Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng
A coating for use as an antimicrobial and antioxidative
packaging material incorporating nisin and a-tocopherol
Chan Ho Lee a, Duck Soon An a, Seung Cheol Lee a, Hyun Jin Park b, Dong Sun Lee
a,*
a
b
Division of Life Sciences, Kyungnam University, 449 Wolyoung-dong, Masan 631-701, South Korea
School of Biotechnology, Korea University, 5-1 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-ku, Seoul 136-701, South Korea
Received 12 March 2003; accepted 24 June 2003
Abstract
A 3-mm thick nisin and/or a-tocopherol coating at a concentration of 3% was applied on a paper using a binder medium of vinyl
acetate-ethylene copolymer to confer an antimicrobial and antioxidative property for use in the food packaging industry. The
migration of nisin and a-tocopherol from the coating to a model emulsion composed of 66% water and 32% paraffin oil with 2%
emulsifier was measured, and this was linked to the suppression of microbial growth and oxidative deterioration in the emulsion and
in milk cream at 10 C. The nisin migrated more slowly than a-tocopherol, and reached 9.3% of the total concentration incorporated
in the coating, with a-tocopherol reaching an equilibrium level of 5.7%. The migration of each of the additives was not affected by
the presence of the other. Incorporation of nisin in the coating was effective in inhibiting Micrococcus flavus, and a-tocopherol
incorporation retarded lipid oxidation in the model emulsion and in the milk cream. Thus, the combination of nisin and atocopherol in the coating conferred both antimicrobial and antioxidative properties. However, it did not provide any further
synergistic antimicrobial and antioxidative effect when compared to a single additive alone.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Nisin; a-tocopherol; Migration; Microbial spoilage; Oxidation
1. Introduction
Most foods deteriorate in quality during transport,
processing, and storage through contamination, which
occurs by growth of microorganisms, enzymatic or
nonenzymatic chemical reactions, and from physical
changes (Crosby, 1981; Kilcast & Subramaniam, 2000).
Among all these modes of deterioration in quality, microbial spoilage and oxidative reactions have the greatest impact on limiting the shelf life of perishable foods.
Packaging can maintain the quality and extend the shelf
life of foods (Crosby, 1981; Kilcast & Subramaniam,
2000). To prevent and retard any deterioration in
quality in packaged foods, active packaging, including
the concept of the release of packaging components to
foodstuffs, has showed the greatest potential to improve
storage stability (Appendini & Hotchkiss, 2002; Miltz,
Passy, & Manneheim, 1995; Vermeiren, Devlieghere,
van Beest, de Kruijf, & Debevere, 1999). Antimicrobial
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +82-55-243-8133.
E-mail address: dongsun@kyungnam.ac.kr (D. Sun Lee).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0260-8774(03)00246-2
packaging can inhibit the growth of pathogenic or
spoilage organisms on food surfaces, and thus, can
contribute to extending the shelf life of packaged foods.
Antioxidative packaging can retard oxidative changes in
packaged foods containing fatty components.
Many preservatives, such as sorbic acid, various plant
extracts, silver-substituted zeolite, lysozymes, and chlorine dioxide, have been successfully incorporated in
packaging materials to confer antimicrobial activity in
food packaging (Appendini & Hotchkiss, 2002). Nisin, a
natural polypeptide produced by Lactococcus lactis, has
been shown to be able to be fabricated into various
antimicrobial packaging films (An, Kim, Lee, Paik, &
Lee, 2000; Daeschel, McGuire, & Al-Makhlafi, 1992;
Lakmraju, Joseph, & Daeschel, 1996; Siragusa, Cutter,
& Willett, 1999). Nisin-incorporated films have been
reported to possess an antimicrobial activity for Grampositive bacteria, such as Brochothrix thermosphacta,
Lactobacillus helveticus, Listeria monocytogenes,
M. flavus,and Pediococcus pentosaceus (An et al., 2000;
Daeschel et al., 1992; Siragusa et al., 1999), and thus,
have been shown to extend the shelf life of perishable
foods by suppressing the growth of spoilage bacteria.
