el
tI
i. Peter Behrens. Hamburg
VstibuleoftheGemuan
Sectionat the Intemational
Expositionof Decorative
Arts, Turin, I90o2.
I03
PeterBehrens'sHighestKultursymbol,
The Theater
StanfordAnderson
Friedrich
Nietzsche's
attackonthepositivistic
science
writingsmounteda brilliant
andhistorywhichhesawasincreasingly
intheentirefabricof nineprominent
teenthcenturyGermany.
WhenNietzscheenvisioned
abetterGerman
society,he
reckoned
thatthefirstgeneration
of thisnewsocietywouldhaveto bebrought
up
inthe"mighty
couldnotbuilda cultureonthebasisof its
truth"thatGermany
Incontrast
education.
to mereknowledge
aboutculture(theGerman's
positivistic
desire"fortheflowerwithouttherootorthestalk"),artanda genuineculture
mustspringfroma natural
ground:
Lifeitselfis a kindof handicraft
thatmustbelearned
andindustriously,
thoroughly
I
anddiligently
and
soon
make
me
."Give
will
life,
youa cultureoutof
practiced..
it"-willbethecryofeverymaninthisnewgeneration,
andtheywillknoweach
otherby thiscry.Butwhowillgivethemthislife? No godandnomanwillgive
it-only theiryouth.'
At the endof the nineteenthcentury,manyyoungartistsreadNietzsche;his
influenceandthe searchhe encouragedwerenot restrictedto Germany',butinterest
<-s
This essay is a slightly revisedversionof chapter3 of my Ph. D. dissertation,"PeterBehrensand the New
Architectureof Germany,I900-I9I7,"ColumbiaUniversity, New YorkCity, I968.
I The materialin this paragraphis drawnfrom"The Use and Abuse of History"which firstappearedin
Out of Season(New York: LiberalArts Press, I949), pp. 73-75.
I874in Thoughts
2 Eg. see Henry van de Velde,Laienpredigten
(Leipzig: Seemann, I902), p. I6 where the influenceof
Nietzsche in the revolutionaryartmovement in BelgiumaroundI890 is specificallymentioned.Vande
Velde later(I903) designed the Nietzsche-Archiv in Weimar.
a.t,
It
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rO
of thenewartistic
inhiswritingswasespecially
strongthere.Theyoungenthusiasts
ofwhattheyfeltwasafragmented,
Nietzsche's
movement
appropriated
critique
andartlesscivilization.3
incoherent
were
Theyfeltthatthesenegativecharacteristics
ofeasel
in adivorceof theartistfromsocietyandthatthedominance
revealed
meantforisolated
inalaboratory
andindependent
sculpture,
contemplation
painting
andsalons,madetheroleof artsubmissive
inwestern
ofmuseums
atmosphere
anddecorative
Asidefromthegrandmurals
of Puvisde
civilization.
painting
eventhemostinventiveartistsof thelatternineteenth
Chavannes,
centurycould
modelsforthenewculture.4
notprovide
Theyfeltthattheworkofartmustnowbe
fromitsesthetic,physical,andpsychological
removed
evenif this
isolation,
of theartist.Supplying
thedecoration
theindependence
thatwould
endangered
andsignificant
environment
wasconsidered
ahighercallingthan
createapervasive
workswhichhavenosocialrole.Theyfeltthattheartistmight
individual
producing
inorderto controlhisenvironment,
orthatpainting
and
becomeanarchitect
sculptureshouldat leastbe madeso asto playa partin a largerprogram.The effort
to realizethisendbroughtaboutanemphasison decorativemodesof working;the
and"ornamental"
tookon exaltedmeaning.Evenas
verywords"decorative"
theseartiststurnedfromthe culturallydivisivefineartsandtookup the
individuals,
to the constructionof a
decorativeartswhichwerethenacclaimedforcontributing
superiorculture.Forthe artistsof the new society,everygrandhistoricalparadigm
to havebeenunifiedwith the lifeof its time.
(e.g.,the Greektemple)wasunderstood
wasconsidereda matterof culturalintegration
To emulatethe greatparadigms
ratherthanmereformalimitation.Forinstance,the mottoabovethe entranceof
JosephOlbrich'sSecessionBuildingin Vienna( 898-99;fig. I) reads:
To eachtime, its art;
To art,its freedom.
forthe situation
underdiscussion.At thetimethatNietzsche's
3 HereNietzscheis onlya shorthand
thatwasextraordinarily
property,abookappeared
writingswerebecomingcommonintellectual
alsErzieher
andespeciallyamongartists:Rembrandt
influential
in thewholeof Germancivilization
butpublished
anonymously
Langbehn's
thought,
(Leipzig,I890), writtenbyJuliusLangbehn
Nevertheless,in
by Nietzsche,couldhardlycomparewithhisbrilliance.
thoughcertainlyinfluenced
thedecadesaroundI900thethought,advocacy,andinfluenceof thesetwo menwereconfounded.
of Langbehn,
Thecomparatively
shallowandprosaicprogrammatics
urgingthe synthesisof anartistic
culturethatshouldresolvetheantinomyof a lostageof faithanda spiritless
ageof science,couldbe
of
Nietzsche.
than
the
moreeasilyandpurposively
writings
grasped
forallGerman
influenced
A bookof relatedsignificance,
urginganartisticeducation
by Langbehn,
der
deutschen
Die
Kunstlerische
childrenwasKonrad
Erziehung
Jugend(Darmstadt:
Bergstrasser,
1893).
Lange,
mentionsthework
On thefirstpageof hisKulturundKunstJena:Diederichs,
I904,HermannMuthesius
andLange.He goeson to citetheDarmstadt
of bothLangbehn
Kunstler-Kolonie
asa demonstration
of
theearlyfruitionoftheseideas.Aslateas I9 II,Muthesiuscitedthe generative
influenceof Langbehn's
bookin anaddress
to the DeutscherWerkbund.
Seenotes26 and54.
of Langbehn
andotherstronglynationalistic
Foranexcellentconsideration
ideologists,seeFritzStem,
of
and
Los
Cultural
California
ThePolitics
Press,I96I).
(Berkeley
Despair
Angeles:University
of
suchasVanGogh,Seurat,EmileBernard,
deemedworthyof admiration
4 Theworkof otherpainters
MauriceDenis,andFerdinand
Hodler,becameknownin Germanyonlyduringthecourseof
of theGermansituationis wellillustrated
themovement.Thebasicconservatism
by thefactthat
Stanford
Anderson
||4^B
m^"ti:/*<'
2.JosephMariaOlbrich.
SecessionBuilding,Vienna,
%*'B
rlr~~ ^^"1i899.
4
------------
.o6
L
asbeingthenatural
ofcontemporary
Thenewculture,conceived
efflorescence
life
andasexertinga reciprocal,
effectonthatlife,placedartinanewposition.
uplifting
role.Thisessayexamines
cultural
the
Onceagain,arthadto attaina universal
effortsof PeterBehrens,a youngartist
turn-of-the-century
justthenembracing
to conceivethetheater,asarchitecture
andascultural
institution,
architecture,
culture.
astheapogeeofthatnew,earnestly-sought
of HenryvandeVeldein
andthefurniture
Thehousesby VictorHortain Brussels
andunusual
contributions
to therealization
of the
Ucclewereearly,impressive,
theseartistsof theturn-of-the-century
often
newcultural
Nonetheless,
program.
assteps
hadto becontentwithmoremodestworkswhichtheymightconsider
art-the designofinteriors,
anenvironmental
towards
fabrics,
linoleum,
wallpaper,
and
stained
Other
forms
of
ceramics,
silver,
furniture,
acceptable
glass.
glassware,
weredecorative
artistic
murals,andevensmaller
production
carvings,
paintings
theirdecorative
framesandinsistence
onsurface,
thegreatest
theymade,through
to thewallsuponwhichtheywereplaced.
concessions
possible
to theprogram,
thelatenineteenth
Intermsofmediumandstrictadherence
century
woodcutsby PeterBehrens(figs 3,4) areanextremeextensionof whatwas
to haveenvironmental
intent,but suchprintscouldbe understood
acknowledged
in the prescribed
manner.Theseworkswerereferredto as"decorative
woodcuts."
Theirgeneroussize (Victory,forexample,is 86 x 61.5cm.) anduseof colorwere
intendedto insurethema placeon a wallratherthanin a portfolio.Yetthe factof
theirmultipleproduction,andstillmorethe consciousexploitationof surface
easelpainting.The
design,weremeantto distinguishtheseworksfromtraditional
arthistorianandcriticJuliusMeier-Graefe
praisedthesewoodcutsanddescribed
the publicationof a quite unprovocativelithographby Toulouse-Lautrecin the avant-gardemagazine
Pan, I (I895), opp. p. 196, causedan internalcrisiswhich was only resolvedby a reformulationof the
boardof editors.
color
3.PeterBehrens.Victory,
woodcut, I896-97.
4. Behrens.Storm,or Eagle,
~,~::;
(empatheticphenomena)causedby the greatlinesthatcontroltheirsurfaces:what
is conveyed,he noted,is a boldexpressionof movementwhichhasno realvisual
But beyondthisattemptat the portrayalof cosmicmovement,there
counterpart.5
is also a related iconography. Though this woodcut has been referred to as Victory,
-he "whoforesees,"
it seemsobviousthatit portraysPrometheus
the creatorof man,
he who stoleformanthe holyfirefromthe forgeof Hephaestuson the islandof
Lemnos,andwho gavemanallthe artsandsciences.Prometheushadappearedon
In this
the titlepageof the firsteditionof Nietzsche's7he Birthof Tragedy.
of anestheticmetaphysics,NietzscheextolsPrometheus,"thegreat
formulation
forhis"Titan-likeloveforman,"andsuggeststhatthe myth of
philanthropist,"
Prometheus"hasthe samecharacteristic
significanceforthe Aryanracethatthe
betweenthe
myth of the fallof manhasforthe Semitic,thatthereis a relationship
two mythslikethatof a brotherandsister."6Thisgreatfigureof the "unseasonable"
relatedto the birthof a new cultureunifying
Greekmythology,so appropriately
lineintendedto
lifeandart,hadbeenenvisionedby Behrenswith a non-naturalistic
expressthe cosmicenergyof the story,yet achievea flat, decorativequalityuniting
The techniquewhich
the imagewith its immediatearchitectural
surroundings.
Behrens chose, woodcut printed from broad surfaces of the blocks, enhanced the
desired
playof
desired
play
ofline
lineon
onaa flat
flatsurface.
surface.
Kunst, II (I898), pp. 70off.
5 Dekorative
6
TheBirthof Tragedy(Levy, ed., London: Foulis, I909), pp. 35, 40 and 77-78. Prometheuswas a popular
wood-cutis nota
figurewiththepoetsandartistsof the Neuromantik.As farasI know, Behrens's
to
In
addition
of
Prometheus.
version
of
illustration
however,onemight
Nietzsche,
anyliterary
precise
und
wheretheimageryis
Prometheus
mentionCarlSpitteler's
Sauerl;nder,
I881),
(Aarau:
Epimetheus
epic,
and
beautiful
the
austere
works.
For
other
Behrens's
of
of
some
example,
goddesswhom
suggestive
workis suggestiveforthemeaningof thefemalefigurewhodominates
servesin Spitteler's
Prometheus
ThisDreamis thepainting
decorative
theyoung,nude,sleepingartistin Behrens's
paintingDerTraum.
in
both
andNeubabelsberg
homes
in
Behrens's
whichheldthemostprominent
Darmstadt
position
career.
fromI90othroughmostof hisproductive
StanfordAnderson
:tri~ ~
-
Anotherwoodcut,variouslycalledStormandEagle(fig.4), fulfilledMeier-Graefe's
ideaof Behrens'sformalintenteven morecompletely.With suggestive
the spokesmanforNietzsche'stheory,exhortsthe higher
imagery,Zarathustra,
mento be likethe storm-windunderwhichthe seastrembleandleap. And
"TheSeventhSeal"begins:
IfeverI spread
outa stillskyabovemyselfandflew
withmyownwingsintomyownsky;
if, playing,I haveswumintodeeplightdistance
andbird-wisdom
cameto myfreedom;
butthusspeaksbird-wisdom:
'Behold,
thereisnoabove,nobelow!flingyourself
about,out,
bird!Sing!speaknomore!
back,weightless
'arenotallwordsmadefortheheavy?Do
notallwordslieto thelight?Sing!speaknomore!'7
Behrens,who hadbeena foundingmemberof the MunichSecession,maywell have
words:
beeninspiredby Zarathustra's
Watchandlistenyousolitaries!
Fromthefuturecome
a
windswith stealthyflapping
ofwings;andgood
out
to
ears.
delicate
tidingsgo
oftoday,youwhohaveseceded
Yousolitaries
fromsociety,youshallonedaybea people:fromyou,
whohavechosenoutyourselves,
shalla chosenpeople
spring-andfromthischosenpeople,theSuperman.8
7 ThusSpokeZarathustra
(trans.R.J.Hollindale,Harmondsworth:
Penguin,I96I), pp.306,247. Againon
honor
to the sun. Witheagle'sclawsit
is
awake
like
does
Zarathustra
me,
and,
says:"Myeagle
p. 334,
reachesoutforthenew light.Youaremy rightfulanimals:I loveyou. ButI stilllackmy rightfulmen!"
8 Zarathustra,
pp. I02-103.
