BAP SALMON STANDARDS
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE ADVOCATE
Volume 14, Issue 4
July/August 2011
july/august 2011
the
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DEPARTMENTS
From The Director
From The Editor
GAA Activities
Industry News
Advocate Advertisers
12 Liming Materials For Aquaculture
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
14 Shrimp Sampling Method Improves Stocking Process
Andrew J. Ray, M.S.; Jeffrey M. Lotz, Ph.D.;
Jeffrey F. Brunson, M.S.; John W. Leffler, Ph.D.
16 Oyster Output Affected By Environmental
Features Of Farm Site
Darien D. Mizuta, Nelson Silveira Júnior, Christine E. Fischer,
Daniel Lemos
2
3
5
85
88
On the cover:
Nutrition research has led to reduced fishmeal use in diets for amberjack
and other emerging species. Photo courtesy of Kona Blue Water Farms.
19 Uncharted Waters: Kenya Takes Dramatic
Leap In Aquaculture
Jeff Hino
Page 19
22 India’s Fish Feed Industry – Growing Sector
Can Support Aquaculture Diversity, Development
Kenya Backs Aquaculture
Kenya’s officials are counting on
aquaculture to relieve pressure on
fisheries and supply a more sustainable source of protein – and cash
– for Kenyans.
P. E. Vijay Anand, Ph.D.; Michael C. Cremer, Ph.D.
26 Tilapia Farming Faces Expansion Issues In Thailand
Ram C. Bhujel, Ph.D.; Mark Woollard
30 Working With Fish – Limit Zoonotic Diseases
Through Prevention
Stephen A. Smith, DVM, Ph.D.
34 Bacterial Diseases Cause Granulomas In Fish –
Varied Staining Methods Identify Pathogens
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37 Boston Session Examines ‘What Fish Eat’
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40 American Fisheries Society Calls
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James Bowker, M.S.; Jesse Trushenski, Ph.D.
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GLOBAL REACH
46 Common Off-Flavors In Channel Catfish
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Dong-Fang Deng, Ph.D.; Zhi Yong Ju, Ph.D.;
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Kevin K. Schrader, Ph.D.; Craig S. Tucker, Ph.D.
50 U.S. Catfish Industry Production Shifts Continue
James A. Steeby, Ph.D.
52 Survey Examines Perceived Barriers, Strategies
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65 Testing Finds Resistance To WSSV In Shrimp
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56 Off-Flavors In Aquacultured Products –
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George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
58 Diversification Of The Aquaculture Sector – Seaweed
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Mark Rottman
72 Single-Cell Detritus: Fermented Bioenriched
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Dr. S. Felix, P. Pradeepa
74 Novel Soy Proteins, Oils Replace Fishmeal To Achieve
FIFO Under 1:1 In Amberjack
Jennica Lowell, M.S.; Neil Anthony Sims, M.S.; Tom Clemente, Ph.D.
76 Photo-Based Color Evaluation Can Enhance
Catfish Fillet Quality
David Cline
78 Nitrifier Product Improves Nitrification In RAS
Dr. T. Chopin, Dr. A. Neori, Dr. A. Buschmann;
Dr. S. Pang, M. Sawhney
61
Shrimp Disruptions Continue, Supply Delays Expected
Whole Salmon, Fillet Imports To U.S. Down
Whole Tilapia Stay Low, Costa Rica Fillets Drop
Pangasius Imports Grow As Replacement Costs Rise
Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Brown; Angel Rubio
Asbjørn Drengstig, Yngve Ulgenes, Helge Liltved, Asbjørn Bergheim
70 New Techniques, Peptide Treatments Aid
Intensive Shrimp Farm In Ecuador
Jorge Cuéllar-Anjel; Roberto Chamorro; Brenda White-Noble;
Paul Schofield; Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
67 Norweigian Salmon Smolt Farms Embracing RAS
To Raise Production
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42 Potassium Diformate Doesn’t Affect Shrimp Growth,
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July/August 2011 global aquaculture advocate
ii
Wes A. Baumgartner, DVM, Dipl. ACVP; John Hawke, Ph.D.
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.; David J. Drahos
80 Essential Oils Increase Weight Gain In Channel Catfish
Brian C. Peterson, Ph.D.; Brian G. Bosworth, Ph.D.;
Monica L. Wood; Menghe H. Li, Ph.D.; Ruben Beltran, M.S.
83 Labomar Study Defines Optimal Dietary Lipid,
Energy Content For Fat Content
Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.; Ricardo C. C. Pinto, M.S.,
Marcelo V. C. Sá, Ph.D.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
1
from the director
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE
ALLIANCE
The Global Aquaculture Al­li­ance is an international non-profit, non-gov­ernmental
association whose mission is to further en­vi­
ron­men­tally responsible aqua­culture to meet
world food needs. Our members are producers, pro­cessors, marketers and retailers of seafood prod­ucts worldwide. All aqua­­culturists
in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS
George Chamberlain, President
Bill Herzig, Vice President
Ole Norgaard, Secretary
Lee Bloom, Treasurer
Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Bert Bachmann
Lee Bloom
Rittirong Boonmechote
George Chamberlain
Shah Faiez
John Galiher
Bill Herzig
Ray Jones
Alex Ko
Jordan Mazzetta
Domingo Moreira
Sergio Nates
Ole Norgaard
John Peppel
John Schramm
Iain Shone
Wally Stevens
EDITOR
DARRYL JORY
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
PRODUCTION STAFF
MAgazine manager
JANET VOGEL
janet.vogel@gaalliance.org
ASSISTANT EDITOR
DAVID WOLFE
david.wolfe@gaalliance.org
GRAPHIC DESIGNER
LORRAINE JENNEMANN
lorraine.jennemann@gaalliance.org
HOME OFFICE
5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500
FAX: +1-314-293-5525
E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2011
Global Aquaculture Alliance.
Global Aquaculture Advocate
is printed in the USA.
ISSN 1540-8906
2
July/August 2011
Progress
With Pride
As this edition of the magazine is going to press,
we have just received a unanimous vote of approval
for the Best Aquaculture Practices for salmon farms
from the 12 members of the Standards Oversight
Committee (SOC). With the standards’ final
Wally Stevens
approval by the Global Aquaculture Alliance board,
Executive Director
the BAP program will have taken a major step forGlobal Aquaculture Alliance
ward in the journey toward sustainability with BAP’s
wally.stevens@gaalliance.org
first standards for ocean-based aquaculture.
What a great piece of work by the varied professionals on the salmon technical committee. Led by Dr. John Forster, they had to consider – and then reconsider – a whole range of factors that contribute to responsible fish
production. They not only examined guidelines for feed inputs, therapeutant use,
worker safety and food safety, but also topics unique to net pen culture, especially influences on the ecosystems that surround the farm facilities.
After initial reviews of the committee standards and recommendations for various
improvements, the members of the SOC then considered the many ideas received during the public comment phase of the standards. More discussion followed. More
It takes a team to keep
changes were made. And consensus was
all these activities going –
achieved. BAP training and final documentation for salmon audits are now in process. and I’m justly proud
GAA is also rolling along in its planof ours.
ning for GOAL 2011. The GOAL program is being finalized with an exciting new component. With funding from the World
Bank, the Responsible Aquaculture Foundation is working with Wageningen University on a study of disease issues related to salmon, shrimp and Pangasius. An initial component of the study program – a report on Chile’s response to ISA – will be presented
during GOAL 2011.
It takes a team to keep all these activities going – and I’m justly proud of ours.
Bill and Betty More and their associates in the BAP administrative office have
helped prepare hundreds of facilities around the world prepare for certification. Peter
Redmond continues his recruitment of marketplace endorsers of the BAP program,
while Dan Lee shepherds the standards development process with the SOC.
Editor Darryl Jory works with David Wolfe to collect and edit content for the Global
Aquaculture Advocate, while Lorraine Jennemann assembles the layouts for print every
other month. Susan Chamberlain, magazine manager, will soon be returning to her other
career with the Ride on St. Louis non-profit. We appreciate everything she has done for
the magazine and GAA – and welcome Janet Vogel as her replacement.
Jim Heerin and Jeff Fort are still coordinating a smooth integration of the BAP
administrative operations into GAA. And Jeff Peterson and Ken Corpron are disseminating the BAP message and setting up training in responsible aquaculture around the world.
Sally Krueger and Rebekah Hempen – whose current focus is on GOAL planning
and accounting support – just plain hold the GAA office together. And, of course,
George Chamberlain does too many things to list!
At the Global Aquaculture Alliance, it’s really the people who make the difference. I
am proud of the accomplishments of our team.
from the editor
Keeping Pace
In The Race
For More Seafood
In 20 years, per-capita seafood consumption is
expected to rise to about 20 kg annually. Many of us
have an even more ambitious goal: to double seafood
Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D.
production in a decade. With capture fisheries
Editor, Development Manager
unlikely to increase yields, additional seafood proGlobal Aquaculture Advocate
duction to keep pace with a rapidly growing human
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
population can only come from aquaculture.
We have to expand aquaculture production to
new areas and new species, but we also have to become more efficient producers. Landbased agriculture is a great example of increased production based on improved technology. Today, one agrifarmer can grow enough food to support about 155 people, up from
73 people in 1970 and 19 people in 1940.
To boost aquaculture output, we must face and overcome a number of challenges,
some of which include uncertain production costs for fuel and volatile feed ingredients,
and competition for common resources like land, water, fishmeal, fish oil and, with the
advent of the new biofuels industry, grain. Increased protectionism and antidumping
actions, and new commerce regulations are additional challenges.
And let’s not forget issues like seafood safety, traceability, animal welfare, sustainability and social and environmental challenges. Biosecurity and health management to
deal with old and emerging diseases. Growing competition from other human activities
for expansion to new inland or offshore areas. Species introductions, domestication,
product price volatility and uncertainty. And there are other concerns: production inefficiencies, undefined investment funding sources and limited official support in some
regions.
If we are to successfully face these industry challenges, we need new technologies as
well as greater performance from existing ones to improve production efficiency and
sustainability. Our industry must become more “industrialized,” to produce more with
less – and faster, better and more safely.
On the technical side, one key goal should be continuous reduction of the time
needed to reach market size. In this regard, the poultry industry provides a valuable
blueprint to follow that offers many benefits.
Shorter production cycles mean better survival and feed conversion, lower energy
and labor costs, more turnovers per growing season, more effective use of production
infrastructure and overall maximized production and financial performance. The tools
to accomplish shorter cycles are already available, and we know what to do with them.
Domestication and breeding for faster growth and better performance, and development of lines resistant to specific pathogens and optimized for specific environments
and growing conditions. Improved aquafeed formulations, manufacturing and feeding
practices; production systems that provide safe and stable conditions that maximize productivity; and standardized management protocols that provide increased control over
production systems.
Let me again bring you the wise words of the great ocean explorer Jacques Cousteau,
who in 1973 told us: “With earth’s burgeoning human population to feed, we must turn
to the sea with understanding and new technology. … We need to farm it as we farm
the land.”
Thank you for your support and please let us know how we can best serve our industry.
Sincerely,
Sincerely,
Wally Stevens
Darryl E. Jory
global aquaculture advocate
FOUNDING MEMBERS
Agribrands International Inc.
Agromarina de Panama, S.A.
Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita
Aqualma – Unima Group
Aquatec/Camanor
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Colombia
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras
Associação Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão
Bangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Belize Aquaculture, Ltd.
Delta Blue Aquaculture
Bluepoints Co., Inc.
Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
Camaronera de Cocle, S.A.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Continental Grain Co.
C.P. Aquaculture Business Group
Darden Restaurants
Deli Group, Ecuador
Deli Group, Honduras
Diamante del Mar S.A.
Eastern Fish Co.
El Rosario, S.A.
Empacadora Nacional, C.A.
Empress International, Ltd.
Expack Seafood, Inc.
Expalsa – Exportadora de Almientos S.A.
FCE Agricultural Research
and Management, Inc.
Fishery Products International
India Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Indian Ocean Aquaculture Group
INVE Aquaculture, N.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Long John Silver’s, Inc.
Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maritech S.A. de C.V.
Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC
Monsanto
Morrison International, S.A.
National Food Institute
National Prawn Co.
Ocean Garden Products, Inc.
Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM
Preferred Freezer Services
Productora Semillal, S.A.
Promarisco, S.A.
Red Chamber Co.
Rich-SeaPak Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.
Sea Farms Group
Seprofin Mexico
Shrimp News International
Sociedad Nacional de Galapagos
Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.
Super Shrimp Group
Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.
U.S. Foodservice
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
3
Join the world’s leading
aquaculture organization
gaa activities
GOAL Program To Address Growth-Related
Aquaculture Issues
main farmed seafood species, attendees will hear presentations
on feed, energy and other subjects. “Lunch and learn” sessions
have also been added to the GOAL 2011 program.
®
Tours
global aquaculture
Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply.
Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance,
the leading standards-setting organization for farmed
seafood.
Access science-based information on efficient aquaculture management. Connect with other responsible
companies and reach your social responsibility goals.
Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices certification for aquaculture facilities.
Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscription to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine,
GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other benefits. Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office
for details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture
St. Louis, Missouri, USA – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
GOVERNING MEMBERS
ABC Research Corp.
AIS Aqua Foods, Inc.
Al Fulk National Co., Ltd.
Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita
Alfesca H.F.
Aqua Bounty Technologies
Blue Archipelago
Capitol Risk Concepts, Ltd.
Cargill
Chang International, Inc.
Chicken of the Sea/
Empress International
Darden Restaurants
Delta Blue Aquaculture
Eastern Fish Co.
Fenway Partners LLC
Fishery Products International, Inc.
Grobest USA Inc.
Integrated Aquaculture International
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maloney Seafood Corp.
Mazzetta Co., LLC
Morey’s Seafood International
National Fish and Seafood, Inc.
Pescanova USA
Preferred Freezer Services
QVD
Red Chamber Co.
Rich Product Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sea Port Products Corp.
Seafood Exchange of Florida
Seafood Solutions
4
July/August 2011
Seajoy
Thai Union Group
Trace Register
Tropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Solae, LLC
SouthFresh Aquaculture
Stavis Seafoods, Inc.
The Fishin’ Company
United Seafood Enterprises, L.P.
Western Edge Inc.
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP
Anova Food, Inc.
Aquatec Industrial Pecuaria Ltd.
Blue Ridge Aquaculture
Camanchaca
Contessa Food Products, Inc.
Cooke Aquaculture Inc.
Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd.
Diversified Business Communications
DSM
Fega Marikultura P.T.
Findus Group
Fortune Fish Co.
H & N Foods International, Inc.
Harbor Seafood, Inc.
Ipswich Shellfish Co., Inc.
Maritime Products International
Mt. Cook Alpine Salmon
Orca Bay Seafoods
Pacific Supreme Co.
PanaPesca USA Corp.
PFS Logistics
Santa Monica Seafood
Sealord Group Ltd.
Seattle Fish Co.
Seattle Fish Co. of N.M.
Shianlin Frozen Foods
Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS
All China Federation of Industry
and Commerce Aquatic Production
Chamber of Commerce
American Feed Industry Association
Associação Brasileira de Criadoresde
Camarão
Australian Prawn Farmers Association
Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation
China Aquatic Products Processing
and Marketing Association
Fats and Proteins Research
Foundation, Inc.
Indiana Soybean Alliance
International Fishmeal and
Fish Oil Organisation
Malaysian Shrimp
Industry Association
National Fisheries Institute
National Renderers Association
Prince Edward Island Seafood
Processors Association
Salmon of the Americas
SalmonChile
Seafood Importers
and Processors Alliance
U.S. Soybean Export Council
World Aquaculture Society
World Renderers Organization
global aquaculture advocate
GOAL host city Santiago is Chile’s capital and national
commerce center.
The GOAL 2011 aquaculture seafood conference – scheduled for November 6-9 in Santiago, Chile -- will present interpretations of key data on seafood supplies and market trends in
fish and shrimp aquaculture. Consistent with the GOAL theme,
“Double in a Decade – Responsibly,” speakers from the production and retail sectors, governments and NGOs will also address
ways the aquaculture sector can quickly increase production sustainably to meet the demands of the rapidly growing middle
class in Asia and elsewhere.
Investor Session
The rapidly rising demand for seafood driven by the burgeoning middle class can only be met by aquaculture. But how
will this major growth be financed? And how will global seafood
markets shift?
GOAL 2011 will examine these and other questions during its
November 8 session on global aquaculture investment. Gorjan
Nikolik, a senior associate for commodities, farming and animal
protein with Rabobank International, will begin, followed by a
panel discussion on aquaculture investment featuring experts from
the worlds of private investing, banking and aquaculture. A new
tool to help connect seafood pros with investment sources to support expansion and further development will also be presented.
Chile And ISA
Another important topic on the GOAL 2011 program
agenda – especially to those involved in aquaculture in the host
country – is Chile’s recovery from the impacts of an infectious
salmon anemia (ISA) outbreak. After its salmon-farming industry lost output and major market share to the disease, it had to
rethink policies and rework infrastructure. Aquaculture consultant Adolfo Alvial will explain the results of a survey that examined the impacts of ISA and how they were addressed.
His presentation will report on the first phase of a new
World Bank-funded project by the Responsible Aquaculture
Foundation and Wageningen University that is studying disease
issues related to salmon, shrimp and Pangasius farming.
Topics And Trends
Other program sessions will address Fish 2030 and new
technologies that will help aquaculturists expand production. In
addition to GOAL’s updates on supply and demand trends for
GOAL 2011 will offer a selection of touring opportunities
before, during and after the conference. The outings will include
options to visit aquaculture facilities in northern and southern
Chile, and other destinations in tours from half a day to five days
in duration. Organized by Adolfo Alvial Consultancies or Destination Management Chile, these tours will be led by bilingual
hosts and generally start from the Grand Hyatt in Santiago.
Go cycling in Santiago, discover the Colchagua Wine Route
or take in Torres del Paine in Patagonia. Descriptions of these
tours – which feature varied elements of Chile, the country at
“the end of the world” – are posted on the GAA website at
www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php. This page also
includes a link to excellent local and regional travel advice provided by Chile’s Department of Fisheries.
Registration Available
GOAL 2011 is open to aquaculture and seafood producers,
processors, marketers, retailers, investors around the world. To
participate, register online or download a printable form at www.
gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-registration.php. GAA offers
an early registration discount of up to U.S. $300 per person.
Global Aquaculture Alliance members receive additional discounts for registration fees. All GOAL registrations will be
reviewed by the conference committee before approval.
Grand Hyatt Hotel
GOAL 2011 will convene at the Grand Hyatt Santiago, a
five-star luxury hotel with a resort feel. Located in the exclusive
Las Condes district, it offers easy access to the city center,
nearby golfing and mall shopping. The Grand Hyatt will provide
free in-room Internet service and daily breakfast buffet for conference attendees.
GOAL participants must make room reservations directly
with the hotel. A form can be downloaded at www.gaalliance.
org/GOAL2011/goal-hotel.php.
Photo by Mario Mendoza, Technopress.
GOAL 2011 will include options to tour sea-based salmon
farms and other aquaculture facilities.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
5
Alliance Completes BAP Salmon Farm Standards
BAP’s new standards apply to the cage production of salmon
and trout.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance has expanded the Best
Aquaculture Practices certification program with the completion
of BAP standards for salmon farms. “This is another big step forward for BAP,” GAA Executive
Director Wally Stevens said. “With the salmon standards coming on line, the program now covers another very important spe-
cies via international guidelines that protect the environment,
worker rights and animal welfare, while also addressing food
safety and traceability.”
The BAP standards for salmon farms apply to the cage and
net pen production of salmon and rainbow trout. They join
BAP’s standards for shrimp, tilapia, Pangasius and channel catfish. The BAP program also includes standards for feed mills,
hatcheries and processing plants. Over 700,000 mt of seafood are
processed under the BAP program annually.
BAP is now open to salmon farmers and processors, and is
working with certification bodies to develop auditor guidelines
for the new standards. An August BAP auditor course in Ireland
will emphasize the salmon standards.
The BAP Standards Oversight Committee (SOC), whose
members represent a balance of stakeholders from industry,
NGOs and academia, unanimously approved the standards for
implementation. The salmon standards were initially drafted by
a technical committee under the chairmanship of aquaculture
scientist and consultant John Forster. The standards were then
redrafted following input from the public review process, finalized and approved by the SOC and GAA board. The standards can be viewed at www.gaalliance.org/
cmsAdmin/uploads/BAP-SalmonF-611.pdf. Public comments
and responses are also available at www.gaalliance.org/bap/
comments.php.
SGS Joins Best Aquaculture Practices Auditing Team
The Best Aquaculture Practices program has added SGS to its
international team of auditing bodies. In a service agreement between
BAP and SGS, the independent contractor will perform facility
inspections and certification audits for aquaculture farms, hatcheries,
processing plants and feed mills that apply for BAP certification.
SGS is the world’s leading inspection, verification, testing
and certification company. SGS is recognized as the global
benchmark for quality and integrity. With more than 64,000
employees, SGS operates a network of over 1,250 offices and
laboratories around the world.
“We are very pleased to work with an auditing organization
with such worldwide capacity and capabilities as SGS,” BAP
Executive Director Jim Heerin said, “particularly as the Global
Aquaculture Alliance is preparing to announce the completion of
new standards.”
SGS auditors will receive training and authorization from
BAP regarding the certification standards before carrying out
audits.
SGS joins Global Trust Certification, NSF International and
John Bean Technologies, Ltd./Food Audits International as an
ISO 65-accredited certification body designated to perform BAP
audits. The use of ISO 65 inspectorates allows BAP certification
to comply with Global Food Safety Initiative benchmarking and
other international standards requirements.
BAP Adds Thai Union As Four-Star Company
Best Aquaculture Practices has gained Thai Union Group as
its largest “four-star” aquaculture operation. Thai Union, whose
widely recognized retail brands include Chicken of the Sea, Sealect and John West, is a leading producer and exporter of frozen
and canned seafood.
“Thai Union’s extensive aquaculture ventures were already
operating with sustainability in mind, and this will help bring
even more responsibly produced shrimp and seafood to tables
across the globe,” said GAA President George Chamberlain.
With their May 19 certification, Thai Union’s feed mills in
Muang, Samutsakhon; and Ranod, Songkhla, Thailand, became
the latest additions to the list of over 400 BAP-certified facilities. Thai Union has also achieved BAP certification for over
two dozen shrimp farms in Thailand. The Thai Union Hatchery
Co. in Ampher Takuatung, Phang-nga, Thailand, distributes
6
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
white shrimp postlarvae to farmers.
Much of the group’s seafood output is processed by the Thai
Union Seafood Co., Ltd. plant in Amphur Singhanakorn, Songkhla, Thailand. With the expansion of its cooked shrimp production facilities, it expects to increase sales of shrimp products
in Japan, Europe and other potential markets. Thai Union Frozen Products Public Co., Ltd. in Ampher Muang, Samutsakorn,
Thailand, also processes shrimp harvested from Thai Union’s
certified farms.
“The BAP four-star status fits well with Thai Union’s sustainability initiatives and core beliefs,” said Rittirong Boonmechote, managing director of Thai Union Frozen Products and
president of Thai Union Feedmill. “This status allows us to provide the best possible product to our customers and will help us
achieve sustainability through the whole supply chain.”
Global Alliance At World Aquaculture 2011
George Chamberlain (center) greets visitors at the GAA booth
in Natal.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance actively participated in the June
6-10 annual meeting of the World Aquaculture Society in Natal,
Brazil. The event had a registration of over 3,000 participants.
GAA President George Chamberlain delivered a talk in the
shrimp session of World Aquaculture 2011 – “Can We Double
in a Decade, Responsibly?” – in which he reviewed the highlights of GOAL 2010. He discussed such topics as shifting
global economic power and the rising new middle class, and
their impacts on global seafood demand. By 2030, 66% of the
world’s middle class will live in the Asia Pacific region, he said.
India and China are driving the growth in the global middle
class, and China is becoming a net importer of seafood. The
global demand for seafood is projected to be between 138 and 159
mmt by 2025, so aquaculture production will need to be 74 to 100
mmt by 2025 – an increase of 42 or 92% from 2008 levels.
Chamberlain also discussed the production of major species,
the impacts of technology on the aquaculture business and the
extraordinary gains made by shrimp farmers in Thailand due to
genetic and hatchery improvements. Finally, he reviewed aquaculture from a U.S. foodservice perspective and explained the
Walmart commitment to seafood produced under GAA’s Best
Aquaculture Practices program.
GAA also participated in the trade show, where Global
Aquaculture Advocate Manager Susan Chamberlain distributed
literature at the GAA booth and answered questions about the
organization’s mission and activities.
GAA, APCC Expand Cooperative Agreement
The Global Aquaculture Alliance and All China Federation
of Industry and Commerce Aquatic Production Chamber of
Commerce (APCC) have expanded a cooperative agreement
between the two groups regarding advancing sustainable aquaculture in China and other countries.
In a May ceremony in Wuhan, China, GAA and APCC
agreed to collaborate on the proposed United States Food and
Drug Administration HACCP training programs in support of
appropriate Chinese government departments.
The parties will provide personnel and facilities for the training and encourage further training to address issues of sustainability as encompassed in the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP)
certification program. They agree to present a proposed plan and
budgets for this expanded training to funding agencies.
APCC and GAA will also jointly advocate for producers and
major retail and foodservice businesses in China to support sustainable aquaculture practices as addressed in the BAP standards.
APCC President Li Zhong (left) and GAA Executive Director
Wally Stevens ceremoniously shook hands to expand an agreement between the two groups.
BAP Reps Meet With Indian Farmers
BAP Asia coordinator Ken Corpron
discussed the implementation of certification standards
for group farms with
farmers in India.
Best Aquaculture Practices Director of Quality Control Jeff
Peterson and Asia and Pacific Regional Coordinator Ken Corpron met with representatives of processing plants, hatcheries
and farmer groups in India in mid-May to discuss implementation of the BAP standards for group farms.
“The response was very enthusiastic,” Peterson said. “The
ongoing transition from P. monodon to L. vannamei culture is
resulting in production levels not seen in years. Processing and
farmers groups are positioning themselves for a dramatic increase
in production that appears to be coming very soon.”
The Indian government has implemented two programs to
bolster the white shrimp sector. Farms are required to install
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
7
Tours
Jory Addresses Trends,
Technology In China,
Register Online
Mexico,
Panama Talks
The GOAL 2011 schedule will include options to tour aquaculture farms and other destinations. Additional information
will be posted as available.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance
GOAL 2011 is a by-invitation meeting open to aquaculture
has named Janet Vogel as its new
and
seafood
marketers,
retailers
Darryl
Jory, producers,
GAA’s editorprocessors,
and development
manager,
repremanager for the Global Aquaculture
and
others
associated
with
fish
and
shellfish
farming
worldsented
the
Global
Aquaculture
Alliance
at
several
events
in
recent
Advocate magazine. Vogel will coorwide.
To
request
an
invitation,
visit
www.gaalliance.org/
weeks.
During
the
International
Symposium
on
Tilapia
in
Aquadinate advertising sales, production
GOAL2011/.
All GOAL
beAquaculture
reviewed Pracculture
in Shanghai,
China,registrations
he presented will
“Best
and distribution
forMendoza,
“The Global
Photo by Mario
Technopress.
by the
conference
beforeCertification
approval. for Greater
tices
Standards
for thecommittee
Tilapia Industry:
Magazine for Farmed Seafood.”
Sustainability.”
hisearly-bird
key pointsdiscounts.
were a discussion
of sea“I look forward to representing
Register earlyAmong
to enjoy
GAA corporate
food
certification,
how
the
Best
Aquaculture
Practices
tilapia
GAA
in
its
leadership
role
of
stanmembers receive additional discounts. Visit the “Join GAA” page at www.gaalliance.org/joingaa.php for memstandards were developed and are applied, and the increasing
dardand
setting
for farmed seafood,”
bership benefits
details.
importance certification and traceability have in the global seaVogel said. “One of my goals is to
food industry.
further
expand
the
readership
of
the
Janet Vogel
Global Aquaculture
Jory then presented “Sustainable Aquaculture Development
Advocate to reach more Alliance
seafood buyGOAL 2011 is
theand
Global
Aquaculture
and Technology” during a May workshop on tilapia culture in
ersorganized
in both theby
retail
foodservice
Alliance, an international
non-profit trade association
Tepic, Nayarit, Mexico, organized by the Mexican Trust Funds
market segments.
responsible
for Rural Development. Among his main points were the need for
“Suppliersdedicated
and buyers to
canadvancing
count on the
Advocate as aquaculture.
the leadGAA is the on
leading
organization
for
increased
seafood production in coming decades and sustainability
ing source of information
farmedstandards-setting
seafood sustainability
and
farmed
seafood.
Aquaculture Pracin the aquaculture production systems that will provide it. It will
food safety, and
stay informed
onThrough
the futureitsofBest
aquaculture.”
tices
standards,
GlobalinAquaculture
Advocate magabe key to transition to an industrial perspective and accompanying
With nearly
30 years
of experience
the seafood industry,
zine,marketing
website and
andsales
meetings,
helps Garaquaculturtechnologies to improve profitability and sustainability, Jory said.
Vogel is a former
managerGAA
for Ocean
wholesome
healthy
seafood
products. He then attended the May 11-13 Panama Shrimp 2011 Conden Products,ists
Inc.,raise
where
she helped and
establish
a new
sales territory and increased
seafood
sales inaquaculture
the United States,
Europe effective,
It also
represents
by promoting
gress and Trade Show, where he emphasized the need for more
and Asia. Shecoordinated
also developedregulatory
foodserviceand
chain
program
sales
technology and an industrial, certifiable approach to aquaculture
trade policies.
and expanded distributor customer sales for Rubicon Resources,
in the coming decades in a talk on the sustainable development
LLC., and recently provided regional sales management and
of finfish aquaculture.
business development for C.P. Food Products, Inc., PescanovaFinally, Jory attended a tilapia workshop in Veracruz, Mexico,
global aquaculture
Ladex and CapitalSea.
sponsored by the Mexican aquafeed company Vimifos. In a preVogel takes over from Advocate Manager Susan Chamberlain, sentation, he described tilapia culture in Asia and suggested aquawho led the magazine’s
return to six annual print issues and
culture in Mexico could become more competitive through the
®
expanded electronic advertising options to include quickimplementation of emerging genetics and growout technology.
response (Q.R.) codes and other media. Chamberlain is pursuing He also emphasized the rising roles certification and traceability
other opportunities in the non-profit sector.
have in the global seafood industry.