324
C. Ho Lee et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
Antioxidants can also be incorporated into or coated
onto food packaging materials to control the oxidation
of fatty components and pigments, and thus can contribute to the preserved quality of foods (Vermeiren
et al., 1999). Incorporation of synthetic antioxidant compounds, such as butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole, in high-density polyethylene has
been shown to protect cereals from oxidation (Miltz et al.,
1988; Wessling, Nielsen, & Andres, 2000). However,
because of a growing concern regarding food safety,
there is interest in using a-tocopherol in the fabrication
of the active packaging materials, because it is a natural
antioxidant. It has been reported that a-tocopherol is
stable under polymer processing conditions, and a significant concentration of a-tocopherol usually remains
in the final plastic films, and this may interact with
foodstuffs packaged (Ho, Young, & Yam, 1998;
Wessling, Nielsen, Leufven, & Jagerstad, 1999). Lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE) films incorporating atocopherol have been shown to have the potential
to enhance the stability of linoleic acid emulsions
(Wessling, Nielsen, & Andres, 2000).
Perishable foods that are sensitive to both microbial
spoilage and oxidative deterioration may have their
preservation properties enhanced by using packaging
that has antimicrobial and antioxidative properties,
which may be provided by the incorporation of both
antimicrobial and antioxidant additives in the polymer
matrix. Therefore, in this study, we have fabricated
antimicrobial and/or antioxidant packaging materials
that incorporate nisin and/or a-tocopherol, and have
tested their effectiveness on a model emulsion and on
milk cream.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Antimicrobial/antioxidative agents and coating binder
The nisin and a-tocopherol used were purchased from
the Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). The
binder medium for incorporating the antimicrobial/
antioxidant agent used was a vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymer (Elvace 40724; solid content ¼ 54.5%;
pH ¼ 4.4; viscosity ¼ 2000 cps), which was obtained
from the Rohm and Hass Co. (Philadelphia, PA, USA).
or a-tocopherol were dissolved in 10 ml of 20% ethanol
solution. The solution of nisin or a-tocopherol was
combined with the binder, and then the solution was
homogenized using a mechanical stirrer (S-20, Young
Hana Tech., Korea) for 30 min. The ratio of antimicrobial and/or antioxidant to binder medium was controlled at 3%w/w on a dry weight basis in the coating.
The prepared coating media were coated manually on
one side of the paper using a No. 32 coating rod (RD
Specialties Inc., Webster, NY, USA), and then dried
at 60 C for five days to produce a coating that was
about 3-mm thick. A hand-held micrometer (M120-25,
Mitutoyo Co., Tokyo, Japan) was used to measure the
coating thickness.
2.3. Measurement of the migration of nisin and/or atocopherol from the paper coating to the emulsion solution
We constructed special cups to study the migration
from the coating on the paper, as shown in Fig. 1. An
open-ended cylindrical glass cell, with ID ¼ 6.5 cm and
height ¼ 7.5 cm, was attached to the coated paper using
a silicon sealant, and 50 ml of the emulsion solution was
poured into the glass cup, making contact with the
coated paper. The emulsion had been prepared by mixing distilled water and paraffin oil (Sigma Chemical Co,
St. Louis, MO, USA) in a ratio of 2:1; both liquids
contained 2% (v/v) of polyoxyethylene-sorbitan monolaurate as an emulsifier (Tween 20, Sigma Chemical Co,
St. Louis, MO, USA). The emulsification procedure was
assisted by employing a homogenizer (Model AM-8,
Nihonseiki Kaisha, Tokyo, Japan). Both the preparation
procedure and the ingredients are known to formulate an
oil-in-water (o/w)-type emulsion (Campanella, Dorward,
& Singh, 1995). The experimental setup constructed for
the migration test was then covered with a glass lid over
the cup, and stored at 10 C for 12 d.
