference
Audible Noise (AN)
Conductor Size Selection
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421
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427
427
Chapter 9
Symmetrical Components and Fault Analysis
435
8.3
8.4
8.5
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
Introduction
Symmetrical Components
The Operator a
Resolution of Three-Phase Unbalanced System of Phasors into Its Symmetrical
Components
9.5 Power in Symmetrical Components
9.6 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines
9.6.1 Sequence Impedances of Untransposed Lines
9.6.2 Sequence Impedances of Transposed Lines
9.6.3 Electromagnetic Unbalances due to Untransposed Lines
9.6.4 Sequence Impedances of Untransposed Line with Overhead Ground Wire
9.7
Sequence Capacitances of Transmission Line
9.7.1
Three-Phase Transmission Line without Overhead Ground Wire
9.7.2
Three-Phase Transmission Line with Overhead Ground Wire
9.8 Sequence Impedances of Synchronous Machines
9.9 Zero-Sequence Networks
9.10 Sequence Impedances of Transformers
9.11 Analysis of Unbalanced Faults
9.12 Shunt Faults
9.12.1 Single Line-to-Ground Fault
9.12.2 Line-to-Line Fault
9.12.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault
9.12.4 Three-Phase Fault
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Contents
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
Series Faults
9.13.1 One Line Open (OLO)
9.13.2 Two Lines Open (TLO)
Determination of Sequence Network Equivalents for Series Faults
9.14.1 Brief Review of Two-Port Theory
9.14.2 Equivalent Zero-Sequence Networks
9.14.3 Equivalent Positive- and Negative-Sequence Networks
System Grounding
Elimination of SLG Fault Current by Using Peterson Coils
Six-Phase Systems
9.17.1 Application of Symmetrical Components
9.17.2 Transformations
9.17.3 Electromagnetic Unbalance Factors
9.17.4 Transposition on the Six-Phase Lines
9.17.5 Phase Arrangements
9.17.6 Overhead Ground Wires
9.17.7 Double-Circuit Transmission Lines
Chapter 10
Protective Equipment and Transmission System Protection
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
xv
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535
Introduction
Interruption of Fault Current
High Voltage Circuit Breakers (CB)
CB Selection
Disconnect Switches
Load-Break Switches
Switchgear
The Purpose of Transmission Line Protection
Design Criteria for Transmission Line Protection
Zones of Protection
Primary and Backup Protection
Reclosing
Typical Relays Used on Transmission Lines
10.13.1 Overcurrent Relays
10.13.1.1 Inverse-Time Delay Overcurrent Relays
10.13.1.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays
10.13.1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays
10.13.2 Distance Relays
10.13.2.1 Impedance Relay
10.13.2.2 Admittance Relay
10.13.2.3 Reactance Relay
10.13.3 Pilot Relaying
10.14 Computer Applications in Protective Relaying
10.14.1 Computer Applications in Relay Settings and Coordination
10.14.2 Computer Relaying
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540
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545
547
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565
Chapter 11
Transmission System Reliability
573
11.1
11.2
573
573
National Electric Reliability Council (NERC)
Index of Reliability
xvi
Contents
11.3 Section 209 of Purpa of 1978
11.4 Basic Probability Theory
11.4.1 Set Theory
11.4.2 Probability and Set Theory
11.5 Combinational Analysis
11.6 Probability Distributions
11.7 Basic Reliability Concepts
11.7.1 Series Systems
11.7.2 Parallel Systems
11.7.3 Combined Series-Parallel Systems
11.8 Systems with Repairable Components
11.8.1 Repairable Components in Series
11.8.2 Repairable Components in Parallel
11.9 Reliability Evaluation of Complex Systems
11.9.1 Conditional Probability Method
11.9.2 Minimal-Cut-Set Method
11.10 Markov Processes
11.11 Transmission System Reliability Methods
11.11.1 Average Interruption Rate Method
11.11.2 Frequency and Duration Method
11.11.2.1 Series Systems
11.11.2.2 Parallel Systems
11.11.3 Markov Application Method
11.11.4 Common-Cause Forced Outages of Transmission Lines
SECTION II
Mechanical Design and Analysis
Chapter 12
Construction of Overhead Lines
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
575
580
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583
588
589
592
600
602
603
604
604
607
609
609
610
612
616
616
616
617
618
620
624
Introduction
Factors Affecting Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines
Character of Line Route
Right-of-Way
Mechanical Loading
12.5.1 Definitions of Stresses
12.5.2 Elasticity and Ultimate Strength
12.5.3 NESC loadings
12.5.4 Wind Pressure
12.6 Required Clearances
12.6.1 Horizontal Clearances
12.6.2 Vertical Clearances
12.6.3 Clearances at Wire Crossings
12.6.4 Horizontal Separation of Conductors from Each Other
12.7 Type of Supporting Structures
12.7.1 Pole Types
12.7.2 Soil Types and Pole Setting
12.8 Mechanical Calculations
12.8.1 Introduction
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646
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648
648
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651
653
655
655
Contents
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.8.2 Bending Moment due to Wind on Conductors
12.8.3 Bending Moment due to Wind on Poles
12.8.4 Stress due to Angle in Line
12.8.5 Strength Determination of Angle Pole
12.8.6 Permissible Maximum Angle without Guys
12.8.7 Guying
12.8.8 Calculation of Guy Tension
Grade of Construction
Line Conductors
Insulator Types
Joint Use by Other Utilities
Conductor Vibration
Conductor Motion Caused by Fault Currents
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663
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670
670
671
672
673
676
Chapter 13
Sag and Tension Analysis
679
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Effect of Change in Temperature
13.3 Line Sag and Tension Calculations
13.3.1 Supports at Same Level
13.3.1.1 Catenary Method
13.3.1.2 Parabolic Method
13.3.2 Supports at Different Levels: Unsymmetrical Spans
13.4 Spans of Unequal Length: Ruling Span
13.5 Effects of Ice and Wind Loading
13.5.1 Effect of Ice
13.5.2 Effect of Wind
13.6 National Electric Safety Code
13.7 Line Location
13.7.1 Profile and Plan of Right-of-Way
13.7.2 Templates for Locating Structures
13.7.3 Supporting Structures
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700
702
703
706
Appendix A: Impedance Tables for Overhead Lines, Transformers, and
Underground Cables
711
Appendix B: Methods for Allocating Transmission Line Fixed Charges
among Joint Users
767
Appendix C: Review of Basics
777
Appendix D: Conversion Factors, Prefixes, and the Greek Alphabet
817
Appendix E: Standard Device Numbers Used in Protection Systems
819
Appendix F: Glossary for Transmission System Engineering Terminology
821
Index
843