For advertising information or to place ads in the Advocate,
contact Vogel at +1-314-293-5500 or janet.vogel@gaalliance.org.
GAA Information Request BAP Reps Meet....
(Continued from page 7.)
water-holding
reservoirs
and effluent
treatment
systems
I want to be part of GOAL 2011. Please
send me further
information
and
consider
me to control
o Yes,the
Reach
Leaders...
for participation
in this event.
the quality of water entering and leaving farms. India has also
its National Residue Control Program to prescreen all
Please send me information on sponsoringimproved
GOAL 2011.
o
Advertise
In the
farm harvests for the presence of non-approved antibiotics.
Please send me the following information on other
GAA
activities.
While
in Chennai,
Peterson and Corpron also attended the
GlobaloAquaculture
Advocate.
National Workshop on Scaling Up the Shrimp BMP Program at
o Corporate Membership
the Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture.
Reach readers
across theMembership
globe.
Through the Marine Products Export Development Authoro Individual
ity-sponsored National Center for Sustainable Aquaculture proWe offer competitive
rates
and...
Certification
o Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP)gram,
India has made strides in the formation of small-scale
GAA corporate members
save
15-30%!
Information
shrimp farmer
groups called societies.
o Global Aquaculture Advocate Magazine
The groups are working toward adopting best management
practices,
including pond preparation procedures, biosecurity
Contact
Marketing Manager
Name _________________________________________________
Title _________________________________
measures,
feed and water quality management, disease manageJanet Vogel
ment and traceability. Production results at small farms appear to
Company
Name _____________________________________________________________________________
at 314-293-5500
be improving dramatically as a result.
or janet.vogel@gaalliance.org
Since many of these measures also play a significant role in
Business
Address ____________________________________________________________________________
to take advantage of special rates
BAP certification, farms that participate in such programs already
Country _______________________________________________
Postal
Code
_________________________
satisfy a significant
part of
the BAP
requirements. The Global
for multiple insertions, too.
Aquaculture Alliance and BAP are exploring means by which to
Contact me by: o E-mail ______________________________ o Phone ____________________________
help the small farm groups achieve certification.
8
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
GOAL 2011
November 6-9, 2011
Grand Hyatt Santiago
Santiago, Chile
global aquaculture
Global Outlook
For Aquaculture Leadership 2011
®
Join the Global Aquaculture Alliance and fellow seafood leaders
at “The End of the World” for GAA’s annual aquaculture seafood meeting.
®
SANTIAGO, CHILe
GAA Names Janet Vogel
New Advocate Manager
Double In A Decade –
Responsibly
Photo courtesy of Armin Ramírez.
R
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
9
Plan Now For Change
As speakers at GOAL 2010 confirmed, the aquaculture industry is
changing fast. Global markets are shifting, and the world’s rising middle class is demanding exponentially more seafood. Attend Global
Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership (GOAL) 2011 and gain strategic
insights to help your business succeed in this changing environment.
Organized by the Global Aquaculture Alliance, GOAL 2011 will combine targeted information on aquaculture production and marketing
with unequaled opportunities to network and expand your business
horizons.
NOV.
1-5
• Tours available: Colchagua Wine District (2 days), Torres del Paine (5 days)
NOV. 6
Registration, Welcome Reception
Chile: “The End of the World”
The GOAL conference series is making its first stop in the Southern
Hemisphere this year. GOAL 2011 will highlight the host country, Chile,
a diverse land whose aquaculture industry is transforming itself with a
move toward greater sustainability.
To enhance your visit, GOAL 2011 will include options to tour aquaculture
facilities and other destinations. A selection of tours has been prepared by
Adolfo Alvial Consultancies and Destination Management Chile S.A.,
with separate payment arrangements.
Aquaculture in Pacific
Patagonia Tour (4 days)
See salmon and mussel farming, as
well as new aquaculture opportunities under development in the
Patagonian region of Chile. Based at an exceptional hotel in Puerto Varas,
this tour features visits to a salmon hatchery and smolt facilities, salmon
farm and value-added processing plant. In addition, see mussel farms and
an aquaculture research institution. These activities will be complemented
with short trips to natural and cultural attractions in the region.
Pre-Conference Tours
• Welcome Reception: Grand Hyatt Hotel Pool – 7-10 p.m.
• Tours available: Portillo (8 hours), Viña del Mar/Valparaiso (8 hours)
Santiago, Concha y Toro Winery and La Cachimba Bike Tour (3.5-4 hours each)
See www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php for tour details and registration
NOV. 7
NOV. 8
Production Sessions – George Chamberlain, Facilitator
•G
lobal aquaculture statistics (main cultured species)
Fish: Ragnar Tveteras, University of Stavanger – Norway
• Fish 2030 summary: World Bank
• Chile’s Recovery From ISA: Adolfo Alvial, Adolfo Alvial Consultancies – Chile
• Innovative technologies related to doubling production
• Lunch is complimentary with presentation (TBD)
•T
ours available: Santiago, Concha y Toro Winery and La Cachimba Bike Tour (3.5-4 hours each)
See www,gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php for tour details and registration
Issues and Answers – Jeff Fort, Facilitator
• Global aquaculture investment
Keynote: Gorjan Nikolik, Rabobank International – The Netherlands
Panel discussion with representatives of private investors, World Bank and other banks,
aquaculture facilities
• Feed and energy
• New technologies
• Lunch is complimentary with presentation (TBD)
• Gala Reception/Dinner – Castillo Hidalgo (buses depart the Grand Hyatt Hotel @ 7 p.m.)
NOV. 9
Marketing Sessions – Peter Redmond, Facilitator
• Global aquaculture markets: retail, foodservice, quick-serve
• Emphasis will be on salmon
• Tours available: Santiago, Concha y Toro Winery or La Cachimba Bike Tour (3.5-4 hours each)
Aquaculture in Pacific Patagonia (4 days), Emerging Aquaculture (4 days)
See www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php for tour details and registrations
Key Questions
Examine the facts and explore solutions to unfolding issues during
the half-day program sessions at GOAL 2011. Facing growing
demand, how will existing seafood facilities generate more product?
Will new culture areas be developed? Will advances in technology
once again come to our rescue? How will this major growth be
financed? And how can all of this be accomplished responsibly?
Find answers at GOAL 2011 in Santiago.
10
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
Emerging Aquaculture In Northern Chile Tour (4 days)
Based in the colonial city of La Serena, this tour emphasizes flatfish, abalone and
scallop farming, as well as new developments like yellowtail kingfish and native fish
in northern Chile. Visit aquaculture diversification centers and farming operations
in Coquimbo and Tongoy, as well as the Valley of the Stars and La Serena’s and
Coquimbo’s coastlines and handcraft markets.
For those with less time, half-day tours include
trips to the Concha y Toro Winery, one of
Chile’s most traditional wineries, and the La
Cachimba Bike Tour of Sanitago. If you have a
full day, consider the Portillo Tour into the Andean
region or travel to the port
of Valparaíso and “Garden
City” of Viña del Mar. A twoday tour of the Colchagua
Wine District and five-day
tour of the Torres del Paine
in southern Chile’s Patagonia are also available before GOAL 2011 convenes. See further
details and fees for tours on the GAA website at www.gaalliance.
org/GOAL2011/goal-tours.php.
Register Now!
GOAL 2011 is open to aquaculture and seafood producers, processors, marketers, retailers, investors and others associated with fish and shellfish farming
worldwide. Register online or download a printable form at www.gaalliance.org/
GOAL2011/goal-registration.php. Register now to enjoy early-bird discounts
up to U.S. $300 per person!
Grand Hyatt Hotel
GOAL 2011 will convene at the Grand Hyatt Santiago, an “in-town” five-star luxury hotel with a resort feel. Located in the exclusive Las Condes district, it offers
easy access to the city center, top-notch golfing and mall shopping. The Grand
Hyatt will provide free in-room Internet service and daily breakfast buffet for
conference attendees.
Reserve your room now for reduced rates and best availability. A form can be
downloaded at www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2011/goal-hotel.php.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
11
Liming Materials
For Aquaculture
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
Liming materials
should be spread
uniformly over
pond bottoms
to disinfect them
bewteen crops.
Summary:
Liming materials neutralize
acidity and increase pH in pond
bottom soil and water. They also
react with carbon dioxide to form
bicarbonate and release calcium
and magnesium, increasing both
alkalinity and hardness concentrations in water. Liming materials should be spread as uniformly
as possible over pond bottoms to
disinfect them between crops or
spread over the entire water surface of ponds. Fertilizers should
not be applied for a week following liming.
Limestone is the most common raw
material for making liming materials.
Ordinary limestone is a relatively soft
rock consisting of a mixture of calcium
carbonate and a lesser amount of magnesium carbonate. Limestone containing
only calcium carbonate is called calcite,
while limestone with a calcium carbonate:
magnesium carbonate ratio of exactly 1:1
is referred to as dolomite. These two minerals are fairly rare.
Limestone that is mostly calcium carbonate usually is called calcitic limestone,
and limestone that has nearly equal proportions of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate often is considered
dolomitic limestone by manufacturers of
12
July/August 2011
Department of Fisheries
and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
liming materials. Limestone may be classified based on its calcium and magnesium concentrations (Table 1).
Agricultural Limestone
Agricultural limestone is produced by
finely pulverizing limestone in a rock
crusher. This product also can be made
from chalk and marl. Marl consists of
(calcium and magnesium carbonates
deposited in lakes that often are mixed
with clay and seashells. Finely ground
agricultural limestone dissolves more
quickly and completely than coarsely
ground limestone. Effects on total alkalinity concentrations in pond waters after
applications of agricultural limestones
with different particle fineness are illustrated in Figure 1.
The fineness value of agricultural
limestone is based on its particle size distribution. The solubilities of limestone
particles of different sizes can be used to
assign a characteristic efficiency value to
each size class of particles. These efficiency values are used with the particle
size distribution of individual samples to
obtain the samples’ fineness values.
A sample that completely passes a
No. 140 screen – with no particles larger
than 106 µ in diameter – has a fineness
value of 100%. Samples with coarser particles have lower fineness values. Agricultural limestone with a fineness value of
80% will dissolve only 80% as well as one
with a fineness rating of 100%. Assuming
two liming materials have equal abilities
to neutralize acidity, it requires 1.25 kg of
a material with a fineness rating of 80%
to equal 1 kg of a material with a fineness
rating of 100%.
Neutralizing Values
The neutralizing value compares the
acid-neutralizing capacity of a sample of
liming material to that of a pure calcium
carbonate standard. A product with a
neutralizing value of 85% can neutralize
85% as much acid as an equal quantity of
calcium carbonate that has a neutralizing
value of 100%.
It is important to point out that dolomitic limestone has a maximum possible
neutralizing value of 109%. However,
there usually is no benefit in using dolomitic agricultural limestone – which often
is more expensive than others – over ordinary agricultural limestone with neutral-
Table 1. Calcium and magnesium concentrations
of different types of limestone.
Type
Pure calcite
Calcitic limestone
Pure dolomite
Dolomitic limestone
Ordinary limestone
global aquaculture advocate
Calcium (%)
Magnesium (%)
40.0
38.0-40.0
21.7
< 20.3
0
< 1.2
13.2
> 12.0
Other compositions
Alkalinity (mg/L as calcium carbonate
production
50
Finely Ground Limestone
Coarsely Ground Limestone
40
30
20
10
0
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
Month
Figure 1. Effects on alkalinity of finely ground and coarsely ground agricultural limestone.
izing value near 100%. Other Liming Materials
Limestone or one of the alternative
sources of calcium and magnesium carbonates mentioned above can be burned
in a kiln at high temperature to drive off
carbon dioxide, leaving a residue of calcium and magnesium oxides called burnt
lime. When treated with water, burnt
lime reacts to yield calcium or magnesium
hydroxides or hydrated lime.
Burnt and hydrated lime made from
pure calcite have neutralizing values of
179 and 135%, respectively, while the
neutralizing values would be 200 and
147%, respectively, for burnt lime and
hydrated lime made from pure dolomite.
However, lime usually is made from ordinary limestone or one of the alternative
raw materials.
The raw material may not be completely burned, and the product can
adsorb water during storage. Thus, the
composition of burnt or hydrated lime
often is not known exactly, and it is helpful to know the neutralizing value. It also
is useful to know the fineness of the lime.
Application
Liming rates, traditionally expressed in
terms of calcium carbonate, typically range
1,000-3,000 kg/ha. An agricultural limestone with a neutralizing value of 85%
would have to be applied at 1,176 kg/ha to
be equivalent to 1,000 kg/ha of calcium
carbonate. The application rate also can be
adjusted for fineness value. Suppose the
product with 85% neutralizing value has a
fineness value of 80%. The application rate
adjusted for both neutralizing and fineness
values would be 1,470 kg/ha.
Because of its higher neutralizing
value, lime is used at lower application
rates than agricultural limestone. Nevertheless, even at low application rates, lime
can raise water pH to 12 or more. Agricultural limestone, on the other hand, does
not cause pH to rise above about 8.5.
In ponds containing fish or shrimp,
lime should not be applied at more than
50 kg/ha to avoid excessively high pH.
The greatest use of lime is for disinfection of bottom soils in empty ponds
between crops by applying 1,000 kg/ha or
more in a single treatment to raise pH to
12 or above and kill unwanted organisms.
In many instances, information on
neutralizing and fineness values of liming
products is not available. A common
practice in traditional agriculture is to
apply 50% more liming material than the
recommended lime requirement in order
to compensate for low neutralizing value,
fineness value or both. This approach also
can be used in aquaculture.
All types of liming materials react
similarly to neutralize acidity and increase
pH in bottom soil and water. They also
react with carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate and release calcium and magnesium, increasing both total alkalinity and
total hardness concentrations in water.
Liming materials are at best sparingly
soluble, and they should be spread as uniformly as possible over pond bottoms
between crops or spread over the entire
water surface of ponds. Liming materials
also react to bind phosphorus when initially applied to ponds. Thus, fertilizers
should not be applied for about a week
following liming.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
13
production
Table 1. Typical organization for a spreadsheet used to monitor confidence bounds around the mean.
Shrimp Sampling Method
Improves Stocking Process
Sample
Number
Andrew J. Ray, M.S.
Jeffrey M. Lotz, Ph.D.
University of Southern Mississippi
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Jeffrey F. Brunson, M.S.
John W. Leffler, Ph.D.
South Carolina Department
of Natural Resources
Waddell Mariculture Center
Bluffton, South Carolina, USA
Summary:
Accurate estimates of shrimp
populations and size variability
can help managers make informed
decisions that reduce feeding costs
and improve system performance.
The mean weight of multiple
groups of shrimp is commonly
used to determine the quantity of
shrimp needed to stock at a particular density. However, knowing
the number of samples needed to
overcome nursery size variability
can substantially increase accuracy.
Accurate estimation of the number of
shrimp in a culture unit is critical for
managers to administer appropriate feed
rations and predict harvest size. If the
population is underestimated, the animals
will be underfed, leading to poor growth.
If the system is overfed due to an overestimation of the population, unnecessary
nutrients can cause oxygen depletion and
toxic inorganic nitrogen accumulation, in
addition to significant economic losses
caused by wasted feed.
To estimate the population size of a
growout system, an accurate approximation
of the number of shrimp stocked must first
14
July/August 2011
be made. One of the advantages to operating a nursery prior to the growout cycle is
that the number of shrimp can be reassessed between the two stages. The mean
weight of multiple groups of shrimp is
commonly used to determine the quantity
of shrimp, by weight, needed to stock at a
particular density. However, knowing the
number of samples needed to overcome
nursery size variability and arrive at a statistically sound approximation of the weight
needed can substantially increase accuracy.
Shrimp Sampling Method
To arrive at an accurate estimate of
shrimp weight, a statistics-based sequential sampling method is routinely used at
the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory in
Mississippi, USA, and the Waddell
Mariculture Center in South Carolina,
USA. Groups of animals from all areas of
the nursery are collected, and care is
taken to avoid crowding animals in nets.
Approximately 200 animals are
included in each sample. Samples are
then carefully weighed, and the exact
numbers of shrimp are counted. The
sample weight and number of shrimp in
each sample are recorded in an electronic
spreadsheet. The formulas used to calculate each subsequent value are preprogrammed into the spreadsheet before
global aquaculture advocate
Size Variability,
Stocking Density
To assess whether variation in shrimp
size at the end of a nursery phase can be
attributed to nursery stocking density, the
277
270
274
200
258
252
226
262
283
306
287
267
251
260
291
Degrees of
Freedom
T-Value
(two-tale, α = 0.05)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
12.706
4.303
3.182
2.776
2.571
2.447
2.365
2.306
2.262
2.228
2.201
2.179
2.160
2.145
2.132
2.120
2.110
2.101
2.093
2.086
2.080
2.074
2.069
2.064
2.060
2.056
2.052
2.048
2.045
2.042
Standard
Deviation
Standard
Error
Confidence
Bound
Confidence
Bound
CB/Mean
1.309
1.329
1.238
1.244
1.246
1.226
1.235
1.252
1.275
1.280
1.281
1.278
1.278
1.282
0.034
0.042
0.184
0.160
0.143
0.142
0.134
0.136
0.146
0.140
0.134
0.128
0.123
0.120
0.024
0.024
0.092
0.072
0.058
0.054
0.047
0.045
0.046
0.042
0.039
0.036
0.033
0.031
0.304
0.105
0.293
0.199
0.150
0.131
0.112
0.104
0.105
0.094
0.085
0.078
0.071
0.066
0.232
0.079
0.237
0.160
0.121
0.107
0.091
0.083
0.082
0.073
0.066
0.061
0.056
0.052
authors examined data from 15 recent nursery harvests at the Waddell Mariculture
Center. They compared the coefficient of
variation in the size of shrimp at the time of
nursery harvest to the original stocking
density of those respective nurseries.
Using regression analysis, it was
determined that stocking density was a
strong predictor of the coefficient of variation in shrimp weight. This finding
implies that with higher stocking density
comes greater size variability when nurseries are harvested.
Perspectives
By sampling a nursery system in the
manner described, the statistical confidence bounds around the mean shrimp
weight are monitored closely as samples
are collected. This allows a system manager to arrive at a point in sampling
where 95% confidence bounds around the
mean are established.
Equation 1
Standard Standard Deviation
= Number of Samples
Error
Article
Submissions
Contact Editor Darryl Jory
for author guidelines.
E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Telephone: +1-407-376-1478
Fax: +1-419-844-1638
Confidence Standard Error
= * T-Value
Bound
Shrimp Stocked
Desired
=
Equation 3
Shrimp Weight Mean Shrimp/g
Figure 1. Error and confidence equations.
Confidence
Bound:Mean
Standard Error
0.15
0.10
00.5
0
This project demonstrated that the
amount of variation in shrimp size can be
a product of the nursery stocking density.
This may be an important consideration in
determining the number of shrimp that
should be stocked into a nursery system.
Stocking shrimp of uniform size
reduces the initial variability of growout
systems. It should be evaluated whether
this reduction in variability results in a
decrease of size variability at the end of
the production cycle.
Equation 2
0.25
0.20
Cumulative
Mean
Shrimp/g
1.285
1.333
1.369
0.967
1.264
1.260
1.101
1.298
1.391
1.477
1.336
1.295
1.238
1.278
1.339
Table 2. αT-values used
to calculate confidence
bounds with equation 2.
Sample Values
Calculations based on multiple samples of 200 shrimp taken at the nursery stage can lead
to more accurate stocking in the growout phase.
sampling begins. A completed example
spreadsheet file is depicted in Table 1.
From the number of shrimp in each
sample and the weight of that sample, a
shrimp per gram value is calculated. In
the following column, a cumulative mean
shrimp per gram value is calculated with
each new sample. From that, standard
deviation and standard error values are
calculated as in equation 1 in Figure 1.
The standard error value is used in equation 2 to calculate the confidence bound
(C.B.). The C.B. is then divided by the
latest cumulative mean value to determine whether the limits of the C.B. are
within 5% of the mean.
The t-value used in equation 2 (Figure 1) to calculate the C.B. comes from a
table of t-distributions typically found in
statistics books. The value needed is from
a two-tale t-distribution where α = 0.05.
The t-value used depends on the number
of samples weighed, where degrees of
freedom = N-1. The t-values are presented in Table 2.
When at least 10 samples have been
measured, and the C.B.:mean ratio is 0.05
or less, that latest cumulative mean value is
accepted. Shrimp can then be stocked by
weight using equation 3 (Figure 1), with
the accuracy of the number of shrimp
stocked within 5% (Figure 2). For example, using the data in Table 1, if a system
manager would like to stock 50,000 animals from the sampled nursery, 39,001.6
g of shrimp (50,000/1.282) are needed.
215.6
202.6
200.1
206.8
204.1
200.0
205.3
201.8
203.4
207.2
214.9
206.2
202.7
203.5
217.4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
University of Southern Mississippi
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
703 East Beach Drive
Ocean Springs, Mississippi 39564 USA
andrewjray@gmail.com
Weight Number
(g)
of Shrimp Shrimp/g
Figure 2. The standard
error and confidence
bound/mean ratio values
from Table 1 change
with sequential sampling.
As the ratio converges
toward the desired level
of probability, the mean
shrimp weight falls within the confidence bound.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample Number
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
15
production
survival of early-stage oysters and the final production of the
crop, indicating the importance of successful seeding and early
culture.
Environmental Influences
Aquaculture of filter-feeding
bivalve mollusks involves the
fruitful conversion of marine
organic matter into premium
protein. Assessment of the
environmental carrying capacity for bivalve culture is
essential to assist farming
development and yield
predictions.
Oyster Output Affected By
Environmental Features Of Farm Site
Darien D. Mizuta
Fisheries and Environmental Aquaculture Laboratory
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan
Nelson Silveira Júnior
Christine E. Fischer
Atlântico Sul Marine Farm
Florianópolis, Brazil
Daniel Lemos
Aquaculture Laboratory
Oceanographic Institute
University of São Paulo
Praça do Oceanográfico 191
São Paulo, Brazil
dellemos@usp.br
Summary:
In a study at a marine farm in southern Brazil, management data for Pacific cupped oyster culture were assessed to characterize yearly production in relation to
the environmental parameters at the farming site. High
water temperatures generally related to lower survival
of the oysters for the first two phases of culture. High
chlorophyll concentrations helped minimize the negative effects of high temperatures and shortened culture
time by providing additional food.
Oyster production at a marine farm depends largely on three
factors: oyster genetics, culture management and the environment. Although bivalve aquaculture is extremely dependent on
the environmental features, most of the management procedures
used by mariculture farms rely on previous understanding of the
environmental characteristics of the farming site.
The effects of short-term changes in the farming environment are reflected in oyster harvests, so by understanding this
relationship, it may be possible to improve farming management
and output prediction. In order to do so, a study was developed
joining commercial farming know-how with environmental
assessment.
Oyster Farm Study
The collaborative study focused on the characterization of
production data for Pacific cupped oysters, Crassostrea gigas, at
the Atlântico Sul Marine Farm and further analysis in relation to
events in the South Bay of Santa Catarina Island, where the
farm is located in southern Brazil. The farm continually carries
out self-initiated environmental studies and embraces partnerships with scientific projects to increase production and contribute to scientific development and improvements in mariculture
in Brazil.
Four crops – years 2005-2006, 2006-2007, 2007-2008 and
2008-2009 – were studied. Three phases of oyster production
were separately analyzed for each crop: seed to juvenile (phase 1),
juvenile to adult (phase 2) and adult to marketable size (phase 3).
Production Data
The mean culture time per crop in this region was approxi-
16
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
Management of oyster lanterns at a marine farm in the South
Bay of Santa Catarina Island, Brazil.
mately 16 months from initial seed stocking. Juvenile oysters grew
to over 30 mm in size in 30 to 240 days after stocking. Adult oysters over 50 mm and marketable animals over 70 mm were regularly sorted after 60 to 450, and 150 to 510 days after seed stocking, respectively. The intermediate culture phase of juvenile to
adult had the highest survival, followed by final growout. Due to
the fragility of the smaller oysters, juveniles had the lowest survival
rates. The mean final survival was around 30%.
Periods of El Niño bring high water temperatures to the
South Bay of Santa Catarina Island. The water may only be
cooled when a cold front occurs in the region. Since high water
temperatures are related to lower survival of the farmed oysters,
survival during periods of more intense El Niño were the lowest
registered (32% in phase 1 and 70% in phase 2), whereas periods
of more intense La Niña were characterized by higher survival
percentages. See the values for phases 2 and 3 of the 2007-2008
and 2008-2009 crops in Table 1.
A regression analysis between total crop survival and culture
phase survival indicated a significant correlation between the
There was a relationship for the first two phases of culture
between high temperatures and lower survivals, save the cases in
which high chlorophyll concentrations helped minimize the negative effects of high temperatures. In fact, the chlorophyll a concentration had an important effect on the phase duration in all
the crops. In general, the higher the food availability (assessed by
chlorophyll concentration), the shorter the culture phase.
The maximum mean values of sea surface temperature
obtained in March justified the 2005-2006 crop’s good final survival (similar to the 2007/2008 crop, whose culture period had
better chlorophyll a values because of its late initial seeding in
April), whereas all other crops were initially stocked in March, a
less favorable period with generally warmer water conditions.
Seawater chlorophyll a concentrations after the passage of
cold fronts did not show a fixed pattern. For example, from
March 2005 until mid-2007, cold fronts did not greatly increase
chlorophyll concentrations. The period between July 2006 and
February 2007, however, saw an El Niño event. From August
2007 to June 2008, a period of La Niña occurrence, the cold
front events increased the chlorophyll concentrations in the bay.
Periods of El Niño favor the upwelling of nutrient-rich
South Atlantic central water to the south of Santa Catarina
Island, but the upwelling does not always happen because sometimes the water does not reach the surface. In order for the water
to enter the bay, it may be necessary for a cold front to combine
with the upwelling event to push the waters into the bay.
On the other hand, in periods of La Niña, predominantly
southerly winds spread the Plata plume northward and into the
bay without any other event. The uncertainty of the first
described process of water entrance to the bay may be the reason
the chlorophyll levels did not increase during this period.
Perspectives
Although the management and real conditions of a commercial bivalve farm depend on various aspects, including market
demand, study of the environmental conditions at each farming
site is necessary to keep the long-term success of the activity
based on possible short-term climate variability.
In the future, the choice of more suitable species for the local
climate or stocking seed during the colder months might be
alternatives to maintain the mariculture production in Santa
Catarina. The present survey was helpful, but showed that more
studies will be necessary in order to mitigate and find adaptive
strategies that provide tools for further effective, responsible
decision making for the industry.
Table 1. Production and survival of oysters of different class sizes.
Survival (%)
Crop
2005-2006
2006-2007
2007-2008
2008-2009
Seed
Stocked
1,227,964
1,896,435
2,148,680
913,980
Juveniles
Produced
526,300
604,800
788,200
611,100
Adults
Marketable Phase
1
Produced
Oysters
461,520
341,988
42.8
481,680
367,931
31.8
785,520
588,564
36.6
536,760
394,410
66.8
Phase
2
87.6
79.6
99.6
87.8
Time (months)
Phase
Phase Phase Phase
3
Final
1
2
3
74.1
76.3
74.9
73.4
27.8
19.4
27.3
43.1
8
6
5
6
7
8
6
6
Final
13
12
8
10
18
17
13
15
Phase 1 = seed to juvenile. Phase 2 = juvenile to adult. Phase 3 = adult to marketable size.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
17
production
Uncharted Waters: Kenya Takes
Dramatic Leap In Aquaculture
Jeff Hino
Lifelong Learning Leader
Oregon State University Extended
Campus & Extension
Experiment Station Communications
4943 The Valley Library
Corvallis, Oregon 97331 USA
jeff.hino@oregonstate.edu
Kenya’s farmers are building fish ponds in huge numbers in response to the country’s
pro-aquaculture economic stimulus program. Photo by Ford Evans, AquaFish CRSP.
Summary:
As Kenya’s government officials worry about declines
in natural fish stocks and the increasing demand for
fish, they are counting on aquaculture to relieve the
pressure on overstretched fisheries and supply a more
sustainable source of protein – and cash – for Kenyans.
A massive economic stimulus program that encourages
the construction of aquaculture ponds is backed by
farm-level training that includes direction on businessrelated concerns.
Like many countries attempting to navigate the world’s current financial doldrums, Kenya recently launched an economic
stimulus program. But Kenya’s approach includes a bold move to
help the country’s small-scale farmers literally dig themselves out
of poverty – by excavating tens of thousands of holes in the
ground. Fish ponds, that is.
In a move that generated both enthusiasm and caution, the
stimulus program has spent U.S. $16 million since January 2010
to increase the country’s aquaculture production 15-fold.
Aquaculture Stimulus
Crafted in late 2009 by government fisheries officials,
researchers and educators, the two-phased aquaculture compo-
18
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
nent of the stimulus package is ambitious.
Phase 1, begun in January of 2010,
ramped up Kenya’s aquaculture output
several notches by funding the construction of 28,000 fish ponds, boosting farm
fish production from 1,000 mt in 2008 to
an estimated 8,000 mt in 2010 and
15,000 mt in 2012.