Thus
Nietzsche's
Superman
is announced;
this
together
with
the
passage
quoted
ThusNietzsche's
isannounced;
thistogetherwiththepassage
Superman
quoted
abovemayhavesuggested
Behrens's
themeforEagle.Theinfluential
cultural
KarlScheffler,
indiscussing
firstarchitectural
Behrens's
work,his
entrepreneur,
own houseat Darmstadt(fig.6), wrotethatBehrens's"grandest
wishis to create
a uniform,
a Kulturmilieu
inwhichhecouldmovenaturally
likea
highstandard,
birdintheair."9
Itwasthisconcerted,
"unseasonable"
desirenotjustto grasplife,butthrough
doing
so to createa new Kultur-atotallyintegratedcultureasone imaginedit to have
beenexemplified
inancientGreece-thatsettheSecessionsstil
andwhatI would
termthe"idealist
faction"
apartfromcontemporary
ofJugendstil
developments
elsewhere.ItwasthecultureofGreecethatwasto serveasa model,nottheparticularGreekforms;nevertheless,
it wastemptingto usecertainclassical
motifsor
workastheexhibition
conceptsascrutches.Forinstance,suchaprogrammatic
og09
buildingforthe ViennaSecession(fig.2) wasorganizedarounda strictlongitudinal
massesandvolumesarecleargeometricforms.Greekvase
axis,andits individual
founda recurrent
echoinSecessionist
online
painting
painting.Theveryinsistence
wasaclassicizing
when
the
formalingenuity
of theJugendstil
Later,
program.
becamevulgarizedandsuspect,the groundhadbeenprepared
fora retreatto a safer
andmoreconventionalneo-classicism.
Theideaofmakingthevisualartspartof acreativenewlifesuddenly
cameto
in
publicprominence Germanyin I897. Theestablished
magazineof crafts,
showsa completechangeof contentbeginningwith the volume
Kunstgewerbeblatt,
fromI897-98.The annualexhibitionat Munich'sGlaspalast
containedforthe
firsttimea sectiondevotedto crafts,andDresden'sgreatexhibitionintroducedthe
workof vandeVeldeto Germany.Severalnewjournalsdevotedto the decorative
artswerefounded,includingH. Bruckmann's
Dekorative
Kunst(Decorativeart)in
MunichandAlexanderKoch'sDeutsche
KunstundDekoration
(Germanartand
decoration)in Darmstadt.Nevertheless,to realizemorethanisolated,overstudied
interiorswasrareforanartist,andthe entiremovementstoodin dangerof falling
intoa shallowformalism
withouthavinghadthe chanceto attemptto reachits goals.
InJuly I899,PeterBehrens'sfriendandadvocate,JuliusMeier-Graefe,
the acute
artcriticandParisian
editorof Dekorative
Kunst,publishedthe followingassessment
of the international
situationin the decorativearts.The Englandof WilliamMorris
wasdead.The new movementin Francehadcometo naught.Eventhe great
promiseof Belgiumhadbeenreducedto vandeVelde,who wasthenmakinghis
footholdin GermanyratherthanBelgium.Meier-Graefe
concluded,"Germany
is in the happysituationnot yet to haveshownits strength... Hereit is indeedthe
earlymorningthatwe experience.Perhapsthe mid-daycanbestowbeautiful
thingsuponus."'?
In thusparaphrasing
the closinglinesof Nietzsche'sThusSpakeZarathustra,
MeierGraefewasproclaiming
the impendingtriumphof the Germanartisticmovement
9 K. Scheffler,"Das Haus Behrens,"Dekorative
Kunst, IX (Oct. I9OI): pp. 1-48.
ioJ. Meier-Graefe,"Epigonen,"DekorativeKunst,IV (July I899): pp. I29- 13I.
StanfordAnderson
of the I890's. One of the sourcesof Meier-Graefe's
immediateenthusiasmwasthe
of established
announcement
supportforthisnew artisticmovementin Germany.
fora new Kulturneededeithera godora manto helpgive themlife.
The searchers
The givermayat firstappearto havebeena ratherunlikelysort: the patronof this
at Darmstadtwith
apparentchallengeto existingvalues,the Kiinstler-Kolonie
whichthisarticleis principallyconcerned,wasthe GrandDuke of Hessen,Ernst
Ludwig.The princewasdeterminedto makehis Residenzthe centerfromwhich
wouldradiatea new lifeformedin the imageof the revitalizedvisualarts.
Bornin the I86os(asweremostof the otherparticipants
in thisstory),Ernst
two residential
interiorsto be builtaccordingto the
Ludwighadcommissioned
designsof the notedEnglisharchitect,M. H. BaillieScott.` With the contemporary
awakeningof the appliedartsin Germany,the Duke tookanincreasinginterestin
the potentialof thisdevelopment.With the adviceandencouragement
of the
to
publisher,AlexanderKoch,andthe writer,GeorgFuchs,a planwasestablished
makeDarmstadta prominentcenterof the new movementbeforethe established
couldtakeit up. As Fuchswrotein a pretentiousvolumememorializing
"art-cities"
it isamatterofconsequence
thatit shouldhavebeenaprince
theKiinstler-Kolonie,
ofanancientducalhousewhowasthefirstto devotehispowerandhispersonto the
of "thegreatthoughtofourtime... thecompleteunionoflifeandart."I2
realization
fora newcultural
was
ThatErnstLudwigbecamethepatronandapologist
program
to whatKaiser
in
claimed
Wilhelmwasachieving
by Fuchsto bealogicalparallel
material
andwell-being.Itwasalsoclaimed
thata
therealmofnational
productivity
attheResidenz
wouldbethestimulus
forarevitalization
of
creative
groupgathered
Hessen.Actuallytheprincipals
hadgreater
cultural
handicraft
industries
throughout
wouldindicate.
thaneitherof thesearguments
ambitions
andarchitects
to Darmstadt
TheGrandDukecalledsevenpainters,
sculptors,
oftheartcolonywere
members
duringthelatterhalfof I899.Thetwobest-known
of theSecession
inVienna
thearchitect
Building
JosephMariaOlbrich,designer
andtheartistPeterBehrens,
whohadalready
anda formerstudentof OttoWagner,
inthepagesofDekorative
Kunst.Thefirst
favorable
received
attention,especially
to explorethe
taskofthecolonywasabold,inventiveproject,conceived
concerted
their
unionof artandlife.Theartistswereto design,build,andfurnish
desired
ontheedge
inafine,hillypark,theMathildenh6he,
ownpermanent
quarters
of Darmstadt.Thesequarters,a commonstudiobuildinganda numberof private
dwellings,wereto formthe firstexhibitionof the workof the colony.Thusan
entiresmallcommunity,formedaccordingto artisticprinciples-fromthe siteplan
to the nationin the spring
to the silverware-wouldbe exhibitedprogrammatically
of I9oI underthe imposingtitle"ADocumentof GermanArt."
X (I899): pp. I-8.
11Illustratedin ZeitschriftfurInnendekoration,
i2
A. Koch, ed., Die AusstellungderDarmstadter
(Darmstadt: AlexanderKoch, I901),
Kinstler-Kolonie
p. 20o.Informationobtainedin Darmstadtandtransmittedby RobertClarkindicatesthat the archiveof
the Kiinstler-Koloniewas destroyedby fireon II-I2 SeptemberI944. Police registrationrecordsin
Darmstadtshow PeterBehrensresidentin that city from i November I899to 28 March I903.
Io
u
i
t
a,
S(D
ofthecolonywhohadtrained
andworkedasanarchitect,
Astheonlymember
Olbrichassumed
almostcompletecontroloftheplanning
andarchitectural
formof
all
house.Thepermanent
thecolony.Hedesigned thebuildings
exceptBehrens's
aboutamainaxisthatranuptheslopeof
wereprincipally
grouped
buildings
theMathildenh6he
of Olbrich's
the
(fig.5). Individual
dwellings
designflanked
butshallow
axis,thelowerendofwhichwasterminated
by adramatically-formed,
andbroad,temporary
exhibition
Olbrich
alsodesigned
building.
picturesque
andothertemporary
the
exhibition.
Theother
kiosks,pavilions,
buildings
serving
members
of thecolonyjoinedinthedesignandexecutionof theinteriors
of the
Thiscomplexformedthelargestpartof thecolonyandwas
permanent
buildings.
to exemplify
forthepublicthebenefitsof amilieuinwhichartandlifehad
becomeone.
III
Mostimportant
forhisfuturedevelopment,
Behrens
andfurnished
his
designed
in
ownhouseatthecolony.3 Asthefirstworkof amannotprofessionally
trained
thatBehrens's
houseiseclectic,butBehrens
it isnotsurprising
architecture,
bothinthesources
of hiseclecticism
showedaninventiveness
andintheformal
controlthathebrought
to theapparently
faithin
parts(fig.6). Behrens's
disparate
on Behrens's
houseareW. Schaefer,
"DasHausPeterBehrens,"
Die
I3 Theprincipal
publications
I (Aug.1901):pp.27-3I, 48-49;KurtBreysig,"DasHausPeterBehrens,"
in A. Koch,ed.,
Rheinlande,
Die Ausstellung:pp. 342-347;K. Scheffler,DekorativeKunst,IX (Oct. I90I): pp. I-48; andW. Fred,
"TheArtists'Colonyat Darmstadt,"
in a letter
Studio,XXIV (Oct.I901):pp.430-452.AlfredLichtwark
housecost200,000Mark.By comparison,
datedI4JuneI9oI reported
thatBehrens's
fromDarmstadt
housewasexpensiveat 75,000Mark(BriefeandieKommission
derKunsthalle,
Olbrich's
furdieVerwaltung
ed. G. Pauli, vol. i. [ Hamburg: G. Westermann,I923], p. 456).
Stanford
Anderson
5.Olbrich.Darmstadt
siteplan,
Kuinstler-Kolonie,
I899.
6. Behrens.BehrensHouse,
DarmstadtKiinstler-Kolonie,
899-190I.
7. Monasticbuilding,Taufers,
Tirol.
*I
y~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
1'1
ol;??zr;;r*
*?fc"
"
--
;);lff??PC?(
I
*. ?t L"
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7 ''."
;J;4i
??
z
"C*:6--
6
:? ?:??c:
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i?::*d
ra
7.
??::i??':.::n:
.C?lll
I*w:, :
.
o
Ct
04
4
theformalpowerof line,manifest
inhisgraphics
asintheliterature
of thetime,is
evidenced
hereinthreedimensions.
TheGothicprofiles
of thebricksthatmakeup
thelinesof thehouseindicatethesourceof thisarchitectural
useof line,namely
thebrickGothicofnorthern
andcentralEurope.14
BoththissourceandBehrens's
useof theprofiled
bricksemphasize
thelineasanactiveribwhichprovides
the
formalstructure
of thebuilding;
thewhitestuccowallsaretreatedasaninfill.This
of theactualphysicalstructure,
whichis simplya
is, of course,notanexposition
anuplifting,of thatsimplematerial
structure
box,butrathera stylization,
masonry
andof anonymous
types(fig.7).I5
building
,
1
II3
8
in Nordeutschland
undDdnemark
14 E.g, seeOttoStiehl,Backsteinbauten
JuliusHoffmann,I923),
(Stuttgart:
p. 55andpassim.A specificbuildingthatemploysa similarnetworkof hard,darkbrickswithplasterinfill
is thefifteenthcenturycathedral
of Stendal(especiallytheinterior,butcertainof theexteriordetailsare
in Germany
Churches
too; H.andF.Mobius,Medieval
[ Berlin:UnionVerlag
(Edition
comparable,
Leipzig), 1964],pls. 143-I44). FritzHoeber, PeterBehrens(Munich: E. Rentsch, 1913), p. I, uses the
of Stendalto characterize
boththearchitecture
cathedral
andthepersonality
typeof northemGermany;
Behrenswasveryself-consciously
a northGerman.
cloisterbuildingillustrated
is fromM.GerlachandJ.A.Lux, Volkstimliche
I5 The Tyrolian
Kunst(Vienna:
GerlachundSchenk,I904),p. I20. Inthe samecollection,p.60, seethe"Kroneshaus"
in Grinzing(the
suburb
of
a
house
that
both
in
the
Vienna),
popularwine-producing
appearssuggestive
presentcaseand
even
more
for
Olbrich's
houses
at
Darmstadt.
Another
of
houses
perhaps
group prominent
anonymous
withhigh-pitched
and
rows
of
windows
mullions
is
roofs,ogive-shaped
gables,
separated
onlyby
in H. E.von Berlepsch-Valendas,
illustrated
KunstundKunsthandwerk,
IX
Bauemhiuser,"
"Toggenbiirger
(1906), pp. 1-23.
StanfordAnderson
8. BehrensHouse, Frau
room.
Behrens's
receiving
House,planof
9.Behrens
floor.
ground
House,dining
IO.Behrens
??-
f
:f?*:SJ_
,.
;t
rI
c
??:
' *. une ii
:.........
,,t
???
I'-LI,.?
room.
11.Behrens
House,music
room.
10
114
II
more
Inthemainfrontof thehouse,andintheogivegables,thelinesarecertainly
thanboundaries;
theyhavea forceof theirownin thesenseof vandeVelde.
wasnotclosedatthispointto theideas
thatBehrens
Thediningroom,too,indicates
northeexteriorconsistently
of theBelgian(fig.io), butneithertheinteriors
Forexample,attherearof thehousearebrickpiersthatare
reflectthisinclination.
Gothicmoldings.Again,
andarefreeof thevitalizing
simplythebasicstructure
exteriormolding,and
formof thehouse,anoccasional
theunderlying
prismatic
in
derDame,"fig.8) areexperiments
someof theinteriors
(eg., the"Zimmer
of vandeVelde.Inthisstage
formsthatwerealiento the"patheticist"
advocacy
andcompeting
withitssimultaneous
of Behrens's
explorations,
development,
room
music
the
is
of hisownthought
manifestation
theclearest
(fig.II), theonly
themostprominent
formalreceiving
room,whichoccupied
positioninthe
thisroomafter
openplanof hishouse(fig.9). It isbestto approach
moderately
of theartists'
to theopeningceremonies
contribution
Behrens's
colony.
considering
el
4)
,:
'
:e
'
: ..^;...a?
. ?2 .. .. . ..
I2.
.* ~:~..'"~~~~ ?
Behrens's production ofthe
ceremony
ofthe
opening
DarmstadtKiinstler-Kolonie.
I 3.
Behrens.Ein Dokument
DeutscherKunst(Munich:
.
........................~~~~~ .,, ~
'
~'
.~.,.
~~
andfirstpage.
frontispiece
_4.Behrens House, music
................*
,
mC~~~~~~~
H,~~
"'.:
.
m,ac_!~~~~~
. :1
~
i!
~~~~~~
- drapery.
~room,
. ~z>~~~ S.Behrens.
Lamp,190I-02.
of PrinzLudwig
Collection
vonHessen,Wolfsgarten,
I
Darmstadt.
~~~~"
1i6. Behrens.Posterforthe I90oI
Kiinstler-Kolonie
II5
j
rl
The DarmstadtKiinstler-Kolonie
wasnot only the artists'residenceandplaceof
work,butalsoanexhibitionof the ideallife completelyformedby art. Itsopening
tookplacein the mainmallof the colony,
ceremonyheldon May i 5th, 1901o,
belowthe artists'studiobuilding,bothof whichhadbeendesignedby Olbrich.The
ceremony,writtenby GeorgFuchsanddirectedby PeterBehrens,wascalled
"DasZeichen"(The Sign)."6FigureI2 showsthe momentat whichthe formerly
un-knownprophethasdescendedfromthe goldenportalaboveandis aboutto
revealthe shroudedsign-a greatcrystal.The symbolismof the crystalrelieson
a metaphorical
betweentransformations
whichtakeplaceat the
relationship
micro-andmacrocosmic
levels;forexample,just asmerecarbonunderintense
17
conditionsassumesa particular
crystalstructureandbecomesthe prizeddiamond,
so the powerof artmaytransform
everydaylifeintoa resplendentlifefilled
with meaning.8
I6
I7
18
Text, music (by Willem de Haan), anddescriptionappearin AlexanderKoch, ed, Die Ausstellungder
Darmstddter
Kinstler-Kolonie
(Darmstadt: A. Koch, 1901), pp. 56-77.
The noted Frenchchemist Henri Moissanclaimedto have achievedthis feat in I893. The claimis
disputed, but the theory, which was olderthan Moissan, was finallydemonstratedby F. B. Bundayof
GeneralElectricin I954. See L. W. Marrison,Crystals,DiamondsandTransistors
(Harmondsworth:
Penguin, 1966), pp. 6o-62.
A similarconcernwith the idealizationof earthlyexperienceoccursin Leonardo:"Thou must show in
thy treatisethat the earthis a star, like the moon or resemblingit, and thus prove the nobilityof our
world."Freudquotes this in chap.iii of his Leonardo,takingit from MarieHerzfeld,Leonardo
da Vinci(2nd
ed, Jena: Diederichs, I906), p. 141. Both the publisherandthe graphicdesigner(E. R. Weiss)for
Herzfeld'sbook were associatedwith Behrensin these years.
StanfordAnderson
Si~
In6
The theme of the ceremony and the specific symbol were chosen by Behrens, who
used precious stones as the leitmotifof his work at the colonyI9 A meticulously
drafted diamond forms the frontispiece of the Festschrift(fig. I3) that Behrens wrote
A priestess
of thenewcultof lifeasart,whoalso
anddesigned
fortheexhibition.20
reappears as a lamp that Behrens designed in
Behrens's poster for the exhibition (fig. I6).
I90I
(fig.
I5),
holds aloft a gem on
Returning to the music room of Behrens's house (fig. I I), we fd the crystal
obsessively present. The symbol generates the decoration of the floor and the
ceiling; it is present in the candelabra, music stand, and specially designed piano;
ritual figures bearing crystals appear in the inlay of the walls; even the window
blinds are perforated to pattern rays of natural light from crystalline shapes (fig. I4).
With its red and gray marble walls, its blue mirrors, parquet flooring of seven
different woods, its gilded ceiling, and doors of aluminum-bronze, this room was
I5
indeed the great space and the symbolic culmination of Behrens's earnest and
hieratic household which, at an everyday and domestic level, was a microcosm of
the envisioned community.2
Just as the house had to find its culmination in a sober ceremonial room, so Behrens
proposed that the colony-and implicitly, any community-should have as its
climactic experience solemn festival celebrations of noble, rhythmic total-art works
performed in austere, symbolic temple-theaters on dominant sites. The stage was
seen as a sanctuary, not a mere place of entertainment. None of this came to be
realized at Darmstadt. Yet the opening ceremony of the colony evokes the rites that
were to have been celebrated, and Behrens provided other documents in the
advocacy of his hieratic theater.
I9
W[ ilhelm]Schafer,"Ein Dokument deutscherKunst,"Die Rheinlande,I (June I9OI
),
p. 39.
20 P. Behrens,Ein Dokumentdeutscher
Kunst, (Munich: Bruckmann, 1901).
2z KarlSchefflersuggestedthat the music room was like a smalltemple of Isis. See Diefetten unddiemageren
Jahre(Leipzig: PaulList, i946), p. 37.
ct
04
Evenbeforehishouseoropeningceremony
wereknown,Behrens
sentforthfrom
whichcombined
Darmstadt
aprogram
hisawakening
inbotharchitecture
interests
andtheater.Theaterbecamethesubjectof histhreeearliest
His
publications.
bookletFestedesLebensundderKunst,writteninJuneof i900, presentedhistheories
inthepublication
of theater,whichwerethenexemplified
ofanessayonaproposed
andaprogram
forthedramatic
theaterbuilding
of Richard
Dehmel's
presentation
to indicate
themanner
in
(MassofLife).Beforeattempting
poem,Lebensmesse
andtherebydramatized
whichBehrens's
senseof thetheaterculminated
the
thestateof thetheaterinhistime.22
to consider
of lifeasart,it isnecessary
program
andpictorial
Theindictments
stagehavebeenoftenheard;
againsttheperspectival
faultsof theillusionistic,
to dwellontheperceived
it isnotnecessary
"peep-show
viewed
the
of
a
oftenfrom
theater"
by spectators,
composed deepperspective
stage
Theadvocates
of the
akindofpictureframe.23
positions,
through
disadvantageous
of theperspective
theaterwereharshcriticsof thefailings
naturalistic
stage;their
idealwasa stagelikearoomwithonewallmissing,a simpleboxsetbehindtheprotheillusion
sceniumopening.Bylimitingtheconditions
theysoughtto simulate,
apicture
butthenaturalistic
wasmoresuccessful;
essentially
stage,too,remained
II7
22
zur
seeFranzRapp,"EineHandbibliothek
on thetheaterin Germany,
Fora generalbibliography
XXXIV
Unterricht
deutschen
deutsche
Wis.),
(1942),
(Madison,
Monatsheftefiir
Theatergeschichte,"
pp. I83-I9I. See alsonote 23 below.
at the
23Thescenewasusuallycreatedthroughpaintedcoulissesat the sides,soffitsabove,andabackdrop
viewwas
werelimited;theproperperspective
rearof the stage.Thespatialandscenicpossibilities
fromonlyonebox, andevenfromthisboxtheattemptedillusionof a realworldwasfoiledby
attainable
massivewallsandstouttreetrunks.Thedesirethatthetheatershould
of apparently
thetrembling
arch.By the
thattheactorsremainbehindtheproscenium
an
such
illusionistic
picturerequired
provide
had
the
itself
had
latenineteenthcentury,forestage
forestage in orderto
acting virtuallydisappeared-as
actor
him
of
the
This
withdrawal
or
orchestra
more
brought intojuxtaposition
space.
provide
seating
setsto whichhe couldnotalwaysmaintaintheproperscale.A scenicmodewhich
withtheperspective
forforestageactinghadthusbeencompletelyfrustrated
hadbeencreatedasa backdrop
by its
a
to
new
adaptation
stagingprogram.
unimaginative
A moreconvincingcorporeality
andengineersattemptedto correcttheseshortcomings.
Stagedesigners
fadedintotheflats.This
elementswhichgradually
wasachievedby theadditionofthree-dimensional
countered
thisproblemwithtriple
thelengthof timeforscenechanges.Theengineers
furtherincreased
to
the
elevatorstages,and
sets
which
could
be
unit
be
used
which
could
rolled
sides,
alternatively,
stages
half-round
vista
was
facilitated
with
of
the
A
more
illusionistic
cycloramas
stage
closing
revolvingstages.
on the
orwitha largehalfdome.Allthesedevicesstroveto attaintheoriginal
goal-the presentation
of
world.
a
real
of
a
simulation
stage convincingpictorial
Alsoin thelatenineteenthcentury,stagelightingchangedfromcandlesorwicklampsto gaslampsand
thento electriclighting.Butthefunctionof thelight,exceptforoccasional
attemptsat theillusionof
of
The
of candlelight
had
that
weakness
naturallight,remained
illumination.
simple
essentially
to
for
the
of
the
auditors.
The
actors
to
come
lines
recitation
great
glimmerof
downstage
encouraged
Now alongwiththenew naturalistic
candleshadconcealedsomeof thefaultsof stageillusionism.
ideals,
electricpowerkepttheactorsin thepictureandat the sametimecasta harshlighton thepaintedsets.
demands
newconfiguration
hadreceiveda significant
24Thetheaterauditorium
throughRichardWagner's
thateveryspectatorshouldfacedirectlytowardthestageandbeableto seeintoitsfulldepth.This
bank
at Bayreuth( 876),in a theaterwitha single,fan-shaped
resulted,in the Wagnerian
Festspielhaus
into
a
framed
The
modified
of seatswhichlookedovera deeporchestra
pit
deep,
stage.
antiqueseating
immenselyimprovedsimplevisualcontactandbecametheprototypeof mostsubsequent
arrangement
behindthepictureframe
theaterauditoriums.
However,theconceptof anillusionistic
deep-stage
remained.Thegulfbetweenactorandviewerwasmadeevenmoreemphaticasa consciousdevicefor
thecreationof mysticillusion.
StanfordAnderson
betweentherealityof the
of therealworld.Besidestheuncomfortable
disparity
unresolved
anevenmoreserious
canvassetsandthedesired
illusion,thereremained
andof
withthearchitectural,
Compared
unchanging
stagesofantiquity
objection.
archreprescenewithintheframeoftheproscenium
thepictorial
Shakespeare,
senteda completedivorceofviewerfromactor.Thislackofcontactminimized
communication
by theviewer.Itdenied
participation
by theactorandsympathetic
movement
theunionofartandlifethattheartistsof thenewromantic
sought
their
through program.24
What
How,then,didBehrens
planto realizetheaterasthehighestKultursymbol?
artistduring
Asa painterandgraphic
werehismotives?Whowerehisinfluences?
to evermore
oilpaintings
the I89os,hehadevolvedfromluminist-impressionist
intheflatmediumofwoodcutortempera
linear,abstract
designs,accomplished
birdsandbutterflies.
However,he
persons,landscapes,
paint,butstillrepresenting
naturewasto
of imitation.Inhisprogram,
natureunworthy
considered
increasingly
stimuli,buttheroleof theartist,ratherthanto apenature,
providestrongemotional
andrhythmic
to anew,higher,abstracted,
wasto raiseexperience
harmonious,
wasnotsetsomuchagainstanyremaining
battlefield
artistic
Behrens's
expression.
naturalism-a
asit wasagainst
onhistorical
over-reliance
progressive
precedent
attitudein Europeanfigurativeanddramaticartssincethe 87os. In May 9goo0,
TheyoungSwissmusicstudentturnedstagedesigner,AdolpheAppia,foundWagner's
staging
scenic
to bemerely"arbitrary
to be minimalandthevisualaspectof Wagnerian
instructions
productions
elementin whatshould
orevena decidedlydisruptive
suchstaginganineffectual
He considered
schemes."
hisideasin the smallunillustrated
be theformidable
Appiahadfirstpresented
impactof music-drama.
L.
drame
scene
du
en
mise
La
volume,
(Paris: Chailley,I895).Afteralmosta decadeof studies,
Wagnerien
in Die MusikunddieInszenierung
of
theatrical
ideas
his
and
production
Appiapropounded illustrated
ArtoftheTheatre
the
Music
and
in
as
(CoralGables:
I899), available English
(Munich:Bruckmann,
contactwith
and
intense
emotional
a
more
achieve
Universityof MiamiPress,I962). Appiawishedto
theaudiencethrougha clearexhibitionof the movementof theactors,througha stagebeheldasspace
useof light.Inwordsand
andinterpretive
ratherthanasa picture,andthroughanenvironmental
thesefactorsat theexpenseof traditional
flats,illusionistic
painting,andthe
pictures,Appiaemphasized
hisproposed
of thenaturalistic
stage.Intheappendixto hisbook,Appiadescribed
generalelaborateness
forthegeneralintentof his
undIsolde.A specificexampleof Appia'sanalysisis revealing
stagingof Tristan
"Liketheheroandheroinewe experiencenothingmoreexceptthis
reform.Inthesecondactof Tristan:
ecstasyof beingtogether.Thepassionthatis burningin theirsoulsseemsto usasto them,muchmore
realthantheircorporeal
presences.Andtherhythmof themusicdrawsusdeeperanddeeperintothe
secretworldin whichtheirunionis eternallyconsummated.
Onlyonethingshocksus: we stillseethem.
Webecomepainfullyawarethatwe areforcedto seethesetwo whono longerreallyexist. As the
onceagain
worldappearagainto usat the sametimethattheybecomeapparent
phantomsof thematerial
thecorporeal
to thetwo lovers,whenthesetwo, whohavetranscended
world,onceagaincomeinto
a deceptionon them,andwerepartof a conspiracy.
contactwithit, we feelasthoughwe hadpracticed
in thecourseof thisactdoesnot
"Howwillthestagedesignerembodyallthissothatthe spectator
butis carried
whathashappened,doesnotanalyseit intellectually,
rationalize
awayby itsinneremotional
surge?
"Onthebasisof thisanalysislet meindicatepointby pointthefollowingmethodofstaging:Picture
of the stageat the riseof thefirstcurtain..."L.Simonson,nheArtof ScenicDesign(New York:Harper,
I950), p. 22.
in anevocativelight
platforms
stage,buttheyperformon simplified
Appia'sactorsremainon a traditional
of theactors'presenceandmovements.
anda heightenedawareness
whichprovidesbothanenvelopment
The
ensemble."
spatialstage,Appiastillspeaksof the"pictorial
Despitethecreationof anemphatically
endis stillthecreationof anillusion,butnotanillusionof reality.It is a mysticillusionthatshallenvelop
andcarryhimaway.
thespectator
II8
'I
in hisearliestpublication,"Die
Behrensspeaksspecificallyagainstnaturalism
DekorationderBiihne"(The decorationof the stage),25whichwasa preliminary
ratherthanillusionistic
formulation
emphasizingthe useof ornamental
paintingsfor
presentedin a
stagesets. His theaterideasweremorefullyandsystematically
booklethe wroteinJuneof I900, FestedesLebensundderKunst:EineBetrachtung
des
alshochsten
Theaters
of the
(Festivalsof lifeandart: a consideration
Kultursymbols
Two
cultural
the
author
andcritic
theaterasthe highest
men, Darmstadt
symbol).
GeorgFuchsandthe notedlyricpoet RichardDehmelwereimportantinfluences
bothwerestronglyopposedto
on thiswork;liketheirfriendsof the Neuromantik,26
in the theaterandin the otherarts.Dehmel,in
latenineteenthcenturynaturalism
basisforthe exploitheoryandin poeticworks,provideda virilequasi-philosophical
of thoseidealsfor
tationof lifeasart. Fuchs'saristocratic
ideals,andthe implications
the socialroleandphysicalformof the theater,directlyshapedBehrens'sproposal.
Alreadyin I899Fuchshadpublishedanarticleentitled"Die Schaubiihne-EinFest
desLebens"(the stage-a festivalof life),27in whichthe ceremonyof the theater;
the importanceof stylized,contemporary
works;the siteof the building;amphiGeist"areallforeseen:
theatricalseating,andanexpressionof "heimatlichen
119
initsexternal
thatit
formsreveals
Youseebeforeyouanedificewhichalready
oftheGoodLife,ofits
of theceremonial
revelation
is thetempleofa Mystery,
andof itsBeauty.Wemusterecttheedificeitselfasa witnessof the
Meaning,
vital,creativepowerof the Germanspirit.28
In I900, FuchsadmittedthatBehrenswasrightin seeingthatthisconceptof theater
could not be realizedby a mere reformof the exisiting theater. One must create a
new stage and a new edifice.
KunstundDekoration,
VI (May I900), pp.401-405. Olbrich,
derBiihne,"Deutsche
"DieDekoration
a
was
at
the
same
with
Hermann
time
Bahr,
pursuing similarinterestunderthename
together
vonHermann
SeeH. Kindermann,
Bahr.Theater
"Plakatstil."
ed., Kritiken
derJahrhundertwende
(Vienna:
andspecifically
thatof Behrens,werecriticizedby Max
H. Bauer,I963),pp. 254-262.Suchprograms,
criticismis
Die Zukunft,XXXII (I900), pp.200-208.A sympathetic
"Dekorationen,"
Martersteig,
thatofferedby F.Blei, Die Insel,II (Jan.I901),pp.I4I-I44.
of whatwastermedthe Neuromantik.
Underthis
26 Diederichs
considered
himselftheleadingpublisher
who soughta compreandphilosophers
termweregroupedthoseartists,poets,essayists,historians,
hadsought.Goethemaybe
hensiveviewof lifesuchastheearlynineteenthcenturyRomantics
mentionedasoneof thegreatmodels,buttherewereothers,too, andof othereras:e.g.,Paracelsus
desireforanadequate
feltthatthisadmirable
hadbeenlost
andDiirer.Diederichs
Naturphilosophie
and
of
the
latter
nineteenth
in thematerialism,
naturalism, specialization
century.E.g.,seeDiederichs'
is
in
which
near
the
end
of
this
and
in note54.
forhispress i900
quoted
chapter documented
program
25
27
WienerRundschau
(Sept. i, I899), pp. 483-486.See alsoissuesof May i 5 andSept. 15, I899. It is
- EinFest
numberof Wiener
Rundschau
with"DieSchaubiihne
to notethatthe separate
interesting
whichis in thecollectionof thelibraryof theTheatermuseum
desLebens,"
Miinchen,camefrom
thelibraryof thenotedtheaterarchitectMaxLittmann(articlenotedandmarked;by Littmann?).
Schuster
andLoeffler,I905),is a definitive
derZukunft(Berlin/Leipzig:
G.Fuchs,Die Schaubuhne
theaterprogram.Frontispiece
andendvignettesin the
statementof whathadbecomethe Fuchs-Behrens
in hisDeutsche
Kunst
bookarethosedesignedwiththeatermotifsby Behrensandwhichhe hadpublished
sectionof a theaterdesign
articleof I900.Thebookalsoincludesplansanda longitudinal
undDekoration
in Munich.
by MaxLittmann- thusa preliminary
designto the Kiinstlertheater
28
Wiener
Rundschau:
Fuchs,"DieSchaubiihne,"
p.485.
Stanford
Anderson
froma Mediterranean
Inthatsummer,
Dehmel,onreturning
trip,choseHeidelberg
theopportunity
wasathand
WithDarmstadt
residence.
asa temporary
nearby,
Soontwoworks
andDehmelto renewanddeepentheiracquaintance29
forBehrens
undder
name:Thebook,FestedesLebens
underBehrens's
onthe.theaterappeared
a proposal
fora theaterandthestagingof
articlecontaining
Kunst,andamagazine
intheseworksas
Wearecertainof Dehmel's
Dehmel'sLebensmesse.30
participation
intheirfinalform.3"
wellashisacquiescence
himselfandhisreknownin thelastfiveyearsof the
29FiveyearsolderthanBehrens,Dehmelestablished
vol.I,no.266.[Berlin:S.Fischer,
nineteenthcentury.Ina letterof September
9, I899(Ausgewdhlte
Briefe,
of the Paneditorial
a
member
fellow
Graf
to
from
Munich
wrote
Dehmel
staff,
Kessler,
I922]).
Harry
in
und
at
Reiner
Berlin.
Keller
exhibition
Behrens's
to
Pan
that
givegenerouscoverage
requesting
wasno doubtreinforced
Behrens's
by Dehmel.In I892,Dehmelhad
againstnaturalism
campaign
Thearticlewasentitled
of naturalism.
criticism
his
in the Munichjournal
Gesellschaft lengthy
published
of
Gerhart
from
a
criticism
evolved
and
"DieneuedeutscheAlltagstragodie"
playVor
Hauptmann's
of Vor
Berlin
the
stimulated
had
been
in
I889
presentation
by
(Thecritique,written I890,
Sonnenaufgang.
Otto
producer, Brahm.)
by thegreatGermannaturalist-realist
Sonnenaufgang
citedasFeste.Behrens,
undderKunst(Leipzig:Diederichs,I900), hereafter
30Behrens,FestedesLebens
I
vonRichardDehmelalsfestlichesSpiel,"Die Rheinlande,(Jan.1901),pp.28-40,
"DieLebensmesse
in the second
ftirMusik"firstappeared
"EineLebensmesse-Dichtung
citedasRheinlande.
hereafter
editionof Dehmel'sbookErlisungen
(Berlin:S.Fischer,I898).SeealsoJuttaBoeke,"Theaterund
zum
Bott, ed.,VonMorris
Jugendstil-FestedesLebensundderKunst,"pp.I43-I58in Gerhard
EineKunstgegriindet
Bauhaus.
(Hanau:HansPeters,1977).Boeke'scompanion
aufEinfachheit
Kiinstlerkolonie,"
pp.I59-i8I in Bott,
Spiele1901'.DasTheaterderDarmstidter
essay,"'Darmstadter
Olbrich.
but
concerns
to
with
reference
Behrens,
mainly
begins
in thecreationof
31Earlyin themonthin whichFestewaswritten,BehrenssoughtDehmel'sparticipation
a theaterthatshouldbe a "templeof art:"
zu kommen.
nimmtneue,festereFormenan. IchglaubejetztderSachenaiher
"UnserTheaterplan
undDirektoren.Wirwerden
miteinemStabevon'Literaten'
NaturlichnichtmehraufdemHoftheater
solles heiligsein.Ichdenkejetztfastnurandasund
selbstderKunsteinemTempelbauen,dadrinnen
mir
ichweissduwiirdestzu mirstehen.Schreibe
wollteichkonntemichmitdirdariiber
aussprechen,
in
Musik
baldauchwannichdichwiedereinmalsehenkann...N.B. IstdieLebensmesse
eigentlich
gesetzt?"[ LetterB287,dated"Darmstadt,Io.JuniI900,"in theDehmelArchivof theStaats-und
Universitats-Bibliothek,
Hamburg.]
in a letterto GustavKuhl:"Indenletzten14
is revealed
in Behrens's
Dehmel'sinvolvement
program
schonlangeaufIhre
diebeifolgenden,
Ihnen
wie
an
Sie
lebhaft
ich
mehrfach
gedacht,
Tagenhabe
the
note
Kreuzbande
beweisen
Drucksachen
Adresselauernden
[
by editorof the letters:
mogen(2
in
von
Peter
und
der
Lebens
"PeterBehrens:Festedes
Behrens, denenSiewol stellenweise
Kunst"]
scheint
in Darmstadt
Sie
dass
entdeckenwerden).Schade,
meineHinterhand
gradejetztfortmiissten;
Aus
zu
heben.
Stilmacherei
der'modemen'
sichwirklicheineArtOaseausdemgraulichen
Fugsand
und
Kultur
Stil
unter
Behrens
dass
werdenSieaberauchvonfernherausmerken
denbeidenSchriften
Aus.
unddieInselgigerln
etwasanderesverstehtalsdieWienerParfumeure
etc....; "(Dehmel,
Briefe,
vol. I, no. 302 [ Feb.2, I90I]).
Dehnelwrote:"... thetreatmentby Behrensrelieson my own
Further,in a letterto R.deCampagnolle,
intentions;I trulyimagineda dramaof the simplestStyle"(ibid.,no.304,[ Feb.27, I9OI]).
EinTanz-undGlanzspiel
Dehmel'sLucifer.
(Berlin:S.Fischer,I899)revealsthatDehmelhadalready
At thatpoint,
manneradoptedby Behrensfor"Lebensmesse."
essayedtheliteraryandchoreographic
Dehmel'sideasaboutstagingareno moredevelopedthanthoseexpressed
by Behrensin hisapproxfirstarticle;thatis, paintedflatsaremodified
by theadoptionof moreabstract
imatelycontemporary
anddecorative
compositions.
Dehmel(Leipzig:H. Haessel,I926), pp.240-24I, the
to theperceptive
JuliusBabin Richard
According
currentof influencealsoranfromBehrensto Dehmel,citing:Behrens's
passionforsymmetrical
in
Dehmel.
for
order
a certainpedanticinstinct
asincreasing
organization
I20
10
,o
C9
u
(A
CH
Behrens
treasured
of lifemustbethehighest
theideathattheentireforming
of valuefortheartofa peopleandatime.LikeDehmel,themembers
of
measure
stroveto manifest
thebeautyandthepowerof thewholeof
theKiinstler-Kolonie
life-andnoneof themwithmorefuryanddetermination
thanBehrens.Conseoftheseattitudes
andto
quently,whenBehrens
gavehimselfto theexpression
theproclamation
of hisbeliefthata ceremonial
theateris theapexandunionof life
andart,heelevatedandstylizedthewholeof thatexpression.
Behrens's
grandiose
his
Feste
des
und
Lebens
der
on
in
Kunst,
fine
proclamation,
appeared
paper, an
andbindingalldesigned
elegantformatwith type-face,multicolorornamentation,
by Behrenshimself.32
Behrens'stheater,thisplaceholyto thegesamten
Kunst,"symbolof oursurfeitof
of ourculture,"wasnot built,andwe have
vigor,"dedicatedto the "celebration
(fig. I7). But with thisplanand
only a planpublishedby Behrensin Die Rheinlande
the descriptions
in FestedesLebensundderKunstandin Die Rheinlande
we canfully
pictureBehrens'sceremonialtheaterforthe "cultof the beautifullife."33
12I
I7. Behrens.Planfora theater,
unbuilt, I900.
-- :-- ; 4 ; ; t I Ir'"
32
17
Illustratedin F. Ahlers-Hestermann,Stilwende,2nd rev.ed .(Berlin: Mann, I956), p. 72. Behrens's
pretentiousproseis alsoconsonantwith the characterof the enterprise.An adequatetranslationof
Behrens'sprosewould be difficultat best, andmight even strainthe credulityof the reader.
33Rheinlande,
I, p. 28.
StanfordAnderson
Thetheaterwasto besituated
onacommanding
siteoverlooking
avalley,itswalls
withcolor,itscolumnsringedwithgarlands,
brilliant
andlong,whitebanners
wereto flutterfromsevenmasts.Thecentralized
plan,a symboloftheonenessof
actorsandviewers,waseasilyobservable
fromwithinandwithout.Thegreatmain
the"Portal
oftheSun,"facedsouth;itsdecoration,
entrance,
although
mysterious,
wasto divulgetheartsof anabundant
land.Although
theeastandwest
smaller,
ofthemorning-star
andoftheevening-star-similarly
servedto
entrances-portals
welcomethepartakers
whowouldbothofferandreceiveattheFest.Through
thenorthportal,whosearchitectural
decoration
it asthePortalof the
designated
the
of
rooms.
Moon, personnel thetheatercouldgainaccessto thebackstage
Thecupolaoverthegreatcircular
chamber
waspiercedwithwindows.Highabove,
wouldstandinglowingraiment
theircallfarovertheland
trumpeters
sounding
andforestsbelow.
Onewouldenterthefestivalbuilding
bya rampunderthehighestoftheseats,
comingintothehighspaceofthetheaterwherethecolorrangewouldbedeeper.
Theseatingwasapproximately
thatof anantiquetheater.Eachparticipant
had
clear,easy,anddirectcontactwiththebroadandshallowsimplestage.A small
orchestra
wasto becentered
infrontofthestageandbetweenthetwobroadranks
oflowmarblestepswhichallowedpassage
betweenthestageandaprocessional
areaonthecross-axis.
Thisprocessional
areawouldserveboththemovements
oftheactorsandthearrival
anddeparture
ofthecongregation.
Itformeda symbolic
ofthetwopartsofthetheater.Theforestage,
themostimportant
merging
part
ofthestageforBehrens,
wasarchitecturally
unitedwiththeauditorium,
for
Behrens
belivedthat"wedonotwantto separate
ourselves
fromourart."34
The
breadth
ofthestageservedtherelief-like
andmovements
ofthefiguresand
ordering
ReliefwasforBehrens
themoststriking,
andmostconcentrated
processions.
of lineandmovement.35
Chamber
andstagewereonespace,andthiswas
expression
architectural
anddecorative
ofthewhole.
by theharmonious
emphasized
handling
Themarble
floorofthestageechoedthepatternoftheceilingvault.Bydaythe
stagewaslitbythenatural
lightfromthecupolawindowsandbalanced
byartificial
At
revealed
theoverallcooperation
of
lighting. nightaneven,diffuseillumination
theartswhilebeingitselfconsistent
withthatideal.Therewereneithercoulisses
nor
soffitsto providenaturalistic
illusionorto slurthesound.Beyondtheslightly
elevatedrearstage,thevistawasclosedfirstwitha colonnade
andthenbyawallthat
wassemi-circular
inplanandpermanent.
Thelocaleandtimeof thepoetrywere
to beevokedintheviewers'imagination,
notrepresented
innaturalistic
sets.Yet,
themoodofthepiecewasto beemphasized
andunderscored
through
manipulation
of thebackground.
Greattapestries,
whichmightbearsymbolic
motifs,couldbe
wereomitted,a portalwouldopenonto
hungbetweenthecolumns.Ifonetapestry
thewallbeyondwhichwouldthenforma second,undifferentiated
background.
Thecurvingspacebetweenthecolonnade
andthewallwouldbeeitherdarker
or
from pp. I9-2I.
34Feste, p. I9; the followingmaterialis paraphrased
35
ThissuggestsBehrens's
relianceonthe ideasaboutreliefpropounded
in AdolfHildebrand,
der
Problem
Form(Strassburg:
Heitz, I893).
I22
tr
(D
itscolorcouldbechanged
withwallhangings,
thanthestage,andalthough
brighter
in mostcasesa puregoldground.Forfiguralrelief,the brighter
Behrenspreferred
wouldbe used.To emphasizethe movingline, a darksilhouettewould
foreground
be usedon a brightground,in whichcasealltapestrieswouldbe omittedanda
brilliantgoldengroundwouldascendto the vaultingwithoutinterruption.This
"thepriestsof the
spacemustalsoservethe entrancesandexitsof the performers,
word,of the beautifulgesture,andof the dance;forthis, in one person,is whatthe
actorwould be."36
Behrensclaimedthatmimeanddancewerethe originof the theater,andagainmust
becomeits basis.The pureformof the figureandthe movementof the dance
wouldbe enhancedif onlywhite, orat the mosta singlecolor,wereusedforthe
of thearts,eventhough
costumes.Musicshouldbeheldequalinthiscollaboration
I23
It is throughtheseself-imposed
thereareemotionswhichonlymusiccanexpress.37
theartswould
limitationsthateachartwouldcometo fullexpressionandtogether
to realorhistorical
conditions
attainaharmonious
totaleffect.Faithfulness
andthe
ofcolorsandlight,"soartfulas[this]maybe,is in
unlimited
juxtaposition
haddisplaced
thatis, non-art."38
Naturalism
decadent
naturalism;
principle
styles,
yet wasnot ableto renewart. In theater,forexample,the actor'spurposeis greater
of nature.His everyword,hisevery
thanmerelypresentingobservations
undPose,"untilall
movementshouldbe stylizedandbeautiful,untilallis "Pathos
conformsto the actor'sown strongform,hisidealof beauty,his style. "Theartistry
beginsat the pointwherea phenomenonsimplifiesitselfto the sovereignformthat
canbe the inclusivesymbolforallrelatedphenomena."39
Behrenscalledforfreeandbeautifulspacesforcommunionamongthe participants
in hisproject.
duringintermissions.These,however,werenot accommodated
functioncouldnot be allowed
Perhapsthe planwasso idealizedthata subsidiary
Toimaginemostclearlywhatthe physical
to disturbthe absolutecentralization.40
of Behrens'stheateredificemighthavebeen,we canreferto hisonly
appearance
publicworkof thistime, the vestibuleforthe Germansectionat the firstInternationalExposition of Decorative Arts at Turinin I902 (fig. I ).
of the theater,Behrensalsoset out his
In additionto describinghisreconstitution
ideasontheroleof theaterin society.41
Highonthehill,inthefestivalhall,everyneedsoftheparticipants.
Thebold
to satisfythespiritual
thingwasto beorganized
allwouldcauseoneto putasideall
forms,theorgan,thevictorious
trumpets,
Therewould
forthegreatartoftheWeltanschauung.
mattersandprepare
secondary
claimed
that
wouldtakepart.Behrens
beaplayoflifeinwhichallparticipants
dramatic
pieceswereathandforhistheater;he
poeticandspiritually
uplifting
I, p. 29.
36Rheinlande,
withAppia'sinterestin a word-tonedramawherethedramatic
linecarried
37 Thiscontrasts
by themusic
As theoriginalstimulusof Wagnerian
heldthedominantpositionin theartistichierarchy.
operagaveway
thatof Behrens.
interestin the stage,Appia'spositionon thispointapproached
to a moreuniversal
38Rheinlande,I, p. 29.
39 Feste,pp. 23-24.
StanfordAnderson
alreadyhadin mindRichardDehmel's"ethicalcantata,"42EineLebensmesseDichtungfiirMusik(A mass of life-poem for music). The cantatawas to be staged
in anextraordinarily
ceremonialfashion.The "priests"
of the poeticword,univerof humantypes, revealedthe massof lifein nobleprocessions
salizations
and
earnestdeclamation.Symmetryreignedin boththe visualandtemporalorderingof
Behrens'sstagediagram(fig. i8) hintedat the auraof solemn
the performance;
andpatheticcelebration.This solemnitywasmoreclearlyexpressed,however,in
the openingceremonyof the colony(fig. I2), discussedabove.The appreciation
of symbolicceremonyappearsagainin Behrens'ssummationof hisplanforstaging
the Lebensmesse:
Dehmel'sLebensmesse,
throughits liturgicalquality,is a workwhichappears
in sucha new Biuhnenstil.
for
Sincethe poet
peculiarlypredestined presentation
thenewstyle.Ifdrama
wrotewiththisintuition,theworkactually
inaugurates
fromreligious
hasderived
cults,thenI seeagreatsignfortheevolvingtheater
that
fact
in
the
style
againpoetslivewhocangiveusandourtimestheformsfora
Dehmel'sLebensmesse
is
Cultof Life.Wewillbuildthehousefromitsfoundation.
mostsolemnly
formed.43
acornerstone,
I8. Behrens.Diagramforthe
stagingof RichardDehmel's
projectedby Behrens.
X1- aw
MU
ED
~,
40
X
t
in Parissuggestthatthe
However,theplansof the RoyalAlbertHallin LondonandtheTrocadero
thatBehrenshadhisattentiondirected
schemewasquiteconceivable.It appears
of Behrens's
realization
to whichhisdesignconforms,throughtheconto thesebuildings,andto certainacousticprinciples
Part4, vol.I, Die architektonische
derArchitektur,
venientHandbuch
(2nded., Darmstadt:
Composition,
Diehl, I893), pp. 275ff.
41 Feste,pp. 12-17.
Dehmel(I926),
termI havetakenfromJuliusBab,Richard
42 Thisdescriptive
p.211.Bab'scomparative
ninthsymphony
musicalimageis thelastmovementof Beethoven's
wouldbe fulfilledaspartof the exhibition
43Rheinlande,
I, p.40. Behrenshopedthathistheaterproposal
in 1901.At thelastminuteit wasdecidedthatpressing
"EinDocumentdeutscherKunst"at Darmstadt
of a summerexhibitionwasnotpossible,andthatsuchanattempt
intothe atmosphere
thisprogram
desKiinstlerwouldhaveresultedin moredamagethanbenefit.SeeG.Fuchs,"AusderVorgeschichte
MusikundBuhne,I (June I5, I908), pp. I4I-I50. The proposed
theaters,"Der Spiegel:BlitterffurLiteratur,
I (April1901),pp.45forthe"Darmstadter
Spiele1901"aregivenin Die Rheinlande,
stagepresentations
summertheaterhadto beused
of modemplaysmetwithtotalpublicapathyandOlbrich's
46. Production
der
in A. Koch,ed.,Die Ausstellung
andconcerts.Thisis anonymously
forlighterentertainment
reported
zu
"Ideen
G.
also
the
see
same
In
the
article,
Fuchs?]
volume,
[
Darmstadter,
238-239.
anonymous
pp.
einerfestlichenSchau-Buihne,"
pp.300-319.
I24
e'O
qS
Certainlymuch of the Fuchs-Behrens-Dehmeltheater-with its anti-naturalismand
anti-democracy,its idea of an elite, poetic stylization, the elementaryexpressiveness of the dance, and above all the recklessgraspon life as its own creatorof
philosophicaland moralcriteria-echoes Nietzsche, despite the fact that one can
hardlyimagine Nietzsche caught up in the naivete of partsof the Cult of the
Beautiful Life.44 He would nevertheless have understood the endeavors of the Cult:
And Zarathustrabegan to speak once more. "O my
friends,"he said, "you strangemen, you Higher Men,
how well you please me now,
"since you have becomejoyful again!Truly,
have
all blossomedforth: for such flowers as you,
you
I think newfestivalsare needed.
"A little bravenonsense, some divine service
and ass festival, somejoyful old Zarathustra-fool,a
blusteringwind to blow your souls bright.
"Do not forget this night and this ass festival,
you Higher Men! You devised thatat my home, I take
that as a good omen-only convalescents devise such
I25
things!
"And if you celebrateit again, this ass festival,
do it for love of yourselves, do it also for love of me!
And in remembranceof me !"
Thus spoke Zarathustra.45
44
45
In KarlScheffler's
houseat Darmstadt,Dekorative
Kunst,IX (1901),he firststatesthat
studyof Behrens's
artandhisworld-viewareinseparable.
Behrens's
He proceedsto discussBehrens's
naturalaristocratic
"He
knows
of
the
social
that
torments
so
artists
andmarsboththeir
compassion
many
qualities:
nothing
livesandtheirworks."BehrensdoesnothaveaffinitywithTolstoy,Ruskin,andMorris,butratherwith
Nietzsche.ForScheffler,Behrens's
basicframeof mindis anoptimisticegoismin thebestsense(pp.21a
of
the
of a despot,Nietzschewrote:"This,however,is theother
22). Following warning
possibility
other
who
is
of
mobremembers
and
He
the
backto hisgrandfather-with
his
danger my
pity:
is
Thus
that
is
handed
over:
for
the
mob
could
one
all
however,timestops./
past
day
grandfather,
becomemaster,andalltimebedrownedin shallowwaters."
/ Therefore,O my brothers,is a newnobility
needed:to opposeallmob-ruleandalldespotism
andto writeanewuponlaw-tablestheword:'Noble.'/
Formanynoblemenareneeded,andnoblemenof manykinds,fornobility
toexist!Or,asI oncesaidin a
parable:'Preciselythisis godliness,thattherearegodsbutno God!'[Zarathustra,
p.22.]
Thisanxioussearchfora revitalized
beforethethreatof a democratic
the
aristocracy
delugeilluminates
motivesof theGrand-Duke
aswell;the Artists'Colonywasmorea lastminuteattemptto fightfirewith
firethana whole-hearted
pursuitof modernity
ThatBehrens,andtherefore
alsothe"ModernMovement,"
hasrootsotherthanMorrishasbeenobvious
to thematerial
fromthebeginning.Complementary
discussed
in
Ahlers-Hestermann
here,Friedrich
Stilwende
theterm"Zarathustrastil"
preciselyin connectionwithhisdescription
(p.79)aptlyintroduced
of the splendor
of themusic-room
in Behrens's
Darmstadt
house(I9oo-oI).Behrensemphasized
the
of thetwo stepsthatledintothisceremonial
roomwithitselaborate
materials
and
symbolicimportance
prolificcrystalsymbology.
DerWegins20.Jahrhundert
RudolfG.Kohler,in HelmutSeling,ed.,Jugendstil.
(Heidelberg/Munich:
to Behrens's
I959), p. 426,extendedthe term"Zarathustrastil"
Keysersche
Verlagsbuchhandlung,
prose
undderKunst.
in FestedesLebens
Dehmel(Berlin: GoseundTetzlaff,I902),
Zarathustra,
pp. 325-26.JuliusBab, in Richard
pp. I-2, sawthe
followingversesastheleitmotifofDehmel'slifeandpoetry:"UndderMenschwillseligwerdenauf
Erden-weisstDu noch,wie mandasmachenmuss"(Andmanwantsto findblisson earth-doyou
knowhowoneshoulddothat!)
Stanford
Anderson
In I900, when Behrenswrotehis FestedesLebensundderKunst,AdolpheAppia's
traditionwerethe revolutionary
butunrealized
new
proposalswithinthe Wagnerian
theoriesof stagecraft.46
Althoughthey urgeda freedomof sceniccreation,they
of the dramaticlineandanabsorption
benttowardanintensification
of the actors
andviewersintoanillusion,andintoanemotional,non-rational
totalexperience.
Behrens,too, claimedthathis theaterwasto give anillusion.But viewed
ratherthantheorizedmetaphysically,
Behrens'sproposals,ratherthan
theatrically,
illusionistic,wereintendedfora sensateimmediacybetweenthe actorandviewer.
The shallowstagewith the consequentemphasison forestageacting,the proximity
of seatingandactingareas,the lackof definitionbetweentheseareasandtheir
inclusionin one architectonicspace,the simplicityandarchitectural
permanenceof
the emphasison danceandmovement,andthe simple
the stagebackground,
allservedto establishthattheatricalcontactwhichbecamethe prime
illumination
twentiethcenturystageandtheaterdesginers.The telling
interestof revolutionary
the"offering
andreceiving
is
is thatwithBehrens,although
difference
partaker"
intheCultof the
himselfasa trueMitkiinstler
dressandcomport
presumedto
submission
withoutanemotional
to the
Beautiful
Life,henevertheless
participates
contactservesto eliminate
enactedwork.InBehrens's
illusion
theater,theincreased
oftheindividual
andto provideclearpresentation
arts;Appia(andlaterGordon
himselfofthevarious
for
availed
techniques
designers)
Craigandmostsucceeding
butto adifferent
end.Appiasought,
contactwiththeaudience,
increasing
evocative
controlled
elaborately
lighting,to createa spaceforthe
especially
through
andamood.Itis
boththeactorandtheviewerinanambiance
actorandto immerse
inthepresented
butaparticipant
work.
desirable
thattheviewerbeaparticipant,
submission
ofone'sselfto theemotional
forceofthepiece.
Thereisa temporary
inthehighmassofthecultto
WithBehrens,onefreelyandexaltedly
participates
submitted.47
whichoneisperpetually
Weseektheharmonyof ourspiritwiththe Urnatur-reflecting
of thelittle
Nietzsche,theovercoming
reasonof ourintellectby thegreatandpowerfulreasonof ourentirebodilyexistence(Zarathustra,
p.61).
asthemostpotentexampleof Dehmel'scentraltheme.Wemaynotein
Babuses"DieLebensmesse"
"OMan!Attend!"formstheclimaxof Delius'"Massof Life."BothDehmel
passingthatZarathustra's
of Dehmel'sthoughtandpoetryfromNietzsche.Bab
andBabareanxiousto pointouttheindependence
from
the
of Dehmelascontrasted
seesthisdistinction
to the"slavic"Germanentum"
stemming
humanistisch"
romanisch,
spiritof Nietzsche(Bab,Dehmel[I902], p. I2). Nevertheless,Babwrites:"So
in theprogress
of a newRenaissance,
of a newplantingof human
Dehmelhasbecomethestandard-bearer
of hisartquiversin thezephyrof a new
culturein thecolorfulgroundof thismaterial
world;the standard
erathatmorejoyfully
celebrates
thearts,andhisboldfigureriseshead-highaboveallhiscomrades.Only
oneothertowersintothe sameproudheights,he whomarchesat theheadof thishost: ZarathustraNietzsche."Ibid.,p. I0. SeealsoZarathustra,
p. I I I.
in Rheinlande,
46 Inthe article
p.28, BehrenscriticizedWagnerian
stagingforits"plasticpainting,painted
musicandsimilardeviceswhichcontriveto counterfeit
illustrative
natureorartin anantiarchitecture,
As theseremarks
arespecfically
directedagainstBayreuth,it is notclearto whatextent
stylisticmixture."
Behrenswouldhavepressedhisargument
againstAppia.ThatBehrensknewAppia'sworkis certifiedby
E.Bruckmann-Cantacuzene,
anarticlein herhusband'sjournal
whopublished
on thenecessityforan
artisticreformof thetheater(Dekorative
Kunst,VIII[AprilI90I], pp.27I-78). Shewriteswarmlyof
of Behrens's
book,andpromisesto publishAppia'sdesignsplusa discussion
Appia'srecentlypublished
theaterproposals
in oneof thenextnumbers.Apparently
thissecondarticledidnotappear;but,
withthe Bruckmanns,
Behrens's
we canbe surethathe learnedof Appia'sbook
relationship
considering
no laterthanApril9goI-probablymuchearlier.
in thetheaterseethe Appendix.
47Fora briefacountof relatedGermaninitiatives
126
,
r
4L.
to adaptallvisualmeans
Appia'sstatement
quotedabovemakesclearhisendeavor
of thedramatic
fortheunderscoring
Thevisualrealization
existsfor
line.48
thepoetry;thewordstandspre-eminent
abovetheotherarts.Incontrast
to this,
oneofthecharacteristics
oftheJugendstil
to bringartto thewholeof
attempts
of anyhierarchy
inthearts.Themostworthless
lifewasthedisappearance
of textscouldreceivepainstaking
anddecorative
treatment.
The
typographical
intheexpression
oftheworkthatit enclosed,andoften
pictureframeparticipated
the wholewasintendedto be subservient
to the decorof the roomin whichit was
fordecoration.Behrens's
placed.Architecturecouldbecomea merescaffolding
theaterproposalcontainedthe germof this sameunordered,totalbeautifying.The
wasclearlyof greatimportanceto Behrens.Nevertheless,hisinsistence
Lebensmesse
on the independentbeautyof eachpartof histotalartform-of the space,the
materials,the decor,the stagefurniture,the costumes,the dance,the gestures,the
declamation-couldonlyimplya relativedecreasein the importanceof the word.
theimportanceofvisualfactorsattheexpense
GeorgFuchsrepeatedlyemphasized
I27
oftheliterary
element;thegoaloftheater,ashe sawit, wasto achieveartistic
effects,not literaryeffects.49
of anavidpatronof thearts,thebanker,
In I909,through
thesupport
KarlEmst
theopportunity
a theaterworkaccording
received
to produce
to
Osthaus,Behrens
wasto bepartofafestivalcelebrating
hisprinciples.
Theproduction
theopening
choseto stageDiogenes,
in Hagen,inWestphalia.
Behrens
an
oftheStadtgartenhalle
Theplay
versecomedybyhislatefriendOttoErichHartleben.50
uncompleted
hadnot beenstagedpreviously,andit wasanaptworkforthe Behrensprogram-
if notinitsdramatic
atleastinitsthematicimplications,
"the
possibilities.
Diogenes,
48See note 24.
49
"
desKiinstlertheaters,"
citedaboven.43. Theatershouldnotbe a
Fuchs, AusderVorgeschichte
on
we
should
fur
the
havetheaterthatis nothingelsebut"Theater:
"Schankstatte Literatur"
contrary,
l'artpourl'art,le theatrepourle theatre"(p. I47).
Behrens's
described
the Neuromantik
theaterwhich
friend,thepoetandessayistOttoJuliusBierbaum,
bothhe andBehrenssoughtin thisway: "Weenvisionastheidealajuxtaposition
of the artsin which
O.J.Bierbaum,Die vernarrte
noneof themholdsa positionof superiority"
Prinzess:
indrei
EinFabelspiel
iberdasmusikalische
Bildem,miteinerVorrede
(Munich:Langen,I904),p.xx.
Buhnenspiel
On Dec.28, I9oI, Bierbaum
hadopenedhisTrianon-Theater
in Berlin,anattemptata lyrictheaterthat
didnot survivetheopeningnight.It mayhavebeena symbolicaswellasa physicalfactthatoneof the
wasthe punctuation
to theTrianon-fiasko
of the versesof"thelittleMuse"by the
elementscontributing
the
of
the
elevated
trains.
Bierbaum
andmakeshisexcusesin Die
presents
evening'sprogram
rumbling
Insel, III (Jan. I902), pp. I I9ff.
Inhisarticleof I907, Scheffler
amongtheartsandplacedthe
spokeof thedangerof lossof hierarchy
in stagecraft
whatScheffler
feltwerethe recognized
blameon GordonCraig,whopersonified
dangersof
Scheffler
that
for
the
is
theEnglishcultofarts-and-crafts.
word
one
with
movement,
line,
protests
Craig
endin
color,andrhythm."Ifthisattitudewinstheday,thenthereformof the stagemustnecessarily
theatricalism."
citedin note47above,pp.220-21).Scheffler's
"Biihnenkunst,"
(Scheffler,
superficial
I
of
is
treatment
it
summary
Craig inadequate;present onlybecauseScheffler's
argument
pointsupa
relevantproblemin a contextwhichwouldhavebeenknownto Behrens.
50
Thefirsttwo scenesof Diogeneswerewrittenin I896 andpublishedin Pan,IV (Dec. I896), pp. 223-232.
Scenes3, 4, and5werewrittenat the sametime;thefirstscenewasreworked
in I898. Theworkwas
in itsfragmentary
nevercompletedbutwaspublished
state(Berlin:S.Fischer,Igo05).
Theworkwasa
freeadaptation
of Diogenes
Felix
and
(Paris
I846).
by
Pyat
Leipzig,
StanfordAnderson
andsensual
levelandshocksthecitizensof
dog,"graspslifeatitsmostelementary
Athenswithhisrejection
of allconventions
andhisshameless
acts.Thebeautiful
belovedbythenoblesof Athens,iswonfrombothhersuitorsandher
Aspasia,
loveof richesbythewordsandexampleof Diogenes.ButDiogenesisnot
superficial
unaffected
oftheattraction
of Diogenesand
by Aspasia.Whiletheresolution
isnotgiveninHartleben's
foroneanother
thedirection
it would
Aspasia
fragment,
havetakenisclear.Oneneednotchoosebetweentheacceptance
oflifeandthelove
ofbeauty-forward
to theCultoftheBeautiful
Life!
Thisproduction
reflectsthetoneofBehrens's
ratherthanthatofthe
I907statement
undderKunst:theemphasis
is specifically
FestedesLebens
onthestageproblems;
arelesspresentherethantheywerewithFuchsatthesame
thesocialimplications
Behrens
time.Formally,
pusheshis"relief
stage"to thelimit.Thephotographs
oftheproduction
showthetinyshelfonwhichtheactorsperformed
inahighly
stylizedmanner.Hereatlastallis"PathosundPose"(figs.I9, 20). Yetthisapparently
meritsconsideration.5'
production
unpromising
in DieSchaubiuhne
minimizes
theartistic
valueof
Theodor
critique
Lessing's
thatBehrens
choseaworkofinsufficient
Hartleben's
comedyandsuggests
gravity
commandqualityfora trialofhistheaterreform.ItmaybethatLessing's
personal
oftheHagenexperiment)
theater(andtheinadequacies
itmentto theSymbolist
of Behrens's
buthis
himto somepotentially
excellentqualities
blinded
program,
stillappears
criticism
quitesound.Hemakeslightof Behrens's
stylizexaggerated
forprops.Healso
ongenuineobjectsandmaterials
ationandof theinsistence
andstageareonespace.HeaccusesBehrens,
theideathattheauditorium
criticizes
asamanfromthevisualarts,of considering
stagingmerelyasanendinitself.This
to Lessing,
visually-oriented
stagingresultsin a stagespacewhichisnot,according
ofnature
takesplace.Whilewe don'twanta naiveillusion
thespaceinwhichdrama
thesymbolasreal
betweenunderstanding
inthetheater,we muststilldifferentiate
avoidsthe
andsymbolically
reality.WhereasBehrens
properly
understanding
on
failsto achievethelatter.Theresultisanover-emphasis
heimproperly
former,
visualfactorsattheexpenseofthedrama.
of Diogenes
theseverityof Behrens's
Nevertheless,
production
may
relief-stage
oftheword.
ofthetheatrical
oftheproblem
reflecthisconsideration
depreciation
He wishedto retainthe beautifulword,yet he didnot wantto subjectthe other
wasto exercisehisoriginal
resolution
Behrens's
theatricalism.
artsto a subservient
si
of thisproduction,see: ErnstSchur,"PeterBehrensund
andcriticisms
Forcontemporary
descriptions
N.F.XXII (Dec. I9Io), pp.4I-44; Leipziger
dieReformderBiihne,"Kunstgewerbeblatt,
(June30,
Tageblatt
Kurier,Beilage"WeltundWissen,"
(July7, I909);
1909), pp.Io- ; Theodor
Lessing,Hannoverscher
V (Aug.I909),pp. I45Generalanzeiger
(JulyI7, I909);Lessing,Die Schaubiihne,
Lessing,Diisseldorfer
IX (Aug.I909),pp.265,267-27I;A.Jolles,Die neueRundschau,
ISI;WilhelmSchafer,Die Rheinlande,
didnotfulfillthepotentialof either
XX (Aug.I909),pp.I227-29.AccordingtoJolles,thepresentation
unddasTheater.
Peter
thedramaorthe stagetheory.SeealsoKraft-Eike
Wrede,KarlErnstOsthaus
dieHagener
vonOttoErichHartlebenfiir
des'Diogenes'
Behrens's
Sommerschauspiele
(I909)
Inszenierung
to Osthaus,butalsowitha
reference
(Hagen:KarlErnstOsthausMuseum,I984). Withparticular
forthe"Diogenes"
announcement
facsimileof the Behrens-designed
production,see ? V, "DasJahrdes
in Herta
Theaters,"
pp.59-65,of WalterErben,"KarlErnstOsthaus,LebenswegundGedankengut,"
A.Bongers,I97I).
LebenundWerk(Recklinghausen:
et al.,KarlErnestOsthaus.
Hesse-Frielinghaus,
I28
e0
C9
-ct
:I29
I~~~~~~~29
~program
withinthe mostrigidlimits. In thisway hisbeautifulproductioncontracted
becamevirtuallya recitationin finebut simplesurruntilthe wholeperformance
oundings,with rhythmic,expressivemovementsandgesturesby the actors.For
therewasa spatialimmediacy;the physical
the audienceandthe performers
werelargelyavoided;andwith
impedimentsandthe sensationsof theatricalism
adequateactors,the dramaticandimaginativecreationof the poet couldbe recreated
in the auditor.Thiswouldbe at leastthe potentialof Behrens'sendeavor.An austere
production,however,at once stylizedandyet simpleenoughto give the proper,
unifiedemphasisto the poetry,relieson greatliteratureforits effect. In I907,
Behrenshadsuggestedthatthe classicsbe usedforthe initialtrialsof hisprogram.
was sufficiefitlymonumentalto succeedin fulfillingBehrens's
WhetherDiogenes
programis doubtful;the Hagenexperimenthadno directsuccessors.52
What thenwasBehrens'sachievement?The contemporary
critic,Benno
Ruettenauer,wroteof the goalsandthe promiseof the Darmstadtactivity.Until
now, he said,the new activityin the artshasconcentratedtoo muchon particulars
andnot enoughon the whole. The new artis yet to be createdasanentirety.It
mustmanifestits vitalpowerby influencingthe wholeof life, augmentinglife
throughbeautyandstrength.A peopleanda timemustfinallybe measuredin
termsof theirtotalformationof life. Artwouldno longerbe soughtmainlyin
individualworks,but ratherin the beautifulharmonyof allthatis created.The
on KarlKraus'Theatreof Poetry
of sheerrecitationseethe commentary
achievement
52 Forthe"dramatic"
Mind(New York:Farrar,
(in Vienna,firstdecadeof the 2othcentury)in ErichHeller,TheDisinhereited
StrausandCudahy, I957), pp. 242-243.
finalstatementon theater("BerdieKunstaufderBiihne,"Frankfurter
in hisinteresting
As indicated
or
Zeitung[March2o, I9IO], pp.1-3), Behrenshadcometo respectwhatcouldbe achievedin recitation
in rehearsal.
He insisted,however,thatverseshouldbe recitedasverse,andwithpropergestures;soon
structure
of the severalarts
in thetext: a desireforanarchitectonic
he wasat thepositiondiscussed
word.
Movementand
to
the
which
did
of
a
in
the
unified
poetic
justice
rhythm production
culminating
theme.
Behrens's
remained
on
a
relief
principal
stage
gesture
workofJacquesDalcrozeandhisstudentsin eurhythmics.It was
citedtheadmirable
Behrensspecifically
schoolandresidential
atjust thistimethatHeinrichTessenowdesignedandbuilta theaterandassociated
of
center
communal
cultural
Helleraunear
was
the
elevated
institution
This
for
Dalcroze.
complex
ftir
Deutsche
Schmidt's
Karl
Werkstatten
and
sustained
was
created
a
that
Dresden, gardencity
by
Werkbund.
Deutscher
of
the
to
the
contributors
development
Handwerkskunst-important
Stanford
Anderson
Hartleben'u
tha
at
Diogenes
iogscenes;.
Hatee's
2020.
Behrens. Production
of
'j;'
again
time, encompassing
its own art,wionce have"style"
constituent
partswihe
as they
befoundto be necessarily
of that
are, the
and
imitation
whichisforeignin
time orspacewilunt
be hinkable
. Th at is theidealof thenew art;
th at iswhat
ce ntury
mustach
thenew
ieve.d
thattheywouldfinda morenatural
Theseendeavorspursued
course the
one possibletoward
cultural
goalof
integration.
They weresufficiently
general in their
originsthat themovementreceived
its appearanceandwithout a formal
nameits"Jugendstil"only af ter
mani fest o.
a
The
closest thing tomanifesto,
tomy knowledge, wasthe
in
univeogrammissued
E
Diederichs
the ugen
by
publishing house,whichhad also accepted
inasmuch900
Feste
des
und
der
Lebens
Kunstfor publication. Diederichsproclaimedthe
Behrens's
intentions:
following intentions:
following
As
I wouldlike toemphasizethatthis
the
leading
publisherof the Neuromantik,
be
movement
is not
to conftinused
withthat of decadents
the in literature.The new
culturaldirectiondoesnot favorprimitivism,norunrealisticdreams;rather,
andone-sidedintellectualization,
it willsto
succeedingthe ageof specialization
observeandenjoythe worldas somethingwhole. By onceagainconceivingthe
worldintuitively,
it overcomes
thematerialism
andnaturalism
thathavebeenthe
fruitof intellectualism.The Romanticsof the earlynineteenthcenturyopposed
the coldsmoothnessof antiquityandbelievedthatthey wouldfinda morenatural
manin the MiddleAges, to whichthey retumedin songandlegend.We
modems,however,seekouridealsin the timewhen the energyof the people
of the humanisticage. My
expresseditselfin the unfragmented
personalities
on the historyof Germancultureareintendedto be a landmarkon
monographs
thiscourse,andinafewyearstheeraof thefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies
will
haveits placenot only in the mindsofscholars,but alsoin thoseof the people.
The oldRomanticsstroveformuchknowledge,forthe universalityof man; and
inasmuchasthey soughtnot only to thinktheiridealsbut alsoto live them, they
gavelifeto theirknowledge.TheNeuromantik
willfollowthesamecourseif it
the originality;
the art,andthejoy of
goesbackto andcontinuesthe naturalness,
existencecommonto themenof theageof Paracelsus
andDiirer.Thecultural
53 B. Ruettenauer,KunstundHandwerk
(Strassburg,I902), pp. 71-72, in the chapter"Ein Dokument
deutscherKunst,"actuallywritten priorto the 1901exhibition.
10
rt
whomerelydecorated
himselfwithpatchesofculture,andwhom
philistine
Nietzschehasrightlycriticized,
andthenewmovement
willbeovercome,
will
himintheartistic
instruct
cultureofthetwentiethcentury.Thedesireofthesoul
forsomething
thatwillgivemeaning
andcontentto lifeleadsdirectlyto the
oftheindividual.
Fromthisprofundity
mandevelops,asshownby
deepening
withhisenvironment;
theapperceptive
lifeleadsto the
Goethe,to harmony
fulfillment
ofthelatentenergies
andtalents,to thehealthyandjoyous
man
whoselifeisanunconscious
workof art.No longerdeadknowledge,
butartshall
transform
thesoulandthefeelingofmanandleadhimto practical
activity.Only
in thisway didRuskinleadEnglishcultureto its presentinfluentialposition.54
131
The timesofDurerandofGoethe, recalledby Diederichs,arethe two Bliitezeiten,
the two "springs,"
of Germancivilization,nourishingthe floweringof culture
in whichthe integrationof lifeandartwill findits originin art. The courseof the
wasto searchforandenvisionanartfullifewithoutneedto check
"Jugendstil"
artfulnessagainstexistence.The Kiinstler-Kolonie
at Darmstadtwasthe most
productivecenterforthisendeavor;Behrens'stheaterproposal,the mostambitious
of its principles.It makesovertwhatotherwisemighthavebeen
application
onlyimplicit.
Primitiveacceptanceof the symbolorimageasrealityitself,howeverimportanta
rolein lifethisattitudemightgive to the arts,seemedanobviousanachronism
in
thelatenineteenth
thesymbolic
ofreality,
century.Analternative,
understanding
ona realitywhichwasjudgednotto deservethis
placedtoomuchemphasis
wasthoughttooprivateinthecase
Furthermore,
primacy.
symbolic
understanding
of theartist,tooabstract
inthecaseof thescientist.(TheNeuromantik
didnot
knowFreud.)
A remaining
alternative
wasto makerealitysymbolic.Theinvention,
of modernmancouldre-uniterealityand
energy,power,andself-consciousness
lifeintoart.
symbolismby transforming
Theendeavor
to dramatize
theworld,to makethewholeoflifeartistic,to make
everyact symbolic,wasa highgoal. But it wasanendeavorin constantdangerof
thatwhichit mosthighlyvalued.Allhierarchy
threatened
to disappear;
destroying
theframebecameasimportant
asthepicture.Whatwasmeantto beartfulrisked
Thestepfromeverything
to
beingonlyartificial.
symbolic
achieving
meaning
wasdiscovered
to bedangerously
short.Heralded
asthe
being"merelysymbolic"55
modelofa newcultural
era,theDarmstadt
colonyturnedoutto beahugestageset.
Housesweremerecoulisses;
monumental
andevenpeopleformeda
buildings
beforewhichdancedthemostartfulcreation
of all,a Neo-romantic,
backdrop
modemZeitgeist.
Almostimmediately
thesachlich
("objective,"
"matter-of-fact,"
"downto earth")
reaction
setin. Stillanother
solution
to theproblem
ofcultural
LebenundWerk,ed. Luluvon Straussund Tomey-Diederichs(Jena: Diederichs, I936),
54 EugenDiederichs.
pp. 52-53. Also quotedin E. Diederichs, Aus meinemLeben(2nd ed., Leipzig: VerlagFelix Mainer, I938),
pp. 27-28. A long seriesof statementsby Diederichsanda full bibliographywere editedby WaltherG.
Oschilewskiandpublishedas a Beilageinsertedafterp. 32in Imprimatur,
IX (I940). See alsonote 26 above.
ss5Accordingto Nikolaus Pevsnerin his Pioneersof ModernDesign(Harmondsworth:Penguin, I960), pp.
138-I49,the Englisharchitect-designerC.F.A.Voysey in I893"declaredrealismto be unsuitablefor
decoration,he was inclinedto admitplantsandbeastsin patternson conditionthat they be 'reducedto
mere symbols."'
StanfordAnderson
to findtheseedsof anewartwithintheproblem
theendeavor
integration,
thebookthat
situation
of twentiethcenturylife,nowtookthelead.SoZarathustra,
hadbeenabookforeveryone,becameabookfornoone.
thiscondition:
Nietzschehadforeseen
Theunhistorical
andthesuper-historical
[thepowertoforget]
[artandreligion]
antidotes
theoverpowering
oflifebyhistory;
arethenatural
theyarethe
against
Wewhoaresickofthedisease
curesforthehistorical
disease.
suffer
alittle
may
fromtheantidote.
Butthisisnoproofthatthetreatment
wehavechosen
iswrong.
AndhereI seethemission
oftheyouththatforms
thefirstgeneration
offighters
itwillbringamorebeautiful
andblessed
anddragon-slayers;
and
humanity
butwillhaveitselfnomorethanaglimpse
ofthepromised
landof
culture,
and
wondrous
This
suffer
both
from
the
will
beauty. youth
malady
happiness
instrength
andyetitbelieves
andhealth
andboasts
anature
anditsantidotes;
closer
tothegreatNature
thanitsforebears,
thecultured
menandgraybeards
istoshake
totheirfoundations
ofthepresent.
Butitsmission
thepresent
anderecthatred
of "health"
and"culture,"
andscorn
intheplaceof
conceptions
massofideas.Andtheclearest
is
thisrococo
andhealth
signofitsownstrength
fromthepresent-day
mintof
justthefactthatitcanusenoidea,noparty-cry
butonlyclaims
itsownexistence;
conviction
from
words
andideastosymbolize
andfromanever
thepowerinit thatactsandfights,breaks
upanddestroys;
oflifewhenthehourstrikes.
Youmaydenythisyouthany
feeling
heightened
s6
howwouldyouthcountthatareproach.?
culture-but
WasDarmstadt,
ofthefirststageof convalescence?
Could
then,justthesuffering
Nietzsche's
withcontinued
indeedbethecure?Perhaps;
treatment,
application,
butI thinkit isworthindicating
thattheNietzschean
alsosuggests
a quite
problem
different
treatment.
Nietzsche,andmostofthemenmentioned
here,wereawareof
thelimitations
ofnineteenth
whichtheysawas
centuryscience(Wissenschaft)
andpositivist.WithRankehadcomealsoanempirical,
empirical
positivist
history
Now
there
was
also
such
art
and
(Geschichtswissenschaft).
history theory(KunstwissThese
sciences
have
their
material
it wasacknowledged,
but
enschaft).
triumphs,
thispositivistic
intellectual
worldonemustassertthe"unhistorical"
andthe
against
"super-historical."
Historyandart,andwiththemlife,mustbepulledawayfrom
thematerialist
New triumphs,
it washoped,wouldbeachieved
graspofpositivism.
fromWissenschaft.
Thehubrisof thepositivist
wasmatched
throughthisfreedom
reinterbythatof thepoet.Theothertreatment
mighthavebeena non-positivistic
of
pretation Wissenschaft.
of science,theNeuromantik-Jugendstil
moveanysuchre-interpretation
Failing
mentwasnomoreableto cometo termswiththeincreasingly
intellectual
important
andsocialroleof sciencethanwasthesocietyagainstwhichtheseartistshadrebelled.
the movementwasneverasfarremovedfromits nineteenthcentury
Consequently,
asit hadsoughtto be.
predecessors
56 Nietzsche,
essay cited in note I, p. 77.
I32
ct
Appendix
Thefirstyearsof the twentiethcenturysawa greatactivityin inventivetheaterideas.(Seethe
referred
to in note22above.)FromI900to I903, GordonCraigdevelopedhishighlyabstract,
bibliography
in Londonbeforegoingto Germanywherehe associated
withtheavantcubist,
virtually
stageproposals
artistic
formed
around
Graf
Kessler
in
Berlin
and
the
Weimar.
garde
Harry
group
Through goodoffices
of Kessler,Craigwasto produceDasgerettete
Venice
an
Preserved), adaptation
(
Venedig
by Hugovon
Hofmannsthal
of a tragedyby Otway,forOttoBrahm's
soon
fell
intodispute
Lessing-Theater.
Craig
withthefamedGermanNaturalist
and
Venice
was
not
Preserved
to Craig's
producer,
stagedaccording
a
series
of
exhibitions
of
his
theatrical
in
Berlin
in
December
However,
I904,
designs.
designs,starting
madeCraigandhisworkfamousthroughout
theGerman-speaking
world.
MartinZickel,withotherswhoincludedMaxReinhardt,
hadfosteredanti-naturalism
in Berlin,
with
et
Maeterlinck's
Pelleas
in
Melisande
their
influenceon stagingwassmall,
i898.However,
beginning
limitedto theideaof moresymbolicanddecorative
flats.In I90I,MaxReinhardt's
smallhouse"Schall
undRauch"openedin Berlinandthenevolvedfromcabaretto theater-namelythe KleinesTheater,
whichopenedwith FrankWedekind's
DerErdgeist
(TheEarthSpirit)in DecemberI902. Alsoat the
KleinesTheater,inJanuaryI903,MaximGorki'sNachtasyl
(Na dyne;TheLowerDepths),a realistplay,
wasstagedwithfreshfantasyby RichardVallentin.
andpopularly,
thisproduction
Financially
mightbe
considered
thebeginningof thenew theaterin Germany;it enjoyedfivehundredperformances
in two
Duncanmadeherfirstsensation
in Paris,andsoonherdancingwasfamous
years.In 1902Isadora
roseto worldreknownwithhismultifarious
at the
throughout
Europe.MaxReinhardt
productions
NeuesTheaterand,beginningonOctoberi9, I905, at theDeutschesTheaterin Berlin.(Thereis an
extensivebibliography
on Reinhardt.
A specialnumberof Theatre
Research,
V, no. 3 [1963],is devotedto
Reinhardt's
entirecareer.)
Thefoundation
ofthe Schauspielhaus
in Dusseldorf
in October
(openedwith Friedrich
Hebbel'sJudith
to
the
classical
reaction
I905)by LuiseDumontandGustavLindemann
alreadypointed
post-Jugendstil
in bothits repertoire
anditsintentions.It wasa dreamof realizing
Schiller's
but
Nationaltheater, it
continuedthe searchforimaginative
theatrical
to the Dumontproduction.Repeated
requestsaddressed
Lindemann-Archiv
in Dusseldorf
havefailedto bringanyinformation
on Behrens's
withthe
relationship
the
of
time
Behrens's
of
the
in
Dusseldorf
Schauspielhaus
during
directorship Kunstgewerbeschule
(I903fortheHamlet
Kunst,XVI (I913),p. 308,saysBehrensgave"instructions"
07). W.F. Storck,Dekorative
of the Schauspielhaus.
involvedsharedsimilar
andtheirtheoCertainlyalltheindividuals
backgrounds,
reticalpositionsappearto havebeencongenial.LuiseDumontreferred
to thetheaterasthe"Tempel
und
Tabemakel
desGeistes"
andusedsuchphrasesas"dieBuhnealsHochsteKultstatte."
SeeKurtLoup,
Schonheit
undFreiheit
commentsby theprincipal
(Dusseldorf:Stem, I959),p. I79.Forcontemporary
see
L.
"Das
in
Die
Dumont,
personinvolved,
SchauspielhausDusseldorf," Woche
(Oct. 7, I905),pp.
The"Hausordnung"
of thetheaterwasprintedusingthefirsttype-facedesignedby Behrens
I726-27.
fortheSchauspielhaus
was
(seeplatebetweenpp. 88and89of Loup).Oneof themajorstagedesigners
Eduard
to information
to meby Dr. WalterKordtof Dusseldorf,
Sturm,who, according
supplied
"
declared
himselfa Behrens-Schiiler."
Forsixillustrations
of SturmstagedesignsseeDas
emphatically
Ein Vierteljahrhundert
deutscher
Buhnenkunst,
Schauspielhaus
Diisseldorf:
published
by the Freihochschulbund
(Dusseldorf,I930).
7heArtofthe7heater
in 190s(alsoasDie KunstdesTheaters).
Fritz
Craig'sinfluential
appeared
Schumacher
stroveto makethenewtheater,andespeciallyCraigproductions,
a realityat
unsuccessfully
the thirdDeutscheKunstgewerbe
in Dresdenin i906.SeeSchumachers's
im
Ausstellung
Wandlungen
Biihnenbild
(Hamburg:Toth, I948).
In I907,KarlScheffler
wrotea lengthyarticlesummingupthe rapidlychangedsituationof the theater:
KunstundKinstler,V (March1907),pp. 217-244.Hisdominantthemewasanappre"Biihnenkunst,"
ciationof Reinhardt.
Scheffler
to expresshisttieaterideas;thedetails
gaveBehrenstheopportunity
remainthe sameasin I900oo.
Whatis significant
is thatBehrens's
is now strictlydescriptive
presentation
of thephysicalproposals
fora relief-like
is
none
of
the
stage-there
pompousproseandnoneof the
and
of
the
earlier
philosophical sociological
scaffolding
descriptions.
WhileBehrenswasengrossed
in teachingandin thebeginnings
of hisarchitectural
careerat Dusseldorf,
Fuchs
continued
to
the
of
ideas
and
which
had
evolved
from
the Darmstadt
Georg
pursue
stage society
time. In I9o5Fuchspropagandized
thereliefstagein Die Schaubiihne
derZukunft,a workwhichcontainedtwo plansanda sectionby MaxLittmannfora proposed
theaterwiththeprescribed
shallowstage.
StanfordAnderson
In I906, in theseriesFlugblatter
fiurkiinstlerischer
no. 6, Fuchsdescribed
theroleof thedance
Kultur,"
fora culturein whichthewholeof lifeis givenform:DerTanz(Stuttgart:Strecker
undSchroder,
I906).
At thissametime,underthepatronage
ofRupprecht,PrinzvonBayem,Fuchscreatedthe Kiinstlertheaterin MunichtogetherwiththestagedesignerFritzErlerandthearchitectMaxLittmann(I907-o8).
Littmannwasanimportant
theaterarchitectof thetime,whohadbuiltboththe Prinzregententheater
in Munichat theturnof thecenturySeeGJ. Wolf,MaxLittmann.
andtheSchauspielhaus
1862-1931
whichwasdestroyed
in thesecondWorldWar,hadopenedwith
[Munich,I93 ]. The Kiinstlertheater,
ona site
a production
of Goethe'sFauston May17, I908. ThetheaterwassetabovetheTheresienwiese
in theexhibitionpark;alongthepathswhichledthe Bavarian
to
the
festival
were
nobility
performance
andtherewasa modified,broad,andsimple
rowsoftorches.Theplanof thebuildingwasrectangular
Thedirectview
principles.
proscenium
opening.Inotherdetails,thetheaterreflectedmanyof Behrens's
of theaudience,thebroadforestagereachingalmostto thefrontseats,theslightterracing
of thecomshallowstage(approx.I3'x 33'),the segmental
background
againstwhichtheactorsappeared
paratively
washereformedby oneof fourinterchangeable,
eitherin relieforsilhouette(thebackground
differentlythedemands
to us. Theeconomyof setsandcostumingapproximates
areallfamiliar
coloredcycloramas),
on astheactiveadvocateof the"reliefstage"andthe
ofBehrens.Fuchswas,in fact, theonewhocarried
withit at Darmstadt.Nonetheless,thearchitect,Max
socialprinciples
thathadbeenassociated
Kiinstlertheater
Littmann,in hisDasMiinchner
(Munich:L. Werner,I908),doesnotmentionBehrensas
thenineteenthcenturywith
in antiquity,theOrient,andthroughout
he evokesextensiveprecedents
of the Kiinstlertheater
suchfiguresasGoethe,SchinkelandSemper.Tojudgefromthedescriptions
of
use
that
this
evocative
the
of
it
was
Faust,
separated
mainly
stagingfromBehrens's
light
production
of this"first
andwhichrelatedit to themaintrendsof twentiethcenturystagecraft.Foranevaluation
M.
New
Old
York:
see
of
Gorelik,
Dobson,
Faust,"
I948), pp.
'Theatresfor (New
symbolistproduction
of the theaterbuilding(p. 289)andgivesa briefaccountof
I75-I78.Gorelikalsoindicatestheimportance
Fuchs'monarchist
politicalactivities.
in I908madehimanecstaticenthusiast
of allaspectsofthis
GordonCraig'svisitto the Kiinstlertheater
and
thefirstof his two
theaterproject.SeeCraig,OntheArtoftheTheater
Heinemann,
I9II),
(London:
letterstoJohnSemar.
DasMiinchner
andits influenceseeWalterGrohmann,
Foranincisivestudyof the Kiinstlertheater
und
fur
der
Gesellschaft
Szenen
in
der
Kiinstler-theater Bewegung
(Berlin:
Theaterreform
Theatergeschichte,
des7heaters.
Studien
Fuchs,Miinchener
iiberGeorg
I935).SeealsoLenzPriittig,Die Revolution
Beitrage
vol. II (Munich,I97I).
zurTheaterwissenschaft,
citedabove,n. 43;G. Fuchs,Die
desKiinstlertheater"
Further:Fuchs,"AusderVorgeschichte
in EnglishasRevolution
in theTheatre,
desTheaters
Revolution
I909),available
(Munich/Leipzig,
Rudloffandadapted"
"condensed
by C.C. Kuhn(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,I959);Gertrude
beiMaxReinhardt
Hillein Seling,i, pp. 397ff.;E. Stem,Biihnenbildner
(Berlin,I955)pp. 92ff.;H.J.
Review,LII( I922): pp. I34-I39.
Bimstingl,"ModernTheaterDesign,"Architectural
exhibitionof modemtheaterart(Mannheim,1913)is reviewedby
Whathe seesasthefirstimportant
W.F. Storck,"DieneueBiihnenbildkunst,"
Dekorative
Kunst,XVI (I9I3): pp. 297-312.Appia,Craig,
andBehrensareseenastheprincipal
initiators
of themovement.
I34