To perform the migration measurements, two cups
containing the emulsion solution were periodically taken
2.2. Preparation of antimicrobial and/or antioxidative
agent coated paper
The nisin and/or a-tocopherol were coated onto
0.231-mm thick paperboard (Daehan Pulp Co.,
Chungwon, Korea) according to the method of Kim,
An, Park, Park, and Lee (2002). As a preliminary step
for incorporating nisin and/or a-tocopherol in the
polymer coating on the paperboard, 3.44 g of nisin and/
Fig. 1. Experimental setup used in this study to measure the migration
rate and microbial growth.
C. Ho Lee et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
325
from storage to measure the concentration of migrated
nisin and/or a-tocopherol. About 5 ml of the well-mixed
emulsion was separated into oil and water phases by
centrifugation at 12,000 rpm for 2 min, and these fractions contained the soluble a-tocopherol and nisin, respectively. The concentration of released nisin in the
water phase was measured using LowryÕs method
(Lowry, Roservrough, Farr, & Randall, 1951), with
bovine serum albumin (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis,
MO, USA) being used as the standard protein solution.
An Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)
method (AOAC, 1980) was used to measure the atocopherol concentration in the oil phase. A 0.5 ml
aliquot of the oil phase solution was mixed with 1.0 ml
of 0.5% (w/w) of bipyridyl solution (Sigma Chemical
Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) and 1.0 ml of 0.2% (w/w)
ferric chloride solution (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis,
MO, USA), and then combined with 2.5 ml of an ethanol solution. The optical absorbance at k ¼ 520 nm
was observed using a UV-spectrophotometer (Model
UV-1601, Shimazu Corporation, Tokyo, Japan).
The apparent diffusion coefficient of nisin and atocopherol was determined from the migration versus
time data, which was fitted to FickÕs second law for an
infinite slab in contact with an infinite volume of solvent
(Crank, 1975)
!
2
1
X
Mt
8
ð2n þ 1Þ p2
¼1
exp
Dt
ð1Þ
2 2
M1
4L2p
n¼0 ð2n þ 1Þ p
inoculated into 50 ml of emulsion that had been added
by 2.5 ml of nutrient broth solution. During the storage
period at 10 C, the viable cell count in colony forming
units was determined by taking 0.1 ml of emulsion from
the glass cell, diluting it serially with sterilized distilled
water, and then plating the diluted solution on a nutrient agar medium (Difico Laboratories, Detroit, MI,
USA). The agar plate was then incubated at 30 C for
2 d.
To test for the antioxidative properties of the coated
paperboards, linoleic acid (Sigma Chemical Co, St.
Louis, MO, USA) was added in 2% (v/v) to 50 ml of
emulsion as shown in Fig. 1, used as an oxidation substrate. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)
in the emulsion were measured during the storage of the
emulsion according to the method of Tee, Yusof, and
Mohamed (2002). A solution of 2 ml of emulsion was
taken from the cup, and added to 0.5 ml of trichloroacetic acid (20% w/v in 1% phosphoric acid) and 2 ml of
thiobarbituric acid solution (0.67% w/v in 0.025 M
HCl). The mixed solution was then heated in boiling
water for 15 min, and then centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for
5 min. The absorbance of the separated oil phase was
determined at k ¼ 532 nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer to give the malondialdehyde (MDA)
equivalent. A standard curve for the measurements was
prepared using 1,1,3,3-tetraethoxypropane (TEP) (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA).
where Mt is the concentration of migrant in the emulsion
at time t, M1 is the total concentration of migrant in the
emulsion in the equilibrium state, D is the diffusion coefficient (m2 s1 ), and Lp is the thickness of the coating
layer (m). The value of the diffusion coefficient that
minimizes the sum of the square of the error between the
estimated and the measured Mt =M1 ratio was determined using the MathCAD software package (MathSoft, Inc. Cambridge, MA, USA) adopting an
optimization algorithm of the conjugate gradient.