Phase 2 of the stimulus program
began at the end of 2010 with an additional U.S. $37.5 million of dedicated
funds for the aquaculture sector and a
promise to increase the number of fish
ponds to 48,000 countrywide. This is
rapid growth for a country with only
7,500 ponds before the stimulus.
Food And Cash
For Kenya’s fisheries officials, it’s not so much about how
many fish are produced as who produces them. Officials see
these new ponds as homes for millions of tilapia, catfish and
ornamental fish that can put food on the table and money in the
pockets of some of the country’s poorest farmers.
“I’m proud to say that fish farming has made me what I am
today,” said George Ambuli, chairman of a successful fish-farming cooperative in a small village near Lake Victoria. “I eat fish, I
have a cell phone in my pocket, and I am paying the school fees
for my 9-year-old daughter – all with my fish money.”
Historically the freshwater capture fish industry of Lake Victoria and other lakes has been a modest but important source of
jobs and food security for Kenya. But government officials worry
about the steady decline in natural fish stocks and the increasing
demand for fish. They are counting on aquaculture to relieve the
pressure on these overstretched fisheries and supply a more sustainable source of protein – and cash – for Kenyans.
Historical Partnership
A key partner in Kenya’s increasing reliance on aquaculture is
For Kenya’s fisheries officials, it’s not so
much about how many fish are produced
as who produces them.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
19
Other Issues
GOAL
2010
The enormous leap in fish farming brought on by the economic stimulus program has presented other challenges, as
well. Fisheries officials admittedly were not well prepared when
the full three years’ worth of aquaculture stimulus money came
all at once.
“We were going into uncharted waters and didn’t anticipate
some of the things we’re facing now,” said Kenya Director of
Fisheries Godfrey Monor. In the rush to spend the money, fish
ponds were not always well thought out, and more than a few
were built in inappropriate locations.
The sudden enthusiasm for aquaculture had another unexpected side effect. “Everyone is jumping on the boat,” Monor
said. “For each farmer funded by the stimulus program, there are
three ponds being put up by non-funded farmers. They are all
looking to us for guidance and help.”
Turf To Surf
Women such as this street vendor selling dried tilapia on the
outskirts of Lake Victoria are empowered in Kenya’s new
aquaculture. Photo by Victor Motari, Kenyatta University.
the Aquaculture & Fisheries Collaborative Research Support
Program (AquaFish CRSP) funded by the United States Agency
for International Development. AquaFish CRSP has been helping transform aquaculture in Kenya since 1997.
Dr. Charles Ngugi of Kenyatta University, the in-country
investigator for CRSP, has been a key player in getting information to the farmers through on-the-ground training. “Aquaculture in Kenya is a unique example that the rest of Africa can
borrow from,” he said. “We have a close relationship among
research, education and extension.”
CRSP has championed on-farm trials and workshop training
to deliver information directly to the farmers in ways the farmers
can understand and use. Ngugi credits CRSP with training
farmers not only in the management of ponds and fish, but also
providing them with tools critical for their financial success,
including accurate record keeping, enterprise budgeting and
methods of obtaining credit.
Got Fish?
If you have a pond, you need fish, and Kenya’s new pond
owners are looking to the government to supply them. In less
than a year, the demand for fingerlings in Kenya grew from 1
million to a whopping 28 million. Demand is outstripping supply, with many farmers still waiting for their new ponds to be
stocked. To solve the problem, the government is leaning heavily
on private industry.
Enos Mac’Were is the soft-spoken aquaculture manager at
Dominion Farms, a large, diversified private farm in western
Kenya. Mac’Were, whose master’s degree thesis work at Moi
University was funded through CRSP, has felt the pressure from
the demands created by the economic stimulus program. He said
the government asked his company to raise its original commitment of half a million fingerlings a month to 2 million fish
monthly.
Observers agree the government must go beyond the private
sector to supply sufficient numbers of these critical juvenile fish.
In response, the Department of Fisheries has identified over 30
hatcheries that could be revamped to meet the demand.
20
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
The success of Kenyan aquaculture ultimately depends on
consumer demand for fish. In a country that loves its nyami
choma, a roasted meat barbecue, it’s not easy to move the population from turf to surf.
“We had cultural challenges in some communities that were
not fish eaters,” Monor said. “But we’ve overcome that by the
sensitization of the farmers and with communication.”
Although the perception persists that farmed fish are not as
good as wild-caught fish, Monor is confident that in time, 50%
of the fish consumed in Kenya will be farm-grown. Market
research has revealed Kenyans’ preference for attractive, platesized tilapia fit for one serving.
Fisheries officials plan to put additional marketing structures
into place. Extension officers now regularly include a valueadded component in their training workshops, encouraging
farmers to gut, scale and dry their tilapia for market. Meanwhile,
the government is building 80 small refrigeration centers around
Kenya to encourage small farmers to move beyond their neighborhood markets.
global aquaculture
®
October 2010 –
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Plan Now To Attend
Network with aquaculture production and market
leaders, and examine issues and solutions at GOAL 2010.
Kuala Lumpur offers a casual tropical atmosphere with
easy access and affordable accommodations.
Additional information will follow with invitations to GAA
Under pressure to produce massive numbers of fingerlings,
members and past GOAL participants.
Dominion Farms Aquaculture Manager Enos Mac’Were
inspects
his ponds.
Co-hosted
by the Malaysia Department of Fisheries
tually,
thisTide
resultsLifts
in premature
harvests, if not total crop failure.
Rising
All Boats
Two underprivileged groups, Kenya’s women and young
Advantages,
Disadvantages
people, are prospering
under the new aquaculture initiative.
The
advantages
of biofloc
technology
include
very highby
biosWhile fish ponds continue
to be
owned almost
exclusively
ecurity.
To
date,
white
spot
syndrome
virus
has
not
been
a
factor
men, women are increasingly involved in all phases of fish farmin
the
systems.feeding,
Production
and carrying
capacity
are typically
5
ing,
including
fertilization,
predator
control
and valueto
10%post-production
higher than in typical
culture systems, with zero water
added
techniques.
exchange.
Shrimp
anda reflect
“Women
have grow
startedlarger
to play
very bigfeed-conversion
economic role,
rations
1.0how
to 1.3.
Production
costs
be 15African
to 20%
becausebetween
they know
to work
together
as acan
group,”
lower.
Union program leader Gitonga said. Women also now predomidisadvantages
include
high energy
inputs for aerators.
nateThe
in the
processing and
marketing
sectors.
Power
failures
over
an
hour
in
duration
can
critical.
Biofloc
Kenya’s vastly underemployed youths arebealso
reaping
beneponds
must
be
lined.
The
more
advanced
technology
also
fits. They actually do the pond construction and are empowered
demands
a greater need
to properly
trainexpertise
technicians.
with the knowledge,
providing
practical
in the extension service.
Growing
Interest
In affecting
a broad spectrum of the country’s economy and
Due
to
success
stories stimulus
in Indonesia
and the
United States,
its people, the economic
program
is changing
the landmany
shrimp
farmers
are
interested
in
biofloc
technology.
The
scape of aquaculture in Kenya.
Indonesia
Department
of
Fisheries
and
shrimp
associations
are
“We are really moving forward, and nothing will hold us
arranging
a
three-day
training
workshop
on
biofloc
in
Indonesia.
back,” Monor said. “This program will be a success, and if you
Dr.
Yoram
Avnimelech
wassee
invited
lead the workshop
in April.
come
here next
year, you’ll
a bigtodifference
in aquaculture
in
China, a number of shrimp farmers are also interested.
thisIn
country.”
Their fully HDPE-lined, plastic-covered shrimp growout ponds
with
high-density culture
are ideal
for the technology.
In affecting
a broad
spectrum
of theThe
author is currently advising shrimp farms with HDPE-lined
country’s
economy
andAmerica
its people,
intensive
culture
ponds in Central
on bioflocthe
systems.
A
group from Brazil
is runningprogram
commercial biofloc
trials.
economic
stimulus
is changing
is currently initiating a 1,000-ha integrated intentheMalaysia
landscape
of aquaculture in Kenya.
sive shrimp-farming project at Setiu, Terengganu by Blue
Archipelago. The company also plans to use the technology.
Training Is Key
Government officials, aquaculture researchers and fisheries
extension officers all agree that the explosive growth of aquaculture in Kenya requires a massive surge in training programs
for these new fish farmers. Government involvement in the
program is set to phase out over the next 18 months, and this
could leave some farmers stranded if they rely totally on the
government stimulus money and don’t master the art of fish
farming.
“Pond construction is easy – it’s the management that’s critical,” said Wilson Maina, acting director of aquaculture in Kenya.
The key, Maina said, is to go beyond pond construction and train
new pond owners in pond management and marketing.
To meet this super-sized training challenge, the Kenyan government will continue to build on the work done by CRSP.
Fisheries Director Monor noted that many of those who
authored the aquaculture stimulus component were educated
with CRSP support, and newly funded ponds are being constructed under the supervision of AquaFish CRSP-trained fisheries officers.
The key is to go beyond pond construction and train new pond owners in pond
management and marketing.
22
May/June 2010
global aquaculture advocate
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
21
production
India’s Fish Feed Industry
Growing Sector Can Support Aquaculture Diversity, Development
P. E. Vijay Anand, Ph.D.
Technical Director
Asia Subcontinent
Aquaculture Program
American Soybean AssociationInternational Marketing
New Delhi, India
vanand@asaimasc.org
Michael C. Cremer, Ph.D.
Global Aquaculture Technical Director
American Soybean AssociationInternational Marketing
U.S. Soybean Export Council
Chesterfield, Missouri, USA
those offered internationally, the feeds
used for fish are still evolving.
The advancement of India’s shrimp
feed sector is due to its compliance with
international benchmarks and references,
and the support it received when it began
in the late 1980s and early ’90s. The fish
India has emerged as a significant producer of extruded and sinking aquafeeds. Further
feed industry’s lag behind can be primaruse of the feeds in the country can help expand the aquaculture industry.
ily attributed to the very nature of the
Indian fish-farming system.
While the multi-species carp-farming
system has undergone a number of adaptions and currently relies
on only two carp species, it has extensively relied on fertilizers and
Summary:
low-cost feed ingredients like rice bran for a long time. The proThe Indian fish-farming industry makes limited use of
ductivity of such a system is complex to understand and manage.
modern feeds, providing potential for the feed sector to
The value of manufactured feed was not well understood,
grow. Currently, commercial feeds are predominantly
and farmers as well as feed companies were pessimistic regarding
used for Pangasius farming, followed by a rising poputhe cost effectiveness of commercial feed. However, once the
larity in carp culture. India’s growing ability to produce
value was demonstrated, the industry developed rapidly, and fish
floating feeds and sinking pellets for fish can support
farming in India is moving quickly on to modernization.
new aquaculture systems and help develop species
diversity, improve marketing opportunities and increase
Fish Feed Industry
domestic consumption.
Until recently, India was an insignificant player in the global fish
Aquaculture production of shrimp and fish in India was
expected to reach 3.4 mmt in 2010. This combined production
depended on approximately 852,000 mt of aquaculture feeds – a
comparatively low feed usage. A great portion of the Indian fishfarming industry makes limited use of modern feeds, providing
vast potential for the Indian feed sector to grow in the future
based on aquaculture.
Technology Transition
The feed industries for shrimp and fish are quite different
from each other from the perspectives of modernization, commercialization and scientific considerations. While the shrimp
feed sector is more evolved, and its products are comparable to
22
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
feed sector due to its reliance on traditional feeding based on a few
nutritionally poor agriculture by-products and the use of animal
manure for plankton production. Assuming a feed-conversion ratio
(FOR) of 4, an estimated 12.6 mmt of ingredients were used for the
3.15 mmt of farmed freshwater fish produced in the country.
American Soybean Association-International Marketing
(ASA-IM) decided in 2003 to create a niche for better aquaculture feeds, linking the development to an array of better aquaculture practices to grow fish. Initial work focused on commercial
feeding demonstrations that showed economic returns to the
industry. Stakeholders and potential entrepreneurs were also
exposed to feed-based technologies in practice elsewhere in Asia.
As a result of these efforts and excellent participation by private companies and entrepreneurs in the fish-farming sector,
India is moving from traditional feeding practices based on agriculture by-products and the use of animal manure for plankton
production to applications of commercial feeds.
India has emerged as a significant producer of soy-based
extruded, floating feeds, as well as sinking pellets for fish. The
industry has invested in imported extrusion machinery to produce the floating fish feeds.
There are currently seven feed mill operations (Table 1) with
an installed monthly capacity close to 36,000 mt, which will
likely expand to 86,000 mt by late 2011 or early 2012. This
major expansion will have to find a larger user base to which it
can sell feed products.
Feed Use
Feeds are extruded using 3- to 6-mm dies and have 28 to
32% protein and 3 to 6% fat content. All feeds are presently used
for growout systems at fish farms, and are not yet popular in
nursery and juvenile-rearing facilities.
Incorporated at levels from 35 to 45%, soybean meal is the
main source of protein in the formulations. Other ingredients
include rice bran, broken rice, wheat bran, wheat flour, corn gluten meal and copra meal. Phosphorus, vitamins and trace mineral premixes are also widely used.
Most of these feeds are sold in the state of Andhra Pradesh,
the largest farmed fish producer in the country. However, modern technologies are spreading to other regions in India. Feeds
are predominantly used for Pangasius farming, followed by a
growing popularity in carp culture.
ASA-IM estimated that India will have an annual milling
capacity for extruded feed of 1 to 1.2 mmt by 2012. With this
quantity of feed and an FCR of 1.2, about 1 mmt of freshwater
fish could be raised in India.
The greater availability of feeds in India can also pave the
way for two underutilized aquaculture systems – inland production and marine cages. In addition, the feed-based systems
should help develop species diversity, improve marketing opportunities and popularize the processed fish for domestic utilization in the country.
Recommendations For Feed Industry
Feed is only a part of the aquaculture value chain. Although
India is currently in a good position with respect to fish feed
production capacity and quality, a few challenges need to be
Table 1. Installed capacity
of India’s extrusion feed mills.
Company
Annual
Capacity
2010 (mt)
Projected
Annual Capacity
2011 (mt)
Indian Broiler Group
Ananda Feeds
Uno Feeds
Growel Feeds
Kwality Feeds
C. P. Feeds
Rudra Techno Feeds
Mulpuri Feeds
Nexus Feeds
Deepak Nexgen Feeds
Total
228,000
30,000
30,000
60,000
69,000
30,000
60,000
–
–
–
507,000
216,000
60,000
60,000
90,000
60,000
–
–
90,000
80,000
60,000
716,000
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
23
addressed within the aquaculture value chain, which in turn has
a bearing on the feed industry.
Species Diversification
India relies on a very narrow range of fish species – only two broad
categories are used for farming. Carps have been farmed for many
years, and Pangasius has become popular recently. Many other
endemic species could be brought into commercial production.
Speedy introduction of tilapia would revolutionize the fish
industry in India, as it has done worldwide. Such introductions
can deliver more good-quality fish, especially those with fewer
intramuscular bones. Species diversification would lead to more
feed utilization and further investments in the feed-milling sector.
Hatchery Technology
For species diversification, the first step required will be for
hatcheries to produce seed. A number of freshwater and marine
fish species have good potential for farming, yet no serious
attempts to deliver seed in a commercially viable manner have so
far been demonstrated to entrepreneurs. New hatchery technology will be an increasingly important aspect of the value chain in
Indian aquaculture.
Farming Refinements
Once the fish seed supply is in place, nursery and growout
systems will need modifications to transform from traditional
farming methods to more modern and efficient systems. The
feed mills that are currently in place will definitely catch up with
species-specific formulations. When the farming systems are
refined, there is potential to use more feed.
System Diversification
The availability of suitable fish feed in India can lead to
diversification of the culture systems. Until recently, there was
no extruded floating feed in the country, and the use of pelleted
feed was limited. These types of feeds are now readily available
to support the development of cage culture in freshwater and
marine systems. When additional farming systems are in place,
they automatically will demand more feed.
Fish Marketing
The gaps in the value chain are organized harvest, post-harvest handling and marketing of fish in India. The country handles fish through its wet markets and transports fish over long
distances, which is inefficient and deters customers from buying
fish due to spoilage concerns.
Today’s customers with purchasing power prefer a pleasant
shopping experience, and current fish-marketing efforts fail to
deliver to such customers. As a comparison, chicken is sold through
wet markets, but chicken shops are modernizing, and processed
chicken is catching up fast. India is the world’s largest milk producer, and its milk marketing and delivery systems are excellent.
Processing and value addition to fish may be the best answers
for increased fish consumption. Processing helps fish reach customers in good condition and only transports the core product,
while it retains waste and converts it into by-products that can
be used by the feed industry. It also helps stabilize prices.
Processing also helps reduce the effective quantity of fish that
reaches customers, thus creating more space for additional fish production. This in turn adds market pull on the farming, feed and hatchery
sectors. Thus, processing, improved marketing and value addition
have a direct bearing on the sustainability of the feed industry.
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25
July/August
2011
production
Tilapia Farming Faces Expansion
Issues In Thailand
Ram C. Bhujel, Ph.D.
Senior Scientist, Coordinator
Aqua-Internship Program
Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management
Asian Institute of Technology
P. O. Box 4
Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120 Thailand
coordinator@aar-asialink.info
Mark Woollard
Aqua-Internship Program
Asian Institute of Technology
fish flesh due to chemicals produced by certain algae. Off-flavor
problems can be solved by balancing the natural foods with
homemade feed of high quality. Cage culture in lakes and rivers
has been practiced to avoid this problem.
Thailand’s tilapia industry can benefit from the kinds of additional food safety practices applied in shrimp aquculture.
After shrimp, tilapia is likely to become the second most
important aquaculture species in Thailand in the near future.
During the last decade, tilapia took the lead among finfish species, and an estimated 300,000 mt of tilapia are produced in
Thailand annually. Most of the fish raised in rural areas are consumed by local families or sold in local markets.
Increased production has recently flooded the domestic markets, and now farmers are looking for opportunities to export.
However, Thailand has difficulty competing with cheap tilapia
from China. Attempts have been made to reduce production
costs and at the same time explore niche markets in Gulf countries and Europe.
Pond Culture
Although tilapia have been grown in cages in canals, lakes, rivers and reservoirs, pond culture of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is most common in Thailand, especially in rural areas. Pond
farms range from less than 0.5 ha to over 20 ha in area. Most
farmers fertilize their ponds with chicken manure and/or chemical
fertilizers to enhance planktonic growth for greenwater culture.
Feeding is supplementary only. Quality feeds are available,
but due to their high prices and the low sale prices of fish grown
in ponds, most farmers are unable to use them. They use the
cheapest feeds and farm by-products available to reduce production cost and thereby maximize profits. Since the feeds are often
not of standard quality in terms of nutrient contents and moisture, it is difficult to assess feed conversion and other growth
performance parameters.
Culturing tilapia in greenwater ponds is the most cost-effective method. However, this method can cause off-flavors in the
26
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
Cage Culture
Cage farming in canals and rivers became popular within the
last decade. Farmers are attracted to cage farming because it has
been heavily promoted and avoids the off-flavor problems. Cage
culture now contributes about one-third of the total production,
although less than 5% of farmers practice it.
Almost all the cage farmers practice single-species culture
with red tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. mossambicus, or black
Nile tilapia, O. niloticus. Although they use commercial pellets,
the feeds are normally of rather low quality. Cage farmers feed
two to three times daily, and feed-conversion ratios remain
between 1.4 and 1.8.
Although cage culture has been contributing to greater
export volume, its long-term sustainability is in question. Sometimes it’s too risky to install cages in communal water bodies that
are not under farmers’ control.
A few years ago, mass-scale mortality was caused by the
release of sugar/molasses from a large sunken boat in the Chaophraya River, while a second case was caused by the release into
the Bangpakong River of a large amount of accumulated pesticides and chemical residues used by crop farmers.
Currently, cage culture in large ponds is undergoing trials
instead of placing cages in communal water bodies so that farmers can control the water quality.
Feeds, Feeding
Due to the low sale prices for tilapia cultured in ponds, it has
not been economical to feed relatively expensive commercial pellets. However, farmers who do use floating pellets have difficulties in selecting the appropriate feed for their farms.
As broodfish use enormous amounts of energy in terms of
generating eggs and sperm, it is generally agreed that they need
supplementation of various nutrients. However, the specific
nutrients and levels are not yet known, so no specialized diets are
available. Hatchery operators have to keep a large pool of broodglobal aquaculture advocate
March/April 2011
27
Cage culture avoids the
off-flavors that can arise
in tilapia grown in greenwater ponds and helps
produce higher-quality
fish for export.
stock to produce and supply seed continuously. Therefore, there
is high demand for special brooder feed.
Fish farmers need training on how to manage feeding,
including simple methods of feed formulation so they can prepare appropriate homemade feeds themselves. This method,
however, is not suitable for cage culture, which needs floating
pellets that require expensive extruders to produce.
While farmers explore alternatives to pellet feeds, they usually end up with cheap by-products that contain mainly carbohydrates. As protein is the preferred source of energy, the addition
of at least one of the locally available proteins would greatly
enhance the quality of the feeds without adding substantial cost.
Seed Quality
Although mixed-sex fry are still available, monosex fry are
becoming more common because of the development of better
hatchery techniques and their successful dissemination. Supply
of seed is not a problem because hatcheries can produce over 200
million fry a year. Maintaining and monitoring quality have been
the major problems.
Achieving 99% male tilapia after sex reversal is a major indicator of quality. Mixing hormone with high-protein fishmeal
ensures the required level of hormone intake through feed to
achieve the high male population. Although fishmeal imported
from Peru or Chile is best for this purpose, most hatcheries can’t
afford it. A suitable alternative needs to be explored.
Broodstock
Several strains of tilapia developed by crossing two or more
strains are available in Thailand. Most hatcheries keep several
strains based on demands from customers. Several groups have
tried to carry out selective breeding to develop separate strains.
Although some improvements have been made, this has also
resulted in mixing of the genetic pool. This has confused farmers, as each developer claims his/her tilapia are the best. It has
also created a problem in finding original pure strains of Nile
tilapia, which are necessary to maintain continuous development
of new broodstock lines.
cultured in cages are relatively high compared to those for the country’s competitors, especially China.
Thailand’s tilapia industry has been
able to grow into a thriving sector thanks
to technological advances and knowledge
sharing. The problems that now face tilapia culture can be overcome using the
recommendations outlined below.
• Research into the type of plankton/
algae that produce chemicals causing the off-flavors in tilapia could
reduce the need for risky and costly
cage farming.
• Farmers should be trained to carefully handle and store feed.
• More research on diets for breeding
or nursing stocks would be useful.
• New programs could assist farmers
in selecting the right strains for culture.
• Implementing a quality and certification process could help improve
the quality of tilapia seed.
• The use of methyl-testosterone hormone for sex reversal should be
monitored and regulated.
• Standards for responsible culture of
tilapia developed by the World
Wildlife Fund or Best Aquaculture
Practices program could be applied.
• A manual on how to produce highquality tilapia feed, seed and table
fish is urgently needed.
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Exports
Although not yet a major issue for the tilapia industry, compliance with rules for food safety and traceability has become
mandatory for the shrimp export market chain. Maintaining the
quality standards and food safety has been the focus of national
policy. All stakeholders involved have been trained, and a system
of traceability using “movement documents” has been applied.
The tilapia industry can benefit from the application of these
methods and practices once the industry expands into targeted
export markets. Production of fish free of drug residues is the
prime concern of the Thai Department of Fisheries policy.
Recommendations
Animal Nutrition
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Despite having the infrastructure for growth, Thai tilapia
exports have not yet taken off. The production costs for tilapia
28
July/August 2011
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
29
production
Working With Fish
Limit Zoonotic Diseases Through Prevention
Stephen A. Smith, DVM, Ph.D.
Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology
Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0442 USA
stsmith7@vt.edu
Superficial skin lesions can appear on the hands and
arms of workers who handle fish infected with
Mycobacterium marinum.
Summary:
Relatively few pathogens pose a risk to individuals who
handle fish or their products. The majority of these pathogens are Gram-negative bacteria and a few Gram-positive
bacteria, whose transmission to humans is generally associated with cuts, abrasions and punctures. An infection in
humans can cause localized inflammation or become seriously systemic. Prevention through good hygiene, use of
gloves and basic biosecurity procedures is the best method
for reducing the risk of acquiring these zoonotic diseases.
As the practice of aquaculture increases globally, more and
more individuals will come into contact with zoonotic diseases
specific to aquatic animals that have the potential to be transmitted to humans. Although there is an extensive list of pathogens
that are infectious to humans via consumption of aquatic products, relatively few pathogens pose a risk to individuals who handle or come in contact with fish or their products.
No known viral or fungal pathogens are acquired by humans
from fish solely through contact, and only a few reports of parasitic infections transmitted through the contact route have been
recorded. Therefore, bacteria are the primary pathogens with
zoonotic potential acquired through handling of fish (Table 1).
The majority of these pathogens are Gram-negative bacteria,
but a few are Gram-positive bacteria associated with fish. Most
are considered opportunistic in their infections of humans and
are generally associated with trauma (cuts, abrasions, punctures)
or immunocompromised individuals.
Gram-negative Bacteria
Aeromonas species are ubiquitous in the freshwater aquatic
30
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
environment and frequently cause disease in food, bait and ornamental fish. Non-specific clinical signs of Aeromonas infections
in fish include ulcerative lesions of the skin, lesions around the
bases of the fins and anus, raised scales, abdominal distension
and exophthalmia. Aeromonad infections in fish are often secondary to stressors such as poor environmental conditions,
including suboptimal temperatures and elevated ammonia or
nitrite levels.
Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae, A. sobria and A. schubertii
have all been implicated in human disease. The primary route of
transmission is through contact with the mucus and tissues of
infected fish. Existing cuts and abrasions on the hands, as well as
puncture wounds from the fish are potential routes of infection.
The most common sign of an Aeromonas infection in humans is
localized swelling at the site of entry. However, in immunocompromised individuals, the infection can become systemic and
prove life threatening.
Vibrio species are commonly isolated from marine and brackish water fish and environments due to the bacteria’s preference
for higher salinities. In spite of this preference, a number of species of Vibrio can also be sporadically cultured from freshwater
fish. These bacteria can cause disease in fish with non-specific
clinical signs that include anorexia, lethargy, skin ulcers, exophthalmia and erythema around the anus and base of fins.
The most common Vibrio species in marine fish are V. vulnificus, V. parahemolyticus and V. cholera, with V. vulnificus the
most common isolate in human infections. The major route of
exposure in humans is through puncture wounds, with clinical
signs of edema, tissue swelling and necrotizing fasciitis in the
immediate area of the wound or abrasion.
There are occasional reports of other species of Gram-negative bacteria causing disease in humans from contact with fish.
These bacteria in the genera Edwarsiella, Escherichia, Salmonella
and Klebsiella are generally associated with freshwater fish or
freshwater environments.
The most common routes of infection are through a puncture wound while handling or examining fish, or by infection of
existing cuts and abrasions. Clinical signs of disease in fish can
range from a localized infection of the skin to a more progressive
systemic infection. An infection with any one of these bacteria in
humans can be a localized inflammation at the point of entry or
become systemic and result in severe illness.
Gram-positive Bacteria
Infections with Mycobacterium species are probably the most
common zoonotic infections acquired from fish. Numerous speglobal aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
31
Table 1. Potential zoonotic pathogens of fish transmitted
to humans by contact with infected tissues or water.
Pathogen
Clinical Signs in Fish
Clinical Signs in Humans
Gram-negative Bacteria
Aeromonas species
Often non-specific, ulcerative skin lesions, abdominal
distention, lethargy, exophthalmia, raised scales, fin
erosion, death
Localized edema and swelling at site of infection, rarely
systemic
Vibrio species
Often non-specific, lethargy, skin ulcers, abdominal
distention, exophthalmia, fin erosion, death
Edema, tissue swelling, necrotizing fasciitis at site of infection
Gram-positive Bacteria
Mycobacterium species
Usually non-specific, lethargy, poor body condition,
pigment changes, abdominal distention, scale loss,
exophthalmia, skin ulcerations, death
Raised granulomatous nodules to ulcerative skin lesions,
rarely systemic
Streptoccus iniae
Abdominal distention, hemorrhages of the skin,
exophthalmia, death
Cellulitis, arthritis, endocarditis, meningitis, rarely death
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae No apparent pathology
cies of Mycobacterium have been cultured from fish, including M.
marinum, M. fortuitum, M. chelonae, M. ulcerans, M. flavescens
and M. gordonae. These aquatic bacteria belong to the nontubercular group of mycobacterial pathogens and have been isolated from a wide range of freshwater, brackish water and marine
species of fish. Any of these bacterial species can result in acute
to chronic progressive disease in fish.
Generally few clinical signs are apparent with the acute form
of the disease, and often only dead fish are found. Clinical signs
associated with the chronic form of the disease include lethargy,
poor body condition, pigment changes, abdominal distention,
exophthalmia, scale loss and skin ulcers. Infected fish can serve
as carriers of the disease without outward clinical signs of illness.
The most likely route of transmission among fish is through the
ingestion of infected feces or dead fish tissue. Sloughed tissue
from infected gill or ulcerated skin lesions of live fish may also
spread these organisms.
Zoonotic infections of Mycobacterium species in humans are
often seen in individuals who handle or work with fish, leading
to the common name “fish handlers disease” or “fish tank granuloma.” In humans, raised granulomatous nodules or ulcerative
lesions generally occur on the hands and arms due to the bacteria’s preference for lower temperatures. Systemic mycobacteriosis
has occurred in humans with resulting clinical signs of respiratory disease, but most of these cases were in immunocompromised individuals.
Streptococcus iniae causes abdominal distention, petechial
hemorrhage of the dermis, exophthalmia and sometimes death
in freshwater and marine species of fish. Many species of tropical and ornamental fish can harbor this bacterium, but several
species of food fish appear predisposed to infection, including
tilapia, striped bass and their hybrids.
