Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education TOWARDS AN
ASIA-SAVVY
Education
Enhancing the Incorporation of Asian Languages
and Studies in New Zealand Secondary Schools University of Auckland
POLICY 701 Policy Report
By Wilson Chun Hei Chau
October 2011
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education CONTENTS
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2. INTRODUCTION
3. BACKGROUND
3.1 Four Reasons for becoming Asia Savvy
3.2 Statistical Trends
3.3 The New Zealand Curriculum and Asia
3.4 Existing Recommendations
4. ANALYSIS
4.1 Applied Framework
4.2 Analysis
4.3 Comparative Analysis: The Australian Experience
4.4 Summary of Findings
5. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Recommendation A: From Hands-Off to Hands-On
5.2 Recommendation B: Stimulate Demand
5.3 Recommendation C: Stimulate Supply
5.4 Recommendation D: Quality Control
6. DISCUSSION
6.1 Matching Recommendations with Analysis
6.2 Moving Forward: Overcoming Challenges
7. CONCLUSION
7.1 Bibliography
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19
Abbreviations
AEF
APEC
ASEAN
MFAT
NALSAS
NCEA
NZQA
Asia Education Foundation
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade
National Asian Language and Studies in Australian Schools
National Certificate of Educational Achievement
New Zealand Qualification Authority
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The limited availability of Asia education is a problem for New Zealand. Our
economic prosperity depends on Asia. The nation’s multicultural future is set
to see an expanding presence of Asian ethnicities. Yet there are insufficient
numbers of graduates that are fluent in Asian languages, familiar with Asian
culture, or knowledgeable about Asia’s geography and history. This results in
a shortage of Asia-savvy professionals as well as a shortfall of cross-cultural
awareness. Therefore it is important to enhance Asian languages and studies
in our secondary schools.
Applying a Market Failure analytical framework exposes problems with the
demand for and supply of Asia education. It shall be asserted that Asia
education generates positive externalities with tremendous social benefits for
society. In order to realise these benefits, more students must participate in
Asia education programmes and, conversely, more Asian language and
studies subjects should be made available. Government action is required to
fix this problem.
Four recommendations for Government:
1. Government should play a hands-on leadership role in crafting
Asia education in the Curriculum and driving its proliferation.
2. Raise interest and stimulate demand by using initiatives that will
target parents and youth.
3. Stimulate supply by promoting accessibility, making available
resources and training appropriate teachers.
4. Maintain the quality of Asia education through systematic
monitoring.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 1 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 2. INTRODUCTION
The need for an Asia-savvy population has never been greater. Our prosperity
and future depends on Asia, yet New Zealanders generally lack the
knowledge, cultural familiarity or language proficiency to enter the Asian
market. Our foreign policy points towards greater integration with the Asian
regional framework, yet our youth know little about the giant continent that lies
above Australia. At home, Asians are the fastest growing portion of the
population and may reach numerical parity with Maori by 2026, yet Asian
culture remains exotic and misunderstood.
Secondary schools are the most logical environment for fostering proficiency
and understanding in Asian languages and culture. This is because for nonAsian individuals such knowledge does not come about naturally from family,
media, or day-to-day social interactions. Learning about Asia requires
considerable time invested in classroom environments guided by instruction
from trained teachers. The role of Asia education should not only be to
increase the number of New Zealanders who can communicate fluently in an
Asian language, but also empower our youth with a diversified worldview and
the skills to connect with peoples from different cultures.
The purpose of this report is to offer the Ministry of Education, policy makers,
principals and schools an insight into the problems encountered in the existing
education system and how Government could play a role in mitigating the
problem. Background information will highlight the importance of an Asia
education. Comprehensive analysis of the status quo and its problems shall
be undertaken using the Market Failure analytical framework. Suggested
recommendations and a section for discussion, including a brief risk
assessment exercise, shall follow. General findings indicate that having an
education system that fosters Asia-savvy students can generate a number of
positive social benefits. However, at the moment, the benefits to society are
under-realised. In order to foster a population that is Asia-savvy, the
Government must be prepared to undertake a re-orientation of the secondary
school education system.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 2 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 3. BACKGROUND
3.1
Four reasons for becoming Asia-Savvy
Economy
§
§
§
Some of the world’s largest and fastest
growing economies are in Asia.
Asia is the prime destination for many Kiwi
goods, including dairy, fruit and technology.
Asia presents a huge market for NZ
businesses and creates job opportunities.
In 2008, NZ exported $14.8 billion of goods to
Asia.1
Diversity
§
§
§
NZ is transforming into a multicultural society.
By 2006, 400,000 New Zealanders are of
Asian descent, making up roughly 10 per cent
of the population.2
One in four individuals living in Central
Auckland identify themselves as Asian.
Neighbourhood
§
§
§
Despite our strong European linkages, Asia is
closer than Europe or North America.
NZ is a member of the Asia-Pacific
community.
We are dedicated towards regional
processes, including APEC and ASEAN.
Knowledge & Opportunities
§
§
§
Asia contains thousands of years of history
and tradition.
Asia-savvy Kiwis would be exposed to greater
employment and business opportunities.
Language and cultural understanding leads to
greater success in Asia-orientated business.
12
1
Asia New Zealand Foundation, “Asia:Aware: Why Asia matters to New Zealand” (Asia:NZ Foundation research paper, March 2009): p.4. 2
Ministry of Social Development, “Ethnic Composition of the Population” 2010: The Social Report, Last updated 2010: http://socialreport.msd.govt.nz/people/ethnic-­‐composition-­‐population.html (accessed 3 October 2011). POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 3 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 3.2
Statistical Trends
The fastest growing ethnic group in New Zealand is Asian3
The data in figure 3A offers a compelling reason for this nation to rethink its
approach and attitudes towards Asia and the Kiwi-Asian community.
FIGURE 3A 900,000 800,000 700,000 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 Asian Maori Paci7ic 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 Asia is our most important region for trade and tourism4
Trade and tourism figures in figure 3B illustrate Asia’s importance to our
economic future. Given that NZ has to double its exports if we wish to catch
up with Australia in terms of GDP per capita by 2025, Asia’s multi-billionperson market is the most logical destination for our overseas goods and
services.5
FIGURE 3B Trade
Ten of our top 20 export markets are in Asia.
Annual exports to Asia have doubled from 1990 to 2006.
Tourism
Tourist arrivals from Asia are projected to experience a 43.5
per cent increase from 2005 to 2013, making Asia the fastest
growing source of overseas visitors.
Export
Education
Asian international students are drawn to NZ’s tertiary,
secondary, vocational and English education sectors.
The number of Asian international students studying in NZ
peaked at over 100,000 in 2003.
In 2008, of approximately 90,000 international students in
NZ, over two thirds were from Asia.
3
Statistics New Zealand, “National population projections: National ethnic population projections,” Last updated 2009: http://www.stats.govt.nz/tools_and_services/tools/TableBuilder/population-­‐
projections-­‐tables.aspx#ethnic (accessed 5 October 2011). 4
New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Our Future with Asia” (White Paper, 2006): p.33. Also see Andrew Butcher, “Friends, Foreign and Domestic: (Re)converging New Zealand’s Export Education and Foreign Policies,” Policy Quarterly 5, no. 4 (2009): pp.65-­‐67. 5
Ruth Le Pla, “ASEAN Business Leaders Forum likely to be the first of many” Asia:NZ Online, Last updated 29 March 2010: http://www.asianz.org.nz/our-­‐work/action-­‐asia-­‐business/networking/asean-­‐
forum (accessed 10 October 2011). POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 4 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 3.3
The New Zealand Curriculum and Asia
While Asian languages and studies are implicitly compatible or
complementary to the existing Curriculum, there is no nationally prescribed
policy or directive. This is due to the hands-off approach of the NZ Curriculum,
which is more recommendatory than binding in nature.6 The adoption of Asian
languages and studies is largely at the discretion of individual schools. This
presents some potential problems:
§
§
§
§
Curriculum may not be suited to provide an education that is relevant to
the contemporary or future multicultural and economic environment.
No consistency across schools.
Absence of clear guidelines or monitoring mechanisms means there is
little quality control over Asian studies and languages in NZ schools.
Without national direction or resources, principals and teachers may be
reluctant or underequipped to pursue Asian studies and languages.
3.3.A The Current State of Asian Languages in NZ Secondary Schools
Thanks to a 2003 Government drive to compel schools to offer a second
language to students from Year 7 to 10, 95 per cent of secondary schools
were offering language courses other than English by 2005.7 However, as
New Zealand Qualification Authority (NZQA) statistics show in figure 3C,
student participation in Asian languages courses remains low as measured by
the number of unit standards undertaken:
8
Number of NZQA United Standards Assessed for Top Five Second Language Subjects
FIGURE 3C 35,000 30,000 25,000 2006 20,000 15,000 2008 10,000 2010 5,000 0 French Japanese Spanish German Chinese 6
Ministry of Education, “New Zealand Curriculum” (Wellington: Ministry of Education, 2007): 37. Gail Spence, “Curriculum Matters: Learning Languages” (Ministry of Education Advisory Paper, 2005). 8
Utilisation of unit standards as the measure is a result of lack of student enrolment figures in courses. This reflects the absence of an appropriate agency or department that systemically monitors Asian studies and languages in New Zealand schools. New Zealand Qualification Authority, “Secondary School Statistics,” Last updated 2011: http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/studying-­‐in-­‐new-­‐zealand/secondary-­‐school-­‐and-­‐ncea/secondary-­‐school-­‐
statistics/ (accessed 31 August 2011). 7
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 5 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education Japanese ranks as the second most popular language. Therefore the current
system has enabled one Asian language to flourish. But participation in
Chinese lags far behind. This is a disappointment given the importance of
Chinese. Despite Korean, Indonesian, and Arabic being recognised by NZQA,
there were no secondary schools providing these languages. Therefore New
Zealand students are practically given only two choices of Asian languages.
Spence identifies several factors contributing to the lacklustre efforts to
promote Asian languages. 9 The absence of an overarching language
framework, generic NZQA standards, and no synchronisation of language
studies between primary, intermediate and secondary levels provides little
basis for coherent language studies. Furthermore, an “English is sufficient”
psyche presents a major obstacle to the pursuit of multilingualism.
3.3.B The Current State of Asian Studies in NZ Secondary Schools
While there is potential for Asia to be integrated into the study of
communications, social science, geography, history and art, the absence of
any explicit national directive on the study of Asia means that the inclusion of
Asian studies is entirely at a school’s discretion.10 A common obstacle to the
advancement of Asian language and studies in the Curriculum are teachers.
Kirkness notes that New Zealand’s predominantly Anglophone teachers have
little linguistic or intercultural diversity or experience.11 Unless Asian studies,
second language or intercultural training is incorporated into the professional
training of New Zealand teachers, most teaching staff will most likely be
underequipped and under-resourced to spearhead Asia education.
3.4
Existing Recommendations
The current field of research exposes a clear consensus between authorities
and authors that the current system could be significantly improved.
3.5.A Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade
"Becoming more Asia literate” is one of four key challenges outlined in
MFAT’s Asia White Paper. 12 There is a need to redefine public identity and
attitudes in light of the growing Asian make-up of the population. Development
of language skills is a noted priority. However, the Ministry appears to be
content with a flexible Curriculum, relying on teachers to bring Asia-education
into existing subjects.
9
Spence: pp.144 and 149. Asia New Zealand Foundation, “Educating for Asia: The New Zealand Curriculum and Asia Guide” (Wellington: Asia New Zealand Foundation, 2008): p.15. 11
Alison Kirkness (Auckland University of Technology), “Raising intercultural and linguistic awareness: Reflections on a pilot study in language teacher education for content teachers,” in Marking Our Difference: Proceedings of a conference held in 2003 on Language Education in Australian and New Zealand Universities, edited by Gillian Wigglesworth (Melbourne: School of Languages, 2004): p.116. 12
New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Our Future with Asia” (White Paper, 2006): pp.45-­‐57. 10
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 6 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 3.5.B Asia New Zealand Foundation
According to the Foundation, an Asia Aware school means “the school has
embedded within its curriculum and its environment the skills and knowledge
that students need to understand more about the peoples and countries of
Asia.” 13 The Foundation prefers to see leadership in spearheading Asia
education by principals, senior and middle school leaders, and board of
trustees.14 This approach embraces the Curriculum as it is and gives each
school the freedom to pursue its Asia-education. The Foundation would
partner with schools and provide resources and training for staff. The
advantage is that this approach offers a way forward without having to wait for
Government directive or a significant amendment to the Curriculum. However,
leaving it up to each school to determine the extent of their Asia-education
ultimately does not deal with the issue of national leadership. In other words, it
does not touch on the role of Government.
3.5.C Pauline Keating (New Zealand)
Keating proposes a multifaceted strategy. 15 Online resources should be
developed to facilitate learning. Teachers that are expected to educate about
Asia should receive better training and be provided resource kits. In addition,
language courses must not be taught in isolation. They must be
complemented by non-language courses on Asian culture and history.
Keating’s recommendations are more comprehensive and require substantial
overhaul of current practices and policies.
3.5.D Joseph Lo Bianco (Australia)
Bianco writes from an Australian context. 16 His first suggestion is that
students should be offered at least one Asian and one European or other
language. While Asian languages should not be accorded higher priority than
other languages, certain Asian languages may need to be elevated in status
in order to achieve parity with European/Indigenous languages. Secondly,
language studies must be coupled with cultural studies. Studies of Asian
culture and history must be raised in order to redress the historical focus on
Europe and the Anglophone world. Both recommendations would require
Government and school leaders to work in partnership with local communities.
3.5.E Summarising Current Field of Research
In summary, the research conducted by MFAT and the Asia New Zealand
Foundation recommends a voluntary approach with minimal change to the
Curriculum. On the other hand, Keating and Bianco’s recommendations
requires nationwide adjustments that have considerable potential to
implement a more ambitious and effective strategy on enhancing Asia
awareness in schools. The latter authors’ recommendations provide a basis
for us to explore appropriate policies and models.
13
Asia:NZ Foundation: p.19. Elody Rathgen, “Longitudinal research on Asia Awareness in New Zealand Schools” (Interim Report and Presentation, Slideshow). 15
Pauline B. Keating, Knowing Asia: The Challenge for New Zealand’s Tertiary Education Sector (Wellington: New Zealand Asian Studies Society, 2004): pp. 28-­‐66. 16
Joseph Lo Bianco, Asian Languages in Australian Schools: Policy Options (Melbourne: Melbourne Asia Policy Papers, No. 7, May 2005): p.9. 14
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 7 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 4. ANALYSIS
4.1
Applied Framework
The Market Failure framework shall be applied to the analysis of the problem.
While markets are a free sphere for transactions between providers and
clients, inefficiencies or the under-realisation of benefits calls for government
regulation.17 Market Failure as a framework purports to illustrate the ideal
market, identify the failure and sources of failure, and devise government
actions that will rectify the problem.
4.2
Analysis
4.2.A The Asia Education Market
The provision of Asian languages and studies in NZ secondary schools is
essentially a transaction between schools (as the supplier or service provider)
and students (the consumer). Beyond marginal educational benefits to
individuals, what is observed are positive externalities. Mintrom defines these
as spillover effects of transactions that generate positive social outcomes.18
The ideal market is illustrated below:
FIGURE 4A SERVICE PROVIDER Secondary Schools SERVICE OF INTEREST ASIA EDUCATION CONSUMER NZ Youth POSITIVE EXTERNALITIES NZ more economically competitive in Asia NZ will be in tune with opportunities in A sia and understand Asia’s m arket NZ society will be in a better position to embrace multiculturalism. However, the reality is that the current market is not generating the desired
level of positive externalities (see figure 4B). In the existing environment
where schools can autonomously and freely choose whether to adopt Asian
language and studies or decide how much emphasis to place on Asia in its
curriculum, only a certain segment of NZ youth are able to access such
education services. This leads to unrealised benefits to society. If student
participation in Asian language or studies courses was increased, and
provision or supply of such courses was matched to the increased demand,
the market could then yield greater positive externalities for NZ.
17
Michael Mintrom, Contemporary Policy Analysis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011): pp.149-­‐
151. 18
Ibid: p.160. POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 8 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education FIGURE 4B BURDEN on schools, in the form of monetary costs, devotion of resources and provision of staff. Supply Available courses on Asian studies & languages Resources needed to boost participation in Asia education Resources currently committed to Asia education Deadweight loss; unrealised benefit to society Social Benefit: Asia Awareness & Economic Competitiveness Demand: Current Student Enrolment in Asia Studies courses Current enrolments in Asia education Desired enrolments in Asia education QUANTITY or level of student participation 4.2.B Analysis of Market Failure
FAILURE
Deficiency of Positive Externalities
Actions of
service
providers &
consumers
§ There is an under supply of Asian language and studies courses. This
is due to schools not devoting sufficient resources.
§ There is an under supply of teaching staff that can competently teach
Asian languages or studies.
§ Students may not be able to access Asian languages and studies as
not all schools offer such courses.
§ Students are not as interested in engaging in dedicated Asian
languages or studies courses as they are in other curriculum areas.
The net benefits of enhanced competitiveness in the Asian market, ability
to exploit future opportunities in Asia, and competency of our exportdriven firms to overcome cultural or linguistic barriers may be unrealised
unless market failure is mitigated.
§ Not all professionals and entrepreneurs emerging from the NZ
education system will understand Asian culture, be aware of
contemporary issues in the region, or be fluent in an Asian language.
§ Knowledge gap will disadvantage Kiwi enterprises trying to compete
with other competitors. Asian competitors will enjoy a natural
advantage, as they already possess staff educated with native/trade
languages. Australian/American competitors are able to draw from a
sizable segment of their graduate markets that are Asia-literate.
§ Scarce private and public sector resources will be spent on initiatives
that may not successfully enable entry into the Asian market because
of misperceptions, cultural misunderstandings or linguistic barriers.
§ Time and resources spent on consulting experts or hiring native staff.
Implications
for the NZ
economy
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 9 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education Broader
impacts on
NZ society
Efforts of
other actors
to mitigate
failure
Areas
requiring
Government
action
Suggested
Government
action
The net benefits flowing from an education that cultivates an enhanced
worldview or encourages cultural understanding and integration may be
unrealised unless market failure is mitigated.
§ Graduates will not be equipped with the knowledge and skills that are
compatible with NZ’s existing or prospective foreign and trade policies.
§ The worldview of secondary school students will continue to be limited.
§ An education system that under emphasises Asia can remain a
significant roadblock to our transition into a multicultural society; a
society where Asian ethnic groups are projected to rapidly increase
their representation in society over the next two decades.
§ Asians living in NZ already exceed the number of Pacific Islanders and
may eventually approach the same percentage as Maori. Yet current
education and public initiatives favour a bicultural perspective or place
greater emphasis on NZ’s Polynesian heritage.
§ An education system that under emphasises Asia may not be able to
mitigate cultural misunderstandings, thus reducing the likelihood to
overcome cultural barriers that will be experienced by the next
generation or Asia-phobic sentiments of some members of the
current/older generation.
Some actors and schools have tried to address market failure. However, it
should be emphasised that, without government intervention or
assistance, they are extremely limited in their reach or impact.
Nonetheless, they are initiatives that try to stimulate community interest,
something that is necessary for stimulating student interest and enrolment
in Asia courses.
§ Asia New Zealand Foundation has a dedicated education programme
that provides schools with resource kits and provides some funding for
teachers and principals to go on Asia-experiences.
§ Schools often adopt cultural and arts activities (such as facilitating
cultural groups).
§ Individual schools have voluntarily enhanced their Asian language and
studies programmes.
§ Annual festivals, including Diwali and Lantern Festival, organised by
local city councils and partner organisations, offer intercultural
educational experiences in large cities.
§ After hour language courses offer some basic linguistic skills for use by
tourists, but are often too short and brief to generate proficiency.
The Government should consider addressing the following issues:
1. Curriculum
The hands-off approach to the Curriculum must be reassessed
and overhauled if Government expects to play a leadership role in
spearheading and overseeing Asia education in schools.
2. Issue of demand
Government must consider how it could stimulate youth and
community interest in pursuing Asia studies.
3. Issue of supply
Government must stimulate not only the supply of courses, but
explore ways to boost the supply of adequately trained teachers
for delivering Asian language and non-language subjects.
4. Issue of resources
Government must consider whether it is prepared to commit
resources to incentivising schools, teachers, partner organisations,
and students to pursue Asia education.
See policy recommendations in next chapter.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 10 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 4.3
Comparative Analysis: The Australian Experience
Efforts led by the Australian Government and private organisations can be
divided into four initiatives:19
1987 1992 1994 2005 Name of initiative National Languages Policy Asia Education Foundation National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) National Statement for Languages Education in Australian Schools Rationale behind initiative Half of Australian students had never studied a second language. Created by Curriculum Corporation and University of Melbourne. Recognition that all languages are equally valid, with re-­‐emphasis on indigenous languages. Details Australian states will be funded to develop language-­‐
learning schemes. This would be complemented by a Foundation in Languages and Advisory Council on Language Policy. To promote and support study of Asia across all curriculum areas. Worked centred on: 1. Curriculum 2. Access Asia Schools Program 3. Professional Development. Aspiration for 12% of students to exit school with fluency in an Asian language (by 2020). Attempt to increase teacher supply and stimulate student demand. Privileges Asian trade languages: Chinese, Japanese, Indonesian and Korean. 1. Funding granted to each State/Territory to set targets and implement initiatives. 2. Grants available to individual schools. 3. Funding for national-­‐level initiatives. Successes Represents initial attempt to develop national infrastructure for language studies. Established limited network of schools. Has enabled teachers to access training opportunities. Short-­‐
comings Lack of centralised monitoring or setting of national standards. Only schools that are part of the Access Asia network are monitored. No nationwide quality control mechanism. Student participation in Asian languages increased by 50%. 2,500 teachers had been trained in Asian languages. Wealth of high quality resources now available. Emphasis on language but insufficient support for Asian studies, despite the latter being an integral part of the program. Disconnect between community and authorities. Focused on following areas: 1. Promote quality learning through information sharing between schools. 2. Train and retain language teachers. 3. Monitoring. 4. Enhance access and choice of languages. 5. Public advocacy. Development of distance education through online resources and partnership with local communities to deliver language education. Nothing new for the revision or strengthening of existing intercultural studies to match commitment to languages. Some of the shortcomings of the Australian experience should be noted.
Despite comprehensive efforts to foster language studies, the same level of
commitment and support is not necessarily provided for studies of Asian
19
Bianco (2005): p.4. Joseph Lo Bianco, National Policy on Languages (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1987): pp.2-­‐16. Australian Government, “NALSAS Strategy: Phase 2 Strategic Plan” (National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools, 1999-­‐2002): p.1. Erebus Consulting Partner, “Review of Studies of Asia in Australian Schools” (A Report to the Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training, January 2002): pp.30-­‐50. Australian Government, “National Languages and Studies in Schools Program: Program Guidelines 2009-­‐2012” (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, June 2009): pp.1-­‐18. Australian Government, “National Statement for Languages Education in Australian Schools: National Plan for Languages Education in Australian Schools 2005-­‐2008” (Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, 2005): pp.6-­‐17. POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 11 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education cultures. In addition, not all national initiatives have been followed with
mechanisms for nationwide monitoring and evaluation.
However, unlike the NZ Curriculum’s hands-off approach, the Australian
Government has played an instrumental role in spearheading and facilitating
language and cultural education, taking proactive steps in developing national
guidelines and expectations, incentivising States/Territories and schools to
devise initiatives through national funding schemes, fostering professional
training for teachers, providing resources, and ensuring there is a diversity of
Asian languages. NALSAS represents a successful initiative, given that the
end result was a surge in the number of trained teachers and significant
increase in student participation in Asian language programmes.
Moreover, the Australian experience demonstrates that partnerships between
the Government and organisations or community groups can work
successfully. Notable non-government organisations playing a key role in
Australia’s language and cultural studies drive include the Asia Education
Foundation (AEF) and Access Asia.
4.4 Summary of Findings
The Market Failure analysis of the existing education system has highlighted
the under realisation of positive externalities. In other words, the status quo
does not generate the desired net benefits to our economic future nor does it
contribute to our multicultural society or worldview of our youth as
meaningfully as it could. While certain schools and private/community
initiatives have attempted to mitigate this market failure, it clearly does not go
far enough to raise the supply of or demand for Asian language and studies
courses. The mitigation of market failure must ultimately fall upon the
shoulders of Government. Employment of Government instruments and
measures is not unrealistic given the Australian Government’s leadership in
solving the demand/supply of language and cultural studies.
The next chapter suggests several options for the Government to mitigate
market failure.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 12 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 5. POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
In light of the analysis in the previous section, this paper suggests that
Government should pursue four recommendations.
5.1
Recommendation A: From Hands-Off to Hands-On
Government must assume a leadership role to reverse market failure by
overhauling the Curriculum where necessary and making explicit
expectations that schools must incorporate Asia content.
Specific measures could include
§ Making more explicit objectives regarding Asia education.
§ Set a clear expectation on schools to adopt Asia education.
§ Developing Asia education resource kits for various subjects.
§ Assess how Asia content can be incorporated into core subjects like
social studies, history, geography, classics and art.
§ Assess the feasibility of introducing new subjects dedicated towards
Asia that are assessable under NZQA/Cambridge, such as new
languages and contemporary Asian studies.
Relevant Actors: Ministry of Education working in consultation with NZQA
and Cambridge national standards authorities.
5.2
Recommendation B: Stimulate Demand
Government must play a proactive role in stimulating student and parental
interest or demand in Asian languages and study programmes.
Specific measures could include:
§ Partner with communities and private organisations to bring Asia
cultural experiences into intermediate schools and Year 9-11
classrooms.
§ Partner with communities and NZ firms that export to Asia to explore
ways to educate parents and the wider public about the relevance of
an education in Asian culture or language.
§ Facilitate opportunities for intermediate and Year 9-11 students to
visit Asia.
§ Enhance Asian representation in mass media and public festivals.
Relevant actors: Government will partner with schools and communities.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 13 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 5.3
Recommendation C: Stimulate Supply
Government should enhance accessibility to Asia education, use resources
to alleviate any extra burdens on schools, and support intensive training
programmes for Asian language and studies teachers.
Specific measures could include:
§ Fund certain Asian language courses and study initiatives on a
contractual basis between Government and individual schools.
§ Train Asian “specialist” teachers. The aim is to provide schools with
expert teachers that will facilitate, spearhead and supervise nonlanguage Asian studies and activities in their respective schools.
§ Train proficient Asian language teachers, especially Chinese and
niche languages such as Arabic, Korean and Bahasa Indonesian
where there are few or no trained teachers thus far.
§ Offer teacher training scholarships or other incentive packages for
tertiary candidates to pursue a career in Asia education teaching.
§ Offer scholarships to teachers and principals for sabbaticals to Asia,
as a form of professional development and inspiration.
§ Promote access to Asia education by developing online education
modules for certain language and cultural programmes and
increasing student exchange opportunities with Asian countries.
Relevant actors: Ministry of Education, principals, teachers, teachers
colleges, Asia New Zealand Foundation, and Asia research institutes.
While tertiary education is outside the scope of this policy paper, it is
important to ensure that NZ universities also offer more pathways for Asiaeducated secondary school students to further build on their studies.
5.4
Recommendation D: Quality Control
Government should set parameters for Asia education in schools and
establish robust nationwide monitoring mechanisms to ensure that Asia
education is achieving desired objectives and outcomes.
Specific measures could include:
§ Develop national guidelines and standards for Asian language and
study programmes.
§ National monitoring of student participation rates in Asia education
programmes to ensure that demand reaches desired targets.
§ Develop a mechanism whereby Asian language and study
programmes are reviewed on a regular basis (Every 3-5 years) with
an objective of ensuring that the programmes provide a learning
experience that is relevant to the NZ-Asia climate.
Relevant actors: Ministry of Education can subcontract quality control and
auditing tasks to an organisation, such as the Asia New Zealand
Foundation.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 14 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 6. DISCUSSION
This is an opportunity to discuss whether the policy recommendations will
adequately solve the failures identified in the analysis. Furthermore,
discussion on the way forward is essential. A risk analysis exercise will
provide a clearer indication of how an Asia education policy may proceed.
6.1
Matching Recommendations with Analysis
The Market Failure analytical framework exposed a serious deficiency of
positive externalities stemming from Asia education. An ideal market situation
would see schools providing Asian language and studies services to students,
with positive flow on effects to New Zealand’s economic and multicultural
future. The problem is that the market in its current state is neither seeing
sufficient demand for nor supply of Asia education in NZ secondary schools.
Without sufficient participation the desired positive externalities would be
under realised.
The first recommendation for the Government is that it must take a more
hands on approach in overhauling the Curriculum. The current education
market is not a complete failure, given the popularity of Japanese language
subjects and the reference to Asia in a range of social studies classes.
However, the Curriculum is over-relying on schools to decide what to
incorporate in classroom learning. Setting a clear expectation that Asia
education is a vital area of study, and clarifying why Asia education is relevant
to contemporary and future NZ, will send a strong message from the
Government to schools. Government can also play a leadership role in
Curriculum reforms by assessing the feasibility of new Asian language and
studies subjects. One way to break the status quo of having only two Asian
languages (Japanese and Chinese) available to students is for Government to
assess what other trade languages it would like its prospective workforce to
attain. Arabic, Bahasa Indonesian, Korean, Thai and Vietnamese are strong
candidates.
The second recommendation is to stimulate demand for Asia education. While
for many adults Asia education is a post-experience service or “product”,
where in hindsight we are able to appreciate the value of more Asian
language and cultural training, the real “consumer” is the secondary school
student. Secondary school students rationally select the NCEA courses they
do and structure their studies accordingly. NCEA language courses usually
commence at Year 11 or 12, while most advanced and specialised courses
such as classical and cultural studies commence at Year 12 or 13.
Consequently, the stimulation of interest and demand for Asia education must
take place at the decisive stages of intermediate and Years 9 to 11. This is
where Government must work with and actively support schools, community
groups, media and organisations to promote an environment for youth that
portrays Asia as an interesting and relevant subject to study. The role of the
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 15 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education parent must not be underestimated. Awareness raising and community
learning experiences must also be pursued to convince parents about the
value of Asian language and cultural studies in contemporary NZ.
Thirdly, Government is recommended to stimulate supply. The preliminary
market failure analysis identified shortages of courses and teachers, as well
as the difficulty for students to access Asia education, as key challenges. The
policy recommendations, if pursued, will go considerable ways to solving this
supply dilemma. A way to incentivise schools to pursue Asian language and
studies programmes is to offer them subsidies via contracts or grants. This
would help the Government disseminate Asia education while alleviating
schools of the extra burdens that they may bear from taking on additional
subjects. A long-term strategy would consist of an intensive training
programme aimed at significantly increasing the number of Asia education
teachers that are either qualified to teach a language or specialised in
facilitating intercultural education. As Government sets higher expectations for
schools to make available Asia education, a larger number of teachers trained
to deliver Asia education will provide the human resources necessary for
schools to realise their objectives.
Promoting access is also a crucial issue. Given that not all schools or
localities will have Asian subjects, it is essential to give interested students the
ability to pursue Asia education either via online learning modules or visits to
Asia through student exchange programmes. For instance, only large urban
schools may be prepared to introduce Bahasa Indonesian courses. NZQA or
an equivalent institution should therefore make the necessary arrangements
for students from small or rural schools to remotely access those courses.
Video-link facilities and similar technologies will make this possible, but
Government and schools must be willing to invest in such infrastructure.
The final recommendation is for the establishment of quality control
mechanisms. This was a noted failure of the Australian approach in that
nationwide systematic monitoring was never realised. Schools could be
required to report the steps they have taken towards advancing Asia
education and submit any supporting data to the Ministry of Education in their
annual reports. However, a more effective system could see monitoring
functions being contracted to the Asia New Zealand Foundation. With its
dedicated education specialists and experience in working with a network of
Asia Aware schools, the Foundation could monitor school progress and make
recommendations to Government based on its expert evaluation.
6.2
Moving Forward: Overcoming Challenges
Policies are not immune from challenges and criticisms. If not addressed and
mitigated, these could undermine implementation. The following chart is
designed to identify some potential risks, the source of the risks, and some
ways to manage them. The risks have more to do with tackling public attitudes
towards Asia education.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 16 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education Challenges
Impact on new policy
Source
Risk management
Scarce
resources may
not permit Asia
education to
proliferate
With cutbacks or limited
growth in education
budget, there may not
be sufficient funds to
realise a nationwide
expansion of Asian
language and studies
programmes.
Government
Introduce new courses
incrementally and adopt
courses/resources from
Australia. Contract some
responsibilities to more efficient
organisations like the Asia NZ
Foundation. Draw expertise
and volunteers from local Asian
communities in NZ.
English is
Sufficient
Psyche
A general public attitude
that English is sufficient
could stall or resist the
introduction of more
second languages. This
would significantly
impact on the demand
for more Asian language
courses.
Public,
students,
teachers,
Government.
The mind-set of the current
generation must be adjusted
through awareness raising
exercises. Current multicultural
and economic climate will aid in
this process. Principals are the
key stakeholders that need to
see the potential for Asia
education. Opportunities for
principals to visit Asia should
be made available.
Complexity of
Asian
Languages
Asian languages like
Chinese take nearly 3.5
times longer for
proficiency to develop
than European
languages.20
Language
complexity
Focus priority of language
courses to equip students with
the tools to communicate
overseas and empower them
with the basics to pursue more
advanced language studies in
universities or overseas.
Teachers
resisting
change
A form of institutional
inertia.21 Teachers lack
time and resources to
implement curriculum
change. Time
constraints in the
classroom also limit the
scope of new activities.
Teachers
Focus intensive training efforts
on language teachers and
undergraduate teachercandidates. Online
training/learning modules and
Government produced resource
kits should be made available
to current teachers.
Concerns about
“Asian
assimilation”
Privileged position of
Asian education will
eclipse other subjects
and prioritise Asia over
European/Maori/Pacific
studies.
Students
and parents
Asia education may be made
compulsory for schools, but not
compulsory on individuals.
Individual students may choose
to study Asian languages or
special subjects. As for the
assertion of Asia education into
core/general subjects like social
science, art and geography,
Asia will only be a component
of the subject as opposed to
dominating its content.
20
Asian Education Foundation, “The Future of Chinese Language Education in Australian Schools: National Forum Report” (Report from AEF Forum on the Future of Chinese Language Education, 27 October 2008): p.4. 21
Rosemary Hipkins, “Reshaping the secondary school curriculum: Building the plane while flying it?” (Findings from NZCER National Survey of Secondary Schools, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 2009): pp.75-­‐81. POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 17 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 7. CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to explore ways in which New Zealanders
could become more Asia-Savvy. Taking into account the rapidly changing
economic, cultural and geostrategic climate, there is a strong imperative for
NZ to make its secondary school education more Asia-Savvy.
The study proceeded to achieve two things. Firstly, it sought to identify why
the current system is not producing as many Asia-savvy students as it
potentially could. The Market Failure analytical framework exposed a large
gap between the current state of Asia education and the desired level of
student participation. What policy makers and educators need to realise is
that an Asia-Savvy education not only benefits the individual student, but also
generates a number of positive externalities or social benefits for NZ’s
economic and multicultural future. Unless the Government is prepared to
address the issue of demand for and supply of Asia education, the benefits
would be under realised. Secondly, the study made several recommendations
that would address the deficiencies in supply and demand. What ties all four
recommendations together is the role Government has to play. Without
Government leadership and resources, the promotion and proliferation of Asia
education could not be achieved. However, the Government must not act in
isolation. Partnerships with schools, communities and organisations are
essential.
This project intended to solve a problem in NZ society and it has succeeded in
doing so. As a result of using reasoned arguments, strong factual evidence,
and an objective analytical framework, NZ’s deficiencies in Asia education
have been taken apart and brought back together into a multi-pronged
strategy. Ultimately, education is only one component to NZ’s future with Asia.
As we enter the Asian Century it is useful for us to consider what other
policies we need to revise or introduce to enable us to benefit from our
interactions with Asia. If policy analytical tools are applied to a broader range
of sectors, then we can overcome any shortcomings and play to our strengths
to transform NZ into a more constructive and competitive player in the AsiaPacific region.
POLICY 701 Report – Wilson Chau 4307501 18 Towards an Asia-­‐Savvy Education 7.1
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