4. Testing the effectiveness of the antimicrobial and
antioxidant-coated paperboard on the microbial and
chemical stability of milk cream
3. Evaluation of antimicrobial and antioxidative activity
of the coated paper
The Gram-positive bacterium M. flavus ATCC 10240
was inoculated in the emulsion shown in Fig. 1 to test
for antimicrobial activity of the paperboard coated
by nisin and/or a-tocopherol in the binder medium. The
M. flavus bacterium was selected because of its high
susceptibility to antimicrobial packaged films (An et al.,
2000; Ha, Kim, & Lee, 2001). The microbial strain had
been cultured for 10 h at 30 C in a nutrient broth
medium (Difico Laboratories, Detroit, MI, USA) to
reach a cell concentration of 107 –108 organisms/ml.
Then, 1 ml of the cultured bacterial broth solution was
To carry out these tests, a pasteurized milk cream,
ÔFresh MilkÕ (Seoul Milk Cooperative, Seoul, Korea),
was purchased from a local supermarket. According to
the manufacturerÕs data, the cream had a crude fat
content of 37–38%. A volume of 50 ml of the milk cream
was poured into the same glass cell as used for the migration tests (see Fig. 1), which was then stored at 10 C.
The total aerobic bacterial count and the TBARS value
were measured for the milk cream using the same
method described above. All the measurements were
carried out in triplicate and significant differences between treatments were determined statistically by
TukeyÕs honestly significant difference (HSD) at a ¼
0:05 (Daniel, 1994).
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Migration of nisin and a-tocopherol from the coatings
Fig. 2 shows the progress of the migration of nisin
and a-tocopherol from the coating to the emulsion at
C. Ho Lee et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
Concentration (µg/mL)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Time (day)
Fig. 2. Migration of nisin and a-tocopherol from the coating on the
paperboard to the emulsion at 10 C. The coating layer was 3-mm
thick, and contained 3% nisin and/or a-tocopherol. Key: } ¼ nisin
from the coating only with nisin; ¼ a-tocopherol from coating only
with a-tocopherol; r ¼ nisin from the coating with both nisin and atocopherol; and d ¼ a-tocopherol from the coating with both nisin
and a-tocopherol. Solid lines show the migration rate estimated using
Eq. (1).
10 C. The migration of nisin from the coated paper was
complete in eight days, and the maximum equilibrium
concentration of nisin released into the solution was in
the range of 222–241 lg/ml. This concentration corresponds to 8.6–9.3% of the total nisin content incorporated in the coating layer. Compared to migration of
nisin, the migration of a-tocopherol reached a lower
equilibrium level of 146–149 lg/ml, which was 5.6–5.7%
of the total a-tocopherol content incorporated in the
coating layer. The migration pattern of nisin in the
coating binder did not change on the addition of atocopherol, and the a-tocopherol showed same migration
pattern regardless of the presence or absence of nisin.
The faster attainment of migration equilibrium for atocopherol meant its higher apparent diffusion coefficient of 2.91–2.92 · 1011 versus 9.34 · 1012 –1.13 · 1011
m2 s1 observed for nisin migration (see Table 1). The
different diffusion coefficients of nisin and a-tocopherol
would mainly arise from their different molecular
weights (3500 versus 430.7 g/mol, respectively). However, an interaction between the binder matrix and the
Table 1
The diffusion coefficients and migration levels of nisin and a-tocopherol from the vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymer coating into the
emulsion at 10 C
Coating
condition
Nisin only
a-Tocopherol
only
Both nisin and
a-tocopherol
Diffusion coefficient
(·1011 m2 s1 )
Equilibrium level of
migration (%)
Nisin
Nisin
a-Tocopherol
1.13
8.6
2.91
0.93
a-Tocopherol
2.92
5.6
9.3
5.7
incorporated agent(s) may also have had some effect
(Kim, Lee, Paik, & Lee, 2000; Wessling, Nielsen, &
Leufven, 2000).