Humans infected with S. iniae can exhibit clinical signs of
cellulitis, systemic arthritis, endocarditis, meningitis and occasionally death. The major route of infection is through a puncture wound from the fish or infection of an existing wound.
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is another bacterium that is ubiquitous in freshwater and marine environments. Although no
known pathology has been reported in fish, clinical signs of
infection in humans can range from a localized to diffuse skin
infection of the hands and fingers to a more progressive systemic
infection in which the heart and heart valves are affected, resulting in endocarditis. As the bacterium is often associated with the
mucus and skin of the fish, the typical route of infection is
through contact or handling of contaminated fish tissues.
32
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
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comes from fish.
algae
Localized to diffuse skin infection, endocarditis, death
Prevention
Individuals who work with fish need to be aware of the
zoonotic diseases that could be acquired from these aquatic animals. Obviously, the best way to prevent any chance of a
zoonotic infection is to avoid contact with the fish and water.
However, since this is generally not practical in aquaculture,
then prevention is the best method for reducing the risk of
acquiring these diseases.
Basic hygiene and thorough hand washing after contact with
fish or water containing fish are the primary preventative measures for reducing this risk of exposure. Wearing gloves to protect open sores and cuts, reduce contact with the fish or water,
and reduce potential injury from fish or equipment is another
good way to prevent exposure to potential pathogens. Instead of
hands, using brushes, scrubbers and sprayers for cleaning tanks,
cages, netting and other equipment should also be encouraged.
Developing and implementing basic biosecurity procedures for
an aquaculture facility are also important in reducing the introduction and spread of potential pathogens in an aquatic animal
population. Such procedures can include establishing quarantine
protocols for all new fish and eggs entering a facility to prevent
contamination of established populations of fish and thereby
reduce the potential exposure of humans to these pathogens.
New fish should be maintained in separate, isolated systems
and held in quarantine for a minimum of 30 days while observing
behavior, feeding responses and development of clinical signs or
lesions. Regular health monitoring of fish in both the quarantined
and existing populations is another way of insuring the identification of potential pathogens in a population. And finally, any individual working with fish who is seeking medical attention for
lesions or illness of unknown origin should make their personal
physician aware of their involvement with aquaculture.
Developing and implementing basic
biosecurity procedures are important
in reducing the introduction and spread
of potential pathogens.
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stains, it also makes the Ziehl-Neelsen (Z.N.) stain useless for the
diagnosis of mycobacteria and nocardiae in disease outbreaks.
Bacterial Diseases Cause Granulomas In Fish
Nocardiae
Varied Staining Methods Identify Pathogens
Wes A. Baumgartner,
DVM, Dipl. ACVP
Louisiana State University School
of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Pathobiological Sciences
Skip Bertman Drive
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 USA
wbaumg1@tigers.lsu.edu
John Hawke, Ph.D.
Enlarged spleens from pompano infected with Nocardia. On the left, white pinpoint
foci indicate an early stage of disease. The right image reflects advanced granulomatous splenitis. Photo courtesy of H. Lan.
Mycobacteria
Summary:
Granulomas in diseased fish often indicate infections
by bacteria. External signs range from ulcers and emaciation to lethargy or no signs at all. Internally, gray or
tan foci present in organs and can coalesce with severe
inflammation. The best known tissue stain for identifying mycobacteria is the “acid-fast” stain, but fluorescent
and immune-based stains are also available. For nocardiae, modified Z.N. stains use mineral acid rather than
acid alcohol. Francisellae bacteria are most easily seen
with Giemsa stains.
One of the most familiar aspects of health maintenance in
cultured fish species is that of chronic disease characterized by
the presence of white or tan nodules in one or many organs.
Such nodules are due to chronic inflammation in tissue in which
macrophages, a type of white blood cell, gather into populations
known as granulomas.
Granulomas have infectious and non-infectious causes, can
vary in appearance and have a natural history that is intimately
involved with immune function. In short, they are a means by
which a body isolates and eliminates undesirable material, but
the degree to which granulomas are present is in part determined
by the body’s success in controlling offending agents.
Granulomatous Inflammation
It is common for healthy fish to have one to several 1- to
2-mm-wide granulomas in their internal organs. These granulomas are often due to parasites or non-infectious material.
However, numerous granulomas in diseased fish are characteristic of infections by bacteria such as mycobacteria, nocardiae
and francisellae. These granulomas may be seen as spherical,
often melanized structures in wet mounts of organ squash preps.
It is advisable to examine sections of fixed tissues stained
with hematoxylin and eosin by light microscopy in any case of
granulomatous disease to verify microbiological results and
determine if more than one pathogen is present.
34
July/August 2011
Louisiana State University School
of Veterinary Medicine
Department of
Pathobiological Sciences
global aquaculture advocate
Mycobacteria are arguably the most common and wellknown cause of granulomatous disease in fish. They can affect
both fresh- and saltwater species, and all fish should be considered susceptible.
Mycobacteria are gram-positive, acid-fast bacteria that form
pleomorphic rods, filaments or cocci. Until the last decade, only
a handful of species (M. chelonae and M. fortuitum, for example)
were identified as fish pathogens, but this list has expanded as
methodology for speciation improved. Mycobacterium marinum, a
frequent isolate from diseased fish, is a fast-growing species that
shows growth in specific solid media in seven to 14 days, while
other species can take months for colony growth.
It is important to understand that if cultures from diseased
tissues are not obtained, mycobacteria can not be ruled out as a
causative pathogen. The isolation of mycobacteria and presence
of granulomas and acid-fast bacteria in lesions may not be well
correlated. It is prudent to save frozen and fixed tissues for use
in polymerase chain reaction testing and histopathology to solidify a diagnosis.
A typical granuloma in the head kidney of a tilapia infected
with Francisella asiatica. The darker core is composed of dead
cell material, melanin and bacteria, which are surrounded by
macrophages.
immune-based tissue stains are also available. Acid fastness in
the mycobacterial sense is the ability of bacteria to resist decolorization by 3% acid alcohol. It is important to recognize that this
stain is not specific, since nocardiae and rhodococci can also be
acid-fast. Further, acid fastness is not sensitive. Less than 1% of
mycobacteria can be acid fast in some cases.
The degree of acid fastness can vary widely due to the fixation
method, staining recipe, presence of mycobacteria with intact cell
walls, type and amount of mycolic acid in bacterial walls and
growth stage of the bacteria. It is not rare to find few to no acidfast bacteria in tissue slides from cases of mycobacteriosis.
The Ziehl-Neelsen stain for acid fastness is perhaps the most
commonly used and reported technique for diagnosis of mycobacteria in fixed tissues. However, this staining procedure is not
standardized and has many variations, so methodologies should
be specifically reported when using the stain.
Many have advised the use of periodic acid as an oxidizing
agent to improve acid fastness in tissue sections, yet such a treatment alters the nature of bacteria in a mycobacteria-specific sense.
While periodic acid improves bacterial staining with acid-fast
Disease Signs
Diseased fish show a variety of external signs that range from
ulcers, exophthalmia and emaciation to lethargy, visible granulomas or no signs at all. The course of disease is typically chronic,
although acute mortalities have been reported.
Internally, gray, tan or white foci are present in any organ, but
typically the spleen, liver or kidneys. The foci may coalesce, leading to partial or total replacement of the organ by inflammation.
Microscopically, prototypical granulomas composed of macrophage aggregates rimmed by lymphocytes and fibrocytes can be
seen in diseased fish. Granulomas, which can have necrotic cores,
typically mature through characteristic stages with overall progressive fibrosis. The presence of identifiable bacteria is highly variable, and in many cases, special stains are used to visualize them.
Tissue Stains
The best known, often used and most convenient tissue stain
for mycobacteria is the “acid-fast” stain, but fluorescent and
Nocardiae are gram-positive, weakly acid-fast, branching rod
bacteria that affect both fresh- and saltwater species. Nocardia
asteroides, N. seriolae and N. salmonicida are the most common
isolates. They can take up to three weeks to grow in solid media
at 25° C. The presence of branching aerial hyphae in culture colonies is characteristic.
The clinical signs of disease from nocardiae are similar to
mycobacteriosis. Nocardiae are often said to be acid-fast, but this
depends heavily on the staining method applied. Modified Z.N.
stains use mineral acid rather than acid alcohol, which may be
more effective. Additionally, 3% acid alcohol is the standard
Z.N. decolorizer, which will often decolorize nocardiae. If 1%
acid alcohol is used, as in some commercial Z.N. stains, nocardiae retain the stain.
Francisellae
Francisellae have been known as mammalian pathogens for
nearly a century. However, only recently have they become identified with significant disease in farmed fish.
Francisellae have been confused with piscirickettsia-like
organisms in fish disease outbreaks, and distinguishing between
the two is problematic. Francisella noatunensis and F. asiatica
have been identified as emerging pathogens in a growing list of
fish, including cod, tilapia, grunt, salmon, cichlids and hybrid
striped bass.
They are gram-negative coccobacilli that infect macrophages,
causing characteristic granulomas in many tissues. These bacteria
won’t grow in simple media and are often difficult to isolate,
even from obviously diseased specimens. As they grow slowly –
taking five to seven days to show visible colonies – overgrowth of
the francisellae by contaminating bacteria is a problem. Selective
media is recommended for primary isolation. The selective
medium the authors use is produced by adding 50 µg/mL ampicillin and 100 units/mL polymyxin B to cysteine heart agar fortified with bovine hemoglobin.
F. asiatica, which causes severe and widespread granulomatous disease in farmed tilapia, originally presented as a necrotizing myositis that caused fillet condemnation at processing plants.
Granulomatous disease primarily affects the head kidney, spleen
and liver of the fish. Disease outbreaks are affected greatly by
water temperatures below 28° C, and the progression of lesions
is relatively rapid.
Within macrophages, 0.5- to 1- μ-wide cocco bacilli are
present in tremendous numbers in many cases. Bacteria are not
acid fast sense and are most easily seen with Giemsa stains, but
standard hematoxylin and eosin stains also work well.
GOAL 2011
Santiago, Chile
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This highly magnified granuloma contains acid-fast mycobateria, which stain bright pink/red. Macrophages are counterstained purple.
November 6-9, 2011
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
35
global aquaculture
production
Aquafeed experts considered alternatives to fishmeal and emerging advances in sustainable feed technology at IBSS. Courtesy photo.
Boston Session Examines ‘What Fish Eat’
Kelly Coleman
Coleman Communications
P. O. Box 88
Laupahoehoe, Hawaii 96764 USA
kcoleman@hawaiirr.com
Summary:
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July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
A panel session at the International Boston Seafood Show
brought together aquafeed experts to discuss recent
advances in feed research and industry progress toward
sustainability. Speakers said the aquaculture industry and
other stakeholders are examining such issues as fishmeal
use, feed-conversion efficiency and non-marine feed ingredient alternatives. More ecosystem-based management of
fisheries that leaves some forage fish in the oceans for other
species was suggested.
The question of “What Farmed Fish Eat” was the subject of the
first panel session at the International Boston Seafood Show held in
March. The panel of aquafeed experts discussed recent advances in
feed research and industry progress toward sustainability.
The panel was moderated by Steven Hart, director of aquaculture at the Indiana Soybean Alliance. Hart began the session
with a look at the growth of world aquaculture, which is currently around 7% per year. In 2011, the volume of farm-raised
seafood is expected to equal that of wild catch for human consumption. The traditional feed for fish has been based on fishmeal for many years, and the ocean supplies of fishmeal are at
their maximum sustained yields.
“This increased volume, obviously, is a major issue in feed
formulation for aquaculture,” Hart said. “The price of fishmeal
has skyrocketed and is at an all-time high. Because of that, the
feed industry is looking for alternatives.”
Of particular concern is the fish in:fish out ratio, which is
how many units of fishmeal go into a unit of final farmed product. At the start of the aquaculture industry, those numbers were
as high as 5:1, but have since improved to 2:1 and lower. “If sustainable aquaculture is to grow at the rates needed to meet
increased demand, that number’s going to have to come down a
lot lower than even 1:1,” Hart asserted.
USDA Feed Initiative
Jeff Silverstein, director of the aquaculture program at the
Agriculture Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, then gave an overview of the USDA/National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration Alternative Feeds Initiative
and the Plant Products and Aquafeeds Group, an NGO alliance
of researchers interested in developing primarily plant-based
alternatives to fishmeal.
“As we’re looking for alternatives to the limited supply of
fishmeal, we’re really trying to maintain what we call a ‘triple
bottom line,’” Silverstein said.
The bottom line includes maintaining the good taste and
human health benefits of seafood from its excellent protein and
lipid profiles. Alternative feeds will maintain the economic sustainability of aquaculture, as less-expensive substitutions can be identified when ingredients climb in price. Environmental sustainability
will be maintained, with more fish grown with less impact.
The Alternative Feeds Initiative program focuses on areas
such as understanding the nutrient requirements of the species
grown and how diets can deliver them. Species studied include
trout, salmon, hybrid striped bass, pompano, cobia and channel
catfish.
The aquafeed industry continues to research sustainable
alternatives to fishmeal.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
37
The program also is looking at the composition, palatability
and digestibility of feeds and alternative proteins such as soy,
barley and algal meals – all low-cost biofuel co-products. Growth
performance and feed conversion are examined, as well as the
quality of the final consumer products. Also, how do the genetics
and health of fish work together with nutrients?
Silverstein said the Agriculture Research Service (ARS)
works hard to get this information out to industry by making
data from hundreds of feed ingredient evaluations publicly available online. He also noted that the ARS research program has
the unique capability of making commercial-quality materials to
test on a very small scale, which is a valuable resource for the
feed industry.
Feed Ingredients
Richard Nelson, manager of purchasing at Silver Cup Feeds,
spoke on feed ingredients. His company has manufactured freshwater finfish feeds in the United States for half a century, producing feed for the aquaculture industry as well as government
conservation and mitigation operations that grow fish for stock
enhancement and other reasons.
Nelson explained the challenging procurement process for
buying raw feed materials: “I have to deal with 90 to 100 different products grouped in generic classes: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, some types of conditioning, groups of
things that might affect the PH balance in feed, things that
might provide antioxidant characteristics, mold inhibitions.
And there are some items that go into feeds that help us to
actually make the feed itself. In some diets, some pigmentation
goes in for coloring the fillets. Not a dye – it’s a natural microbe
that is what salmon consume in the wild.”
The analysis of the value of any particular product comes
down to the bioavailability of the nutrients, such as amino acids,
fatty acids, sugars and carbohydrates. Nelson said that because
fish want protein and fat, much of the focus is on amino acid and
fatty acid contributions to diets. Also of consideration are
whether these products are readily available and the economic
viability of passing along their costs at levels that allow farmers
to produce and market fish.
Quick Weight Gain
Mike Hickerson, director of sales at Bell Aquaculture, a yellow perch farm in Indiana, USA, said, “We want aquafeeds that
will produce the quickest turn of weight on our fish so that I can
sell them in a timely fashion.”
Bell expects to produce about 9 million yellow perch per year
indoors in freshwater tanks. The company is vertically integrated, raising fish from broodstock through final processing.
Sustainable Feeds
Mike Cremer, director of the Global Aquaculture Program
of the U.S. Soybean Export Council (USSEC), said that most
people don’t know the U.S. soybean industry has one of the largest aquaculture programs in the world. It has developed sustainable soy-based feeds for most of the major production species
around the world.
Cremer referenced projections from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and other groups for
the requirement of another 40 mmt to 100 mmt of seafood
products, which are all going to have to come from aquaculture.
“It’s quite obvious that, as valuable a resource as fishmeal is,
there’s not enough produced in the world to adequately sustain
feeds for this growing industry,” he said. “So we’re working very
hard to find alternative protein sources for those feeds, and we’re
38
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
positioning soy in those markets as one of those major components of aquaculture feeds for the future.”
Cremer said USSEC’s biggest success story has been in
China, which has made a shift from manure-based freshwater
fish production to the use of commercial feeds.
“That industry has grown into a 23-mt production industry
that’s about 80% feed-based now,” he said. “We’ve worked with
the production sector and the feed-manufacturing sector to
develop all-plant-protein feeds for essentially all the major freshwater production species in China.”
Cremer said there has been success over the last decade in
significantly reducing the amount of fishmeal in feed for a wide
variety of marine species cultured around the world. “Our ultimate target is to get that fishmeal inclusion down to about 15%
of the protein requirement of those feeds,” he said, “by providing
alternative ingredients that are much more sustainable and available on a global basis.”
Four R’s
Representing the Ocean Conservancy, a national environmental conservation organization headquartered in Washington, D.C.,
Director of Aquaculture Programming George Leonard said organizations such as his approach the issue of aquaculture “from the
ocean side.” He said that many in the conservation community are
concerned about aquaculture because fishmeal and fish oil come
from forage fish species, which are a critical link between sunlight
and many other animals in the marine ecosystem.
“If we want aquaculture to ultimately be true farming, then we
need to figure out a way to break that link into aquaculture
through the use of wild forage fish for feed,” Leonard said.
He said conservationists identify four essential “R’s” with
respect to aquafeed and aquaculture: reduce, reform, replace and
reevaluate.
We need to reduce the inclusion rates of fishmeal and fish oil
in farmed feed, Leonard said. He acknowledged the industrydriven progress achieved in this area in the last 10 years. But
because industry at the global scale is outpacing the improvements made at the individual level, there is continuing pressure
on ocean ecosystems.
The second R is the reform issue. Many conservationists do
not deny the use of some forage fish in feeds, but strong management is required for their capture. “In particular, we need to grapple with the concept of ecosystem-based management, which is
leaving some forage fish in the oceans for those other species, and
to think beyond single species management of those fish.”
The third R is replacement. Leonard listed a diversity of
alternative feedstuffs that can replace fishmeal and fish oil,
including plant-based proteins; seafood processing by-products;
oils and meals derived from macroalgae, microalgae, bacteria and
yeasts; and animal by-products.
The fourth R is reevaluate. “We need to think very carefully
about the environmental trade-offs of one use of product for the
other,” Leonard said. “We are concerned about the environmental
impacts of the use of forage fish, but we do not want to be promoting things, either wittingly or unwittingly, that will result in a
larger environmental footprint somewhere else.”
Leonard said the Ocean Conservancy wants aquaculture to
be a part of the solution to world food needs, but if these challenges are not grappled with, it will be part of the problem.
“Aquaculture really has to be part of our future seafood supply,
and we want to make sure that we get it right so that we can
have our fish and eat them, too, he said.”
Note: Panel content courtesy of the International Boston
Seafood Show.
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July/August 2011
39
production
American Fisheries Society Calls
For Immediate-Release Fish Sedatives
James Bowker, M.S.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Aquatic Animal Drug Approval Partnership Program
4050 Bridger Canyon Road
Bozeman, Montana 59715 USA
jim_bowker@fws.gov
Jesse Trushenski, Ph.D.
Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Carbondale, Illinois, USA
Aquaculturists have few options when it comes to safe,
fast-acting sedatives for fish.
Summary:
The absence of practical immediate-release sedatives for
fish jeopardizes fish, fisheries, fish culture and research, posing risks to aquatic resources as well as those handling fish.
The American Fisheries Society is reviewing a draft policy
statement that describes the impediments to accessing a
suitable sedative and the constraints the situation places on
aquatic natural resources management and the aquaculture
industry. It also recommends a course of action to facilitate
the timely approval of an immediate-release sedative.
Fisheries professionals routinely sedate fish for procedures
such as collection of samples or morphometric data, surgical
implantation of tags or tracking devices, and transport. Fish are
innately difficult to handle, and when they actively resist
restraint, epithelial damage or other physical injury is more
likely. Handling fish without sedation can cause greater stress to
the animals and pose a risk to personnel, particularly in the case
of handling large or hazardous fish. When fish are sedated prior
to handling, risks to both fish and handlers are minimized.
Ideally, fish sedatives should be safe, effective, easy to administer when used over a broad range of water chemistries and
inexpensive. They should also have rapid induction and recovery
times, and offer some analgesia. Additionally, it is desirable that
sedatives have no withdrawal period, so sedated fish can be
immediately released into the wild or taken to market.
Current Sedatives
Currently, few effective, practical sedative options are available
to fisheries professionals, and no sedative can be legally used as an
“immediate-release” product. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS222) is the only compound approved by the United States Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) for the temporary immobiliza-
40
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
tion of fish and other aquatic, cold-blooded animals.
However, legal use of MS-222 is restricted to four families of
fish: Ictaluridae, Salmonidae, Esocidae and Percidae. Water temperatures must be above 10˚ C, and a 21-day withdrawal period is
required for fish intended for human consumption or which may
be caught and consumed. For many applications, holding fish for
even a short period post-sedation is not practical.
Currently, the only available option is the use of carbon dioxide, which is not approved by FDA, but is considered a drug of
low regulatory priority, for which regulatory action is unlikely,
assuming certain criteria are met. Although carbon dioxide gas
has been characterized as a somewhat effective sedative for some
fish, it is slow-acting and difficult to apply uniformly, and often
results in adverse reactions that include morbidity and mortality.
Aquatic Animal Drug Approval
The FDA approves new animal drugs based on data demonstrating that the drugs are effective and safe when used as
directed for treated animals, people administering treatment, the
environment and consumers. For any species, generating the
data required for a new drug approval is a time-consuming and
expensive endeavor.
It is estimated that for an aquaculture drug, approval requires
an investment of up to 15 years and U.S. $30 million. This is
because aquaculture drug approval efforts are challenged by low
economic incentives for drug sponsors, a relatively small group
of active researchers generating the data and a very expensive,
arduous regulatory process.
Immediate-Release Sedatives
Efforts are currently under way to evaluate the safety and
effectiveness of two compounds based on benzocaine or eugenol
as immediate-release fish sedatives.
Benzocaine is a local anesthetic that has been used as a topical pain reliever since the end of the 19th century. Benzocaine is
the active ingredient in nearly 100 over-the-counter topical analgesic products and is also used in terrestrial livestock as an anesthetic and to treat minor wounds.
Although benzocaine can induce methemoglobinemia, a condition that interferes with the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood,
serious toxicity is extremely rare. It has been estimated that more
than 1 million intentional and accidental human exposures to
benzocaine occur every year in the U.S., yet fewer than 100 cases
of benzocaine-induced methemoglobinemia have been reported
in the medical literature over the last 50 years.
Research has shown that benzocaine is efficacious for
sedating a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish under different environmental conditions while incurring very low tissue
residues.
Eugenol is a pale yellow, oily compound derived from the
flowers, stalks and leaves of various plants, including clove.
Because of its high 85 to 95% eugenol content, clove oil has
been used as a mild topical anesthetic for the treatment of
toothache, headache and joint pain since antiquity.
Eugenol is included on FDA’s list of food additives that are
“generally recognized as safe.” Although it’s been reported that
eugenol exposure may cause gastrointestinal and cardio-respiratory symptoms, and contact dermatitis in those with a
eugenol allergy, the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/
World Health Organization Expert Committees on Food
Additives estimated a temporary acceptable daily intake for
men of up to 2.5 mg/kg body weight.
Available research indicates that eugenol is efficacious for
sedating and anesthetizing both freshwater and saltwater fish.
Eugenol appears to depurate from the fish tissues rapidly.
Risk Assessment
Risk can be described by comparing the concentrations of
benzocaine and eugenol known to cause adverse human health
effects with the residues likely to be found in fish tissues.
Assuming a standard portion size of 85 g and a “worst-case
scenario” – exceeding the proposed sedative dosages and consuming the fillet within one hour of sedation – a fillet portion
from a fish treated with benzocaine would contain an estimated
1.2 mg benzocaine. A fillet portion from a fish treated with
eugenol would contain an estimated 0.9 to 4.7 mg eugenol.
Assuming a conservative 10-fold margin of safety, consumers could still eat more than one treated fish portion at every
meal without undue risk of health effects.
AFS Recommendations
The absence of a suitable immediate-release sedative jeopardizes fish, fisheries, fish culture and research, and poses considerable risk to those involved in these activities. Benzocaine
and eugenol meet a range of criteria that justify an assumption
of safety and efficacy, as well as minimal risk to fish, researchers, the environment and human consumers.
Accordingly, the American Fisheries Society (AFS) recommends an expedited review of the candidate immediate-release
sedatives and implementation of a risk management-based
approach to establishing the data requirements for drugs
intended for use in fish. AFS also recommends a reduction in
the data requirements for approval of the candidate sedatives
and, in the interim, regulatory discretion to allow immediaterelease sedative use. Ultimately, AFS recommends that the
consequences of inaction be balanced against the consequences
of approving the use of benzocaine or eugenol as an immediate-release sedative in the fisheries disciplines.
Editor’s Note: The article is a summary of a paper recently published
by the authors in Fisheries. The draft policy statement it expresses
was recommended by the Governing Board of the American Fisheries
Society for distribution to its membership for comment.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
41
production
Potassium Diformate Doesn’t Affect Shrimp
Growth, Survival; Reduces Nutrient Digestibility
Dong-Fang Deng, Ph.D.
Aquatic Feeds and Nutrition
Department
Oceanic Institute
Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 USA
dfdeng@oceanicinstitute.org
Zhi Yong Ju, Ph.D.
Warren G. Dominy, Ph.D.
Aquatic Feeds and Nutrition
Department
Oceanic Institute
Peter J. Bechtel, Ph.D.
U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service
Subarctic Agricultural Research Unit
Fishery Industrial Technology Center
Kodiak, Alaska, USA
Scott Smiley, Ph.D.
In the growth trial, shrimp were cultured in this system with flow-through water.
A recent eight-week growth trial evaluated the effects
of potassium diformate on the growth performance
and digestibility of Pacific white shrimp. Weight gain
was not significantly affected by different levels of PDF
in diets, and survival was high for all treatments. The
study showed that PDF supplementation at high levels
can affect feed efficiency and nutrient digestibility, but
PDF at up to 1.5% of diet did not affect the growth of
shrimp cultured under clearwater conditions.
Potassium diformate (PDF) is a conjugated salt that has been
used as a non-antibiotic feed additive to promote the growth of
livestock. However, very limited studies have been documented
in aquatic species, and its effectiveness is contradictory.
A previous study on Atlantic salmon showed that diets containing fishmeal treated with 1.4% PDF improved feed efficiency and growth rate. Results based on the growout of hybrid
tilapia also indicated that the addition of 0.2% PDF in test diets
significantly increased growth and feed efficiency, and decreased
bacterial infections.
In contrast, a study of juvenile hybrid tilapia showed that
supplementation of PDF at up to 1.2% of the diet did not show
improvement in growth performance, despite significantly suppressing gut bacteria. Based on the limited available information,
the efficacy of PDF in fish performance appears to vary dependJuly/August 2011
Wenger’s innovation of diverging cone screw and oblique die technologies brings all the benefits of extrusion to high capacity micro
aquatic feed production. These new designs for die approach and
distribution result in floating and sinking small diameter aquatic
feeds that are:
ing on species, life stage, supplementation levels of PDF, test
formulation and culture conditions.
Summary:
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Fishery Industrial Technology Center
School of Fisheries & Ocean Sciences
University of Alaska
Kodiak, Alaska, USA
global aquaculture advocate
Experimental Design
The authors recently conducted a growth trial at the Oceanic
Institute in Hawaii, USA to evaluate the effect of PDF on the
growth performance and digestibility of Pacific white shrimp
cultured in a clearwater system. It was funded by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service and
through a cooperative agreement with the University of Alaska
Fairbanks.
Juvenile Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, were
cultured in an indoor flow-through cleanwater system with 31
ppt salinity and 25° C temperature. They were fed six test diets
with 35% protein and 6% lipid containing PDF at 0, 0.3, 0.6,
1.2 or 1.5%.
For each 100 g, the basal diet was formulated to contain 30.0
g soybean meal, 15.0 g pollock meal, 6.0 g squid meal, 2.0 g
menhaden oil, 2.0 g soy lecithin, 33.8 g whole wheat, 1.0 g chromium oxide and 11.2 g other ingredients (including minerals
and vitamins). For each diet, four 52-L tanks were stocked at 12
shrimp/tank. With 0.84 g initial body weight, the shrimp were
hand fed four times daily to apparent satiation for eight weeks.
For the digestibility trial, 120 shrimp with body weights of 9
to 10 g were cultured in each of 18, 550-L tanks with 3 tanks/
dietary treatment. Chromium oxide was used as an inner marker
for measuring apparent digestibility coefficient.
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Feed-Conversion Ratio
2.5
b
2.0
ab
1.5
a
ab
a
1.0
0.5
0
0
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.5
Dietary PDF (%)
Figure 1. Mean feed-conversion ratios for shrimp fed diets with different levels of PDF for eight weeks. Different letters indicate significant (P < 0.05) difference among test diets.
100
Dry Matter
*
Digestibility (%)
80
Protein
Lipid
*
40
Gross Energy
*
60
20
0
0
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.5
Dietary PDF (%)
Figure 2. Mean apparent digestibility coefficients of shrimp fed
different dietary levels of potassium diformate. Asterisks indicate
significant (P < 0.05) difference among dietary treatments.
Results
The weekly weight gain of shrimp ranged from 0.6 to 0.8 g
and tended to increase in treatments with 1.2 and 1.5% PDF
diets, but was not significantly (P > 0.05) different among the
dietary treatments. The survival of shrimp was 97% or higher in
the growth trial.
Feed-conversion ratios (FCRs) were similar for the diets with
0.3 and 0.6% PDF, and both were lower than the FCR for the
1.2% PDF diet (P < 0.05) However, the FCRs for the control,
1.2 and 1.5% PDF diets were similar (P > 0.05).
Shrimp fed the 1.2% diet had lower digestibility (P < 0.05)
for dry matter, protein and gross energy than the shrimp fed the
other diets (Figure 2). Their digestibility of dietary lipids, however, was not affected (P > 0.05) by the PDF levels.
