GCSE History Revision Guide – Paper One
Name:
History Teacher:
A017: International Relations with
USA Land of Freedom 1945-1975
Exam Date: Monday 6th June 2016 (9:00)
The first part of your exam is on International Relations.
The International Relations part of this booklet runs from Page 4
to Page 32
It is in three sections:
- Soviet control of Eastern Europe (1948-49)
- Terrorism since 1969
- The Iraq War of 2003
Tick red if you’re very unsure.
Tick amber when you think you’re getting there.
Tick green when you think you’re ready for that question on the
exam.
Be honest with yourself.
Page
Key Questions
KEY TOPIC 1: SOVIET CONTROL OF EASTERN EUROPE (1948-1989)
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1.1: How did Russia take control of Eastern Europe?
6
1.2: What was the role of Khrushchev?
6
1.3: How did the Russians deal with opposition in Eastern Europe?
7
- Hungarian Uprising (1956)
8
- Czechoslovakia – The Prague Spring (1968)
9
- The Berlin Wall (1961)
10
1.4: Why did Soviet control in Eastern Europe collapse?
10
- Solidarity in Poland
11
- The Role of Gorbachev
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Timeline – Soviet Control of Eastern Europe
KEY TOPIC 2: TERRORISM (SINCE 1969)
14-15 2.1: What were the key features of the IRA?
16-17 2.2: What were the key features of the PLO?
18-19 2.3: What were the key features of Al-Qaeda?
20-21 2.4: What are the key events in terrorism since 1969?
22
Summary of terrorist groups
KEY TOPIC 3: THE IRAQ WAR (2003)
24
3.1: What was the background to the conflict in Iraq?
25
3.2: Why did the USA invade Iraq?
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3.3: Why was there so much opposition to the Iraq War?
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3.4: What were the key features of the Iraq War of 2003?
28
3.5: What was the Iraqi insurgency and what was its impact?
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3.6: Why did the invasion of Iraq go so wrong?
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3.7: How successful was the handover to transitional government?
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3.8: What were the consequences of the war in Iraq?
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Timeline – Iraq War
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The second part of your exam is on USA Land of Freedom 1945-1975
The Land of Freedom part of this booklet runs from Page 33 to Page 43
It is in four sections:
- The Red Scare & McCarthyism
- Black Civil Rights in the 1950s
- Black Civil Rights in the 1960s
- Civil Rights of other groups (women, Hispanics, Native
Page
Key Questions
KEY TOPIC 4: THE RED SCARE & McCARTHYISM
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4.1: How were capitalist and communist beliefs different?
34
4.2: How did international events lead to a Red Scare in the USA?
34
4.3: How did the Red Scare develop in the USA?
35
4.4: What was the impact of McCarthyism in the USA?
KEY TOPIC 5: BLACK CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE 1950s
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5.1: What was the situation for African Americans after WW2?
36
5.2: Why was the struggle for desegregated education so important?
37
5.3: What was the significance of the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
37
5.4: How much progress had been made in black civil rights by 1960?
KEY TOPIC 6: BLACK CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE 1960s
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6.1: What was the role of Martin Luther King?
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6.2: What was the role of Malcolm X and the Black Power Movement?
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6.3: What was the role of President Kennedy?
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6.4: What was the role of President Johnson?
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6.5: What was the role of President Nixon?
KEY TOPIC 7: CIVIL RIGHTS OF OTHER GROUPS
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7.1: What was the impact of World War Two on women?
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7.2: How did the women’s movement develop in the 1950s and 60s?
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7.3: What progress did the women’s movement achieve?
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7.4: How did the women’s movement develop in the 1970s?
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7.5: Why were there so many Hispanics in the USA?
41
7.6: What was Chicano Nationalism?
42
7.7: What problems did Native Americans face in the USA?
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7.8: How did Native American protest?
43
Timeline – USA Land of Freedom
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The last bit of your booklet contains some other useful information.
Page
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48
49
50
INFORMATION
All Past Questions on International Relations
All Past Questions on USA Land of Freedom
How to answer DESCRIBE-type questions (4 marks)
How to answer EXPLAIN-type questions (6 or 8 marks)
How to answer MESSAGE OF THE SOURCE-type questions (6 or 7 marks)
How to answer PURPOSE OF THE SOURCE-type questions (7 marks)
How to answer JUDGEMENT-type questions (10 marks)
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Summary of exam technique
International Relations 1948-2005
4.SOVIET CONTROL OF EASTERN EUROPE – TITLE PAGE
Key Topic 1: Soviet Control of Eastern Europe (1948-89)
1.How did the Russians take control of
Eastern Europe after World War Two?
2.What was the role of Khrushchev?
3.What were the causes, events and
consequeunces of the Hungarian
Uprising of 1956?
4.What were the causes, events and
consequences of the Prague Spring of
1968?
5.What were the causes, events and
consequeunces of the building of the
Berlin Wall in 1961?
6.What was the role of Solidarity in the
collapse of Communism?
7.What was the role of Gorbachev in the
collapse of Communism?
Key Question 1.1: How did Russia take
control of Eastern Europe after World War Two?
THE SOVIET TAKEOVER OF EASTERN EUROPE
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When the Nazis retreated at the end of WW2, they left
behind a political vacuum in the countries they had
occupied.
Stalin helped the Communist parties in those countries
to take over.
He used COMINFORM to bring about Soviet
dominance of these countries.
Stalin put Soviet troops in each country to:
o Maintain law and order
o Support the Communist government.
In those countries, Communist government took over
the whole of society.
Eastern Europe was ragged after WW2, so Stalin used
Comecon to ensure that those countries traded with
the Soviet Union in return for Soviet financial aid.
This topic has never
been on the exam,
but it is good
background
knowledge anyway.
A map showing the Soviet takeover of
Eastern Europe after World War Two
COMINFORM AND COMECON
COMINFORM (‘Communist Information Bureau)
 Set up in 1947 by Stalin to co-ordinate the Communist
Parties of Eastern European countries.
 This meant that Stalin could send out instructions to
the Communist Parties of these countries telling them
what to do.
 This meant that Stalin effectively controlled all of the
SATELLITE COUNTRIES on the above map.
 Yugoslavia was left out of Cominform because it
refused to do what the Soviet Union told it to do.
COMECON (‘The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance’)
 Set up in 1949 by Stalin to control the industries and
trade of the SATELLITE COUNTRIES.
 Members of Comecon were ordered to trade with each
other and the Soviet Union rather than the west.
THE IMPACT ON ORDINARY PEOPLE IN
EASTERN EUROPE
THE HOPE
 Some believed that the Communist Soviet Union
brought them hope after the horrors of being
occupied by Nazi Germany.
 Soviets made these countries feel secure as the Soviet
Union was one of the world’s superpowers.
THE REALITY
 Free speech was taken away.
 Newspapers were censored.
 Many non-Communists were thrown in prison.
 People were not allowed to travel to the west.
 People became poorer in Eastern Europe.
 They were not allowed to ask for help from the west.
 At times, people didn’t have enough food or fuel.
 People had no access to consumer goods.
Joseph Stalin, leader of Communist
Soviet Union 1924-1953
Cominform (1947)
Comecon (1949)
Key Terminology to answer key
question 1.1
Joseph Stalin
Soviet Union / The USSR
Satellite countries
The Eastern Bloc
Cominform
Comecon
Key Question 1.2: What was the role of Khrushchev?
KHRUSHCHEV’S RISE TO POWER
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Many in Soviet Union saw Stalin as a hero
as he had defeated Hitler.
Stalin had also made the Soviet Union a
nuclear superpower.
Stalin died in 1953, and was replaced by
Nikita Khrushchev.
Khrushchev at first seemed different to
Stalin. He was less aggressive, and talked
of ‘peaceful co-existence’ with the west.
Khrushchev closed down Cominform, and
hinted that he would let the satellite
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Key Terminology
to answer key
question 1.2
Nikita Khrushchev
Peaceful co-existence
Secret speech
Destalinisation
DESTALINISATION
You need to know
this to understand
what follows.
Khrushchev at first seemed different to Stalin.
He was less aggressive, and talked of ‘peaceful
co-existence’ with the west.
Khrushchev closed down Cominform, and
hinted that he would let the satellite countries
have independence.
In 1956, Khrushchev made an astonishing
‘secret speech’ criticising Stalin and the way he
had treated people.
He called Stalin a wicked tyrant.
He also began a process of ‘de-Stalinisation’,
including releasing political prisoners.
In the end, though, Khrushchev went back on
THE WARSAW PACT
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Nikita Khrushchev,
Soviet leader 1955-64
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Khrushchev, like Stalin before him, still wanted
a ‘buffer zone’ in Eastern Europe.
In 1955, Khrushchev created the Warsaw Pact,
which was a military alliance of the Soviet
Union and all the satellite countries.
If any member of the Warsaw Pact was
Key Question 1.3: How did the Soviet
Union deal with opposition in Eastern Europe?
The next three pages deal with three crises faced by the Soviet Union in
its Eastern European satellites, and how the Soviets dealt with those crises.
These are quite easy to understand and remember, because they all follow
the same pattern:
STAGE 1
STAGE 2
This topic is always on
the exam. You NEED to
know all about
Hungary 1956,
Czechoslovakia 1968
and Berlin 1961.
STAGE 3
People in a Soviet satellite
country get fed up of living
under Communism and try
to make changes.
The Soviet Union uses its
military strength to bring
an end to the
developments in Stage 1.
USA disapproves but does
nothing as long as
Communism isn’t spreading
any further west.
Soviet tanks are sent to
Hungary to crush the
uprising.
The USA criticises the
Soviet Union’s actions, but
does nothing.
The people rise up and try
to get rid of Soviet
influence in Czechoslovakia.
Soviet tanks are sent to
Czechoslovakia to crush
the uprising.
The USA criticises the
Soviet Union’s actions, but
does nothing.
Thousands of East Berliners
leave the Communist east
to live in the Capitalist west.
The Soviets order the
building of a wall to keep
East Berliners in the east.
The USA criticises the
Soviet Union’s actions, but
does nothing.
The people rise up and try
to get rid of Soviet
influence in Hungary.
1.Hungary 1956
The Hungarian Uprising
What was the background?
 Hungary was led by a Communist
called Matyas Rakosi.
 He was very cruel to Hungarians, and
took away their freedom of speech.
 Stalin protected Rakosi, and in return
Rakosi allowed Soviet troops in
Hungary.
 Even street signs in Hungary were
written in Russian.
 Hungarians even had to pay for the
Soviet troops to be there, even though
they didn’t want them there.
 Stalin died in 1953, and Hungarians
PAST EXAM QUESTIONS
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
Describe the events in Hungary in
1956. (4) (Jan 2010)
Describe the Soviet response to the
Hungarian Uprising of 1956. (4)
(June 2012)
What was the Soviet response?
 At first, Khrushchev seemed to accept
the reforms.
 But when Hungary said it would leave
the Warsaw Pact, Khrushchev changed
his mind and sent thousands of Soviet
troops and tanks into Budapest.
 Hungarians fought back, leading to
two weeks of fighting in which 3,000
Hungarians and 8,000 Russians were
killed.
 Many Hungarians fled across the
border into Austria to escape the
Soviets.
 Imre Nagy and his fellow leaders were
arrested and executed by the Soviets.
 Hungarian resistance was crushed.
 Western nations voiced their
disapproval but, crucially, did nothing.
 Khrushchev put Janos Kadar in charge
of Hungary, who had 35,000 antiCommunist activists arrested and 300
executed.
 So a puppet leader was back in charge
What happened in 1956?
 With Stalin dead, a group in Hungary
opposed Rakosi.
 When he appealed to the Soviet Union
for help, Khrushchev refused and told
Rakosi he had to resign.
 Rakosi was replaced with another
puppet leader, Erns Gero, who was no
better.
 23rd Oct: Huge demonstrations in
Budapest, and a statue of Stalin was
pulled down by protestors.
 Khrushchev seemed to show that he was
different to Stalin when he allowed
Hungarians to set up a new government
of their own under the popular Imre
Nagy.
 Soviet troops began to withdraw from
Hungary, and this seemed to be the
beginning of the end of Soviet
domination of Eastern Europe.
 Nagy’s new government began to make
plans, and demanded the complete
withdrawal of Soviet troops.
Key Terminology for answering
questions about the Hungarian Uprising
Nikita Khrushchev
Matyas Rakosi
Puppet leader
Secret speech
Uprising
Imre Nagy
Warsaw Pact
Refugees
2.Czechoslovakia 1968
The Prague Spring
What was the background?
 Czechoslovakia had been liberated
by the Soviets at the end of WW2.
 The Soviets had then put a hardline
Communist government in charge in
Czechoslovakia, and backed up that
government with force when
necessary.
 Czechoslovakia was a satellite Soviet
state with a puppet government.
Source A – An
American cartoon
published in 1968.
The Russian
soldier is saying
‘she might have
What was the Soviet response?
 Soviets were not happy about the
developments in Czechoslovakia.
 Also, the Soviets worried that these
new ideas might spread to other
satellite states.
 Communist leaders of other satellite
countries feared that the Prague
Spring might spread, so wanted
Brezhnev to crush the developments
in Czechoslovakia.
 Albania even resigned from the
Warsaw Pact because it felt the Soviet
Union was being too soft.
 Discussions between Soviet Union
and Czechoslovakia seemed to have
eased tensions, but on 20th August
Soviets sent tanks into
Czechoslovakia.
 Little resistance from Czechs.
 Dubcek removed as leader, and
Czechoslovakia became an obedient
satellite country again.
 Brezhnev announced the Brezhnev
Doctrine which said that all satellite
countries must:
What happened in Czechoslovakia?
 Puppet leader was replaced by Alexander
Dubcek, who said there should be no
censorship and there should be freedom
of speech.
 New Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev was
concerned, but Dubcek promised that
Czechoslovakia would not withdraw from
the Warsaw Pact or from COMECON.
 The Czech opposition was led by students
and intellectuals who opposed
Communism.
 The spring of 1968 became known as ‘The
Prague Spring’, with anti-government
ideas appearing everywhere because the
people now had freedom of speech.
 Czech people even began to openly talk
about creating a new, non-Communist
Key Terminology for answering
questions about Czechoslovakia 1968
Liberated
Hardline government
Puppet leader
Satellite state
Reform
Leonid Brezhnev
Prague Spring
Warsaw Pact
PAST EXAM QUESTIONS
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Explain why the Soviet Union was worried by
developments in Czechoslovakia in 1968. (6)
(Jan 2010)
Study Source A (above) abou the Soviet
crushing of the uprising in Prague. What is the
message of this cartoon? (7) (Jan 2012)
Explain why the Soviet Union invaded
Czechoslovakia in 1968. (6) (June 2012)
What was the ‘Prague Spring’? (4) (Jan 2013)
3.Berlin 1961
The Berlin Wall
What was the background?
 Berlin lay behind the iron curtain in East
Germany, but was divided into capitalist
West and communist East (see map).
 It was a constant worry for the Soviet
Union that the people of East Berlin
could see the relative wealth of capitalist
West Berlin and would envy it.
 In the West, shops were full of goods,
there was freedom and variety.
 The USA had built the West up with this
intention.
 Many in East Berlin were escaping to the
capitalist West.
 Even worse for the Communists was that
it was the most highly educated,
qualified and skilled people who were
fleeing the east – this was known as the
What was the reaction of the West?
 27th October 1961: Soviets put tanks at
Checkpoint Charlie to stop any
Westerners visiting the East.
 US tanks arrived there too, leading to a
tense 18-hour stand-off.
 Khrushchev ordered Ulbricht (leader of
East Germany and East Berlin) to never
allow tension to get so high again.
 Back in the USA, Kennedy said about
the wall ‘It’s not a very nice solution,
but a wall is a lot better than a war’.
 The wall stayed, and became a symbol
of the division between Communist East
and Capitalist West.
 Communists called it a protection wall,
keeping the people of East Berlin safe
from Western corruption.
 The West called it a prison wall, keeping
Key Terminology for answering
questions about the Berlin Wall (1961)
Iron Curtain
Division of Berlin
Nikita Khrushchev
Brain drain
Protection wall
Checkpoint Charlie
What happened in 1961?
 Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev thought
he could bully new US President John F
Kennedy.
 He demanded that the USA withdraw
from West Berlin. The USA refused.
 In response, overnight on 13th August
1961, East German soldiers were ordered
to set up barbed wire along the
East/West border in Berlin.
 Over the next few days this was turned
into a concrete wall, stopping all
travelling from east to west.
 The only way through from East to West
Berlin was through the heavily guarded
‘Checkpoint Charlie’.
 The wall divided families and caused
chaos to people’s lives.
 Border guards shot people who tried to
Source A – An
American cartoon
about the Berlin
Wall from 1962.
The man in the
picture is
Khrushchev.
PAST
EXAM
QUESTION
Study Source
A. What is the
message of
this cartoon?
Explain your
answer. (7)
Key Question 1.4: Why did Soviet control in Eastern Europe collapse?
This topic is usually on the exam.
You need to know all about
Solidarity and the role of Gorbachev
as reasons for Soviet collapse.
1.Poland 1980-81 ‘Solidarity’
What did the Polish government give in to
Solidarity at first?
 Nearly all workers in the most
important industries and nearly all the
skilled workers were in Solidarity, so if
they went on strike it would bring
Poland to a standstill.
 Many members of Solidarity were also
in Communist Party, so government
didn’t see Solidarity as a threat to
them.
 Leader of Solidarity Lech Walesa
talked in private with the Polish
government to ensure there was no
violence.
 Lech Walesa became a hero to millions
and the government did not want to
be seen to be on the opposite side to
him.
 The Catholic Church, which was very
powerful in Poland, supported
Solidarity and the government did not
want to go against them.
 The Polish and Soviet governments
knew that Solidarity were getting a lot
Why was ‘Solidarity’ so important?
 It showed that Polish people no longer
trusted their Communist leaders.
 It showed the world that only force could
keep the Communists in charge.
 It showed that Communists would do
anything to hang onto power against the will
of the people.
 It showed the world that Communism had
failed to provide good living standards for
ordinary people.
 It showed that it was possible for ordinary
people to form an organisation (in this case,
‘Solidarity’) which could put the Communist
What was the background?
 Lots of protests in Communist Poland in the
past, but these were usually about food prices or
wages. They had never before protested to get
rid of the Communist government altogether.
 Workers in Poland knew how bad their living
standards were compared to the west.
 July 1980: Polish government announced
increase in price of meat.
 August 1980: Workers at the Gdansk shipyard,
led by Lech Walesa, created a trade union called
‘Solidarity’. They made 21 demands of the
government.
 The Polish government agreed to these
demands, seeing the power of Solidarity.
 Oct 1980: Solidarity had membership of 7
million.
 Jan 1981: Solidarity had membership of 9.4
Why did the Polish government end up clamping down on
Solidarity?
 The puppet leader of Poland resigned in Feb 1981
and was replaced by leader of Polish army, General
Jaruzelski, who took a more aggressive approach
towards Solidarity.
 At the same time, Solidarity said they were now
fighting for the rights of all citizens in the satellite
countries, not just in Poland. This made them more
of a threat to Communism.
 Soviet leader Brezhnev now ordered the Polish
government to clamp down.
 10,000 Solidarity leaders including Lech Walesa
were put in prison, and General Jaruzelski
introduced martial law (which means the army
taking charge of the country).
 Catholic priests who had supported Solidarity were
beaten up or murdered.
 Solidarity was banned. Jaruzelski and Brezhnev said
they were doing this because Solidarity were
o Behaving like a political party (nonCommunist pol.parties were banned).
Key Terminology for answering
questions about the ‘Solidarity’)
Solidarity
Solidarnosc
Lech Walesa
Trade union
Strike
General Jaruzelski
Brezhnev
Martial law
PAST EXAM QUESTIONS
Explain why the ‘Solidarity’ movement was
important. (8) (Jan 2012)
Explain why the Polish government was unable to
stop the ‘Solidarity’ Movement. (6) (Jan 2013)
Why did the Polish government find it difficult to
2.The Role of Mikhail Gorbachev
What did Gorbachev realise when he became leader?
He was REALISTIC:
 He realised that the Soviet Union was in a bad state as a result of
the arms race and the Afghanistan War.
 He realised the Soviet Union had to change itself if Communism was
to survive.
 He realised that just using brute force was not a satisfactory way to
keep Communism going.
He was IDEALISTIC:
 He believed Communism should make ordinary people’s lives
better.
 He believed Communism was right and hated its bad reputation
around the world.
He was OPTIMISTIC:
 He believed he could save Communism and make the people of
Eastern Europe proud to live in Communist countries.
What reforms did Gorbachev make?
GLASNOST (meaning ‘openness’)
 This meant that he would allow free speech and open discussion. He
believed this was the right way to run a Communist country, rather
than by using brute force and fear to keep power.
PERESTROIKA (meaning ‘restructuring’)
 This meant allowing people in Communist countries to make
personal profit and for people to buy and sell things for profit. This
made these countries less Communist and more like the west.
LESS SPENDING ON THE MILITARY
 He reduced the number of people in the Red Army and cut down on
the number of nuclear weapons being made. He also withdrew
Soviet troops from Afghanistan and tried to build international trust
rather than starting wars.
THE SATELLITE COUNTRIES
 In March 1985, Gorbachev called a meeting of all Warsaw Pact
countries and told them that the Soviet Union would no longer be
backing them up with force. The puppet leaders were now
Gorbachev
became
leader of the
Soviet Union
in 1985 and
was the first
to realise that
Communism
in Eastern
Europe had to
either change
or be destroyed. He is
regarded as a hero of history
because, even though he was
a Communist, he was honest
enough to see that
What was the impact of
Gorbachev’s reforms?
 Puppet leaders now
knew they didn’t have
the backing of the
Soviet Union as they
had in the past.
 The rest of the world
saw that the Soviet
Union was ready to
change.
 It marked the
beginning of the end
of Communism
because, without fear
of the Soviet Union,
people wanted to
overthrow their cruel
Communist leaders.
 Gorbachev’s reforms
brought the end of
Communism, but he
Dominoes – The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe
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May 1989: People in HUNGARY began dismantling the barbed wire fence between Hungary and Austria.
June 1989: Free elections held in POLAND for the first time. ‘Solidarity’ wins nearly all the votes, and Lech Walesa
becomes leader of Poland (first non-Communist leader in Eastern Europe)
September 1989: EAST GERMANS start to travel through Hungary to escape into the west through Austria.
October 1989: Gorbachev visits EAST GERMANY and there are anti-Communist protests in all East German cities. The
East German leader orders the army to fire at the protestors, but the army refuses. Gorbachev also refuses to help
support the East German communist leader (Erich Honecker).
November 1989: Thousands people in EAST GERMANY march to the Berlin Wall, the guards throw down their
weapons, and the ordinary people of East Germany pull down the Berlin Wall. Germans demand that East and West
Germany be unified. This happens a year later.
December 1989: A violent revolution in ROMANIA ends with the execution of Communist puppet leader Nicolae
Ceausescu and his wife
December 1989: Communist Party of HUNGARY announces there will be free elections.
December 1989: People in BULGARIA protest against their Communist government.
March 1990: Parts of SOVIET UNION such as Lithuania and Latvia begin to demand their independence.
August 1991: Hardline Communists in the SOVIET UNION take Gorbachev prisoner and say they are now in control of
the country. But they have to give in and release him when they realise no one else is on their side.
International Relations 1948-2005
Key Topic 1: Soviet Control of Eastern Europe (1948-89) - Timeline
1945
End of First World War and the end of the ‘Grand Alliance’ between the USA and
Communist Russia.
1947
COMINFORM set up by Stalin to co-ordinate the actions of all European
Communist Parties.
1949
COMECON set up by Stalin to control the industries and trade of the Communist
Satellite states.
1953
Death of Stalin.
1955
Creation of Warsaw Pact.
1956
Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ criticising Stalin.
1956
Hungarian Uprising
1961
Building of Berlin Wall.
1968
The Prague Spring (uprising in Czechoslovakia)
1979
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. War is disastrous and expensive, lasts until 1988
and is the beginning of the end for Communism in Europe.
1981
Solidarity in Poland rises to 9.4 million members, makes demands, and is crushed
by Polish government with Soviet backing.
1985
Gorbachev becomes leader of Soviet Union.
1989
Collapse of Communist governments throughout Eastern Europe and fall of the
Berlin Wall.
1991
End of the Soviet Union as it breaks up into independent countries (Russia,
Ukraine, etc)
International Relations 1948-2005
13.TERRORISM TITLE PAGE
Key Topic 2: Terrorism since 1969
1.Why is it difficult to define terrorism?
2.What are the basic origins, beliefs and
aims of the IRA, PLO and Al-Qaeda?
3.Who were the key people within these
groups and what did they do?
4.Why did each of these groups resort to
terrorism?
5.What are the strengths of each of
these groups?
6.What methods did each of these
groups use?
7.How did governments respond to each
of these groups?
8.How successful was each of these
groups?
Case Study 1:
The IRA
Anger about Northern Ireland
being part of Britain.
Anger at the presence of the British army in
Northern Ireland.
Anger at the way nationalists were treated.
The IRA had a political party
attached to it called Sinn
Fein. Its leaders were
Gerry Adams and
Martin McGuinness. The
intention of Sinn Fein was
to negotiate with the British
government on behalf of
the IRA.
THE BASICS
The IRA are also known as the ‘Provisional
IRA’ or ‘the Provos’.
They want Britain out of Northern Ireland.
They come from the nationalist, Catholic
minority in Northern Ireland.
Nationalists are also known as
republicans.
(1) To defend nationalist
communities.
(2) To get British troops out
of Northern Ireland.
(3) To end discrimination against nationalists.
(4) To get a united Ireland.
The nationalist communities in Northern
Ireland were a lot poorer than the unionist communities.
Nationalists were made to feel like second class citizens
in Northern Ireland.
The IRA believed that the British had no
right to be in Northern Ireland. They saw the British army
as a foreign force who were discriminating against
nationalists in Northern Ireland.
In the Great Famine of the
1840s, millions of Irish people died of starvation while
the British did nothing, and in 1972 peaceful unarmed
nationalist demonstrators were shot by British troops.
This became known as ‘Bloody Sunday’.
Northern Ireland was supposed
to part of a democratic country (the UK) but the
nationalists believed they were being discriminated
against and the only way to get the British Why
government
did the IRA
use terrorism
to listen to them would be violence.
The British army and police were
highly developed and
rather than
negotiation?
Ireland became an independent country in
1916, but six counties in the north, where the
majority of people were unionists, remained
part of the United Kingdom. This was called
Northern Ireland. The nationalists who lived
there did not want to be part of Britain.
They were fighting
against an external foreign enemy
Nationalists were
republicans. This means they wanted
Case Study 1:
The IRA
Why was the IRA
such a problem
for the British
government?
Irish nationalism had a
strong culture with lots of murals and songs about the
struggle against the British occupiers.
The media in Ireland and Britain gave a lot
of attention to the IRA. For example, hunger strikers like
Bobby Sands were well known because newspapers and
TV carried so much coverage of them. This meant the
IRA’s struggle was in the forefront of people’s minds.
The IRA had strong control over the
nationalist areas of Northern Ireland. Most nationalists
would support the IRA and do what the IRA told them.
The government of
Libya supported the IRA with money. There were also
many people in the USA of Irish descent who sent money
to help the IRA in their struggle against the British
army/police.
At first,
these were mainly aimed at soldiers and
police in Northern Ireland. They were then
used against unionist civilians in Northern
Ireland, and after 1973 they were used
against targets in mainland Britain,
including civilian targets (e.g. Manchester
and Warrington bombs).
An
example of this was the Brighton Bombing
in 1984 where 5 people were killed and 34
injured by an IRA bomb in the hotel where
the British government were staying in
Brighton.
This gave security forces the right to arrest and aggressively interrogate anyone they liked.
This caused resentment as it was only ever used against nationalists. It actually convinced more people to join the
IRA.
British governments responded to the IRA by increasing the number of British forces
in Northern Ireland, and by using the SAS.
The British government used informers and technology to try to foil the IRA and
stop them before they carried out their attacks. For example, six unarmed SUSPECTED IRA terrorists were shot by
the British government in 1988 in Gibraltar because it was BELIEVED they were planning an attack.
In the 1980s, Thatcher’s government said that Sinn Fein / IRA should not be allowed a voice
in the British media, and banned Gerry Adams from speaking on British television.
Was the IRA
In 1972, there was a brief attempt to talk with
the IRA by British politician William Whitelaw, but it failed. In the
1990s, Sinn Fein/IRA began to focus on negotiation, realising there was a
stalemate and terrorist tactics were not getting them anywhere. In 1998,
successful in
achieving its aims?
Case Study 2:
The PLO
After WW2, the Jews declared
A new Jewish state in the Middle-East –
they called it Israel.
This was on land which where Palestinians lived, and
many now had to flee the area and live in refugee camps.
THE BASICS
The PLO is the name for the ‘Palestinian Liberation
Organisations’.
They were formed in anger at the creation of Israel and
the treatment of Palestinians who had lived in the area
before.
A more extreme group of Palestinian terrorists called
Hamas has grown out of the PLO.
They have used terrorist attacks on the state of Israel.
In recent years, compromise has been reached where
To create a Palestinian State
for Palestinian Arabs. To bring an
end to the state of Israel and get the
land back for Palestinians to live in.
Yasser Arafat spent his
life campaigning for the
Palestinian cause. He
once sent a letter to the
Egyptian leader written
in his own blood which
said ‘don’t forget
Palestine’. He created
the Fatah Movement
and took control of the Intifada in
1967, before becoming overall leader
As you can see in the maps on the right,
in 1946 there was very little Jewish land
in Palestine but Israel has increased in
size. This has led to Palestinians having
to flee and led to the PLO being set up
to fight back.
Most people who joined the PLO were from
very poor Palestinian refugee camps, and they blamed
the Israelis for their poverty of their families.
Palestinians believed that the Israelis had
stolen ‘their’ land after World War Two.
Events such as the massacre
of Palestinians by Israeli forces in 1982 convinced many
more Palestinians to join the cause of the PLO.
The Israeli army is
one of the strongest and most advanced in the world.
There is no way that the PLO could take on the Israeli
army in conventional warfare, so they have resorted to
terrorist tactics.
The Palestinians were
fighting to establish their own homeland in
Israel, so they were nationalists fighting for their
Why did the PLO
use terrorism
rather than
negotiation?
The Intifada (1987)
Case Study 2:
The PLO
Why was the PLO
such a problem
for the Israeli
government?
Young Palestinians
have learnt and been taught how Israel treated
their people in 1948. The takeover of land by Israel
is still very fresh in the mind and the vast majority
of Palestinians would support the cause of the PLO.
First Jordan and then
Lebanon (see map) have allowed the PLO to base
themselves there. One of the problems the PLO has
is not having a country to base their attacks from.
The support of these other countries in the region
has given them secure bases from which to attack
Israel.
Yasser Arafat was a
clever and charismatic leader. He managed to unite
Was the PLO
successful in
achieving its
aims?
This long distance rocket fire
enabled the PLO to attack Israel from over the border
in Jordan or Lebanon. This removed the problem of
having to get terrorists into Israel undetected.
During the 1970s there were several
plane hijackings by the PLO (usually flights with a lot
of Israeli passengers). They would demand the release
of Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the safe
return of the hostages.
The PLO
kidnapped 11 Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics
in Germany in 1972. When German forces tried to
rescue them, the hostages were murdered by the PLO.
This caused shock around the world.
This was a large-scale uprising in
the Gaza Strip and West Bank (see map) in 1987
against the Israelis. The harsh Israeli response
convinced even more people to join the PLO.
The Israeli government generally has tried to get tough with the PLO. This has included
targeted assassinations such as the assassination of PLO commander Abi Jihad in 1998. More recently these
assassinations have been carried out by missiles or aircraft, which has meant that innocent Palestinian citizens
have been killed too. This has caused fury among Palestinians and around the world, though the Israelis accuse
the PLO of putting terrorists in amongst the general Palestinian population so that the Israelis cannot avoid
accidentally killing civilians as well.
The Intifada was an uprising in the Gaza Strip and West Bank (see map) against the Israelis in
1987. In response, the Israelis placed curfews on Palestinians and shut down all Palestinian schools saying it was
radicalising young Palestinians. This actually led to more worldwide sympathy for the Palestinians and made the
PLO look like the victims. Yasser Arafat tried to take advantage of this to create a Palestinian state, but in return
he had to, for the first time, accept that Israel had a right to exist.
After the creation of Hamas, new Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin did a deal
with the PLO in order to weaken Hamas. After secret talks in Norway in 1993, