land?
Sumnlary
rop dank ik voor hct nr;rkcn
crsoncncliezich l-r'zig hor.rrgclijk gervcest.Ik hoop dat
.enledcwcrkil)g eD hun beanrcw'il ik dr'Stichting N;ruunnonunrcnten in Nedcrpeducltic lvas zo r,ricnclclijk
k.
van I).4. tsakkcr,_loopBak-
,4licr all: ruluttis naturt'ín tlis cormtry?\,.rÍurc corr.soyaÍíott
ín thc N,'rlrrrl,lrd-sr E8o-r990
n en Il. Theunisscn z1r'r de
x ben ik dank verschrridi!:tl
, Jactpclinc Cranrer en Torr
t mlnuscript ín betrckkclijk
X/irl Torrlrussen \v:rsgcnc-
Since the l>cginning ofthis cc'ntr.rni,l)utch nature corlservatiorlistshave discussed
thc qr,tcstionshol rraturchas to be protccted arrdu hat count\ Ji ir rpronlnt n.rtrrlc.
As a result. thc concc'pt of nature ancl the rclatcd naturc cr:rnsen'ationprirctlces
havc changed periodic:rlly. At thc sanrc-time therc was a ccrtain consensusabout
Het laatstcjaar rlra,r
i[ onge-
thesc questions. ln this book it is analysrd htlv lronr about r lj fio t:rnw:rrrlstlrc concept of nature has bcen constructed ancl tr:trrsfonneclby the naturc corisen,:,ltion
tul rvas.SpecirralMa5an, clic
r nijn nrcntllc ehlcziqherd.
r))ovcnlent in thc Ncthcrl:rntls. Specirrlàttentiotr is paicl to thc rolc of biologsrs
lntl ecolortsts.
gclclop haar tcnr!^'allcn. lk
I komt voor nrst en plczier.
lrr the.fir.stchaltttran ovcrall scherne o1-ln:rlysisis prescntcd, based on approachcs
'Sciencc'ancl
Tc-chnoloEy Strrdics'. This nrcans that this sturlv
covcn organisational.scicnti6c,idcological, practicaland socialaspe(ts oftlle lllovclionr thc fielcl r>f
nrcnt. In tive cnrpirical chaptcrs,it prescntsthc devclopnrent ofthe Dutch n:rtrtrc
conscrvatior.rnrovclnellt. Each of thcse chaptcn rccor.)stmctsp;rn of thc historv ttí
tlle lrature conscrvation lnovcnlel)t with clifïerent thr:oretic:rlconccpts frorn thc
ticlcl of Scicncc and Technology Studies. ln each ch:rpter, thc lircus is or.ronc or
two in)port:urt shilts in iclcas,practices or soci.ll relations with rcspect ro lliltLlre
conscrlati<ln.
The -rttirridrlral,tr'rticscribcshou' the n:lture conservJtion movcnrent erose :rt tha
cucl of thc ninetccnth centrlr),. In this Fsnocl scver:rlgroups of Fglrple.g:rve rlcw
nrcaning; to old ideasabout the bc:rLrq,anclthc vulnerabihrv ofnanrre, ancldcvelo'u'ild
pcd ideasabor-rtrhc practrcalprotcctior.rof
nrture'. C)l)c oithesc nerv practiccs
lr's('wc
\\'esthc ft)ruiding of so-clllccl ndtttr!
or nilfur('ffionlffitltils.ln sotrrc rcspccts
this concept reflectscontinuiw r','rth thc past,bccausc thc attitudc tou,ards nlture
$,itl.riDtlte l )utch n:rturc rescrvesrcsenrblcsolder initiatives to shorv beautifrrln:rttrre such asp:riritin$ and English lan.lscupcgurtlens.Tlic lirctrsis on conrplete l.urdscapcs,birds, relrarkable trecslnd rvinding strc:lms.With rcspectto the socialbasrs
of thc icicasoin:rture we sce continrliry as rvell.Just:rs ilt earlier ages,uppcr class
pcoFl(',sr,lchestlle lrolrilitv and thc hcalthv busir)oss
pcr)plc !l.l\ c nl(r)rilrg t() n.rrLrrc
and cst:rblishccl
Dc$'practices.Also thc old icleato protcct natural resourccsand to
ntaint;riutlte natural cquilibriutrt $'rs wiclespre:rdanrong n.rtrlre.olrsen.lti()nists.
Tlrc n:rturc consewatiorr llroven)cltt \\'aslil)kcd to a \ anct\: rtÍ-:rrutrrtrcnts
antl
32t)
Ert dart: wot is ltdtuut no.qin dít lartd?
soci:rl qroups. I)ive'r'scgnrups such as auirnal protcction gSroups,fbrcsters,aftists,
tl.ltiotlalists,bicyclistsrtrtl rt.ttttralistsclnlc togcthcr to protecf ccrtarn .lrcasor acrtain spccics.Altht)ugh thc :rrsunrcutslor protccting parts ofr)atlrrc dilltrccl .rt thc
bcsurning. cvcrrttralll, sonrc of thern becanre clorninlrrr. Tlris proccss srartcd in
countrics sucli :rstlre US, thc UK antl (icrnr:rny. Thc contents of thc concept of
t h c c o D c e p to i | : r t u r c . L t
courbine thc difièrcrt idea
Sonrc biologists aucl oth
natnrc in tlie rcscn'cs.Thi:
tc to thc lil()n)ct)t:rt r,vliic
l)iltrlrc colrsenrlltion and thc succcssu'crc ilcpcndent on the coruposition ard tlre
strcnqth of the conscnatittn rrctuork or rvhat is callccl hcrc tlre corrscn,ation
'thouglit
collectivc'. ln Clcrrnalt\', tlrc fbcr,rsrv:rson rrationalistargurncnts:ind irr
thc US on ryildcrncss antl natural rcsoLlrces.In both coltr)tties tlte l)eturc c()nscr-vatiotrlllovelrlcllt was succcssftrl,bccauscofthc involvcurcnt clfthc st:rtc.l1 thc
Wcsthotl. plaved a nt;rjor r
Nethcrl;tr.rcls
tl.reÍilurdatior of thc nature conrcrvation rnovenrcnt is corrrparablc
rvith tlic proccssin thc othcr countries, but thL-()utcourc rvassligbtll' cliÍïeretrt_At
nerv idea anrl a ncrv pract
( o { I l r i t i v c c l e t r r c t . r ti sn t h c
Íirst, aninral protectiorl urotrps, Íàrrners and inrcsters plavecl a nrain rolc, r.vhich
rcsultcd in a lau' for the protecrion ofuseful aninuls, especi:rllvbirds.