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Perspectives
This study showed that supplementation of PDF at up to
1.5% in a diet did not affect the growth and survival of shrimp
cultured in a clearwater system. This observation was similar to
a previous finding with hybrid juvenile tilapia, but different from
the results found in research with Atlantic salmon and growout
of hybrid tilapia.
The effects of dietary PDF on FCR and digestibility revealed
dose dependence in this study. It is possible the high FCR of the
1.2% PDF diet was due to the low digestibility of protein, dry
matter and gross energy for the diet. There is very limited information regarding the effects of PDF on nutrient digestibility in
aquatic species.
The results of this study were different from those of a previous report that said the addition of PDF to fishmeal during the
storage period before feed processing increased protein digestibility. The different efficiencies of dietary PDF found in the
current and previous studies may have been due to the different
conditions, such as testing species, culture system, dietary formulation or other experimental conditions. The exact reason for this
discrepancy was not clear and warrants further investigation.
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July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
45
production
Common Off-Flavors In Channel Catfish
Following Partial Pond Harvest
Kevin K. Schrader, Ph.D.
global aquaculture
U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service
Natural Products Utilization Research Unit
National Center for Natural Products Research
P. O. Box 8048
University, Mississippi 38677-8048 USA
kevin.schrader@ars.usda.gov
Craig S. Tucker, Ph.D.
Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center
Mississippi State University
Stoneville, Mississippi, USA
The detection of off-flavors in catfish after partial harvest
is more likely a statistical anomaly than the result of changing
ecological conditions.
Study Setup
The authors conducted a study to determine whether
channel catfish systematically develop off-flavors after
partial harvest as well as the possible origins of the flavors. For the common odorous compounds geosmin or
2-methylisoborneol, analysis of catfish fillets showed
no systematic increase in mean MIB or geosmin levels
following initial harvest. Off-flavors of dietary origin
appeared highly variable within a population of fish
because the feeding habits differ among fish.
Aquaculture ponds for channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in
the southeastern United States often contain more food-sized
catfish than processors can accept at one time. Fish remaining
after the initial harvest are returned to the pond and harvested
again as soon as possible based upon processor demands.
Some catfish farmers report that catfish crops initially
declared “on flavor” appear to develop off-flavors soon after the
first harvest, which postpones harvests of the remaining population and delays subsequent production.
Sudden Off-Flavor
There are at least three possible reasons for fish to suddenly
develop off-flavors after seining and harvest. First, the type of
phytoplankton in the pond may change to include blue-green
algae (cyanobacteria) that produce odorous compounds such as
geosmin or 2-methylisoborneol (MIB). Those compounds are
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
The study was conducted on a commercial catfish farm in the
delta region of western Mississippi. The water source and production practices were typical of other production ponds in the region.
Ponds were sampled in sets of two with each pair sampled over
a two-week period under a defined schedule. Water and catfish
fillet samples were collected immediately prior to initial harvest.
Water samples were collected the day after harvest, and water and
fish samples were collected three to seven days after harvest.
Water and catfish samples were again collected 14 to17 days
after harvest. Six ponds were sampled over a warm-weather
period (July through October), and six ponds were sampled over
a cool-weather period (January to early April).
Water samples were analyzed in the laboratory for geosmin
and MIB levels, and phytoplankton in pond water samples were
identified and counted using microscopy. Catfish fillets were analyzed in the laboratory to quantify geosmin and MIB and were
taste tested to determine the quality and intensity of off-flavor.
MIB, Geosmin Levels
In most ponds, MIB levels decreased or remained unchanged
in pond water after the first seining, while geosmin remained at
levels below 10 ng/L in all ponds. In four ponds, MIB levels
increased the day after seining. However, the MIB in two of those
ponds eventually decreased or returned to levels similar to those
prior to seining. Based upon sensory analysis, the spikes in MIB
levels in those four ponds did not increase the incidence or intensity of musty off-flavors in fish sampled after the initial harvest.
the
Summary:
46
quickly absorbed by fish and deposited in flesh, giving fish
“earthy” or “musty” off-flavors.
Second, seining a pond can release odorous substances from
pond sediments and taint fish. And third, fish remaining after
harvest may feed on dead fish or plants, and odorous substances
in the decaying material can impart off-flavors to fish after consumption.
The authors conducted an eight-month study to determine
whether fish systematically develop off-flavors after partial fish
harvest and, if so, to determine the types and origins of the flavors.
ew
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
47
Mean MIB and geosmin levels in catfish fillets from the
summer and winter sampling periods were lower or not significantly different after the first harvest. Statistical analysis indicated that MIB levels in catfish fillets decreased or were
unchanged after the first harvest, although several individual fish
samples contained MIB at or above 200 ng/kg, the sensory
detection threshold value for trained taste testers.
Similar results were found for geosmin levels in catfish fillets.
Overall, analysis of catfish fillets did not show any systematic
increase in mean MIB or geosmin levels following the initial
harvest.
Microscopic analyses of water samples showed that Planktothrix perornata, an MIB-producing blue-green alga, was present
in only three ponds. The abundance of P. perornata decreased in
two ponds after initial harvest and increased in the third pond.
This indicated that seining the ponds did not change ecological
conditions, thereby causing an increase in odor-producing algae.
In addition, seining did not promote conditions leading to
enhanced production of geosmin and MIB by actinomycetes
(non-photosynthetic bacteria) present in the ponds.
Summer Flavor
Taste testing of fish sampled in the summer months identified “musty” as the most common type of off-flavor (Table 1).
“Woody” off-flavor was also detected in catfish fillets on a couple
of sampling dates. Woody off-flavor has been attributed to
β-cyclocitral, another compound produced by blue-green algae
and other microorganisms.
Two of the 12 ponds sampled during the summer contained
objectionable-tasting catfish prior to initial harvest. Samples from
pond 169 possessed an objectionable off-flavor intensity rating of
about 2.0 or higher on each sampling date. Pond 46 also con-
Table 1. Results of sensory analysis of catfish fillets collected during summer months.
Score represents results of six catfish obtained on the sampling date.
Pond
Sampling Date
Mean Sensory Score
Off-Flavor Fish*
Flavor Description
52
7/15/09
7/20/09
7/31/09
7/15/09
7/20/09
7/31/09
8/17/09
8/20/09
8/31/09
8/17/09
8/20/09
8/31/09
9/24/09
9/28/09
10/8/09
9/24/09
9/28/09
10/8/09
0.2
0
0
2.0
2.2
1.7
0.3
0.2
0.3
0
0.2
0.2
1.3
1.0
0.3
0.2
0
0.2
0
0
0
4
4
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
Cardboard, stale
None detected
None detected
Musty, woody
Musty
Musty
Slightly musty
Slightly stale
Slightly musty
None detected
Slightly musty
Slightly sewage
Musty
Musty, earthy
Woody
Stale, slightly earthy
None detected
Slightly earthy
169
86
301
46
160
tained objectionable fish collected on the first sampling date, but
the mean sensory score improved on later sampling dates.
Winter Flavor
Flavor testing of catfish obtained during the winter months
detected a variety of off-flavors, and four of the 12 sampled
ponds contained objectionable off-flavored catfish prior to harvest (Table 2). Off-flavors described as “decay,” “fishy”, “rotten”
and “rancid” were probably caused by catfish eating dead fish
during the winter – a time when most catfish farmers do not
apply manufactured feed, and fish may scavenge for food. Likewise, off-flavors described as grassy or “vegetable” are likely due
to fish eating dead or living algae or plants.
Off-flavors of dietary origin appear to be highly variable
within a population of fish because the feeding habits differ
among fish. Overall, sensory scores for pond samples during the
winter months were variable, and mean scores were in the range
described as “very slight off-flavor” on most sampling dates.
Perspectives
Results of this study showed no consistent, systematic change
in fish flavor quality after partial fish harvest. Apparent changes
in fish flavor over time were most likely due to variation in fish
flavor quality within a population and inadequate sampling to
detect off-flavored fish within that population.
Most catfish processing plants require flavor samples from
several fish prior to harvest, although sampling requirements differ dramatically among plants. A previous study of flavor variation in catfish showed that sampling of 30 catfish was needed to
detect off-flavored fish in some populations. Most plants do not
require this number of samples due to logistical constraints, and
detection of off-flavored catfish after partial fish harvest is therefore more likely a statistical anomaly than the result of changing
ecological conditions.
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*
The number of catfish rated at “2” or above using the following scale:
0 = on flavor, 1 = very slight off-flavor, 2 = slight off-flavor, 3 = distinct off-flavor, 4-5 = strong off-flavor.
Table 2. Results of sensory analysis of catfish fillets collected during winter months.
Score represents results of six catfish obtained on the sampling date.
Pond
Sampling Date
440
450
291
298
304
358
1/25/10
2/1/10
2/10/10
1/25/10
2/1/10
2/10/10
2/22/10
3/1/10
3/11/10
2/22/10
3/1/10
3/11/10
3/29/10
4/5/10
4/12/10
3/29/10
4/5/10
Mean Sensory Score
Off-Flavor Fish*
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.5
1.2
0.3
1.0
0
0
0.2
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.7
1.0
0.2
*
The number of catfish rated at “2” or above using the following scale:
0 = on flavor, 1 = very slight off-flavor, 2 = slight off-flavor, 3 = distinct off-flavor, 4-5 = strong off-flavor.
48
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
1
1
1
1
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
Flavor Description
Aquatic Eco-Systems has supplied the industry with equipment,
Earthy, musty, grassy
Musty, woody, rotten
Decay, grassy, woody
Rancid, stale, grassy
Decay, earthy, woody
Grassy, decay
Decay, fishy, rotten, vegetable
None detected
None detected
Cardboard
None detected
Vegetable, straw
Hay, grassy, moldy, decay
None detected
Grassy, moldy, cardboard
Earthy, hay
Decay, moldy
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
49
production
trated by lower-than-normal temperatures in April and May,
which delayed feeding programs on many farms.
Feeding for food-size fish this April was down 25% from the
previous April. A good summer feeding season extending into
October would go a long way to help remaining growers restore
their inventories.
200,000
Production Area
180,000
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Figure 1. Catfish production area in four U.S. states.
Industry Adjustment
The U.S. catfish-farming industry is changing. The photo on the left was taken at a farm in Sunflower County, Mississippi, in 2006.
The photo on the right shows the same location in 2010.
Yet the average price paid to growers in April was $1.14/lb
($2.51/kg) – up 32% from April of 2010. Processors have yet to
really adjust to this smaller fish supply long term. In the short
term, they frequently operate three to four days weekly, depending on available supplies.
The average price of all products at the processor rose from
U.S. $2.48/lb ($5.45/kg) in April 2010 to $3.37/lb ($7.41/kg) in
April this year. Some processors anticipate returning to nearnormal operation
by July, but growers have been
largely frusfo_0007_SEAJOY-GAA-Hf-Pg-Ad.Ck.Fv.ai
1
6/16/11
5:36 PM
U.S. Catfish Industry Production
Shifts Continue
James A. Steeby, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Emeritus
Mississippi State University National
Warmwater Aquaculture Center
Sunflower Aquaculture Consulting Co.
P. O. Box 52
Inverness, Mississippi 38753 USA
jsteeby@ext.msstate.edu
Summary:
U.S. catfish farmers have drastically downsized their
operations over the last decade. They have had to deal
with competition from other whitefish species as well
as rising feed and fuel costs, causing some to replace
catfish harvests with soybeans or rice. With lower
inventories of fish available, catfish prices have recently
risen. Some processors anticipate returning to nearnormal operation within months.
The United States farm-raised catfish industry has downsized
dramatically since 2001. Production area is now half of the area
uesd in 2002 (Figure 1). Total annual processing has declined
from 660 million lb (299,370 mt) in 2003 to less than 400 million
lb (181,435 mt).
Competition from other whitefish species, such as tilapia and
Asian catfish, has kept fish prices stalled, while feed and fuel costs
continue to remain at record levels compared with the past 15
years. Growers have trimmed their costs in an attempt to remain
50
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
November 6-9, 2011
Santiago, Chile
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“The End Of The World”
profitable, but little remains for further improvement in this area.
While industry production is dominated by the channel catfish species, the blue catfish x channel catfish hybrid is gaining in
popularity because of its higher average survival and growth
rates. The hybrids may comprise 10% of the total hatchery output in the 2011 hatchery season.
Fish Prices
Fish prices received by growers have averaged near U.S.
$0.77/lb ($1.69/kg) since 2007 but rose in 2011 to over $1.00/lb
($2.20/kg) for the first time in history. Fish inventories are low,
and the competition for those remaining is strong.
The current fish prices paid to growers make the outlook better for the first time in years, given the high feed and fuel prices.
However, producers’ uncertainty over high feed prices and future
fish prices is causing many to be very conservative on stocking
rates and reduce the number of ponds they operate this year.
Farming Alternatives
Good prices for soybeans, rice and corn have resulted in
many older ponds being reduced to farm soil grade for conventional tillage. Ponds built on soils with higher clay levels are
mostly suited to soybeans and rice.
High fuel prices make taking pond levees down an expensive
proposition – as much as U.S. $2,000/ac ($4,940/ha), so those
areas with drainage problems or poor access are frequently
enrolled in conservation reserve programs that can run over 10
years in term. The possibility of retired ponds returning to fish
culture in the near future currently seems remote. Farm-raised
catfish processed during April totaled only 23.6 million lb
(10,705 mt) – down 36% from the previous year.
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
51
marketplace
Table 2. Frequency of responses for barriers to aquaculture development.
Survey Examines Perceived Barriers,
Strategies For U.S. Aquaculture Development
Saba Siddiki
University of Colorado Denver
School of Public Affairs
Christopher M. Weible, Ph.D.
University of Colorado Denver
School of Public Affairs
P. O. Box 173364, Campus Box 142
Denver, Colorado 80217-3364 USA
chris.weible@ucdenver.edu
interviews were also conducted with 10
members of NASAC.
Thirty-two of the 56 state members
in the 2009 NASAC database responded
to the online survey. Accounting for the
combined responses in two states, the
actual sample size was 30 of 50 states.
Strategies for overcoming barriers to aquaculture development include coordinating
Table 1 displays the number of responamong allies and seeking legislative support.
dents, total number of states per geographic region, and percentage of state
representation per geographic region.
Industry demographics for all states were obtained from the
United States Department of Agriculture 2005 Census of AquaSummary:
culture. Respondent and non-respondent states were statistically
In a survey of U.S. state aquaculture coordinators, costs
identical for total number of farms and farm sales, as well as the
(capital investments and land prices), resource connumber of food fish, baitfish, ornamental, crustacean and molstraints and stringent regulations were considered siglusk farms. Respondent and non-respondent states differed stanificant barriers to further aquaculture development.
tistically only in terms of the number of sport fish/recreational
Minor barriers included resistance from the public, conaquaculture farms (P < .05).
flict among resource users and lack of cohesion among
aquaculture industry representatives. Strategies for overBarriers To Aquaculture Development
coming these barriers included seeking legislative supRespondents were asked to indicate major barriers to aquaport and coordinating among allies. Industry members
culture development in their states on a scale from 0 to 4, with 0
were least likely to hire experts to defend their positions
not a barrier at all and 4 the largest barrier. Table 2 lists the 12
or refute opponents’ claims.
barriers, percentages of responses per category and total mean for
each barrier.
Among the barriers perceived as largest were start-up costs
Barriers impeding aquaculture development in the United
and
input costs. An interviewee described the cost of feed as a
States are ever present. Some point to uncertain regulations and
major
contributor, as his feed costs rose from U.S. $230 to $400/
complex challenges involving economic, technical, social and ecoton
in
recent years and now represents over 50% of input costs.
logical aspects of the industry. Still others mention resistance to
Another
interviewee commented that land, labor and material
aquaculture from the general public and political conflict.
costs were major contributors to high input costs.
Stringent regulations and complicated regulatory processes
Aquaculture Survey
were listed as minor to moderate barriers. Among the barriers
The authors performed a study of members of the United
States’ National Association of State Aquaculture Coordinators
Table 1. Respondent states by region.
(NASAC) and their perceptions about the barriers of continued
growth of the aquaculture industry, as well as strategies for overStates in States in
Percentage of States
Region
Sample
Region
Represented by Region
coming these barriers.
An online survey was administered to representatives from all
West
5
11
45%
Midwest
11
15
73%
50 states in the NASAC database in 2009 to capture members’
Northeast
7
12
58%
views on various dimensions of the aquaculture industries in
South
7
12
58%
their respective states. In the winter and spring of 2010, phone
52
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
Frequency of Responses
Response Category
Start-up costs (capital investments,
application fees, obtaining leases)
Input costs (land prices, labor, material costs)
Resource constraints (water scarcity,
land availability, energy)
Stringent environmental protection
regulations, safeguards
Foreign competition
Economic downturn
Complicated regulatory process associated
with obtaining permits, licenses, etc.
Domestic competition
Inexperienced farmers
Local user conflicts (recreational users,
commercial fishers)
General public resistance to aquaculture
development
Cohesiveness or cooperation among
industry members
Not a
Barrier
Minor
Barrier
Moderate
Barrier
Significant
Barrier
Largest
Barrier
0
1
2
3
4
0%
4%
26%
48%
22%
Mean
2.9
0%
4%
4%
30%
41%
37%
33%
15%
22%
15%
2.7
2.1
11%
15%
41%
26%
7%
2.0
22%
11%
19%
22%
26%
30%
7%
33%
29%
41%
19%
7%
7%
11%
15%
1.9
1.9
1.7
15%
11%
19%
30%
44%
41%
37%
30%
22%
11%
15%
19%
7%
0%
0%
1.7
1.5
1.4
33%
33%
4%
19%
11%
1.1
41%
41%
19%
0%
0%
0.7
Table 3. Frequency of responses for strategies for overcoming barriers to aquaculture development.
Frequency of Responses
Response Category
Coordinated activities among allies to convince
decision makers to adopt industry position
Sought legislative support
Engaged in publicity/marketing to change
perceptions regarding aquaculture
Influenced the composition of aquaculturerelated advisory committees
Negotiated with opponents to produce
consensus
Used and/or hired experts to develop
defensible positions
Used and/or hired experts to refute
opponents’ claims
Never
Less
Than
Yearly
Yearly
Monthly
Daily
0
1
2
3
4
Mean
7.4%
37.0%
44.4%
11.1%
0%
1.6
3.7%
14.8%
51.9%
51.9%
37.0%
25.9%
3.7%
3.7%
3.7%
3.7%
1.5
1.3
29.6%
33.3%
25.9%
11.1%
0%
1.2
25.9%
37.0%
33.3%
3.7%
0%
1.1
44.4%
40.7%
11.1%
3.7%
0%
0.7
44.4%
48.1%
7.4%
0%
0%
0.6
perceived as minor or not a barrier included cohesiveness or
cooperation among industry members and general public resistance to aquaculture development.
In the interviews, slightly more variance in responses was
observed. When asked the extent of support from the general
public, four coordinators commented that the general public was
generally very supportive of aquaculture in their respective states.
Others described public perceptions that varied from supportive
to a fair amount of opposition in more urban areas.
When interviewees were asked, “Has there been opposition
to aquaculture development by interests groups in your state?”,
interviewees mentioned non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) generally and specific advocacy groups, including the
Environmental Defense Fund and Food and Water Watch. Yet
another interviewee said that neighbors and commercial fisherman can also pose opposition.
A number of interviewees were not satisfied with the level of
state governmental support of aquaculture. Two respondents
made these statements:
• “Politically, while there has been some legislation, there is
currently no one person who has led the efforts.”
• “Some key people that are very supportive and other people
are uninformed or misinformed. Need to educate these
people and clarify misconceptions.”
Strategies To Overcome Barriers
Survey respondents were asked to indicate how often the
industry used a variety of strategies to overcome barriers to aquaculture development on a scale from 0 to 4, with 0 never and 4
daily. Table 3 provides the percentages of respondents who chose
each response, as well as the mean scores for each question.
About 10% or less of all respondents reported that the industry engages in the activities monthly or daily. Coordinating
activities among allies, seeking legislative support and engaging
in publicity/marketing campaigns were the most frequently conducted activities. Unlikely activities for industry members were
to use experts to refute opponents’ claims or to develop defensible positions.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
53
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The interviewees were also asked to describe activities in
which industry frequently engages to overcome barriers to aquaculture development. While the survey identified seeking legislative support as a frequent strategy, the interviewees reported that
these efforts have been far from successful, saying:
• “Where (industry members) haven’t been so active is in
working with the state legislature to find a champion.”
• “It can be challenging for industry people to get involved at
the state level, but it is not impossible. The industry can be
involved at the state level through the aquaculture advisory
council or the shellfish advisory council.”
• “Small industry – small voice.”
• “Bickering industry associations – when they get involved
like this, they look weak.”
Interviewees agreed that publicity and marketing are important. One interviewee described one effective strategy: “For shellfish farming, point out that it is very environmentally friendly.
For marine finfish, point to reduction in global fish supply, highlighting food quality/contamination concerns regarding imported
fish.”
The interviews described a variety of ways the industry
attempts to influence decision makers. Two interviewees said
that industry members try to preserve what they have through
various legal processes and that people can work through aquaculture-related councils to deal with issues.
Both survey and interview responses indicated that industry
members engage in negotiation with opponents. Interviewees stated:
• “Usually put together a team of people to deal with a problem issue – leadership for these groups is usually provided
through the university.”
• “If there is ever an issue, (industry members) like to sit
down with the concerned parties and discuss like the gentlemen they are.”
• “A whole variety of ways – one example was through community engagement with affected parties.”
Perspectives
Results from this study complement an emerging social science about the aquaculture industry. Mazur (2006) and Amberg
(2010) documented public resistance to aquaculture development. This study suggests such resistance may be secondary to
costs and regulations. Firestone (2004) emphasized fragmentation of regulations as a barrier, while this study showed that
complicated regulatory processes and stringent regulations are
minor to moderate barriers.
It is important to view this study as exploratory and based on
the perceptions of members of the state aquaculture coordinators.
Yet it represents one of few social science opinion pieces about
the aquaculture industry. Such introspection is important in
understanding the status quo barriers and current strategies to
overcome barriers, which both begin to provide a foundation for
better strategic decision making into the future.
Editor’s Note: Cited references are available from the second author.
applying nature for a healthy and sustainable future
marketplace
Figures Confirm: Chilean Salmon Is Back
Jorge Diaz Salinas
Through its current efforts, Chile
plans to recapture
world markets for
Chilean salmon
and other fish and
shellfish products.
54
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
The industry is now setting its sights
on Latin America, which currently
accounts for a healthy 17% of sales. Brazil
is the largest regional market for Chilean
Atlantic salmon.
Prospects
Summary:
Chilean salmon producers confronted the ISA crisis through
health policies focused on prevention, recovery, and improved
production methods. Their efforts
have resulted in climbing numbers: higher harvest weights and
millions more smolts seeded, as
well as signs of market recovery.
The Chilean Department of
Fisheries recently reported that
January-February salmonid exports hit an all-time peak of U.S.
$623 million. Observers expect
Chile to produce 400,000 mt of
salmon annually by 2013.
Chile farms and fishes a wide range of
seafood products. Leading industry exports
to the United States include salmon and
mussels. Salmon farming accounts for 3.6%
of Chilean exports and 57.6% of fish
exports. Chilean salmon ships to 64 countries, with Japan and the United States
accounting for 65% of sales in 2010.
In the aftermath of the infectious salmon
anemia (ISA) virus crisis, the local industry is
hard at work regaining lost ground in world
markets. The Chilean salmon industry and
local health authorities dealt with the ISA
outbreak by overhauling farming and health
procedures. Their virus control steps were
commended around the world.
Answering The Challenge
info.aqua@nutriad.net
www.nutriad.net
ProChile
jodiaz@prochile.cl
The industry is now looking forward
to the challenge of retaking a leading position in world markets, especially the
United States.
“Major changes to production methods; a new, more stringent regulatory
framework and ongoing controls should
result in sustained growth going forward,”
said SalmonChile, a 25-year-old trade
group whose 28 member companies
account for 63% of Chile’s salmon and
trout exports. “This, plus the ability to
offer value-added products at competitive
prices, will be key to regaining the ground
lost.”
SalmonChile runs the Salmon Technology Institute, which is dedicated to
identifying opportunities for improving
production methods. In line with government requirements, Chilean producers
confronted the ISA virus crisis through
health policies focused on prevention and
recovery, improved production and control
methods, and the introduction of industrywide good health practices.
Signs Of Recovery
The significant increase in average
harvest weight is a highly encouraging
sign. While Atlantic salmon harvest
weights fell to as low 2.7 kg at the height
of the ISA crisis, weights now exceed 5.1
kg. Another good sign is the rise in smolt
seeding. Some 163 million rainbow trout
and Atlantic and coho salmon smolts were
seeded in 2010, a 22% increase over 2009.
Signs of market recovery are also
encouraging. The Chilean salmon industry’s share of the U.S. market grew significantly from September to December 2010.
For the period of January through November 2010, the supply of fresh Atlantic
salmon fillets to the U.S. market was led
by Norway with 41.9% and Chile with
38.2%, followed by Canada, the United
Kingdom and other smaller players.
Industry observers expect Chile to produce about 400,000 mt of salmon by 2013,
and their expectations are confirmed by
current events. The Chilean Department
of Fisheries recently reported that the
value of salmonid fish exports in January
and February hit an all-time peak of U.S.
$623 million. While the industry has yet
to make a full comeback from the ISA
outbreak, the 100,306 mt shipped in this
period showed that 2011 should be a good
year for salmon producers.
The Department of Fisheries report
noted that export value and volume rose
47.3 and 26.3%, respectively, over the year
before. In 2011, salmon is selling at U.S.
$6.8/kg, a 16.3% increase over 2010 – and
the best price obtained in five years.
New Markets
The Chilean Trade Commission
(ProChile) is helping the Chilean salmon
industry explore new markets, especially Brazil, and keep or recover markets in the
United States and Europe. However, recapturing world markets for Chilean salmon
and other fish and shellfish products requires
the local industry to apply new health and
environmental sustainability standards.
“ProChile encourages industry revitalization and sustainability through voluntary adoption of international certification
standards,” ProChile Director Félix de
Vicente said. “The intended goal is to keep
expanding as a stable, reliable supplier of
seafood products to stringent markets
around the world.”
The Chilean salmon
industry’s share of the U.S.
market grew significantly
from September
to December 2010.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
55
marketplace
Off-Flavors In Aquacultured Products
Part II: Environmental, Endogenous Factors
spoilage is characterized by the presence
of fruity and sulfhydryl odors and flavors.
A four-phase pattern of change in the
flavor quality of fish occurs post-harvest.
These changes are tied to initial contamination of the fish by microorganisms, the
growth of anaerobic bacteria, development of surface slime and the subsequent
growth of anaerobic bacteria. Off-Odors
George J. , Jr., Ph.D.
Food Science
and Technology Department
Virginia Tech/Virginia Sea Grant (0418)
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
flickg@vt.edu
Off-flavors in shrimp and other seafood can result from industrial contamination,
enzymatic reactions and microorganisms.
Summary:
Off-flavors in seafood can stem from a variety of sources. Industrial effluents
can at least secondarily contribute to off-flavors in fish. Off-flavor oxidative
carbonyl compounds increase during cold storage of some farmed fish. Algae
produce compounds that result in objectionable tastes and odors. Postharvest changes in the flavor quality of fish are tied to initial contamination
by microorganisms, the growth of anaerobic bacteria, development of surface
slime and subsequent growth of anaerobic bacteria.
Water used in aquaculture production
can acquire flavors from industrial installations upstream. Due to the lack of
available information verifying the seafood-tainting capabilities of industrial
compounds, there is little clear information that precisely relates a source of contamination to unacceptable flavors in fish
and shellfish produced downstream. Even
the placement of caged fish near effluent
sources has not always resulted in a clear
identification of a polluting source.
Despite the difficulty in establishing
clear links between industrial effluents and
off-flavors, some compounds have been
identified. In one river, industrial compounds responsible for flavor tainting
included alkylphenols (2-isopropyl-, 3-isopropyl, 4-isopropyl-, 2,4-diisopropyl-,
2,5-diisopropyl-, 2,6-diisopropyl-, 3,5-diisopropyl-, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl- and
2-methyl-5-isopropyl-) and thiophenol.
56
July/August 2011
Chlorination of wastewater from
municipal or industrial sources has
resulted in the formation of 2,4,6-trichloroanisole and other chlorinated anisoles,
which have been related to off-flavors in
fish. Ozonation is known to produce a
variety of off-flavors as well, but its contribution to unacceptable flavor or odor
in aquaculture has not been studied.
Off-Flavor From Enzymes
Fish lipids are very susceptible to oxidation because of a high degree of acyl
unsaturation. Lipoxygenase present in
fish tissues can initiate the oxidation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids to produce
acyl hydroperoxides. Thus, oxidative offflavored short-chain carbonyl compounds
such as 4-heptanal, 2,4-heptadienal,
2-pentenal, 3-hexenal and 2,4-decadienal
increase during cold storage of some
aquacultured fish species.
global aquaculture advocate
The effects of lipoxygenase on lipid
oxidation and off-odor formation has
been studied in silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, where it was associated
with a strong fishy odor. It is likely that
2,4-heptadienal contributes to fishy
odors, while hexanal and nonanal are
responsible for oxidized oil odors. Off-Flavor From
Microorganisms
Algae have been responsible for the
production of compounds that result in
objectionable tastes and odors. Some algae
produce isopropyl di- and trisulfide, isopropyl mercaptan, methyl isothiocyanate,
isopropyl methyl sulfide and isopropyl
methyl sulfide. Dimethyl sulfide, which is
also produced, has an odor threshold concentration of just 0.33 ng/g in water but
has been found in canned fish at concentrations of 8.4 µg/g (8,400 ng/g).
The contribution of bacteria to flavortainted seafoods is well known and documented. Microorganisms in soil produce
several volatile compounds, such as 2-isopropyl-3-methoxy pyrazine. However,
the off-odors and off-flavors produced by
bacteria living on aerobically stored fish
are also dependent upon the fish species
and its origin.
The spoilage of temperate-climate
marine fish species is characterized by the
development of ammoniacal, fishy, rotten
and hydrogen sulfide odors and flavors.
In tropical and freshwater fish, such
Usually, the first sign of off-odor is
the ammoniacal odor of trimethylamine,
which comes from the degradation of
trimethylamine oxide. The next stage is
the development of sulfurous and putrid
odors caused by compounds primarily
formed by the microbial decomposition
of amino acids. Most bacteria are capable
of producing one or more sulfides
(hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide) from
either cysteine or methionine.
Chilled fish can develop a fruity odor
during the early stages of spoilage. The
compounds responsible for this are the
ethyl esters of acetic, butanoic and
hexanoic acids. These compounds are
thought to be formed from mono-amine,
monocarboxylic acids. Crustacean Off-Flavors
The microbiological origins of off-flavors in crustaceans have received little
attention compared to those of fresh- and
saltwater fish. The majority of the literature has focused on the Australian deepsea prawn, Hymenopenaeus sibogae, which
can develop a distinctive garlic-type flavor
that on occasion renders the product unacceptable to consumers. A similar off-flavor
has also been reported in sand lobsters.
The prawns are not microbiologically
spoiled, and the off-flavor is exclusively
concentrated in the animals’ gut. The
responsible compound has been identified as bis-(methylthio)-methane. The
organism or organisms causing the offflavor has not been identified.
Dimethyl trisulfide was identified as
the cause of an unpleasant cooked onion
odor in rejected catches of deep-sea
prawns. Indole was also identified in the
prawns. The flesh of the prawns was discolored and slimy to the touch. The
prawns contained a high microbiological
population, but the cause of the off-flavor
could not be attributed to any of the
microorganisms. Garlic off-flavors have been shown to
be due to the presence of trimethylarsine
in both deep-sea and shallow water
prawns. Again, the prawns were not
microbiologically spoiled, and the compound was concentrated in the gut.
Environmental arsenic is readily
transformed into alkylarsines by many
bacteria under reducing conditions. Mold
and yeast both produce trimethylarsine,
while bacteria produce dimethylarsine.
Algae are capable of converting arsenite
to trimethylarsine oxide. It should be
noted that prawns are known to accumulate inorganic arsenic, and the presence of
some bacteria could convert the compound to trimethylarsine.
Editor’s Note: Part I of this series discussed the
effects on aquacultured products of off-flavors
caused through the biological production of
geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol. Part III
will cover the flavor effects of aquaculture
feeds, processing and storage conditions.
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
57
marketplace
Diversification Of The Aquaculture Sector
Seaweed Cultivation, Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture,
Integrated Sequential Biorefineries
Dr. T. Chopin
Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic
Aquaculture Network
University of New Brunswick
P. O. Box 5050
Saint John, New Brunswick E2L 4L5
Canada
tchopin@unbsj.ca
Dr. A. Neori
Israel Oceanographic and Limnological
Research Ltd.
National Centre for Mariculture
Eilat, Israel
Dr. A. Buschmann
Large-scale kelp cultivation in Sungo Bay, China, is integrated with the cultivation
of oysters, scallops, abalones and sea cucumbers.
i-mar
Universidad de Los Lagos
Puerto Montt, Chile
Dr. S. Pang
Summary:
To retain sustainability as the
world’s need for seafood grows,
aquaculture’s business models
will likely have to change from
“one species/one process/one
product” to a streamed bioeconomic web involving different
industry sectors. Evolving aquaculture practices will require a
conceptual shift toward understanding the working of food
production systems rather than
focusing on monospecific technological solutions. As aquaculture
expands to open-ocean operations,
deployment footprints should
make sense from environmental,
economic and production perspectives, and also have an
acceptable societal impact.
It may be surprising to some that fish
aquaculture represents only 9% of all mariculture. Shellfish aquaculture represents
43%. At 46%, seaweed aquaculture represents the largest portion of the total. But
99.8% of the 15.8 mmt of seaweed cultivated annually come from China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Korea and Japan.
During the last few years, there has
58
July/August 2011
been renewed interest in the mariculture
of seaweeds and their uses – something
that should make phycologists and ecologists rejoice, as this group of organisms has
been misunderstood, unappreciated and
underused over the centuries. We now
have an opportunity to explain what seaweeds are, and the many applications,
benefits and services they can provide.
While everyone wants the seaweed
sector to develop, some biotechnological
issues and societal constraints, particularly
in the Western world, should be recognized and a long-term responsible and
gradual implementation strategy adopted.
Breaking Down Clichés
The Western marine biology community has been dominated by people who
received primarily zoological training,
often reinforced by monospecific specialization at university, instead of developing
an ecosystem approach to marine knowledge. Not surprisingly, knowledge of seaweeds and their functions and services in/
to ecosystems is limited and remains at
universities and research institutions that
have wisely kept diverse expertises.
To expand our outlooks, we must first
recall there is more than fish in the oceans!
Oceans cannot function with only fish,
and our seafood solutions cannot come
from only this group of organisms. To
global aquaculture advocate
Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Qingdao, China
weeds, shellfish, crustaceans, echinoderms,
worms, bacteria, etc.) to mimic the functioning of natural ecosystems.
This is what is happening with the
development of integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture (IMTA). Evolving aquaculture
practices will require a conceptual shift
toward understanding the workings of food
production systems rather than focusing on
monospecific technological solutions.
Sensible Changes
It is important to understand that
changes rarely happen overnight. There is
no shortage of interesting ideas for seaweeds and other species at the small demonstration scale, but problems generally
appear when people realize the consequences of scaling up. The deployment
footprints required should make sense
from environmental, economic and production perspectives, and also have an
acceptable societal impact.
We should also stay away from the
idea that since around 71% of this planet is
covered by oceans, there is plenty of space
for aquaculture development. Although
aquaculture will probably expand into
more exposed and open-ocean locations
due to the reduced availability of suitable
new nearshore sites, it is doubtful we will
see farms in the middle of oceans for simple logistics and weather reasons. Moreover, present international laws of the sea
are not that comforting for owners of private equipment found at sea.
The vagueness of territorial jurisdictional competence regarding the exclusive
economic zone in different countries, and
certainly in international waters, has been
a major impediment to progress in offshore aquaculture. If moving to the open
ocean has been considered a means for
moving away from environmental and
public perception issues in the coastal
zone, it should not encourage an “out of
sight, out of mind” attitude, as open-ocean
development will also come under scrutiny
by an increasingly educated public.
There will be a point when reasonably
accessible and manageable open-ocean
ecosystems eventually reach their assimilative capacities. Instead of taking the position that open-ocean hydrodynamic conditions will be appropriate for dispersion
and reduced environmental impacts, the
open-ocean aquaculture sector will also
have to capitalize on recapturing the byproducts of fed aquaculture and engineer
efficient IMTA systems with their built-in
biomitigative functions – soon and not as
an afterthought in the 2050s.
New Paradigm, New Seascape
With a new paradigm in the design of
efficient food production systems, there are
no simple solutions, but one thing is certain: The human population is increasing,
and as standards of living increase, people
aspire to have more proteins in their diets.
People need balanced and responsible
diets, and food will have to increasingly
come from aquatic production systems.
As was the case on land, where the acquisition of food by hunter/gatherer societies
had to evolve toward agriculture practices
and signifigant landscape changes, we
will have to accept an evolution in seafood procurement and seascape.
We are in the middle of this transformation, and this may be why people are
uncomfortable, and unable to sit back and
analyze without being emotional. Let us
not forget that we are still in the infancy of
modern, intensive aquaculture and that
some agricultural practices have taken cen-
The open-ocean
aquaculture sector will
also have to capitalize on
recapturing the by-products of fed aquaculture.
M. Sawhney
Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic
Aquaculture Network
University of New Brunswick
better manage marine environments, we
need to revisit the concept of marine
agronomy, learning from mistakes made in
agriculture over the centuries to do a better
job with aquaculture.
It is interesting to note that traditional
agricultural practices, such as crop diversification, rotation and fallowing, are now
being transposed to aquaculture practices.
From an ecological point of view, diversification also means cultivating at more
than one trophic level, adding organisms
of different and lower trophic levels (sea-
Evolving aquaculture
practices will require a
shift toward understanding the workings of food
production systems rather
than focusing on monospecific technological
solutions.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
59
turies to develop into better, not necessarily yet best, management practices.
Marine Spatial Planning
Beyond the biological, environmental,
technological, engineering, economic,
marketing and regulatory issues of aquaculture development, a basic question will
be that of societal acceptance. Are we
ready to evolve in our use of this planet’s
“last frontier” and finally deal with the
concept of zoning portions of the oceans
for large aquaculture parks as sustainable
food production systems for a human population seeking ever more seafood?
Despite all the campaigns and movements, the global human population continues to grow and eat more seafood than
ever. Are we investing in the principal, in
fisheries and aquaculture, to only harvest
interest every year so as to not reduce/eat
the capital for long-term sustainability?
Are we ready to put some savings aside in
the form of marine protected areas, not
only for their natural beauty, but also their
ecosystem functions, such as breeding
grounds, nursery habitats and food production areas?
The question of readiness for marine
spatial planning could also be applied to
emerging projects of wind and biofuel
farms. In fact, combining IMTA with
wind, underwater turbine and/or biofuel
farms in large multipurpose integrated
food and renewable energy parks could be
a means for reducing their cumulative
footprint, while integrating green energy
with food and fuel production and processing.
Our business models will have to
change from “one species/one process/
one product” to a streamed bioeconomic
chain or web approach among different
industry sectors. On one hand, a wide
range of bio-based, high-value food and
feed products/ingredients/supplements,
biopolymers, fine and bulk chemicals,
agrichemicals, biostimulants, pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals,
functional foods, biooils, botanicals and
pigments. And on the other hand, lower-
Beyond the biological,
environmental, technological, engineering,
economic, marketing and
regulatory issues of aquaculture development, a
basic question will be that
of societal acceptance.
60
July/August 2011
Biomitigative Services
(IMTA)
Turquoise
Revolution
Bioproduction
marketplace
Nutrient and
Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
(Nutrient and Carbon
Trading Credits)
Biomass
at Integrated Food
and Renewable
Energy Parks
Paul Brown, Jr.
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
P. O. Box 389
Toms River, New Jersey 08754 USA
pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
Oxygen Supply
Species Interactions
Janice Brown
Angel Rubio
Harvesting
Dewatering
Pretreatment
Transportation
Separation
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Integrated Sequential
Biorefinery
Sequential Processing
Bio-based,
High-Value Compounds
Low-Value Commodity
Energy Compounds
• Food and feed products/ingredients/supplements (from nori, kombu, wakame, etc. to
protein substitutions in aquaculture feed)
• Biopolymers (alginates, carrageenans, agars)
• Fine and bulk chemicals
• Agrichemicals, fertilizers, biostimulants
• Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, cosmeceuticals
• Nutraceuticals, functional foods, antioxidants, biooils
• Botanticals, pigments, colorants, aromatics
• Biofuels
• Biodiesels, gasoline, waxes, olefins
• Biogases (biomethane, biohydrogen)
• Bioalcohols, aldehydes, acids
• Biomaterials, biocomposites,
thermoplastics, adhesives
• Heat/steam
• Power/electricity
Figure 1. The concept of an integrated sequential biorefinery reflects the integrated use
of biomass, food, feed, chemicals and energy produced by multipurpose integrated
food and renewable energy parks in an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture setting
that provides biomitigative services.
value commodity energy from biofuels,
biodiesels, biogases, bioalcohols and biomaterials and heat/power – all produced
within reduced footprint requirements.
The physiological, biochemical and
production performances of the different
organisms will have to be improved to
make the systems even more efficient,
profitable and competitive. The aquaculturists and different multisector end users
will need to become interdisciplinary in
their approaches and learn to collaborate
while aiming at the lowest resource and
energy inputs.
Functionalities will have to be maintained, as much as possible, along the
process for optimal use/valorization of
the multipurpose biomass, and not necessarily the maximization of just one end
product, as some co-products could reveal
themselves as the real drivers of the
emerging integrated sequential biorefinery concept (Figure 1). Market volumes/
global aquaculture advocate
Summary:
Fractionation
values, biomitigative services and public
acceptance will have to be considered and
included in models.
Walk The Talk
If the “not in my back yard” and similar attitudes continue to prevail, especially
in the Western world, we will not be able
to secure our food, chemicals and energy
in an intricately interconnected ecosystem-responsible manner, despite ongoing
rhetoric regarding alternative technologies and solutions.
We will not be able to ensure our selfsufficiency, but will become dependent
on other food, chemical and energy “masters,” who may no longer be in the Middle East, but the Far East. It is time to
walk the talk and recognize the implications – notably regarding marine spatial
planning and our societal production and
food habits – of the policies we are elaborating for the future.
Poor weather conditions are stalling shrimp production
in several regions.
Shrimp Disruptions Continue,
Supply Delays Expected
Although shrimp imports to the United States in 2010 were
even with the previous year, significant production and supply
disruptions occurred in 2010, including the Gulf of Mexico oil
spill. 2011 was thought by many to be a return to a “normal”
supply and demand situation.
However, that scenario is not playing out this year. In fact,
significant supply disruptions continue to drive the current
shrimp market with at least delays in typical seasonal production
to late summer and early fall. April shrimp imports were down
3.6% from year-ago levels, with year-to-date (YTD) imports at a
2.4% increase over 2010 (Table 1).
Many suggested we started the year with a tight supply, as
shorted retail contracts from 2010 were still being fulfilled in the
first quarter of 2011, and inventories were unable to accumulate.
Raw material pricing for value-added production remained
strong throughout the period, pushing the spot market higher in
most categories.
In late March, heavy flooding in southern Thailand, a major
supplier, set production back from that country. This manifested
in April shrimp imports down 23.0% or 7.7 million lb, resulting
in YTD imports 5.4% below last year. Reports indicate that
inclement weather conditions have also adversely affected shrimp
production in Vietnam.
Vietnam is also reportedly dealing with disease that is dramatically affecting the early production of black tiger shrimp in
the Mekong Delta region of the country. However, YTD
Many anticipate that seasonal shrimp production will be
delayed due to weather and disease problems. Rising costs
and a weak U.S. dollar point to a strong undertone for the
shrimp market. Shrimp imports from India and Indonesia
to the U.S. are improving. April fresh whole salmon YTD
import figures were 11.9% below April 2010 YTD figures.
Salmon fillet imports were 5.5% lower than year-ago levels.
Chile was again the top source for fillets. Frozen whole
tilapia imports remain low, while fresh fillet imports slid in
April. Pricing has remained static as plentiful, high-priced
inventories deplete. Channel catfish imports from China
were the lowest since 2007 in April, while Pangasius
imports increased again. Replacement costs are making
their way to the U.S. spot market.
imports from Vietnam through April indicated a 20.9% increase.
This increase was likely in white shrimp, and future import figures may indicate current production problems.
Indonesia’s production, which has been down for the last couple
of years, is apparently improving, with imports up 24% for April
and 17% year to date. Shrimp imports from India were sharply
higher in April and YTD, representing a significant increase in the
production of large headless, shell-on white shrimp.
So, the supply picture is unclear, but many anticipate that
seasonal production, like last year, will be at least delayed. As
with most other products, shrimp production costs continue to
increase – especially for feed, labor, fuel and transportation.
In addition, the U.S. dollar remains weak in relation to most
major currencies, making imported shrimp more expensive.
These factors all indicate a strong undertone for the shrimp market. But it remains unclear what U.S. demand requirements will
be for higher-priced shrimp, given the current economic environment.
Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, April 2011.
Form
Shell-on
Peeled
Cooked
Breaded
Total
April 2011
(1,000 lb)
March 2011
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Month)
April 2010
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2011
(1,000 lb)
YTD 2010
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
30,746
27,100
12,557
7,353
78,130
31,856
27,516
12,667
5,659
78,329
-3.5%
-1.5%
-0.9%
29.9%
-0.3%
31,130
27,192
15,986
5,999
81,028
-1.2%
-0.3%
-21.5%
22.6%
-3.6%
124,934
119,638
55,520
28,961
331,031
121,668
108,088
61,898
28,666
323,170
2.7%
10.7%
-10.3%
1.0%
2.4%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
61
June. Supplies were fully adequate to ample for a quiet to dull
demand. The undertone ranged barely steady to weak going into
mid-June. All Chilean fillets, however, were well their above
ATTENTION SEAFOOD PROFESSIONAL
MAKE
SMARTER
CHOICES.
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, April 2011.
.Negotiate with Confidence
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To find out what we can do for your
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July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
April 2011
(lb)
March 2011
(lb)
Change
(Month)
April 2010
(lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2011
(lb)
YTD 2010
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh whole fish
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
15,421,543
205,942
12,064,444
11,329,983
39,021,912
17,008,919
306,045
12,718,365
8,654,994
38,688,323
-9.3%
-32.7%
-5.1%
30.9%
0.9%
17,252,807
388,309
10,163,163
7,185,101
34,989,380
-10.6%
-47.0%
18.7%
57.7%
11.5%
63,351,544
1,864,051
44,936,050
42,461,343
152,612,988
71,909,457
1,477,695
45,707,095
38,301,899
157,396,146
-11.9%
26.1%
-1.7%
10.9%
-3.0%
Whole Tilapia Stay Low, Costa Rica Fillets Drop
fillets in April declined just under 4 million lb. Historically,
imports have seasonally decreased in April when compared to
the previous month, as the Lenten period normally ends. Notably, there was a tremendous decline of imports from the thirdlargest player, Costa Rica, where shipments diminished to
137,500 lb from 1.5 million a month earlier.
The market has remained quiet since the last report. The
undertone as of the third week in June was steady to about steady.
U.S. imports of whole salmon dropped over 9% in April.
Whole Salmon, Fillet
Imports To U.S. Down
Whole Fish
April fresh whole fish YTD import figures revealed a
decrease of 11.9% below April 2010 YTD figures (Table 2).
Month-to-month data also decreased, with April whole salmon
imports 9.3% lower than in March. Comparing April 2011 to
April 2010, there was a 10.6% decrease. Canadian imports were
16.5% lower YTD and 10.0% lower month to month.
The Northeast whole fish market through the end of May and
beginning of June was barely steady to weak and trended lower
over the past few weeks. Supplies were full adequate to ample,
with whole fish coming into the U.S. market from all parts of the
world during the last few weeks of May. Demand was quiet to fair,
at best, and the undertone was unsettled. All sizes, however,
remained well above the three-year price averages.
The West Coast market, somewhat similar to the Northeast,
was barely steady to weak at the end of May and through the
first few weeks of June. Supplies were fully adequate to ample for
a dull demand. The undertone going forward is barely steady to
weak. Like the Northeast market, all sizes have been well above
their three-year averages.
Fillets
U.S. imports of fresh salmon fillets continue 2011 with Chile
the top source and Norway in second position. During April,
Chile exported 6.9 million lb, while the combination of Norway,
Faroe Islands and Canada exported 3.8 million lb to the U.S.
Overall, April YTD import levels were 5.5% lower than yearago levels. Month-to-month data showed April 3.2% lower than
March. Imports from Chile were 43.7% higher, while Norway’s
YTD levels were 55.1% lower than in April 2010. Canada’s 2011
YTD levels were 25.1% lower than 2010 YTD levels.
Like the whole fish markets, the Chilean fillet market was
weak the last few weeks of May and into the first few weeks of
62
Form
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
FASTER.
EVERY DAY.
three-year price averages. The European fillet market was steady
to weak; demand was dull.
Frozen Fillets
U.S. imports of tilapia fillets from main supplier China
have remained fairly flat.
Whole Tilapia
April imports of frozen whole tilapia to the United States
increased slightly from the previous month, but overall remain
low. Despite the modest surge, imports in April were the secondlowest figure recorded in the past six years. On a YTD basis,
imports were down only 2.3% when compared to 2010 (Table 3).
Fresh Fillets
U.S. imports of frozen tilapia fillets increased just slightly from
the previous low figure recorded a month earlier. April imports
were below the 2008-2010 average, as well as 23.0% under those
in April a year ago. Overall, imports were just 1.1% higher than
the previous year, with China, the main supplier, staying flat at
1.5%. Indonesia, ranked a distantly second supplier, saw its shipments increase only 3.4% during the first four months of 2011.
Pricing has remained static for the past months as plentiful,
high-priced inventories deplete in the U.S. Many in the U.S.
have reported some easing in offering price levels from Chinese
packers as they try to reignite buying interest from discouraged
U.S. importers, and as the harvests take place. The current
undertone is mixed.
After reaching a four-year-high in March, imports of fresh
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, April 2011.
Form
April 2011
(lb)
March 2011
(lb)
Change
(Month)
April 2010
(lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2011
(lb)
YTD 2010
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
4,274,967
3,935,568
12,561,471
20,772,006
3,977,916
5,671,905
11,693,128
21,342,949
7.47%
-30.61%
7.43%
-2.68%
6,090,031
4,438,684
16,348,830
26,877,545
-29.80%
-11.33%
-23.17%
-22.72%
25,291,186
18,717,631
89,924,083
133,932,900
25,880,659
19,182,714
88,771,361
133,834,734
-2.28%
-2.42%
1.30%
0.07%
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Pangasius Imports Grow As Replacement Costs Rise
Channel Catfish
Imports of channel catfish from China to the United States
remain low (Table 4). On a YTD basis, imports were the lowest
since 2007 in April, and when compared to the same month in
previous years, 2011 marked the lowest numbers since this item
was initially tracked by the Department of Commerce. The market was short, and quotations have not been re-established due
to negligible spot trading.
Pangasius
U.S. imports of Pangasius increased significantly in April: 46
and 73% from the previous month and when compared to the
same month a year ago, respectively. A cyclical pattern of
monthly imports is increasingly more apparent in this market.
On a YTD basis, imports for the January-April period were
47% greater when compared to the same period a year ago.
When compared individually to their counterparts from previous
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
63
years, imports of each of these months were also greater.
From a market perspective, increasing replacement costs
from the pond to the processor and from the processor to the
importer are making their way to the U.S. spot market. Quotations firmed slightly early in June, then remained steady.
Replacement costs have gone up for U.S. importers, but so
have raw material prices for processors in Vietnam – who have
seen their profits shrink when compared to 2010, according to
an article in the Vietnam Net Bridge. According to VASEP,
Vietnamese seafood exporters are trying to negotiate with
importers to lift the average export price by approximately U.S.
$.09/lb.
Only a slight rise in market prices was seen for Pangasius
during the first week of June. The proposal for USDA inspections reported in the last issue remains relatively unchanged. The
only pertinent news is that the FSIS scheduled two public meetings for late May. The main discussions were to cover the implementation schedule for enforcement and whether to define catfish as members of the order Siluriformes or to limit the
definition to members of the family Ictaluridae (channel catfish).
innovation
Testing Finds Resistance To WSSV In
Shrimp From Panamanian Breeding Program
Jorge Cuéllar-Anjel
Table 4. Snapshot of U.S. catfish imports, April 2011.
Form
Pangasius
Channel catfish
Total
Camaronera de Coclé S.A.
April 2011
(lb)
March 2011
(lb)
Change
(Month)
April 2010
(lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2011
(lb)
YTD 2010
(lb)
Change
(Year)
13,022,444
203,438
13,225,882
8,900,389
165,193
9,065,582
46.31%
23.15%
45.89%
7,528,601
1,070,951
8,599,552
72.97%
-81.00%
53.80%
48,935,718
2,580,284
51,516,002
33,314,504
7,243,211
40,557,715
46.89%
-64.38%
27.02%
Roberto Chamorro
Camaronera de Coclé, S.A.
Natá (Coclé), Apartado 0823-058-19
Panamá, República de Panamá
roberto.chamorro@grupocalesa.com
Brenda White-Noble
Paul Schofield
Donald V. Lightner, Ph.D.
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
GOAL 2011
Survivors from three families of shrimp were never infected with WSSV (while others
from the same family in the same tank died from WSSV) or were resistant to the virus.
November 6-9, 2011
SANTIAGO, CHILE
Join GAA At “The End Of The World”
As We Explore How To
Double In A Decade –
Responsibly
Summary:
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In a recent challenge test under controlled conditions using a severe strain of
the virus, resistance to WSSV was shown in shrimp supplied by the Camaronera de Coclé, S.A. L. vannamei genetics program. Three families of
shrimp were exposed to WSSV, with survival ranging from 23 to 57%. A
control of specific pathogen-free Kona shrimp of similar size, however,
showed no survival after WSSV exposure.
Three F8, F9 and F12 generation families of Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, were challenged per os with
white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) at the
University of Arizona’s Aquaculture
Pathology Laboratory. These families
were developed by the Panamanian shrimp
company Camaronera de Coclé, S.A.
(CAMACO) from founder stocks that
survived white spot a decade ago. All three
lines were obtained through the selective
breeding of offspring from multiple generations since 2001 that were survivors of
experimental WSSV infections.
The family identified as LP-1 was F9
generation and produced by artificial
insemination from one female and one
male. The second family, LP-2, was
obtained by crossing females from a massselected F11 population with F8 generation males from the LP-1 family using
natural copulation. The third LP-3 family
was in the F12 generation and obtained by
crossing shrimp previously produced by
mass selection and natural copulation from
a mixture of all individually selected and
WSSV-challenged families.
Study Setup
L. vannamei stock with average weight
of 1.5 g per shrimp were shipped to the
University of Arizona from CAMACO in
Panama. On arrival, the shrimp were
acclimated and stocked at 50 to 96 animals
per tank into nine, 1,000-L fiberglass
tanks containing artificial seawater with
30-ppt salinity and 26˚ C temperature.
The shrimp were allowed to recover from
shipping stress for three days prior to the
WSSV challenge studies.
The experimental challenge consisted
of three negative environmental control
tanks, each containing representatives
from one of the families, which were
challenged separately with WSSV. Six
tanks were utilized for challenging the
three families with WSSV and included
two replicates for each family. A positive
control consisting of 20 Kona specific
pathogen-free (SPF) reference line L.
vannamei with average weight of 1.5 g
was challenged with WSSV in a 90-L
glass aquarium.
The Kona stock were fed the same
batch of WSSV tissue as the three Pana-
Department of Veterinary Science
and Microbiology
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona, USA
manian families to ensure that the tissue
used was infectious and provide a basis
with which to measure and compare survival. All tanks were equipped with air
diffusers to provide sufficient aeration
and an acclimated oyster shell internal
recirculating biological filter. Each tank
was covered with a plastic sheet to contain aerosols and minimize water temperature fluctuations.
WSSV Challenge
China isolate WSSV-CN95 was chosen for this challenge study because it is
the reference isolate most often used by
the university laboratory and has shown
consistency in virulence since it was
obtained in 1995. Shrimp in the challenge
tanks and positive control tank were initially given one feeding of WSSV-infected
minced frozen animals at a rate of 5% of
their average body weight. Beginning the
next day, all the shrimp were fed a commercial pelleted shrimp diet.
Dead and moribund animals were
recorded and removed from the tanks
daily. Dead shrimp were frozen at -70° C.
Moribund animals and some of the survivors at termination on day 17 were preserved in fixative and processed using routine histology to confirm WSSV infection
status. An additional five WSSV survivors
from each tank were frozen and individually tested by quantitative polymerase
chain reaction (qPCR) to determine their
WSSV status and viral load.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
65
Survival at termination in the negative
control families was 95, 98 and 100%. Survival in the Kona WSSV-positive control
was 0%, as all the shrimp died by six days
after infection. Survival in the WSSV-challenged groups was 23, 57 and 26% for LP-1,
LP-2 and LP-3, respectively (Table 1).
WSSV challenges performed at the
University of Arizona using L. vannamei
from 1996 to 2010 resulted in an overall
survival rate of about 5% with a low of
0% and a high of 25%. A total of 176
families were challenged during this
period, most of which had no survival.
Occasionally, one to five survivors were
noted within a single family. The highest
survival noted reflected five animals from
a single family.
The results of the 2011 challenge
were unusual in that survival rates were
much higher, and the survivors were in
the same tank with shrimp with severe
WSSV infections and chronic mortalities
that did not cease until about two days
prior to termination of the study.
Histological Observations
Histological examination of specimens collected prior to the start of this
study showed no sign of infection by
WSSV, Taura syndrome virus or other
significant shrimp disease agents. The
severity of white spot disease pathology
was high in all of the moribund specimens collected after day 4 in the study.
The severity of infection was due to the
very high number of cells in target tissues
presenting fully developed basophilic
intranuclear inclusion bodies.
WSSV has an anti-apoptosis gene,
which has been suggested to be the reason species like the Australian redclaw
crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, can present severe WSSV infections while not
suffering high mortalities. Perhaps the
selection for WSSV resistance in the
three families tested in this study was
related to the up regulation of the antiapoptosis gene of WSSV, up regulation
of a shrimp apoptosis gene or some combination of these and other possible
explanations consistent with high levels
of WSSV replication, but reduced or
delayed mortality.
However, not consistent with the
hypothesis of the up regulation of the
anti-apoptosis gene(s) of the virus or
shrimp host was the finding that the
shrimp that survived to termination on
day 17 presented no histological signs of
WSSV infection, nor did they contain a
detectable level of WSSV by qPCR.
With a detection limit of 1 WSSV
genome copy, this finding suggested that
the survivors from all three families in the
study either were never infected with
WSSV (while others from the same family in the same tank died from WSSV) or
that they were sufficiently resistant to the
virus to clear it to levels below the detection limit of the qPCR test (Table 2).
Editor’s Note: This is the first time in the
known scientific literature that a challenge
test using a severe WSSV strain under controlled conditions identified resistance to the
virus in L. vannamei, as demonstrated by
CAMACO genetics.
Table 1. Experimental design utilized in the WSSV challenge study.
Family
Treatment
Survival
Negative control
Negative control
Negative control
WSSV positive control
WSSV challenge
WSSV challenge
WSSV challenge
49 of 50/98%
91 of 96/95%
68 of 68/100%
0 of 20/0%
24 of 104/23%
74 of 129/57%
34 of 130/26%
Table 2. Pathology and histology results
from samples taken during a WSSV challenge test.
66
July/August 2011
Day of
Sample
Number
Examined
0
4
4, 5 ,12
3, 4, 5, 11
4, 5, 15
17
17
17
17
3, 3, 3
1
3
4
5
2, 2, 2
11
9
10
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Treatment
Histology
Results
qPCR
Results
LP-1, LP-2, LP-3
Kona/+WSSV control
LP-1/WSSV
LP-2/WSSV
LP-3/WSSV
LP-1, LP-2, LP-3/WSSV
LP-1/WSSV
LP-2/WSSV
LP-3/WSSV
No WSSV lesions
Severe WSSV lesions
Severe WSSV lesions
Severe WSSV lesions
Severe WSSV lesions
No WSSV lesions
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Not detected
Not detected
Not detected
Norwegian Salmon Smolt Farms
Embracing RAS To Raise Production
Asbjørn Drengstig
Most Norwegian farms
are following the trend
in installing
compact
moving-bed
filter reactors.
Hobas Ltd.
P. O. Box 391
N-4067 Stavanger, Norway
ad@hobas.no
Yngve Ulgenes
SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture
Trondheim, Norway
Helge Liltved
Norwegian Institute for Water Research
Grimstad, Norway
Asbjorn Bergheim
International Research Institute
of Stavanger
Stavanger, Norway
technologies for preventing high accumulations of carbon dioxide were developed.
Because of this, developmently harmful
concentrations can be avoided while
achieving increased production intensities.
Summary:
Smolt production in Norwegian hatcheries will likely increase during the next
decade to answer salmon growout needs. Injection of pure oxygen into tanks
for aeration, which allows higher fish densities and reduced water flow, has
been a decisive factor for the intensification. Fish tank sizes have increased
substantially, resulting in more challenges related to efficient particle removal.
Farmers are converting existing flow-through systems to partially or fully
incorporate recirculation technologies.
Over the last two decades, the production of fry and smolts at Norwegian hatcheries has more than doubled. An average
hatchery now produces about 2 million
smolts and fry annually, which corresponds to a biomass of 150 to 200 mt.
Norway’s total annual production in 2009
was 230 million salmon smolts and
approximately 15 million trout smolts. It is
also expected that smolt production in the
Norwegian hatcheries will increase considerably during the next decade (Figure 1).
Intensification
Even though most Norwegian hatcheries produce smolts in flow-through systems, increased production capacity at the
farms has been made possible by different
intensification efforts. The introduction
of new technologies allowing injection of
pure oxygen into the tanks for aeration,
for example, has been a decisive factor for
the intensification. Oxygen-supersaturated inlet water allows higher fish densities and reduced water flow.
Correspondingly, effective stripping
Water Exchange
Water exchange rates may fall far
below the 0.3-0.4 L/kg fish/minute typical throughout the year in modern hatcheries. But in dry periods with reduced
availability for inlet water – which coincide with high biomass peaks within
farms before delivery of smolts in spring,
late summer and fall – available water can
be critical for production.
In such situations, the inlet water
needs to be saturated at 200 to 300% of
oxygen at high temperatures to support
40
1,000
900
800
Smolts
35
Freshwater Demand
30
700
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10
200
5
100
0
1990
2000
2010
2020
Figure 1: Projected smolt production and water flow requirements in Norway.
Source: SINTEF, Norway.
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July/August 2011
0
Water Demand (million m3/day)
LP-1
LP-2
LP-3
Kona
LP-1 (2 tanks)
LP-2 (2 tanks)
LP-3 (2 tank)
innovation
Smolts (millions/year)
Survival
67
the fish stock. The carbon dioxide produced must be controlled to ensure safe
conditions for the fish. Systems with partial recirculation of water including oxygenation and carbon dioxide removal are
often called “reuse systems.”
Recirculation
In order to continue increasing production capacity for the future, Norwegian smolt farmers need to address more
intensive types of water treatment technologies, such as recirculating aquaculture
systems that include biofilters for ammonia removal.
Moving-bed biofilters and similar systems with mixed moving-bed/stationarybed functions have become popular.
With biofilm growth areas of 350-650
m2/m3 biofilter volume, the systems are
quite compact. Most Norwegian farms
are following the trend in installing moving-bed filter reactors.
Moreover, RAS technologies allow
intensive production using significantly
lower amounts of backup water (Table 1).
Industry Trends
Most new smolt farms are being
designed as recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) facilities. Moreover, several
farmers are converting existing flowthrough/partial-RAS farms with fully
RAS technologies. The newer establishments are generally large with annual
production capacities of 3 million to 10
million smolts. There is also a significant
trend toward installing bigger tanks or
production units, with diameters ranging
12 to 16 m.
Installation of RAS technology
requires elevated focus on the removal of
particulate matter in order to reduce
organic loads in the biofilters. In addition, efficient particle removal has a
direct effect on the systems’ availability to
achieve proper disinfection of water.
The minimum ultraviolet ray dose
required in Norway is 25 mWs/cm2 for
seawater intake, RAS farms and farms
located on salmon rivers. When using
ozone, an adequate level of residual ozone
at the end of the contact chamber is
essential to ensure killing of bacteria. It
has been shown that a 60-second contact
time with a 0.2 mg/L ozone concentration was required for efficient inactivation
of common fish pathogenic bacteria.
Removal of residual ozone is required
before the water reaches the fish tanks.
Ultraviolet and ozone tolerances vary
significantly among salmonid viruses, and
some are highly resistant. In addition,
bacteria and viruses associated with particles are partly protected against ultraviolet irradiation and ozonation.
Particle Removal
A prerequisite in RAS farms is effective
Table 1. Water treatment and consumption at smolt farms.
System
Flow-through systems
Flow-through
Partial recirculation (less 75% than recirculation
Full recirculation (95% recirculation)
Water Treatment
Without adding oxygen (aeration only)
With oxygen supply
Carbon dioxide stripping and particle removal
Biofiltration, carbon dioxide stripping and particle removal
Water Consumption
(L/minute/100 kg fish)
240.0
60.0
7.0
0.6
that incorporates modular construction
and fully integrated tank and water treatment systems. This unique modular technology can reduce capital and operating
costs and increase profits.
Hobas Ltd.’s new
M-RAS system utilizes
a modular approach
to control costs.
particle removal to obtain proper water disinfection. A study conducted by the Norwegian Institute for Water Research
showed that by reducing the mesh sizes of a
filter unit from 350 to 50 μ, more than 90%
improved bacterial removal was obtained by
the same ultraviolet dose.
Normal hydraulic water retention
times in Norwegian RAS systems vary
between one and five days. These farms
can be regarded as semi-intensive systems. Fish tank sizes have increased substantially, resulting in more challenges
related to efficient particle removal in
commercial RAS systems.
Besides being efficient at removing
total ammonia nitrogen and some organic
compounds, biofilters can provide microbial “matured water” by enriching the
water with possible probiotic bacteria.
When installing RAS technologies,
farmers also need to utilize proper disinfection methods such as ultraviolet filters
or ozonation to depress opportunistic
bacteria. In addition to the disinfecting
effect, ozone may initiate oxidation of
persistent organic compounds, making
them easier to degrade by heterotrophic
bacteria in the biofilter.
Of course, the hydraulics and selfcleaning of tanks are factors of utmost
importance to meet the requirements of
reduced organic load. In this way, the
nitrifying bacteria in biofilters are given
preference. Several new approaches are
being introduced to improve the overall
process and reduce the investment and
running costs of RAS farms in Norway.
Industry Development
In 2009-2010, a total of 109 salmon
smolt companies and 214 licenses/smolt
farms were in operation. Only some 10%
of these farms turned into full RAS technology in Norway, but six to eight new
68
July/August 2011
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intensively run RAS farms are expected
each year. In addition, the high rate of
reconstruction of traditional flow-through
systems into reuse systems will continue.
Such reconstruction is often combined with the installation of heat pumps
and advanced technologies for oxygenation and flushing of excess carbon dioxide. These intensification attempts have
increased the former production capacity
more than 50% at many farms. In 2009,
the upgrading of the hatcheries represented an investment of approximately
U.S. $130 million – even more than the
total investments at the cage farms for
growout.
At present, several attempts are being
made to develop bigger RAS plants for
both research and development purposes
and industrial-scale production. The
Norwegian research company Nofima
recently started production in a bigger
facility with the aim of conducting largescale trials in RAS.
AkvaPark Rogaland is also planning
industrial-scale production in 2013. The
capacity at this farm will be 4,000 mt of
4- to 5-kg salmon annually and include
land-based production of smolts and
broodstock. The salmon production will
be located at the same location at which
the company plans increased RAS production of new marine species such as
lobsters, sea urchins, scallops, microalgae
and macroalgae.
In addition, Norway has some of the
leading suppliers of RAS technology
worldwide. The industry is undergoing
positive changes in adapting to delivering
highly intensive and cost-effective technologies to customers all over the world.
The authors’ company, Hobas Ltd.,
for example, has recently acquired a patent on a new Modular Recirculating
Aquaculture System (M-RAS)concept
Perspectives
The number of RAS farms in Norway
is increasing rapidly. The Norwegian
government recently lifted the ban on
producing smolts larger than 250 g, so
farmers are now targeting smolt sizes up
to 1 kg for stocking in sea cages.
Despite current regulatory constraints
due to sea lice, escapes and diseases, the
Norwegian salmon industry aims to double its annual production to over 2 mmt
during the next decade. This clearly demonstrates the need for increased salmon
smolt production to bridge the gap
between supply and demand.
However, the industry is currently
struggling with a deficit in smolt supply,
and capacity building is a high priority
today. The production goals set by the
industry also emphasize the need to find
alternative and more effective growout
technologies than traditional sea cages.
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innovation
New Techniques, Peptide Treatments
Aid Intensive Shrimp Farm In Ecuador
Mark Rottman
Bluewave
Ave. La Encalada 1388
Office #1101
Lima 33 Peru
mark.rottmann@bluewaveperu.com
Continuous aeration in the lined ponds helps support high stocking rates
at the PescaMaris farm.
Summary:
The PescaMaris shrimp farm in
Ecuador is successfully practicing intensive culture utilizing
responsible practices that include
minimal water exchange. PescaMaris uses fish peptide isolates
to accelerate probiotic bacteria
growth and improve water quality.
It also uses fermented grain silage
“top dressed” with fish peptides,
nucleotides and fish fats/oils to
reduce feed costs and fishmeal
consumption. When the peptides
leach from the feed, bacteria form
a floc that is fed upon by the
shrimp.
PescaMaris S.A. is reviving the lost
industry of intensive shrimp farming in
Ecuador. Several years ago, white spot
syndrome decimated the entire industry,
but now PescaMaris has started its second year of production. Located just outside Montecristi in the Manabi province
of Ecuador, the 7-ha intensive site can
equal the production of 150 ha of traditional open water ponds.
70
July/August 2011
“In intensive shrimp farming, the
most critical requirement is to maintain
the quality of the water, which in turn
maintains the health of the population,”
said Ernesto Cardenas, the general manager of the operation. “We have found
some unique combinations that allow us
to improve our feed conversion, decrease
the cost of our feed and ultimately
increase our total output per hectare.”
One key aspect PescaMaris credits for
the improvement in its operation is the
strategic use of fish peptide/nucleotide isolates in several steps during production.
Cardenas, who previously worked on feed
formulation at the AgriPac Balanfarina
feed company in Ecuador, has found multiple ways to catalyze the growth of the
shrimp with peptide feed treatments. His
efforts are supported by Representaciones
Acuicolas, a local distributor that tests
shrimp and tilapia feed programs and performs analytical work utilizing peptides for
bacteria fermentation.
Managing Water Quality
Inoculating ponds with good bacteria
is a standard practice in high-quality
shrimp operations, and it is even more
critical for intensive farms. PescaMaris
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has enhanced this process by adding
Bluewave PerfectDigest fish peptide isolates during the bacterial “fermentation”
process at the farm. The peptide/nucleotide base is produced at the Marine Protein S.A. factory in Manta, Ecuador.
During the first 10 days of fermentation, sugar molasses at a ratio of 20 L/L
bacteria is traditionally mixed with 1,000
L of water to create a full batch to be
added to the ponds. With this standard
recipe, the molasses is the only food source
for the bacteria in the holding tank.
In a new approach, PescaMaris
includes 1 L of fish peptide isolates with
10 L of molasses, which exponentially
accelerates the growth of the bacteria.
The increased population inside the fermentation tank results in more bacteria
reaching the water with each application
and, ultimately, cleaner ponds with
healthier shrimp.
Lower-Cost Feed
Feed is the highest-cost component
for commercial production, and PescaMaris found a way to reduce feed costs
using peptides. This process begins by
replacing 20% of the manufactured feed,
which costs about U.S. $31 for a 40-kg
bag, with a blend of traditional fermented
grain silage priced at only $8 for 40 kg. In
order to bring the grain silage to shrimp
feed quality, it must be “top dressed” with
a combination of fish peptides, nucleotides and fish fats/oils. At $4 per application, the PerfectDigest FPc product
brings the overall cost to about $12 for 40
kg of the secondary feed.
The mix is allowed to set for about an
hour prior to feeding, which allows the
peptides to saturate the silage. The solubility of the peptide product allows partial
release when the feed hits the water. It
serves as an attractant for the shrimp and
Farms can mix a portion of their feeds
using lower-cost ingredients with the
addition of fish peptides, nucleotides
and fish fats/oils.
ensures they consume all of the low-cost
silage material.
Top dressing grain silage with fish peptide has direct implications when considering the use of other “waste” grain products,
such as distiller dried grains, in aquaculture
feeds. With massive amounts of low-cost
distiller grains available and a newly
designed program to treat them with fish
peptides, shrimp farmers around the world
could benefit from lower feed costs.
They can also improve feed conversion by using a few techniques. For
example, gently placing feeds into trays or
nets and lowering them into ponds,
rather than just throwing pellets, helps
more of the feed reach the shrimp and
not be lost in the water.
Farm Treatments
Adding fish peptides to feed at the
farm has some major advantages. For
one, farmers can be sure of exactly how
much peptide is being included in their
feed programs. Feed mill recipes change
– and with the recent high fishmeal prices
and sometimes short supply, there has
been pressure to reduce its inclusion,
resulting in lower-performing feeds.
At-farm top dressing with liquid peptide products also assures that the peptides have not been denatured during
steam extrusion processes at the feed mill.
This means the peptides have maximum
bioactivity when they reach the water.
In nature, shrimp eat raw marine
components in their natural diets. Adding peptides provides bioactive peptides
and nucleotides in an uncooked condition
– similar to the way they occur in nature.
This allows a lower net inclusion rate of
fish-based ingredients without affecting
final performance.
Some farmers are concerned that
when the peptides leach from the feed,
they are lost in the ponds. However, what
they fail to realize is that the bacteria
population in the water quickly consumes
the peptides and forms a floc, which in
turn is fed upon by the shrimp.
Sustainable Production
Having a small environmental footprint, water recycling and the use of byproduct feed ingredients to reduce fishmeal use are the cornerstones of the
program at PescaMaris.
As was previously stated, the farm
currently operates on only 7 ha and produces about 13.5 mt shrimp/ha. This
compares to the 650 kg/ha achieved at
less-intensive farms.
The facility has only limited quantities
of high-salinity groundwater, so PescaMaris recycles water through a large postpond holding area. When the ponds are
drained, the water has several weeks to
recover in the holding area, from which it
can later be reused in subsequent ponds.
During production cycles, the farm
operates with zero water exchange. Instead,
it maintains oxygen levels above 5 ppm by
relying on the bacteria and continuous paddlewheel aeration to keep the water clean.
Utilization of the liquid fish peptides
on site in conjunction with the fermented
grain lowers the total fishmeal content of
the fed diets by about 20%, a reduction
that can help reduce the impacts fof the 5
mmt of fishmeal used in aquaculture each
year. And since the products PescaMaris
has chosen all come from by-product
sources, this further reduces the impacts
on wild-catch fishmeal.
Economic Success
Farming is a business, and economic
success is the final measure of the program. At PescaMaris, the latest production cycle has shown a great improvement
over the last. The overall feed-conversion
ratio has improved from 1.7 in 2009 to
the current 1.3.
Currently, the ponds that utilize the
peptide program are two weeks ahead of
the neighboring control pond. Table 1
shows a summary of shrimp performance
from this cycle. Good market conditions
prompted an early harvest at day 85
instead of waiting until day 100.
Although intensive farming is historically
30% higher in unit cost of production
than extensive farming, PescaMaris is
nearing a unit cost similar to those
achieved at extensive facilities.
Table 1. Recent shrimp
performance at PescaMaris.
Survival
Feed-conversion ratio
Harvest shrimp size
Yield/ha
Days of cycle
85%
1.25
10 g
8.2 mt
84
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July/August 2011
71
innovation
Seaweed processed into
single-cell detritus is a
high-protein productthat
could supplement or replace
microalgae in shrimp hatcheries.
be achieved by incubating the bacteria for several hours with
axenically prepared SCD particles. This method has some useful
functions, such as anti-pathogenic activity and a vitamin-producing ability, and is expected to be useful in the development of
a functional hatchery diet for suspension-feeding animals. The
combination of lactic acid bacteria and yeast might have a synergetic effect for reducing the prevalence of pathogenic microbes
in the production process.
Cellulase enzyme was used initially for the production of single cell units. Fermentation of seaweed was carried out by inoculating a lactic acid bacterium and yeast at a rate of 104 cfu/mL.
A sugar substrate and nitrogen substrate were added to enhance
the rate of fermentation and protein concentration. The process
of fermentation was monitored continuously by estimating the
lactic acid concentration, and measuring pH, microbial propagation rate and odor.
Two-Phase Protocol
SCD production has two phases. The first phase is cellulolytic enzymatic treatment of seaweed, which leads to single cell
units. The enzymatic digest is further treated with bacteria and
yeast in the second, fermentative phase. These two phases can be
performed simultaneously or one by one.
Single-Cell Detritus: Fermented,
Bioenriched Feed For Marine Larvae
Summary:
Single-cell detritus is a seaweed-based bioproduct whose
use as feed has been studied with oysters and Artemia. The
authors are working toward the development of SCD for
shrimp larvae. SCD has crude protein levels up to 35% and
can be produced at high cell concentrations in various sizes,
as per need and species. SCD technology is relatively economical with an end product that can be stored up to a year
at room temperature.
Dr. S. Felix
Fisheries Research and Extension Centre
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Chennai 600051
Tamil Nadu, India
sugafelix@yahoo.com
P. Pradeepa
Fisheries Research and Extension Centre
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Single-cell detritus (SCD) is a seaweed-based bioproduct
produced through a combination of enzymatic and fermentative
techniques. It can be prepared at particle sizes of 5 to 12 μ, making SCD ideal for marine hatchery feeding apart from its bioremediatory and probiotic roles in culture systems.
SCD can be fed to the larvae of both finfish and shellfish.
The use of SCD as feed has been studied with oysters and
Artemia by Motoharu Uchida in Japan. At present, the authors’
72
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
lab is working toward the formulation and production of SCD
for Penaeus monodon shrimp larvae as a replacement for unicellular algae.
Trials have so far been successful. The expected breakthrough would be a major development in shrimp hatchery feeding technology by making nutrition management simpler and
more cost-effective.
SCD Features
Some of the features that SCD offers include the fact that
with crude protein levels up to 35%, it is relatively nutritious and
could partially or fully replace microalgae as a feed in hatcheries.
SCD particles can be produced in various sizes, as per need
and species. The high cell concentration of SCD is comparable
to that of algal concentrates. It can act as a bioremediatory agent
and has proven probiotic effects.
Mass preparation of SCD is somewhat easier than the production and maintenance of microalgae. The production and use
of SCD is an economically viable technology. In addition, single-cell detritus can be stored up to a year at room temperature.
Fermentation
Fermentation is one of the oldest biotechnological techniques that can be used for marine larval feed preparation.
Uchida of Japan was the initiator of the formulation and production of SCD for marine oyster hatcheries.
For maximum utilization of the dietary potential of macroalgae, it is advantageous to perform thalli degradation under conditions regulating the catabolic losses. Mechanical or enzymatic
fragmentation is effective for this purpose. Using viable bacteria
for degradation is another alternative.
Another interesting characteristic of the detritus diet is the
attachment of bacteria to the surface of the detritus, which can
Cellulolytic Phase
Algae have cellulose in their cell walls that keeps the cells
intact. When cellulose is digested, the individual cells are
released and become single cell units. The enzyme cellulase is
used for this purpose with the end product of cellulolytic digestion sugar. This phase has two roles: to produce single cell units
and to produce sugars for the fermentative phase.
Fermentative Phase
Two organisms are used in the fermentative phase to produce
SCD: lactic acid bacteria and yeast. These organisms can be isolated from the natural fermented seaweed or other sources. In
2004, Motoharu Uchida used Lactobacillus brevis bacteria, and
the yeasts Debaryomyces hanseii var. hanseii and Condida zeylanoides isolated from fermented Ulva. Bacteria like L. plantarum
and L. casei can also be used for this purpose. Any suitable source
of yeast can be used for fermenting the seaweed.
In the authors’ work, a consortium of microbes including L.
plantarum and S. cerevisiae was used to produce 5- to 12-μ SCD
to feed shrimp in a larval-rearing system. Sugar substrate was
added to increase the fermentation rate, and a nitrogen source
was added to increase the protein concentration, which is essential for shrimp larvae.
Lactic acid bacteria and yeast utilize the sugar produced by
cellulolytic digestion and produce lactic acid. This prevents other
organisms from growing and thus preserves the SCD.
Lactic acid bacteria also act as a probiotic and thus help to
increase survival and maintain water quality. Yeast predominately acts as a bioremediatory agent, which enables culture systems to be run with little or no water exchange.
Large-Scale Production
SCD can be produced in large quantities in simple air-tight
containers or more sophisticated fermentors or bioreactors specially designed for the purpose. The main difference between the
two technologies is that it takes nearly two weeks for SCD to
ferment in air-tight containers but only two to three days in a
fermentor. Further, for purity and quality production, fermentors
are recommended.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
73
innovation
Jennica Lowell, M.S.
Kona Blue Water Farms
P. O. Box 4239
Kailua Kona, Hawaii 96745 USA
jennica@kona-blue.com
Neil Anthony Sims, M.S.
Kona Blue Water Farms
Tom Clemente, Ph.D.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Department of Horticulture
and Agronomy
Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
diets. The sources of those proteins and
oils, however, can be diverse. As stated in
the recent United States Department of
Agriculture/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration collaboration The
Future of Aquafeeds: “Fishmeal and fish
oil are not nutritionally required for fish
to grow.”
In an effort to reduce the growing
pressures on forage fisheries, Kona Blue
Water Farms and the University of
Nebraska have been pursuing research
designed to maximize the levels of soybased proteins and oils in the diets of
longfin amberjack or “kahala” (Seriola
rivoliana), known commercially as Kona
Kampachi.
Nutrition Research
Supplementing diets for longfin amberjack with taurine allowed greater replacement
of fishmeal with soy protein concentrate.
Summary:
In a nutrition trial, longfin amberjack received two diets composed
of 40% soy protein concentrate
and 10% fishmeal, and a control
diet with 20% fishmeal. The lipids
in the experimental diets were
either a blend of 50% fish oil and
50% soybean oil high in STA or
a blend of fish oil and standard
soybean oil. The amberjack had
somewhat greater growth on the
soy-based diets.
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July/August 2011
Aquaculture’s requirements for fishmeal and fish oil are utilizing a large and
increasing proportion of the world’s supplies. The marine finfish that are most
highly esteemed for their taste and health
benefits have the highest need for these
marine-sourced proteins and oils. Their
expanded production may be stymied by
the fishes’ (assumed) biological needs for
the fatty acids and amino acids found
most abundantly and ideally in forage fish
products.
Terrestrial agriculture producers have
known for some time that specific fatty
and amino acids need to be in animals’
global aquaculture advocate
Since 2007, there has been ongoing
research to determine the ability of longfin amberjack to thrive on diets containing soy protein concentrate as a primary
protein source. Additional work has
examined this species’ ability to elongate
the long-chain omega-3 fatty acid stearidonic acid (STA) into eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA), which could lead to a
reduced need for fish oil in diets.
Early trials indicated not only an
inability for the fish to elongate STA, but
that the inclusion of soy concentrate in
levels over 20% induced a severe reduction
in growth and overall fish health. Following some encouraging studies by Japanese
and North American researchers, the
authors’ efforts were refocused on increasing soy concentrate inclusion, coupled
with the non-essential amino acid taurine.
400
300
250
50% Fish Oil, 50% Soy Oil w/STA
350
50% Fish Oil, 50% Soy Oil
300
Final Weight (g)
Novel Soy Proteins, Oils Replace Fishmeal
To Achieve FIFO Under 1:1 In Amberjack
Average Fish Weight (g)
350
Control Diet
200
150
100
0
7/8
150
00
50
7/23
8/7
8/22
9/6
9/21
Date
Figure 1. Growth of fish fed soy-based diets or a control.
By late 2008, fish reared on diets containing 40% soy protein concentrate with supplementary taurine performed as well as
fish fed a commercially prepared diet used
in longfin amberjack production.
Feeding Trial
To confirm findings and assess which
proteins and oils would be most applicable in future amberjack diets, a trial was
conducted in 2009 examining three diets.
Two contained soy protein concentrate
with variations in lipid sources, and the
third control diet was the standard commercial diet.
Forty percent of the experimental
diets was soy protein concentrate, and
another 10% was fishmeal, resulting in a
feed that was 50% protein. This was
around half the level of fishmeal used in
the standard commercial diet. The lipids
in the experimental diets were either a
blend of 50% fish oil and 50% soybean oil
high in STA or a blend of fish oil and
standard soybean oil, yielding a lipid content of approximately 18%. Five percent
taurine was included in the experimental
diets.
Study Setup
200
1ught
50
250
The trial took place from July to
October 2010. The fish were held in
4,000-L round high-density polyethylene
tanks at Kona Blue’s facility in Hawaii,
USA, with three replicate tanks of each
diet type. These tanks were supplied with
flow-through, ambient temperature seawater filtered to 5 µ with an average flow
rate of 40 L/minute. Tanks were aerated
at all times.
Fish were randomly selected for each
replicate, and the total biomass in each
tank was recorded. The increases in total
10/6
Control
Diet
Figure 2. Figure 2. Final average weights of fish.
biomass, average fish weight and feedconversion ratio were calculated. Initially,
beginning when the animals were
approximately 5 g in weight, the fish
were fed three times daily to satiation.
Once fish were greater than 100 g, the
feeding schedule decreased to twice daily.
Tanks were cleaned daily, and
uneaten food was collected and accounted
for. Mortalities were removed and examined when found. Feed intake was
recorded each day, and fish were weighed
once every four weeks. Following the
trial, fish tissue was analyzed to ascertain
fatty acid content.
Results
There was virtually no difference in
growth rates between the test diets, with
increased mean weights of 329 g and 328
g over the three months. Fish reared on
the control diet had a mean weight gain
of only 274 g.
The fatty acid profiles of the fish
reflected the oils in the feed. Animals fed
diets with increased levels of stearidonic
acid had higher levels of alpha-linolenic
acid and STA in their tissues, whereas fish
fed diets with soybean oil had higher levels
of linolenic acid in their tissues. The animals that ate the control diets had the
highest amounts of EPA and docosahexaenoic acid. Feed-conversion ratios for
all three diets were between 0.96 and 1.0.
Perspectives
50% Fish Oil 50% Fish Oil
50% Soy Oil 50% Soy Oil
w/STA
These results suggested that there is
great potential for increasing the sustainability of marine fish diets. The addition
of supplementary taurine led to the doubling of the amount of soy protein concentrate that could be included in longfin
amberjack diets.
The low fishmeal inclusion and low
FCRs may in fact yield a wild fish
in:farmed fish out (FIFO) ratio of less
than 0.50, implying that this diet for this
species could result in no net loss of
marine protein. The fish oil levels
resulted in FIFOs for the experimental
diets of around 0.87. Ongoing work in
2011 will rear animals to market size and
confirm the applicability of soy protein
concentrate as a feed ingredient by culminating with a consumer taste test.
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July/August 2011
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innovation
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A preliminary “color
spectrum” based on
LAB color space
values was created
for catfish fillets.
Category 1
Category 2
Category 3
1
4
7
10 13
16
2
5
8
11 14
17
3
6
9
12 15
18
The Cline Color Scale allows processors to improve product quality by grouping catfish fillets with similar color.
Object, Observer
Photo-Based Color Evaluation
Can Enhance Catfish Fillet Quality
David Cline
Aquaculture Specialist
Alabama Cooperative Extension
System
203 Swingle Hall
Auburn University
Alabama 36849 USA
clinedj@auburn.edu
Summary:
The author developed a protocol
for the consistent measurement of
catfish fillet color using a camera
and properly calibrated software.
The digital method accounts for
both the amount and intensity of
color over the entire fillet. This
work resulted in a visual category
scale that can be used by processing line workers to separate catfish
fillets into categories for different
markets and pack similarly colored
fillets in the same retail box.
Although consumers have certain
expectations about product color, current
production and processing technology
make it difficult to produce catfish fillets
with consistent color. When people see
catfish fillets in varying shades of pink,
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July/August 2011
white and yellow in the seafood case, they
often question which color represents the
best or freshest product.
Color Standards
There are no standards for optimum
colors or color grades in use by the
United States catfish industry at this
time. The salmon industry, however, has
dealt with this issue and can be used as a
model for the color grading of other fish.
Salmon experts have developed standards and grades for both flesh color and
skin color. Processing machinery can
automatically evaluate each fillet and then
calculate the most economic cut configuration based on size, shape and color
grade parameters.
About Color
Color is measured by a variety of
methods. Regardless of the method
employed, three components are necessary to see and evaluate color: a light
source, an object and an observer.
Light sources vary in color, and
objects appear differently under different
lighting conditions. Our brains have
adapted to this, but mechanical devices
like cameras must be told how to measure
light. Almost everyone has seen a photograph taken under fluorescent lights, in
which peoples’ skin has a greenish hue, or
a scene illuminated by candlelight, where
things appear more yellow.
A light’s color or color temperature is
expressed by a unit called the kelvin (K).
This measurement is called a temperature
is because it was derived from a theoretical object called a “black body radiator.”
When the radiator is heated, it changes
from black to red to yellow to white to
blue. The lower the kelvin rating, the
“warmer” or more yellow the light. At
higher ratings, light is “cooler” or more
blue. Kelvin ratings for common light
sources are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Light temperatures of common light sources.
Light Source
Temperature (K)
Candle
Indoor tungsten
Indoor fluorescent
Outdoor sunlight
Outdoor shade
North sky
1,800
3,000
4,000
5,500
7,500
28,000
global aquaculture advocate
For this article, the object of evaluation is the catfish fillet at the end of commercial filleting prior to additional treatment. Aspects such as the three-dimensional shape, color variations and color
sheen of fillets can make color measurement more complex than with “flat”
products like paint. To avoid hot spots or
shine in the photos, the fillets must be
evenly lit.
A person can be a very effective
observer of color and able to distinguish
many shades and hues. However, people
perceive colors differently and with varying sensitivity. The author therefore
chose to use a camera and properly calibrated software as an unbiased, accurate
and consistent observer. This method has
been in use for some time in the salmon
industry, and has been evaluated as equal
to if not superior to using a high-tech
colorimeter.
Color evaluation of catfish fillets can
also be conducted using a photo spectrometer, which takes a highly calibrated
and sensitive measurement, but of only a
very small area. The variability in catfish
tissue makes this approach problematic
because it only measures small portions of
the whole. With the camera and calibration software, it was possible to account
for both the amount and intensity of
color over the entire fillet.
This method has been in
use for some time in the
salmon industry and has
been evaluated as equal to
if not superior to using a
high-tech colorimeter.
Photo Procedure
For the authors’ procedure, catfish fillets taken directly from the processing
line were placed on a uniform white cutting board and placed in a box made of
translucent material to form a light cube.
Two sides of the cube were lit using
3,150-K video spotlights. Sheets of white
foam core were also placed under, in
front of and behind the cube to avoid
color contamination from nearby objects.
The fillets were photographed using a
Canon 40D digital camera in the RAW
image format. This format captures and
maintains all information in the scene.
JPEG-format images are typically analyzed and processed in camera by various
algorithms, and the camera presents what
it “thinks” you want. JPEG images are
typically smaller in file size because some
of the color data is compressed or discarded altogether.
Using the same lighting conditions, a
photograph of a checkerboard array of
standardized color patches called a color
target was also captured. The color
patches were “scientifically prepared” colors that represent natural colors like
human skin, blue sky and green foliage.
With this photograph and the color calibration software, it was possible to create
a specific camera/lighting profile to use in
the Photoshop program.
Photoshop Scale
The photos were transferred to a computer and run through a series of steps
using Adobe Photoshop image-editing
software. Manipulation of Photoshop
made it possible to digitally extract the fillet from the background and determine
the average color of the fillets within the
LAB “color space” of the software.
Results from the analysis allowed the
authors to create a color spectrum for the
fillets. Sample fillets from across the
spectrum were used to create three primary color categories. The validity of the
color categories was tested by asking
industry experts to place 100 fillets into
one of the three categories. There was
only a 68% agreement among the members of the group regarding placement of
the fillets.
Using the fillets with the highest
agreement rates, a second version of the
color chart was developed. Five groups of
experts were then given identical sets of
photographs of fillets and asked to place
them into the three categories. There was
a 92% agreement among the groups on
which fillets fell into category one and
88% agreement on the other two categories.
The final result of the project was the
“Cline Color Scale” for catfish fillets.
Perspectives
The catfish industry is facing many
challenges in producing consistently
high-quality, high-value products. This
color scale is one tool that can be applied
in refining catfish quality. Among the
long-term goals of the catfish industry is
the establishment of a set of best management practices that will provide catfish fillets of consistent color, flavor and
texture.
In the meantime, this scale can be
used by processing line workers to separate catfish fillets into categories for different markets. At a minimum, it makes
it possible to get similarly colored fillets
into the same box to avoid confusion at
the retail level.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
77
A. Phase Contrast
B. All Viable Bacteria
C. Nitrobacter Species, 29% of Total
Microscopic and fluorescence views of the nitrifier product show the activity of the nitrifiers.
Nitrifier Product Improves
Nitrification In RAS
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
Department of Food Science
and Technology
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
davekuhn@vt.edu
David J. Drahos
Senior R & D Group Leader
Novozymes Biologicals, Inc.
Salem, Virginia, USA
Summary:
Healthy populations of both
ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing
bacteria must be present in aquaculture systems to support the
nitrification of potentially toxic
ammonia to nitrite, with further
oxidation to less problematic
nitrate. A new commercial nitrifying product was found capable
of inoculating a new biofilter
or a failing biofilter with viable
populations of both ammonia- and
nitrite-oxidizing strains of bacteria
in recirculating systems.
Nitrogenous wastes can accumulate in
closed aquaculture ponds and recirculating systems, primarily in the forms of
ammonia from animal excretion and
decomposing organic solids such as
uneaten feed.
Ammonia can be removed from the
systems and used directly as a nutrient by
heterotrophic bacteria, algae or plants.
Ammonia can also be removed from the
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July/August 2011
system via nitrification, which is a twostep process performed by autotrophic
bacteria called nitrifiers.
More specifically, oxidation of ammonia to nitrite is typically performed by
bacteria from the genus Nitrosomonas.
Nitrite is then oxidized to nitrate by bacteria from the genus Nitrobacter. The
nitrification process often takes place naturally in ponds and recirculating system
biofilters.
It is important to ensure nitrification
is efficient in the conversion of ammonia
and nitrite to nitrate because nitrate is the
least toxic form. Ammonia and nitrite are
toxic to aquatic animals at concentrations
as low as 1 mg/L. Meanwhile, nitrate
doesn’t become toxic to aquatic animals
until concentrations are greater than 60
mg/L. Some aquatic animals are more
sensitive, while others exhibit greater tolerance to these nitrogenous wastes.
Effective Nitrification
Factors that influence nitrification
efficiencies include the amount of nitrogenous waste, nitrifier population and
types, biofilm thickness, alkalinity, oxygen levels and temperature. If healthy
populations of both ammonia- and
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are not present,
then no nitrification will occur.
This is the case for a new biofilter
that has no bacteria. It typically takes four
to eight weeks to initiate a new biofilter
using earlier techniques, which prescribe
no additions other than ammonia. Furthermore, sometimes a biofilter that is
established can fail and needs to be
restarted. In both cases, a bacterial product that is rich in both ammonia- and
global aquaculture advocate
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria could provide
the means to mitigate ammonia and
nitrite.
Nitrifier Product
Novozymes Biologicals, Inc., a biotech company based in Salem, Virginia,
USA, has developed a nitrifying bacteria
product that is rich in both types of nitrifiers needed to convert ammonia into
nitrate. This liquid product, PondProtect-L, is primarily a combination of
Nitrosomonas eutropha ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria and Nitrobacter winogradskyi
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, both of which
are great candidates for typical aquaculture waters.
Novozymes teamed with Virginia
Tech to conduct research on the effectiveness of this product in a controlled
bench-scale study and on a production
scale at a shrimp farm in Virginia. In
both cases, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) were tested with white
shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, at salinities ranging approximately 10-15 g/L.
35
Nitrite-Nitrogen (mg/L)
commercial-scale RAS shrimp farm
observed occasional spikes of ammonia
and long-sustained spikes of nitrite,
which significantly impaired the health of
shrimp in the production-scale raceways.
To mitigate these pollutants from
compromising shrimp production, the
nitrifying bacteria product was applied to
the systems. Shortly after application,
nitrite levels began to decrease significantly and continued to drop to levels considered safe for shrimp culture (Figure 2).
Perspectives
Many aquaculture operations rely on
nitrification for the removal of toxic
nitrogenous constituents such as ammonia and nitrite from the culture water.
This process relies on a healthy population of nitrifying bacteria.
The use of a commercial nitrifying
product can inoculate a new biofilter or a
failing biofilter with viable populations of
both ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing
strains of bacteria. Even though the nitrifying bacteria product tested was initially
designed for pond applications, it performed well in recirculating systems.
30
25
Figure 1. Nitrite
concentrations
in control tanks
containing
Without Nitrifier Product juvenile shrimp.
20
15
With Nitrifier Product
10
5
0
0
2
4
6
8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Days
Nitrifier Product Added
Nitrite-Nitrogen (mg/L)
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12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
April 5 April 15 April 25 May 5
Figure 2. Nitrite
concentrations
in an RAS shrimp
production raceway after addition
of a nitrifier
product.
May 15 May 25
June 4 June 14
Date
Bench Study
The bench-scale study was conducted
in six 150-L recirculating systems with a
new biofilter. Three systems were inoculated with the bacteria product and three
systems did not receive any bacteria.
Thirty juvenile shrimp were stocked in
each system and fed the same type and
amounts of food. Nitrification rates in
the inoculated systems had significantly
lower levels of both ammonia and nitrite
(Figure 1).
Quantitative polymerase chain reaction testing was used to verify the presence of the desirable Nitrobacter winogradskyi nitrifying bacteria strain in the
inoculated systems.
GROBEST GLOBAL
SERVICE, INC.
125 E. Santa Clara St., #7
Arcadia, CA 91006 USA
Tel. +1.626.445.9990
mail@grobestusa.com
Production-Scale Application
During the first year of operation, a
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
79
innovation
Essential Oils Increase Weight
Gain In Channel Catfish
Brian C. Peterson, Ph.D.
Thad Cochran National Warmwater
Aquaculture Center
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
127 Experiment Station Road
Stoneville, Mississippi 38776 USA
brian.peterson@ars.usda.gov
TWO GREAT EAS EVENTS FOR 2011 Mark your planning!
Brian G. Bosworth, Ph.D.
Monica L. Wood
Menghe H. Li, Ph.D.
Thad Cochran National Warmwater
Aquaculture Center
Ruben Beltran, M.S.
Biomin America, Inc.
San Antonio, Texas, USA
Research with domestic livestock that suggested essential oils can improve growth, feed
efficiency and the ability to ward off diseases is carrying over to aquaculture species.
grant grasses, trees and plants. The word
“essential” suggests that essential oils are
vital to the life of plants, but this is not the
case. The word “essential” is derived from
the word “quintessence,” which can be
defined as the “pure and concentrated
essence of a substance.” Essential oils contain most of the plants’ active substances.
Many essential oil mixtures have been
used for centuries in traditional medicine
in the treatment of bacterial and viral diseases, inflammation, pain and even some
forms of cancer. Today, they are commonly found as ingredients in cosmetics,
perfumes, cleaning products and flavorings
for food and drinks.
As the popularity of essential oils
increases, products specific to the domestic
livestock and aquaculture markets have
emerged. These products – often sold as
Summary:
Essential oils appear to be associated with performance and health
gains in livestock. In research with
channel catfish, the inclusion of
an essential oil product in feed
resulted in greater feed consumption and weight gain in fish than
a control diet without the additive
provided. In addition, fillets from
fish fed the oil tended to have
higher amounts of protein and
less fat. The modulation of gut
microflora may play an important
role in the efficacy of essential oils.
Essential oils, also known as volatile
oils, are highly scented compounds of fra-
feed additives – appear to be associated
with realized performance gains. Several
studies have focused on unraveling the
mode of action of the oils. It seems the
modulation of gut microflora plays an
important role, but many questions remain
on how the additives provide their apparent medicinal effects.
At the animal level, research with
domestic livestock suggests that essential
oils may improve growth and feed efficiency, and increase the ability to ward off
diseases. Although fewer studies using the
oils in fish have been conducted, the data
also suggest that essential oils have benefits in improving growth and controlling
diseases.
Current Research
At the Thad Cochran National
Warmwater Aquaculture Center in Stoneville, Mississippi, USA, the authors conducted a trial to examine the effects of a
commercial matrix-encapsulated essential
oil (Biomin P.E.P. MGE) on weight gain,
specific growth rate, feed-conversion ratio
(FCR) and survival of channel catfish.
Groups of 50, 32.4 ± 1.7-g fish per tank
were randomly assigned to two treatments
with five replicate tanks per treatment.
Table 1. Growth performance of channel catfish fed diets with and without an essential oil additive
for 12 weeks. Values with different letters within columns are significantly different (P < 0.001).
Treatment
Initial
Weight (g)
Control diet
Diet with essential oil
Standard error
33.40
31.40
1.94
Final
Weight (g)
a
88.40
112.80b
2.48
Weight
Gain (g)
a
53.4
76.90b
2.17
1
Specific Growth
Weight
a
1.30
1.50b
0.03
Feed Conversion Ratio
Survival (%)
1.51
1.36
0.06
89.5
90.0
4.8
Specific growth rates were calculated from the formula ((ln (BW2) – ln (BW1)/(t)) x 100 where BW1 and BW2 are initial and final weights, respectively, and t is feeding period (days).
Feed conversion ratios were calculated as ingested food (g)/weight gain (g).
3
SE is the pooled standard error of the mean.
a,b
Within columns, values with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.001).
2
80
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
Trondheim, Norway
AUGUST 17-18, 2011
(during Aqua Nor 2011)
UPSCALING aquaculture
systems
The AQUA NOR FORUM is organised by
the European Aquaculture Society (EAS) every
second AQUA NOR, and provides a forum for
science, industry, consumers and policy makers
to review developments in the aquaculture sector
and to discuss the key issues that affect those
developments.
AQUA NOR FORUM 2011 will address one
of the critical constraints to the development of
aquaculture in Europe – notably access to sites
with high water quality to ensure high quality
aquaculture products. By up-scaling production
systems an increase in productivity can be
obtained for any specific site; but this must be
compliant with legislation, with regard to fish
welfare, with regard to husbandry and especially
with regard to the environmental impacts of
increased production systems.
The FORUM will be arranged during Aqua
Nor 2011 and will take the format of three
sessions, each of some 2 hours duration, where
presentation of the issues and discussion of the
solutions will be the priority.
Rhodes, Greece
OCTOBER 18-21, 2011
Mediterranean Aquaculture 2020
Aquaculture Europe 2011 will be the most
innovative event of European aquaculture to
date, bringing together research institutions,
academia and the industry.
Sessions will address vital questions affecting
the development of Mediterranean
aquaculture over the next decade, with reviews
of the importance of aquaculture in EU food
production; the sustainability of aquaculture
feeds and the implementation of selective
breeding strategies in aquaculture. A review of
current EU-funded research programmes will
highlight their relevance to the current and
future production practices.
Aquaculture Europe 2011 will establish
benchmarks of future research that will lead to a
clear foresight of the development dynamics of
Mediterranean aquaculture 2020.
The conference will include an international
trade show, Farmers’ Day and a student
workshop. It will provide a platform to showcase
European initiatives in aquaculture.
Updates posted regularly at www.easonline.org
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
81
Treatment 1 was a control with a 32%crude protein floating commercial diet.
Treatment 2 used the same diet with the
addition of the essential oil at 200 g/mt.
The 1.15-m3 tanks were supplied with
recirculated pond water and aeration. The
fish were fed once a day to apparent satiation for 12 weeks and weighed every four
weeks. Water quality was monitored
throughout the study. At the end of the
study, fillets from two fish per tank were
analyzed for protein and fat.
Results
Water temperature and dissolved-oxygen concentrations averaged 32.9° C and
9.3 mg/L, respectively. Total ammonia
nitrogen and nitrite averaged 0.34 and
0.01 mg/L, respectively. By week 8, fish in
treatment 2 gained more weight (51.4 ±
1.9 versus 37.3 ± 5.1 g/fish) and had a
higher specific growth rate (1.8 ± 0.1 versus 1.5 ± 0.1) than the controls (P < 0.03).
At the end of the study, fish that
received the essential oil product gained
more weight (76.9 ± 2.0 versus 53.4 ± 3.2
g/fish) and had a higher specific growth
rate (1.5 ± 0.1 versus 1.3 ± 0.1) than the
controls (P < 0.001) (Table 1). In addition,
fish fed the essential oil consumed more
feed (104.3 ± 3.6 versus 79.6 ± 3.0 g/fish),
suggesting an increase in feed palatability.
There was an improvement in FCR
(1.36 versus 1.51) in fish that received the
essential oil, although it was not statistically different (P > 0.05). The survival
rates of about 90% were similar in both
treatments, as no natural outbreaks of disease were recorded. Fillet composition
analysis showed that the amount of fat in
the fillets of fish fed the essential oil was
lower (16.1 versus 18.7%), and the amount
of protein was higher (79.6 versus 76.5%)
compared to controls (P < 0.09).
Perspectives
The results showed that fish fed an
essential oil consumed more feed and gained
more weight. In addition, fillets from fish
fed the oil tended to have higher amounts of
protein and lower amounts of fat.
The mechanisms through which the
essential oil increased weight gain were
not determined in this study, but may be
related to an increase in appetite. The
addition of essential oils to catfish diets
may prove beneficial in improving the palatability of feed as well as the growth efficiency of channel catfish.
innovation
Labomar Study Defines Optimal Dietary
Lipid, Energy Content For Fat Snook
Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.
Instituto de Ciências do Mar
Av. da Abolição, 3207 – Mereles
Fortaleza, Ceará 60165-081 Brazil
albertojpn@uol.com.br
Ricardo C. C. Pinto, M.S.
Marcelo V. C. Sá, Ph.D.
Instituto de Ciências do Mar
the fat snook in Brazil, data is lacking on
the species’ nutritional requirements.
Study Setup
gaa recognizes that
through the
development of its
Best Aquaculture Practices certification
standards, GAA has become the leading
standards-setting organization
for aquaculture seafood.
global aquaculture
®
82
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
learn more at www.gaalliance.org
A juvenile fat snook at Labomar in Brazil.
Summary:
Work at the Instituto de Ciências
do Mar is evaluating the optimum
growth response of fat snook to
the lipid and energy content in
diets. In a study using five diets
with varied fish oil contents, there
was no statistical difference in
fish performance among feeding
treatments, although visceral fat
indexes increased with higher
dietary lipid content. The optimum dietary lipid level for fat
snook was estimated at 122 g/kg.
Their gross energy requirement
was 4,216 kcal/kg.
Snooks are high-value, tropical diadromous fish. Six species occur along the
Western Atlantic coast. Two are considered candidate species for aquaculture: the
fat snook, Centropomus paralellus; and the
common snook, Centropomus undecimallis.
The closest Asian relative to the fat snook
is the barramundi, Lates calcarifer. This
species has a high dietary lipid requirement above 140 g/kg.
Although spawning and hatchery
techniques have been well established for
550
Weight Gain (%)
aquaculture is the
only sustainable
means of increasing
seafood supply
to meet the food
needs of the world’s
growing population.
In a study at the Instituto de Ciências
do Mar (Labomar), five isonitrogenous
slow-sinking diets with 483.9 ± 3.2 g/kg
crude protein were extruded in a lab. One
kilogram of all the diets contained 410 g
of salmon meal, 200 g of soybean meal,
120 g of poultry by-product meal, 100 g
of wheat flour, 20 g of a vitamin and
mineral premix, 11 g of magnesium sulfate, 10 g of soybean oil, 7 g of synthetic
binder, 7 g of monobicalcium phosphate
and 3 g of potassium chloride. About 0.3
g of vitamin C and 0.1 g of ethoxyquin
were also included.
Only fish oil inclusion varied at the
cost of kaolin at 11.3, 31.7, 52.1, 72.5
and 92.9 g/kg. As a result, the lipid contents of the diets reached 100, 120, 140,
500
450
400
90
115
140
165
Lipid Content (g/kg of diet)
190
Figure 1. Optimum dietary lipid requirements of juvenile fat snook between 6.47 ± 2.42 g
and 38.2 ± 12.5 g in body weight.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
83
160 and 180 g/kg with corresponding
gross energy levels between 17.0 and 19.7
MJ/kg.
Hatchery-reared juvenile snook of
6.47 ± 2.42 g were stocked in 30 round
1,000-L outdoor tanks at 10 fish/m3. Six
replicate tanks were assigned for each
tested diet. The tanks were subjected to a
daily water exchange of one-third of the
total water volume.
The snook were fed three times daily
by hand broadcasting to apparent satiation and reared for 96 days. Fish wet
body weight was checked individually
every 24 days of rearing.
Results
Over the rearing period, dissolved
oxygen was kept above 90% saturation,
while water salinity, pH and temperature
reached 34.7 ± 1.85 ppt, 8.56 ± 0.19 and
30.7 ± 0.7° C, respectively. Ammonia,
nitrite and nitrate nitrogen concentrations increased significantly through the
experiment, varying from 0.27 to 0.42,
0.020 to 0.103, and 0.88 to 1.58 mg/L,
respectively.
At harvest, there was no statistical
difference in fish performance among
the different feeding treatments (Anova,
P > 0.05). Fish reached 38.2 ± 12.5 g in
body weight and gained 317.0 ± 40.0 g/
m3 in biomass. Fish attained a specific
growth rate of 1.92 ± 0.12% or 0.34 ±
0.04 g/day. No fish mortality was
observed during the culture period. The
mean final feed-conversion ratio reached
1.77 ± 0.25 with a protein retention
ratio of 1.19 ± 0.17.
There was a significant (P < 0.05)
increase of the viscerosomatic and visceral fat indexes with an increase in the
lipid content of the diets. This indicated
the highest fat accumulation in the visceral cavities of fish was due to high fat
input in the diets.
Based on broken-line regression analysis, the optimum dietary lipid level for
fat snook was estimated at 122 g/kg (Figure 1). Their gross energy requirement
was 4,216 kcal/kg.
Unlike barramundi, juvenile fat snook
do not require high lipid-content diets.
The snook exhibited high tolerance to
confinement, disease resistance and ease
of management.
84
July/August 2011
global aquaculture advocate
industry news
Landmark Report Finds Farmed
Seafood Key To Food Security
Blue Frontiers: Managing the
Environmental Costs of Aquaculture, a comprehensive new analysis by the WorldFish Center
and Conservation International
of the world’s major aquaculture
production systems and species,
offers a first-ever global assessment of trends and impacts of
cultivated seafood.
The report concluded the
demand for aquaculture products
will continue to grow over the next
two decades, and that the industry
needs to meet this demand with
improved efficiencies and reduced environmental impacts.
Among the landmark report’s major findings were two key
highlights. The environmental impacts of aquaculture vary dramatically by country, region, production system and species.
Also, aquaculture is more efficient and less damaging to the
environment than other animal protein production systems such
as beef and pork, and likely to be among the most important
sources of protein for human health and nutrition in growing
urban populations in many parts of the developing world.
For more information, contact Anne Delaporte of the
WorldFish Centre at a.delaporte@cgiar.org.
Preferred Freezer Services
Focuses On China
Preferred Freezer Services, a global leader in temperaturecontrolled warehousing, is committed to addressing the rapidly
changing consumption trends in China through the construction
of additional facilities.
John Galiher, president and CEO of Preferred Freezer Services, has identified the need for continued expansion of modern, energy-efficient and safe, temperature-controlled warehouses within China.
Preferred Freezer Services’ expansion plan has commenced
the planning and development of 14 locations in China. The targeted cities include Beijing, Tianjin, Shenzhen and Shanghai.
Currently, two fully automated facilities in Shanghai totaling
over 44,700 m2 are near completion in Lingang Logistics Park
and Wai Gao Qiao. The Lingang facility will open in the third
quarter of 2011.
“Preferred Freezer Services is very proud to participate in the
development of China’s cold chain supply and logistics industry,”
Tim McLellan, managing director of international business
development, said. “Our model (can help) China meet its
demands for properly handled food products.”
For more information on the China facilities, contact
McLellan at +86-139-1755 5748 or tmclellan@pfsl.com. For
more on all North American facilities, please visit www.preferredfreezer.com or contact Daniel DiDonato at
+1-973-820-4040.
People, Products, Programs
Please send short news items and photos for consideration to:
Darryl E. Jory
5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Fax: +1-419-844-1638
New Astec Center To Support
U.K. Aquaculture
The new Astec Aquaculture Business and Science Centre is
expected to play an instrumental role in the growth of the aquaculture industry, both in the United Kingdom and overseas.
The purpose-built resource in Northumberland, North East
England, is uniquely placed to pump a constant supply of neartropical-temperature, flow-through seawater to its state-of-theart aqua laboratories, which are fitted with special equipment to
support a broad range of commercial and research activities.
“Our intention is to create a thriving community of likeminded industry experts operating in a culture where experiences
and knowledge are shared, and opportunities are explored
together,” Kevin Haddrick, chief executive of Astec, said.
Astec offers private, customizable laboratory, office and outdoor
production space for all types of aquaculture businesses and research
projects. Its links with other research institutions, the North East
science community and universities mean that businesses and
individuals based at the center can benefit from valuable support
and advice to help them develop and commercialize their ideas.
For further information on Astec, e-mail info@
astecaquaculture.com.
Shellfish Treatment Replaces
Sulfite Products
Traditionally, hazardous sulfite-based products have been used
within the shellfish processing industry as a treatment to prevent
melanosis (black spot). Thanks to a new product from Scottish
company Shellfish Treatments Ltd., that is no longer necessary.
The ST 500 sulfite-free treatment controls unsightly melanosis for up to 14 days in fresh shrimp, prawns and shellfish.
Seafood treated with ST 500 is delivered to market retaining its
natural colors, flavors and textures. There are none of the adverse
tastes, odors or bleaching effects associated with sulfite use.
Pat Mair, quality control manager at Laeso Fish in the
United Kingdom, said: “As an MSC-accredited company, we are
always looking at ways to deliver sustainable products with the
highest quality to our clients. … ST 500 is the best sulphite-free
anti-melanosis product we have ever worked with.”
“The market realizes the time is right to move away from sulfitebased products, as consumers now demand that their food is more
natural with fewer hazardous additives,” said Ruary McGregor, managing director of Shellfish Treatments Ltd. “We are now actively
seeking distribution partnerships throughout the world.”
For more information, contact McGregor at +44-7-984-984777 or rm@st500.com.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
85
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Link to
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Link to
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In tilapia fed the vegetable oil diet,
the bioconversion of 18:2 omega-6 to
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Phone:than
+81-3-5775-2855
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red hybrid tilapia.
Web:
www.exhibitiontech.com/
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Fort Pierce, Florida,
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red
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tilapia.
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Phone: +1-772-242-2506
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Web: www.fau.edu/hboi/Aquaculture/
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Web: www.apfa.com.au/events/
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and more efficient fatty acid neogenesis
Aqua Nor 2011
and bioconversion activities compared to
August
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Trondheim,
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This observation, coupled with the
Phone: +47-73-56-86-40
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Web:
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the zootechnical advantages of culturing these improved Nile tilapia strains.
SEPTEMBER
Portion of Net Intake (%)
New Q.R. Program Links Print To Digital – Fast!
calendar
Seafood and
Aquaculture Events
EventNote:
Calendar
Editor’s
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a paper
publishedRoad,
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journal
St. Louis,(2011).
Missouri 63129 USA
Aquaculture
homeoffice@gaalliance.org
fax: +1-314-293-5525
18:3 n-3
70
18:2 n-6
Asian Seafood Exposition
60
September
6-8, 2011
Wanchai, Hong Kong
50
Phone: +852-3105-3961
Web:40www.asianseafoodexpo.com
30
Genomics
in Aquaculture
Symposium
20
September 14-17,
2011
c
ab
Heraklion,
Crete,
a b Greece
10
Phone: +30-28210-83960
a c b
0
Web: www.gial2011.com
Desaturase
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heavily on marine-derived raw materials
forSend
aquafeed
eventproduction.
listings in English to:
OCTOBER
Fish Culture Techniques
Workshop
October 17-19, 2011
Fort Pierce,
Florida, USA
b
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a
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b b
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Aquaculture Europe 2011
GIFT, Fish Oil Diet
GIFT, Vegetable Oil Diet
October 18, 2011
Acvapedia 2011
Red Tilapia, Fish Oil Diet
Red Tilapia, Vegetable Oil Diet
Rhodos, Greece
September 15-18, 2011
Figure 1. Apparent in vivo desaturation, elongation and beta-oxidation for 18:2 n-6
Phone: +32-59-32-38-59
Tulcea,
and
18:3Romania
n-3 in tilapia fed a fish oil or blended vegetable oil diet for 14 weeks.
Phone: +40745454938
Different
letters indicate statistical significance. Web: www.easonline.org/meetings/
aquaculture-europe-event/ae-2011
Web: www.acvapedia.ro
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Aquaculture Systems Technologies, LLC 57
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Gregor Jonnson Inc.
36
Grobest Global Service, Inc.
79
Guabi Animal Nutrition
29
Martek Biosciences Corp.
33
Megasupply
13
Meridian
47
Marine Products Export
Development Authority
31
Mulligan Printing Co.
45
Nutriad
54
OxyGuard International A/S
44
Pacific Supreme Co.
21
Preferred Freezer Services
IFC
Prilabsa
66
Red Chamber Group
68
Reef Industries, Inc.
18
Sea Port
39
Seajoy
51
SeaShare
87
Sunwell
73
Trace Register
23
Uni-President Vietnam Co., Ltd.
27
Urner Barry
62
Wenger
43
XL-Maquinarias
73
YSI
28
Zeigler
IBC
88
July/August 2011
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2011
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Breaded Mussels • Mussel Meat • Mussels in the Shell • Gourmet Salmon Portions • Langostino Lobster Tails
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