The lower equilibrium migration level of a-tocopherol would be related to the emulsion used for contacting to the coating. A higher proportion of water and the
use of the hydrophilic emulsifier, Tween 20, in the experimental emulsion would have resulted in an o/w-type
emulsion (Campanella et al., 1995). Wessling et al.
(1999) reported that a-tocopherol migrated less from
low-density polyethylene to an oil-in-water emulsion
than to a water-in-oil emulsion, because of its hydrophobic character. On the other hand, nisinÕs molecular
structure contains hydrophilic groups that would also
have led to its relatively high migration into the experimental o/w-type emulsion (Ray, 1992). The release of
low molecular weight substances from polymeric materials is affected by the fat, alcohol, trace metal, and organic acid content of foods (Chung, Papadakis, & Yam,
2001; Wessling et al., 1999; Wessling, Nielsen, &
Leufven, 2000). Several types of physical and chemical
interactions occurring between the binder, the migrant,
and the food simulating liquid are known to determine
the rate and level of migration.
5.2. Antimicrobial and antioxidative activities of the
paperboard coated with nisin and/or a-tocopherol
Fig. 3 shows the survival rate of M. flavus in the
emulsions at 10 C that were in contact with the paperboard coated with a binder of vinyl acetate-ethylene
copolymer containing 3% nisin and/or a-tocopherol.
The emulsion with 5% nutrient broth medium did not
support the inoculated microorganisms, even with a
control paperboard that was coated only with the bin7
6
5
log (cfu/mL)
326
4
3
2
1
0
0
2
4
6
Time (day)
8
10
12
Fig. 3. Survival of M. flavus in the emulsion at 10 C that was in
contact with paperboard coated with a 3-mm thick binder of vinyl
acetate–ethylene copolymer containing nisin and/or a-tocopherol at a
concentration of 3%. Vertical bars indicate TukeyÕs honestly significant
difference (HSD) for a ¼ 0:05. Key: D ¼ control; } ¼ coating with
nisin;
¼ coating with a-tocopherol; and d ¼ coating with both
nisin and a-tocopherol.
C. Ho Lee et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
der. A close packing of small oil droplets in an o/w-type
emulsion has been shown to inhibit the growth of bacteria (Brocklehurst, Parker, Gunning, Coleman, &
Robins, 1995). The nutrient concentration in the water
phase of the emulsion may also have not been sufficient
to promote the active growth of microorganisms. The
paperboards coated with binder incorporating nisin,
either alone or in combination, caused a faster decrease
in the microbial counts of M. flavus throughout the
storage period compared to the other paperboards. The
migrated nisin should have contributed to a faster microbial death in the emulsion that was in contact with
the coatings containing nisin (Figs. 2 and 3). Kim, An
et al. (2002) suggested that nisin embedded in the binder
may also impart additional antimicrobial activity. Incorporation of a-tocopherol in the coating did not show
any microbial inhibition against the microbial strain.
The antimicrobial activity of a-tocopherol is not described in the literature (Bramley et al., 2000), and thus,
the incorporation of a-tocopherol was unlikely to provide any antimicrobial activity.
Fig. 4 shows the progress of linoleate oxidation from
the TBARS of the emulsions at 10 C that were in
contact with paperboard coated with the binder containing nisin and/or a-tocopherol. The presence of atocopherol in the coating slowed the oxidation rate to a
lower saturation level compared to the rate for the
control and the paperboard containing only nisin, which
attained maximum level of TBARS in two days followed
by steady decrease. The increase of TBARS to a certain
maximum level and subsequent decrease was also observed by Tee et al. (2002) and may be attributed to the
limited amount and oxidative characteristics of linoleic
acid in the model emulsion solution. Incorporation of
nisin in the coating did not provide any positive effect in
the retardation of the oxidation rate. The a-tocopherol
TBARS (mmol MDA/mg linoleic acid)
3
2
1
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Time (day)
Fig. 4. Changes in the TBARS value of the linoleate emulsion solution
at 10 C that was in contact with paperboard coated with a binder
containing nisin and/or a-tocopherol. Vertical bars indicate TukeyÕs
HSD at a ¼ 0:05. Key: D ¼ control; } ¼ coating with nisin;
¼ coating with a-tocopherol; and d ¼ coating with nisin and atocopherol.
327
that had migrated into the solution would have inhibited
the oxidation of the linoleic acid in the emulsion, even
though embedded a-tocopherol in a packaged film has
been suggested to be a scavenger of oxygen at the surface of packaged foods (Wessling et al., 1999). An
LDPE film impregnated with a-tocopherol at a concentration of 3600 ppm has been reported to inhibit the
oxidation of a linoleic acid emulsion in contact with the
film more effectively at a low temperature of 6 C, rather
than at higher temperatures of 20 and 30 C (Wessling,
Nielsen, & Andres, 2000). The experimental conditions
of our emulsion storage allowed free access to oxygen,
which would have provided a saturated oxygen solution.
Actual food packaging conditions, with have restricted
permeation of oxygen from the outside, would be able to
provide a more pronounced effectiveness in reducing the
onset and rate of oxidation, as suggested by Wessling,
Nielsen, and Andres (2000). The activity of a-tocopherol
as a lipophilic antioxidant can also be reduced by the
formation of H-bonded complexes between the a-tocopherol and water molecules in the emulsion, but less
so in oil (Schwarz, Huang, German, & Tiersch, 2000).
This effect would have lessened the relative influence of
the migrated antioxidant.
5.3. Effect of the coated paperboard on the microbial and
chemical stability of milk cream
The effect of nisin and/or a-tocopherol coated paper
on the total aerobic bacteria in milk cream is shown in
Fig. 5(A). The pasteurized cream had very little microbial count initially, but gave high rate and level of microbial proliferation after two days at 10 C, which is
different from pattern of Fig. 3 for Gram-positive
M. flavus inoculated in the model emulsion solution.
The total growth of aerobic bacteria was significantly
suppressed by contacting with the paperboards coated
with nisin, either alone or in combination, and this reduced growth levels. However, the combined incorporation of nisin and a-tocopherol in a coating did not
confer synergistic or additive antimicrobial activity to
the stored cream. Coating solely with a-tocopherol did
not inhibit microbial growth compared to the control
coating that had only vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymer.
Paperboards that were coated with a-tocopherol, either alone, or in combination with nisin, showed a
moderate protection against lipid oxidation versus the
control from the observed TBARS values (Fig. 5(B)).
Incorporation of nisin in the coating did not provided
any further antioxidative protection. These results are
somewhat different from a report by Kim, Paik, and Lee
(2002) that ground beef wrapped with a bacteriocincoated plastic film showed a lower lipid oxidation, together with delayed microbial growth and spoilage. It is
notable that the milk cream used for this experiment had
been pasteurized, and therefore, had a very low initial
328
C. Ho Lee et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
combined inclusion of a-tocopherol and nisin in coated
paper could provide antimicrobial and antioxidative
functions. However, there was no synergistic or interactive effect on the antimicrobial or antioxidative activity observed by this combination. Paper containing
nisin and a-tocopherol shows potential for preserving
the microbial and chemical quality of perishable foods,
and thus, extending their shelf life.
16
(A)
log (cfu/mL)
12
8
4
0
0
2
4
6
Time (day)
8
10
12
This work was supported by the Korea Science and
Engineering Foundation (Project #1999-2-220-009-4).
Chan Ho Lee received a scholarship from the BK21
Program of the Korean Ministry of Education.
20
(B)
TBARS (µmol MDA/kg)
Acknowledgements
15
10
References
5
0
0
2
4
6
Time (day)
8
10
12
Fig. 5. Total aerobic bacteria (A) and TBARS (B) of milk cream at 10
C contacting paperboard coated with a binder of vinyl acetateethylene copolymer containing nisin and/or a-tocopherol at a concentration of 3%. Vertical bars indicate TukeyÕs HSD at a ¼ 0:05. Key:
D ¼ control; } ¼ coating with nisin;
¼ coating with a-tocopherol;
and d ¼ coating with both nisin and a-tocopherol.
microbial load that occurred only from contamination
during the preparation stage of the experiment. Even
though psychrotrophic bacterial growth in milk products is known to cause lypolytic rancidity, its correlation
with oxidation seems generally low (Muir & Banks,
2000).
6. Conclusions
Antimicrobial and/or antioxidant coated-paper was
fabricated with a coating of nisin and a-tocopherol
contained in a binder of vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymer, and the migration and potential activities in suppressing microbial growth and oxidative deterioration
were tested for use in food packaging. At 10 C, atocopherol migrated into an o/w-type emulsion at a
faster rate, and reached an equilibrium level of about
6%, based on the initial incorporated concentration,
compared to a maximum migration rate of about 9% for
nisin. Incorporation of nisin into the coating was effective for inhibiting microbial growth, and incorporation
of a-tocopherol retarded lipid oxidation in a model
emulsion and in milk cream at 10 C. Therefore, the
An, D. S., Kim, Y. M., Lee, S. B., Paik, H. D., & Lee, D. S. (2000).
Antimicrobial low density polyethylene film coated with bacteriocins in binder medium. Food Science and Biotechnology, 9, 14–20.
AOAC (1980). Official methods of analysis (13th ed.). Washington DC,
USA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 754–755.
Appendini, P., & Hotchkiss, J. H. (2002). Review of antimicrobial food
packaging. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 3,
113–126.
Bramley, P. M., Elmadfa, I., Kafatos, A., Kelly, F. J., Manios, Y.,
Roxborough, H. E., Schuch, W., Sheehy, P. J. A., & Wagner, K. H.
(2000). Review: Vitamin E. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, 80, 913–938.
Brocklehurst, T. F., Parker, M. L., Gunning, P. A., Coleman, H. P., &
Robins, M. M. (1995). Growth of food-borne pathogenic bacteria
in oil-in-water emulsions: II-Effect of emulsion structure on growth
parameters and form of growth. Journal of Food Engineering, 78,
609–615.
Campanella, O. H., Dorward, N. M., & Singh, H. (1995). A study of
the rheological properties of concentrated food emulsions. Journal
of Food Engineering, 25, 427–440.
Chung, D., Papadakis, S. E., & Yam, K. L. (2001). Release of propyl
paraben from a polymer coating into water and food simulating
solvents for antimicrobial packaging applications. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation, 25, 71–88.
Crank, J. (1975). The mathematics of diffusion (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK:
Clarendon Press, pp. 44–69.
Crosby, N. T. (1981). Food packaging materials. London, UK: Applied
Science Publishers Ltd, pp. 1–18.
Daeschel, M. A., McGuire, J., & Al-Makhlafi, H. (1992). Antimicrobial activity of nisin adsorbed to hydrophilic and hydrophobic
silicon surfaces. Journal of Food Protection, 55, 731–755.
Daniel, W. W. (1994). Biostatistics. New York, USA: John Wiley and
Sons, pp. 203–220.
Ha, J. U., Kim, Y. M., & Lee, D. S. (2001). Multilayered antimicrobial
polyethylene films applied to the packaging of ground beef.
Packaging Technology and Science, 14, 55–62.
Ho, Y. C., Young, S. S., & Yam, K. L. (1998). Vitamin E based
stabilizer components in HDPE polymer. Journal of Vinyl and
Additive Technology, 4, 139–150.
Kilcast, D., & Subramaniam, P. (2000). Introduction. In D. Kilcast, &
P. Subramaniam (Eds.), The stability and shelf-life of food (pp. 1–
19). Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
C. Ho Lee et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 62 (2004) 323–329
Kim, Y. M., An, D. S., Park, H. J., Park, J. M., & Lee, D. S. (2002).
Properties of nisin-incorporated polymer coating as antimicrobial
packaging materials. Packaging Technology and Science, 15, 247–
254.
Kim, Y. M., Lee, N. K., Paik, H. D., & Lee, D. S. (2000). Migration of
bacteriocin from bacteriocin-coated film and its antimicrobial
activity. Food Science and Biotechnology, 9, 325–329.
Kim, Y. M., Paik, H. D., & Lee, D. S. (2002). Shelf life characteristics
of fresh oysters and ground beef as affected by bacteriocin-coated
plastic packaging film. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, 82, 998–1002.
Lakmraju, M., Joseph, M. G., & Daeschel, M. (1996). Nisin
adsorption and exchange with selected milk proteins at silanized
silica surfaces. Journal of Colloidal Interface Science, 178, 495–504.
Lowry, O. H., Roservrough, N. J., Farr, A. L., & Randall, R. J. (1951).
Protein measurement with the folin phenol reagent. Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 196, 265–275.
Miltz, J., Passy, N., & Manneheim, C. H. (1995). Trends and
applications of active packaging systems. In P. Ackermann, M.
Jagerstad, & T. Ohlsson (Eds.), Foods and packaging materialschemical interactions (pp. 201–210). Cambridge, UK: The Royal
Society of Chemistry.
Miltz, J., Hoojjat, P., Han, J. K., Giacin, J. R., Harte, B. R., & Gray, I.
J. (1988). Loss of antioxidants from high-density polyethylene: Its
effect on oatmeal cereal oxidation. In J. H. Hotchkiss (Ed.), Food
and packaging interactions (pp. 83–93). Washington DC, USA:
American Chemical Society.
Muir, D. D., & Banks, J. M. (2000). Milk and milk products. In D.
Kilcast, & P. Subramaniam (Eds.), The stability and shelf-life of
food (pp. 197–219). Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
329
Ray, B. (1992). Nisin of Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis as a food
biopreservative. In B. Ray, & M. Daeschel (Eds.), Food biopreservatives of microbial origin (pp. 207–264). Boca Raton, Florida,
USA: CRC Press.
Schwarz, K., Huang, S. W., German, J. B., & Tiersch, B. (2000).
Activities of antioxidants ate affected by colloidal properties of oilin-water and water-in-oil emulsions and bulk oils. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 4874–4882.
Siragusa, G. R., Cutter, C. N., & Willett, J. L. (1999). Incorporation of
bacteriocin in plastic retains activity and inhibits surface growth of
bacteria on meat. Food Microbiology, 16, 229–235.
Tee, P. L., Yusof, S., & Mohamed, S. (2002). Antioxidative properties
of roselle (Hibisucs sabdariffa L.) in linoleic acid model system.
Nutrition and Food Science, 32, 17–20.
Vermeiren, L., Devlieghere, F., van Beest, M., de Kruijf, N., &
Debevere, J. (1999). Developments in the active packaging of
foods. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 10, 77–86.
Wessling, C., Nielsen, T., Leufven, A., & Jagerstad, M. (1999).
Retention of a-tocopherol in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and
polypropylene (PP) in contact with foodstuffs and food-simulating
liquids. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 79, 1635–
1641.
Wessling, C., Nielsen, T., & Andres, L. (2000). The influence of atocopherol concentration on the stability of linoleic acid and the
properties of low-density polyethylene. Packaging Technology and
Science, 13, 19–28.
Wessling, C., Nielsen, T., & Leufven, A. (2000). Influence of trace
metal, acids and ethanol in food simulating liquids on the retention
of a-tocopherol in low-density polyethylene film. Food Additives
and Contaminants, 17, 713–719.