opposite r,r.iug':of thc cons
Wcsthoff s nrairrcontril
s('It ti-rt.tttbr' (rlr scnti-tratrrr
Aticr this first stage,arlratcur natur:rlistsrvonrring about thcir field stutll,arcas
staneclto;rlay an irrrportant rolc. Tl.rcv foundeci speci:rljounrals anc'lorganisations
for lliltlrrc' sttrdy arrd corrscr-'.':rtion.
Through thesc acti.,'itics the consen.atiou
nctu'ork becarne nrore subsmntiallncl str-uctural.Thc ncxt stcp in thc rise of thc
cr.rrlpoint oi natural proc
irrten'cnc, to ljlr:lnlltec I
cxpltritation oi rltc natrlrc
cusseclhorv to rrranlgc thr
thc ccutral issuefirr consc
Ycr)ti()l) is ciepeDdent(ln tl
nitics hunran influcrrccis nr
firr st'lrrc biologrcalv dive
n:lturc consen':rtion rnorrenrc)lt w;ls tl)e tbundatior.r oistrntc organisatiorrs.Thc
'Vercniung
tot lJchoucl van N:rruumrtltntrcntelt in Nctler.land' (Socict',' fbr
Prescrvatior .f Naturc i' the Ncthcrlarrds).iirurrrlcd in r 90 j, is thc most in rportant
olcl-Íashioncclfypc of agn(
ttrlutit|rt,, a tcchlliquc to llli
orre. This organisation bouglrt thc Ílr:t Dutch natrrrc rescn'e: thc lakc Narrclcrnrecr, Íànrous lbr its bird-litè. Lr rhcseorganisarionsibr,rrwpcs of groups playctl an
inrporant rt>lc:tcachcrs,urcrlbers of thc robiliq,', r'crcharts rnd trioloeists.After
alnrost lll irrtcn'entionist ar
transtbmrcd thc qLrcsrion'
the questior.rs'rvhiclt irrten
a pcriod of dctachnrcnt, biolog'rstsfcrrnreclan inncr circlc rtf cxputs fronr r9o.5
ottrvltrcls.Thev dciined to :r ccr-tarincxtent rvhat h:rd to tre sccn as 'u.ilcl atrd beautiful
naturc'. Thcrc u'aselso arr outcr circlc, consisting ofthe othcr groups. l3oth circlcs
tbnr.rctltlrc nature collsen'ation thought coilectivc. Thc urcnrbcrs ofthc inncr (rrr
csr>tcric)circle rr'cre dependcnt ()r) tl)e outcr (or crotcric circle) fbr their rccog-
pclr()r to lrrswc.r tliis qucs
tritiotr as cxpcrts and tirr ntoncy to Lluv rcscrvcsto savc tlrcir olrjects of strrdr,..The
cxoteric circle derivcd statttsti'orrt thc particip:rtior of'bioloqlsts in the movcnrcrrt
firr trati-trccoltscrv;rtiott. l11this structure of rrrutull depcrrclencicsthe cc'rr.rtcnts
of
'rvild
and bcautitirl rlaturc' w:ls tbmrulatecl in a rcstrictcd 'l.ay: ceft:rin arcasanrl
ceftrirl spccics.This can be scen as a spccial 'thouqht st1'le' in whir-h sontc ob,jects
antl fc'aturcs$'ere ser'I1:lsrc.rl Í1irturc.At the bcgirrrring of thc ccntlln,this kincl of
natllre was protectecl in nature ntorlulltcltts o,"vneclbv thc 'Vercnigng tot Bc-
hc bcc.rnte I ccrrtral 6gurr
t9.1,sonu'arris hc s,:rsan'c
itr(l scrrri-n:ltrlral larrdsca
thousht srylc and a rhougl
rrrecharrisrtrto stabilisca cc
ln thc-flrrrrr/ic/rriJrrr,l
11'gc6t
,ttrdollrcritttt:n'sttroups irttlt
conscn ationists ancl fanti,
pr(Iocts. Farrrrersnceded
Iroud r.alr Natuunrronunrcrrterr in Ncclerllrr.l'. Supportcrs donatecl or lelt the
ncccssarymonc,v.To bt'ablc to pay thc intercst.thc oÏgarriutrou cxploitecltlrt. rcscr-
v:rtiorrists, horvcr.er, Íi'.rrcd
c()nscnr:ltiol.rlI()vclt letlt r
this rrelv situation. Bcside:
vcs asfishirq, hunting unclrvood production arr-as.So in thc bcginning oithc ccntury, thc old iclc,rofvuhrcrlblc and bcatrtifirl n:rrLlrcwas st.rbiliscclin a tlntglt st14c,
its ro//t'rrll,t'(instittrtion:iliscdirr ctrnscrvlriorr orgrrrrir.rtitrnsand rtranaucd by biologistsand nrercharrts),antl a practicc of (nurugcnrcrrt of) rrture nronun)clrts.
arrd country planncrs an
irr thc nrral :rrcas. As :r
nlovclllclta gcllcr.ltccl il n
trlry the coenitivc practic
^fhe
kirrcl of netrrrc u,'<trthprot
thínl dt,rpÍcrshorvs liorv aftcr a ferv ilecaclcspatlrrc colscn'ati.'ists
l -lo
clra'gcd
cs()tcnc circlr' of nàture I
t2
llllntllalr'll
gïollPs,tbresters,artists,
,tectccrtaill :trc:lsor cer-
thc couccpt ofnlturc.
oflraturd cliÍIered at thc
Sonrc brologists :uicl other nor)-lntcrvcnti(lnist\ \valrted to conscrvc pristine
Thrs proce'ssstartcd in
n t c n t so i t h e c o n c c p t o f
:Irccrrnrpositior arrrl thc
I herc thc ct:rnscn'atir:rrr
:rnllist.rrgurrents and in
[rntrics tlrc r']:Itur-ecoD-
ln thc thirties.nrrl iirrtrcs it lppeared ro bc inrpossiblr tcr
(rf,r,tÍr,r'Íe.it'n,(,-\.
c,rrnbirre the clifièrcnt iclcalsof conscn'rtionists in Íltc fttitod,qencilt
naturc irr thc rcserves.This rneant that naturc haclto bc lblc to Íblkrlv its owrr rou'clinrar-situatiorr'
tc to thc nlonlcnt at rvhrch the so-callc-d
haclbccn rcachetl, the
cnd poirrt oÍ natural processesr.vith rcspcct to vcgetation. ()then prefèrrccl to
intcrvcnc, to gll:lrarltce a variccl natrlre or to cr)surc an econorrric:rll1.Irealth_v
:nrentofthc statc.Irr tlrc
ro\:crnelltis corrrplp:rlrl1'
cxploitation of thc natlrre il)onLuncDts.l)unDg two decadcsconscrv;rtionistsdiscussedhou' to lrulr:rlac-the rnonurrents. ()nc ccntral actor, thc )'oulrg biolo!{ist,
WcsthoÍI, plal ed;r nrajor rolc in ovcrct>nringthcsc colitradictions anrl stabilisinga
ncn'idc:r ar)d ir l)ow practicc oin.rture nlaltJgel)rcl)t. He rntrocluce.'lsolltc nc\\r
rv:rsslíqhtlvclifll'rr:nt. At
Lyeda rnain rolc. rvhich
cognitivc clel)cl)ts irr the disctrssron:urd also hacl special relations witir scveral
, r p p o i i t c r r i r t g : o i - r l t t 'd \ ) t ) \ ( r v . t t i o ttr) ) o v ( ' t ) )t() 1 .
ciallybirds.
rut their llclcl stucly'rreas
ruurds:rnclorqanis:rtions
Wcsthotïs nrain c<Irtilrlrti()ns to thc dcbate rvcrc the irrtrocluctron ofthc tcnlr
(or scnti-u.rtural l:rndscape)urcl tlrt' focrrs on tbe phnt comnrunitÏ rrs
st'trti-nature
thc ccntrd issuc Íirr consc-rv:ttionists.
Hc strcsscclth.rt thc ncccl for hrrnrrrninter-
.iviticsthc conscrwatiou
vclltion is dcpcnclcnt on thc tvpe of phnt cottrrtr.rniW. For sonrc pl:rnt colrul.lll-
:xt stcpin thc risc ofthc
nitics hunran influence is not rccluiredbut lbr lr:urv othen it is ncccssary.cspccially
;ot.ucorganisations.Thc
Íirr sonrc brobgicelly tlivenc grassltrcl cornrrruuitics in arcas with an ertensivc
Nederiantl' (Socictl for
olcl-fàslrioncclrypc oiagriculture. Hc conrbinecl thesc idcas r.vith the teÍ)1 ildtLtre
ttcluiqut',;r tcchlliclJe to ntakc n:lturc rr)orc diverse. AÍicr Wcsthotls inter-venticrn
o-j,is thc nrostinrponant
sen,e:thc l:rkc N:raldcr.ypesoigroups pl.ryctl arr
antsanelbiol0gists.Aftcr
'le of erpens fronr rgos
'r.vild
eenas
ancibcatrtiÍirl
ther sroups. lloth circles
trenrbcn of thc irurer'(or
:rhrrostall intcr-ventionistand non-intcrvcntionist lyoups \\'erc sarisÍied.WesthoÍf
t r a n s l i r n n e dt h c q r t c s t i o n ' i s r n t c n ' c n t i o n i n n . r t u r c l 1 r ( ) n u l l l c n t sa c c c p t a b l c ' i n t o
'rvhich
'rvho
tbe qucstiorrs
intcr-vcntion is acccptablc :rnd when?' and
is tlre nlaht
prnon tr):rr)s\\'crthis qucstioD?' It was WosthoÍFhirrrsclfrvho g()t the crcdlts alrd
he bc'c:rrrrcJ central fig'urc rl thc l)r.rtch natrlrc consenation rnovelrent. Fnrrn
'Obligaton,
tt.),15
t'lnrvrrclsltc $ ls rrn
pass:rtcpLrint' lor thc nr:rDageDrentof n:rtural
:^circlc) ftrr thcir rccog-
aucl senri-n:rtur:rllurclscapes.l3esitlesthc nrechurrisnroi st:rbilisltron through a
thorrqht swlc and a thcllrqht collcctivc, ;tsrtrcntionccl :rbove, lrerc lve scc lrothcr
eir objectsofsnrclv. fhc
lrrccharrisnrto stabilisc:r conccpt of natttre: :r ccrrtrrllarro(
rrt'nl,rrr'/r.
it d t!&t,$Ídbli.r/rcd
logistsin the rrroverrrent
rdcnciestllc dontcnts ()f
I rvay: cenlin areas:rntl
'
rn l'n'hichsonte ollccts
the ccntury this kind oi
'Vcrenignq
he
tot l3c:rs donatccl or' lcr.rt tlre
.tion exploitcrl tlrt' rescrrebeginning ofthc cenrbiliscclin a r/ror1g/rt
-st1,1t',
; and rnanagedby bionatureI]1()nLllllcllts.
nsen'ationistschanged
ln thc-làrlf/r dnptet wc cronccntretcon thc rclalrorrhehvcLtttlu' rcttst11\1tí()il
nrovunott
atrd rttlut'irttL,rcst.qroups
in Í|rc nral artas.AÍier the fiÀ,cntiesthc rcl.rtionship betu'ccn
Lronscr-vatioDists
and fanrrcrs c]rangcclprotóunclly cluc to largc-sc:rlerech[ution
plojccts. Famrcrs neccicclrrrorc lard ancl supportccl thesc projccts. The couservationists,howcvcr', fc'arcclthat uucultivatcd areasrvould disappe:rrconrplctcly. Thc
conscn':rtion nrovcltlcnt w:rs Íirrceclto dcvclclp il consclï:rti()n \tr.rrc!{\'tu rc.l[t t(]
tlris uclv situation. l3esicles,
it w-astàcing thc rapridly*ruto,Ur* orglnisations oitorvu
arrd coultn' planncrs anrl lccreation organisations which rvcre àls() intercstccl
lr tbc mr:rl lrerrs. As a rcstrlt of thcsc two dcvr:krpnrcnts thc conscn'ationist
n r o v c n r e r l tq c l ) c r a t c d . tn c r v ' c o q n i t i v c p r a c t i c c ' . l n t h c i i ' s t c l c c a r l eos f t h c c c n trlry thc cognitive practicc consistetlofthrce corllp()ncnts: an ielcathlt tlrerc is:r
kind ofnature \^ ortl) protectill!i. the pr:lcticc oflruvirr!i naturc llronunlr:rlts àl)d al)
esotcric circle ofrreturc expcns rvith:l qr()up offinancill supFortcrs.uld llatuÍr
llr
En dnt: wdt ís tritLntr nt)oítr dít laril?
Irrvcrs.Tlris is called hcrc thc /ríltríÍcntonutnotl.s
pt'd(rrt'.In the thirtics sorirc ccrnscr'lanclsc:rpe'
v:ltionistsproposcd adriing the pr()tection of the
to tlrc ainrsof thc conservation lllovcnlent. AÍicr intcnse c'liscussions
it rvasdecicledto look lor practiccs
'Conto protcct t)re larrrlsc:rpc.Mcarru'hile a neu orqanisation rvas fiiundcci. the
tact Clonlllissie voor Natuur-
cn Landschàpsbeschcmling' (Conrrnittcc lbr
porverfrrl cnough to irrspi
forestersarld llature conser
Fuft her-nrort',both gJoups
svstel])tr) ch;rracterisethe t
of thc pristinc rvood. lJuri
l)rescrr':rtiot-L
of N.-JtLlr():u)d
Larrclscape),
in r93:,. In this conrnuttec \\,c fillcl classical
c ( ) l l c c p to f c o i l r n n n i n ' b u l
conscrltionists (anratr:llrr1:rtllrclovcrs - tc.rchcrsand merchants
anclbiolonists)
idcas o1-a netural wood co
but also politicians and tou,n and l:rndscapepllnners. A new cognitive pr:ictice
nlcasllrcs, duc to tltc necd
u as lounrletl, irr rvhich thc idea ofhnrlscapt' protection pla1'c-cl
an irnportal)t rolc.
Ne.,v pr:icticeswere startecl,sllcll asthc nlakir)Íj trfl:lrdsc:rpc pl:urstbr reclanratior.r
tit>rr.Fttrestcrsillrcln:rttlres
projccts, lauciscapeclre, landsc.rpeprotection .lid physic.rlplanning. This did not
n)can that thc older cognitive practicc clisappearcdhor've.,'cr;thc nerv cognitir.e
practice t>t-landscay'planilitrydnd pnta(io rr r'r'asaclclcdto and partll' rntegr:rtecl in tlrc
older cognitive prrcticc.
Ir.rthc sevcnticsthc iclc
cept ofthc \o-callcd lorcst
the p
scr-v:ltionists
cliscrtsseci
radical ecolosistscallecllor
sultinq rlcbatc thc rolc ofn
hr thc sixtics and sevcntiesa conrlrar:rblepàtterlr appeared.Again the rclation
betrvcen agricultr,rrcand ruture corlserv:rtion becarrre problcllr:rtic, ag.rin ncw
blern, nrore than in the for
ecos) stcl11nllrnagenlell(,\\'
groups cntercd tlrc ntovcnrcnt and aglin the practices:rnd thc organisàtioDstnlctures challged. This tinrc naturc coll\srvJtiolri\ts rvcrc confrontecl r,vith the incrcasirrgintensi6catiorr ofin aqnculturc-,espcciallythe usr ofchcrnicals. Conscr-
lands, sr,rchasbisonsand rvr
vatiorists tncd to destine thousands ofacrcs ofagncultural lanclsas l:urdsc:rpcor
they hopcd to ollèr nichcs
natllrc reserves.As a rcsult, thc Íights about thc ciestination ofthe lands Lrccantcnrorc
conseruatiotristsrppe:lrcd t
scrioLts.Sonre ofthe new ll'oups elrtcrirlg the conservatior]rlrovcnlet)t, trained irl
the r.rcrvlycstablishedenvironrrrcntal nlovcment or other social nrovcnrents, such
iclc:rsr,r.asth,rt :l n)ore cxte
ils thc studclrt r)lovcnlent. Propo5si to rclect the arc:r-cerrtredftuving arrclphysic:rlplanninu) :rpproachofthc ccnsen'atiorists.Thcv reconlncnclccl paying attcntion to tltc $'htlle (agricr.rlturalp:rn of thtJ countrl ancl to u'ork together r.r,ith
othcr groups sr.rch:rstànrrcrs.To u ccrtain cxtent thesccntics lverc succcssÊ1l.
A nt'rv
'Stichting
nrganisertic'rrr
rv:rsftrundcd in t97z'. the
N:rtuur cll Milieu' (Nctherlarrds
'C-orrtact
Socicn' lcrr N:rture :rnd Errvirorrrrerrt), lonned oLrt of the
Clonrrrrissir\.oor Natuur- cn Larrrlschapsbescherr.ning'.
Furthemrore , conserv:rtior.rists
startecl
t() p:r)'n.lor-cattcntion to othel socict:rl groups. neu' agricultural nrethotis, to tirc
sr'rcictrrlbackgrouncl rrf conservltion prol-rlcmsirnclto dellrocrltic fonrrs of orgarris:rtior.r.
A rrrorc s()daldl,dtil()trLttíc
uwírturtnttt-orienttdltratticcu'as ltrundcd, partlv
u'ithin thc exisrins orgarrisation,plrtly in a nerv org:rnis:rtionspccialiscclin the
illtcqïatior.1of rxrturc conscn'ation, irqriculture and cnvironmental protcction. tlut
. t g a i n ,t h e o l d e r c o g n i t i v c p r a c t i c c s( ' r r a t u r cr n ( ) n u r r r c l l t s ' r r n d ' h n d s c r p ep l a n r r i n g
and protecti()n') did not disappear.With rcspect to thc inter:rction benvccn corser-v:rtionists
and othcr ggoups,an inlportant lrrechal}isnrto stabiliscrrew conccpts
of nrrtrrrcrppcarcci to be thc establishurerrtof tn'u'1n'actirts;urd
nc\\'soci:rl bonds
relaterlto thesc 1.r:rctices.
nnhtctl, includirrq thc intr
a r ) ( ll c a v i l r g d c a d o r d v u r g
n a g c n t c n tb u t d i d n o t a c c e
blc. Aftcr tht' clcbrtcs.;rt le:
included son)c elcments ol
During the ciqhtics thc
the rn:rn:rgcrrrcntof other
nrcnt ancl Frshencsthc cor
i d c a o f p r i s t i n e l r e t u r ct o r l
l1rillly cotrscrvetionists,bur
tccts :u1drc( reatiorl or!!an
m:rny lr:rtuÍe clcvekrprrren
arrcl clay wcre phnnccl to
*'oocl or tlrc forcst ccosl's
inspirirrg conccpt ufiich I
nrissin!1.Tlrc boundary ol
systcnrar)d Dature dcvelol
Clnpttr six foctLseson:u1 e
ancl tcchnologlcal practic,
Abstract Mcthocl Íbr Ovc
J'hc conscn'atirrnistshad nrlrclt nrorc a6'rccablerelations rvith.fànrkr:stharr rvith
pctl by ecoloeists of thc N
f?rnrrcrs.ln dnpttr-litt this is intcrpretcd as:r result of conrrrrorrintcrcsts or. in .rr:rlvtic:tl tcr-nts,'lntwdaq, trlli'tt-r''.Thcsc arc lrrord datcgorics,*ltic]r:trc r':tgue :*rl
to thc big watcr svsteÍrrs,s
In thisconccpf the queliq.
3-1tr
tit land.)
r r ' .Í n t l t c t l t i f i i c . . o r t t c r o r r s c r dscapc'to tlie ainrsofthc colrrsdcciclctlro look firr practices
;ationrvastitunded. thc '(loneschenning' (Cornntittec firr
;hiscorrurrittec.,r'cfilcl classical
i l d r i l c r ,l u r r t . - . r r r Jb r o l ,r g r . r . . ;
Junrtnary,
porvcrful l-rrough to iuspire end bind diflèrcnt social groups. For instance, both
litrcstcrsatrd tratllre conserv.ltior.tists
u'erc interestcd ilr tlic so-callcd r.raturallorest.
Furthcrrrrorc, both groups uscd the ccological c{)rlceptsofcornrriunirv and cct>svstellrto chlracterise thr. natural forcst, :rnd bottr rverc inspirccl b1.thc erchctype
of thc pristine rvood. l)urinq the thirtics the tr,vo qroups found cach othcr in the
conccpt of contrnunitv btrt disagrecrlabout its prccisc prrxl-1i1-xl
inrlrlications. Thc
iclcasof :i rratural rvoori conrrnunity werc harclh'cvcr trallsforrrled into practical
rers.A ne\\Í cognitir.e pràctlcc
.rion plavcdan irrrpo62111
1oL'.
nlcasures!duc to thc neccl ftrr woocl and a ratioral, ccononticàl rvay oi;rroduction. Forestersand uturc socicticschangcd thcir krrcstry pmcticcs siightlv.
iandsc.rpc
plurrslor rcclarn:rtion
physicalplanning. This did not
d horvever; the nerv cognitrvc
C to and panl,vintegratcclin tlrc
Irr thc sevcnticsthe idcas of a pristine and nrtural r.r,oodcane back in the concePt ()fthe so-càlled forest ecosystcnr.Agaír tcrrcsters,ecolctgistsancl nrrture conserï.tionists cliscusscdthc possibilitv ofancl nced fbr a trelv tirrcstry practicc. Sornc
r appcarccl.Asain the rclation
cartc prolrlcnratic, aqain nerv
rcesatrdt]rc organis:rtiorrstruc-rvere conii-r'utteclrvith thc irrr the use oicliernicals. ClolscrgicultLrralhnds as landscapcor
nation ofthc larrdsLrccanrcnrorc
servatioltlltovcnteltt, traincd rn
rr cltbcrsocilrlrlrovertrcnts,sr,rch
area-centred(buving and phyrevrccornrncndetlpaying atten-
radical ccologistscalletl for I r:rdicalfi'pc ofpristinc-n'ood nranaqerrrent.In rhe resulting clebatctlic rolc oínrln in thc nr;rnlqcnrcrrcof thc rvootls was sccn:rsa prclblelr, ttrore than in thr'torties and thirtics. Tl-re radicalsrvarrteclto start a so-callct1
cc()svst('D)
ntanagenter)t.rvhich nicaDsthat all parts r-rftlie ccosystcrrrhrtl to be stimulatecl, inclucling thc introcluction ofspccies r,vhich'"verccxtil)ct in tlrc Ncthcrlalds, such asbisonsaud rvolves.Thcv proposcd thc bmishrnont of iruportecl trccs
and lcaving dcad or ciying trecs ir.rthe rvood instcad ofrenrovirq thenr. I)oinc so
thcv liopccl to oÍIer rrichcsÍbr snrallarritrtllsarcl nruslrroor.rrs.Forestersanclnaturc
conscn'atiorristsappearctlto be serrsitiveto thc ncu'iclcas ofcc<ts1'stcrrr
lorcst rtranagctncnt brtt cliclr]ot:rccept rts ratlicalproposals.A stinrr,rlatingtlictor Íirr the rrc\v
icleas*'as th?t a n)ore cxtcl)sivc lvood rtranagententcoulcl beconre ntore proÍitablc. Aftcr the debatcs,at lcxstthrce r,,'ooclrrnn:rgcnrcr)tpracficcsexistcd, u hich all
inclrtdcclsotne elentcnts ofthe proposalsofthc raclicals.
try and to rvork togcther rvith
:sccritics ',t'ercsuccessful.A rrcu'
.latuur en Milieu' (Ncthcrlands
'(lonmct
ut of t].rc
Conrnrissrc
lmlore, col)scla'ttrotllsrsstllrtecl
L)urjng thc eighties the ide:r of pristinc n:tturc sril.nlllatt-dthc discussionabotrt
thc rtr:rnagclrrcrrtof othcr:tre:rs. At the Mirristrl' ttf Aqricultrrre, Nlture Managcrncrrt rrrd Fisirenesthc concept of natun:(l(!('lopní,trtwÀs introdtrccd to cn:rblc tlrc
:rv agnculturalnrcthods, to the
J to derrocratic f-onrrsof org:rntcdpr,ldirc\\Às forrndccl,partly
tects tIId rccrcation org:rtrisatiorrs.
Sonrc inclustricsrl,erc cntlrusilstic too bccarrsc
n)ar)V natLlredcvelopmcnt pnrjctts rverc situatcclalong rlrc rivcrs r,vhcrc grlvcl
ancl clay wcre plar)ned to bc rcnroverl, which thev can use. -[ust as thc natural
organisatiouspccialiscdin tirc
environrnentalprotectiolt. But
rnents'arrcl'lanclscapc
planninu
idca of pristine naturc to nrltcri:tlisc. Tliis concept tunrcrl out to bc stinrulatrng Íirr
nralrv dor)scn'ationists,but llso Íirr othr.r socictal groups, such aslandscapearchi-
urrod or tlre Íórcst ccos)'stcnrtlrc corrcept of trlturc dcvclopntcDt is a vagrrc brrt
i r r s p r n n uc o n c e p t r . r ' h i c hb i n c l sc i i t l c r c r r tg r o u p s a s l o n g ; . c . r n . r c r c p r . r ( r i ( r ' \ . r r c
lnissin!;.The boundary objects. pristine naturc, rutnral .,vood, conrmunitr,, eco-
) thc iutcrrctinlt betu.ecn corrlnisnr to stabiliscrrer.r'collccpts
, practictsand nerv sociel Lroncls
s)'stclner)d nltr:re der.eloprncnt, stal-ilisccoltcepts ofn:rturc to.l LcrtJin cxtcl)t.
:lations u'ith-/órt,-{rel-\
thirr) with
pcd bv ccokrsistsoithe Ministry of Trafllc ancl l)ublic Works. lt w'asÍirst appliccl
to tl'rcbie watcr systerns,such as thc l{hirrc, the Nortfr Se.trnd the Waclder.rSca.
lfcontnroD ilttcrestsrtr. in ana.tegoncs.u,hich are ."-aguc:rrrd
(-'[aprlr.iix tbcuscsolr :lll c.xan]plcofthc rrcr.r,nirtLlrcpolicy, in rvhich irrtcrventiorr
ancl tcchnoloqic:rl practiccs Fl:lv ilr) irnport:rnt role. It is callcrl',4,'!1OEIJá', thc
Abstract Mctlrotl for ()vcrall Exrrrninatiorr oÍ-tlie BiologncalArnbicnce , clcvclo-
IIr t)risconccpt thc tpr:r)iryofrr.r ccosvstenris indic:rtcd bv thc nurrrLrcrof inclviclu-
3.r3
E r t d m t : 1 r ) díts n a n u t n o t i l r d i t l a r r r l ?
rrlsof:r ccrtain srrrellnrtnrbcr ofaninrll anclp)ant species.TIrcsr-spccieserc put il] a
raciarplot Êgurc. tlrc so-callcd Anroelr:r ÍjÍrurc. This figure looks likc a circlc if the
qualiry ofthc ecosystcnris optirnal, :rnclis t]ren lncant to represelrtthc susírinablc
situation of thc ccosvstenl.]f therc:rrc too nlany or too fl'u'anin):rls or plants thc
Íigure looks nrorc like :r sLrr. Thi:n r,vc h:rvc a clisturbcd sltuatioll rvhich has to bc
changed, accordinq to tl.re ecolog'rcll dcrrr:urclsof thc spccrcs irrvolvcd. The
nlctl)o(l oÊ-ersthe oppor-runiry{
to chooseso-c.rllc.lccot:rrqets,which .rrcsorrreu'here
lrctr,r'ccnthe l.ristinc rrrturll corrclitiolls .lnd tllc .rctull sitr,urtion.Btclrsc ncgotiations:rrcpossiblcàbout the precisctllgcLs.thc nrethod \.':lsacceptrrbleÍirr dift'rcnt
pafties such as tlrc cnginccrs of the ninistrl, conscrvltion groups, ccolo{ists working in the nl:ur:lqcnrentcor.rtcxt:lnclpr:r('ticJ watcr nralragers.T]ris rvascnftrrcccl
through thc inclusiotr ofecononricallv inrportant specics,ccologically intcrcsting
spccies,and popul:tr spcciessuch astherscal.In that scnsethc lnctlrocl w:rssllccressful.
The An-roeba.liqrlrr'hlclcvcn nlore irnp.rct. It rv:rsackrptcd by cnvironnrent:rl
culturc rl crc not sccrl asreà
is thc focr.rs()r) ccrtàin areas
'fbt
lar plarrts.
-fóurth conchr
doniain, both in a nrateria
kept extending thcir proper
historical rcslrcct we càn v
Fronr thc Miclclle Ages ot
uatttrt. togcthcr with tllc irl
Tbc -lilih ro,,r/tiriorris th,
conscrvatiorl nrovetnetrt, id
pertly, rcspcmsiblefor thc d
nranàlaement, ltatural woc
dcvclopnren t rrnd Anroeb:r.
conseraation trrovcrnent ha
dcscnptions oitl:lture, abstr
institutcs rrnrlis nsed by nrany ccolo$sts. cr,cn outsiclcthe Nctherl:urds. lt firlfillccl
rcprcscl.ltnaturc.
fr-urctionswhich cxceccledthe origin:rl irlcasofits creators.Thc Arrroebadevelopcd
'nt:lcro-actor'
lirr water nlaDagenrcrrt, Iraturc nlanàlleilrcr)t ;rnc-lcnvironas a
A sccorrclthcmc of chap
poltunitics to contribute to
nrental nranagcnrr'nt. Thus it turncd out to be :rr.rir.rtcgrerting
and stabilising object. But it:rlso stntctured realiq', bccalrscnrtllre is seen as il sct of lr linritccl l)r.llri-
this stucly the author takes:
ar.rddeveloptncnts are anal
ber of ar-rirnals
antl plents r,vhich can bc rrunipulaterl easily. l3ut cvcn in this technocratic ccoc()rlccpt tlrc har:dcore is thc idce of-nnclisturbcdnaturc.
qucstion whcthcr other atr
tions aud hou' tirr the agno
prcscntssonrc gcrrr-r:rlcoDclusions.Thc-firrf torrr'/,/.riorr
Thc,se|elrÍha/r.il)a(?
is that n:rtlrre c()rlsclv:rtion lras sonte continuitics and ch:urges.Continrrous L'lcnlentsare
tl'rc icleaof a pristirrc naturc and the rratlrl'cl))onunrents. Ohangcs lcrlard nen'rrees:urd ncu, iclcasabout ruturc. Thcsc charrr{eslre interconncctecl rvith altern:rtivc
practiccsanclncw groLlpsentcnng thc conscr-v:rti()n
nlovcrllcnt. Thc -slroird
rorcllr-rlorrconcerns thc p:tttcrn ofchangcs ir.rthc lnovelrlent. In nrany cascsproblenrs arc
reÍbmrulatcd by a rcl.rtivc outsidcr. Thcn gotrps lncl problcrrrs:rrc reoruleredlnd
. h c o r r t s i c l cbr r ' ( ' o D r c rsl c r D t r l l p o i n t : D r d s t u t s
t l l c c o n c e p t o f n a t l t r ci s r r r o d i f r c d T
l ncrr,'pr:rctice.Evcntu:rll_vthc problcrr sccll)sto irc rcsolvecllu)(l tl)e lrcw apprcF
ach is stabiliscdin socialstructures,irlcasanclpr:rctices.Thc changcsin the conservation rlovenrents cln bc rclateclto exterr)alconstraints,such as thc govcnnlel]tal policv, thc position arrd attitudc ofthc counterpart, such :rsthe firmrers,and n!rture itsclli For tlre ch:rngcs and stabilis:rtion of nclv irppro:rches so-callcd
'tnoveruent
plav an rnrportant role. Thev introducc concepts fionr
rr.rtcllccttr:tls'
ccology and other scicntitlc or practical ficlcls,clevelop ne\\. conccpts iu thc ni<>
vcr))crlt:rnrl export tllcsc ncw appro:rchcsto thc t'rutsicles'orld.
The tlilrd otdttslori is that despitc tl)c inte+)rctativc flcxibilitv of the conccpt of
natllre, not a1/intcrprctatic'rns
rre possiblcany nlore. Thc conscn'.rtr.r) lllovcillcl.lt
h:rsits olvn body oikrxrwlcclge , ideasarrrlpr;rcticcsrvhich:rcts as a sclcction filter.
l)unng ccrt:rin s&rgcsofthe dcvcloprrrent oithc nrovcrncnt, the aninral protcction
lrlovenlcr.lt,thc lanclscapeplanncrs or supprrrtcrsofan cnviroDment-tiicildly agriI .1.1
cludes that cach an:rh'ticalp
proposcs t() explorc' thc p<
rvith :rn explicit irrterventic
the positions in the debatc,
dcbate arrd arr :rn:rlysisof tht
An anelysisofthc positio
vention, clcpcrtdcnt otr thc
elcnrcnts of tltc c'lcb:ttecatr t
as rcsarclsknowledgc end 1
ofthc tlcbatccalrlink socia
thc network. Another poss
dary objccts. lu recent disc
bc uscfirl to .rnalysc thc diÍi
organisations .rnd cliffc'rent
Altcr an evrlu.rtiotr of the d
and the rchtion bcrrveeti
d c n r o c r a t i c a l l ye n d c c o l o g i
t land?
óutnmdfy
tes.These specrcsarc prrt in a
ig:rc looks Lke .r circle if the
rt to reprcscntt)te sr:st:riltable
culturc rvcrc r)ot scen asrcal nature conscrvationists.Part ofthis cognitivc pr:rcticc
:oo lcw :urintàlsor plal)ts tltc
redsituationlvhich hus to bc
'
the spcciesinvolvccl. Thc
rargets,rvhich arc soncs here
cloniain, both in a lutcri:rl and an ideological scnse. Conscrvetion lllovcnlcr.lts
ual situ.rtion.I3ecrruscncgo-
nature, togctl)er rvith tlre incrcesing rlortrin.rtion of nrn ol) l):rtrlre.
rd was acceptablcfirr cliÍL;rent
Ition glor.lps,ecolog'istsr,r'or-
consen'ation lllovclncr)t, idcoloqicrllr'.rnd insrinrtion.rll-v.Ecolcigists\\'ere. at lc.tst
is tlrc focr.rson certain lreas, arrd ccrtaiu naturll objccts, espcci;lllybirds and v:rscuis that thc conscn,:ltiol) r))ovcnlcnt h:rscrpandcd its
lar 1111v115.
Thclótrtlt iLvrclusíou
rcgr,rl:rrlyacldingncw n pcs oitcrrains. ln ctrltLrrckept crtcnclinu their Propc16rg5,
lristorical respect wc can view this 1'r1x'c55
.rs a c'lcnrocratis:rtionor rvild n:rture.
Fronr thc Middlc Ages onulrds a grorvirrg g'ror.rphas bccn rnspired by u.ild
is thet biologists ancl ecolosists played a rnajor nrlc in thc
Thc-ffih &)fidusí()il
nlanagcrs.This was enfirrcc-cl
:cics,ecologicallvintercsting
'nsethc ilrcthod wts sucaess-
paftlv, resporrsiblefbr the dcvelopnrort of nrany ccr)tr:rlcon.cpts, slrch as r).rturc
s adoptctlby e'rrvironrrrcntal
c the Netherlands.It tirlÍllled
:tnd thc Anrocbil :Ire usccltc)
descriptionsof n:rtnre.:rbstr:rctionssuclt:rsccosVstcr.ns
:on. Thc Arrrocbadcvckrpcd
nlanagcnlcnt lutcl cnvirorr-
A second thcnre of clraptcr scven is thc cluestionnhcther this studv oÍièrs opportrrnitics to contribrrtr to tl)c rlcbrtos .rllonq l):lturL'aLnlscl'vàtiolists.In fàct in
this stuclythc author takes a .rgnosticpositirrn. r pLr\iti()rlof distancc. Thc clelratcs
rlranaqentcnt, natural $,ood conilrrrtnity, n:ltural $'oocl nlrrnagenrcnt, naturc
clevcloprnentlncl Arrrocb:r. I)uc to thc ccntlll position of ecologists,thc niltrrre
conscrvationrnoverlrent has bccorne ecologised. []esidcsphotographs ancl lyrical
Lte!íratinil
and stabilisrneob'en asa sct ofa linrited rrrrrrrr'asrly.l3ut cven in this techiturbednature.
rcpresontn;lttlrc.
ancl clevclopnrentsrrrc:rn:rlysccltionr.r position of an outsitlcr. Hc rliscusscsthc
qucstion rvhcther ot]rcr aruh'tical positions car) bc seÈr)es nlorc rcal insidcr positions anclholv 1àrthc agnostic positioll c;ln Lrc:r tot:rl orrtsidcr position. Hc conchrdcsdllt elch nnlvtic:rl positi()lr hns outsirler rurd irrsitler clcrtents. The atitlror
The.lilí rdl.1,/.iir)/1
is thet t]as. Clontinuous clenrerrtsarc
propr)scsto cxplorc the possibilitics of conibining a historical :rgn()stican:llysis
rvrth.rn explicit inten'cntiorr str:rtcgv.Elcrrrcntsoftllis stratcgv arc lrr lnalvsis of
Lts.C)hangcs
rcgrrrdncu ;rrc)rconncctcclrvith altent:rtive
dcbate :urclan analysisofthe socio-cognitive dynanilcs ofthe dcbatc.
tovelncrrt.Thc -sliiutrlcrrrr,
ltr. In many casesproblcrrs arc
vcnti!)n, dcpcnclent on thc dvnanrics oftlre clcbate.A crc:rtive conrbination of
the positions ir.rthc deb;rtc, rr crcatilc conibination of sevcrai cortrponcnts of thc
Arr analvsisof thc positions irr ;rrleb.ttccltn lclcl to u nrorc or ltss pos cr{ttl irrtcr-
problerrs are rcordcrcd .rncl
ttesa centralpoint :It(i stafts
esolvcdancithe ncrv appro-
elenrcrrtsofthc clebatccan cre:rtc:l ne\\'position, clifri'rcrrtfrorn thosc ofthc lcrors
The ch:rnqesin thc conscrnts,such astl)e uovcnuuctr-
:rnd bountlrc ncnvork. Anothcr possibilir,r'is to uuclerlinc thc neccl for or-rtsidcrs
claryobjccts. lrr rcceut discr-rssions
abolrt nature tlevclopnrent, Íbr inst:lrcc', it c:lr
suchasthc fanrrcn, anclnaI)!^\, appro:lchcs so-callocl
:y introducc couccpts Íionr
bc r.rsc'Íul
to:rnalysc thc rlifkrr'nt s()Li()-cogllitivc ptrsrtiotrsoI lanrters. rccrcltion
p n e w c o n c e p t si n t h c r r r t >
: u r c lt l r e r e h t i o r r b c t * ' c e n t h c s c c l e n r c n t s ,p r o p o s l l s t . n b c r r r a d c t o e n s u r c : l
Je world.
contctrt ofn:tturc dcvcloptrtcnt.
clcnrocraticallyanclecologicallv aclcqr-rJte
as rcgrrclsknou.lcclgc :rncipracticcs. An an;rlvsisoithc socio-cognitivc dyn.rrlics
of tlre dcbate can link social :rctors:rnclcognitivc elcnrcnts lronr cliÍïerent p:rrtsof
orgrr:risutions:rntl r-liÍ}i'rcnt cor)sen'.rtion grortps, :urtl thc coursc oi tlrc clcblrtc.
Aftcr:rn evalu:rtion oithe debatc in tenrrs of knorvledgc, strcnl.Ithof the positrons
flcxibiliry ofthe corrcept of
Ite corrsen'ltion n)over)lcnt
'rich actsasa selcctron
filter.
nent, thc aninlal protectioD
environn rent-fii cndlv .u-ryi-
t.ti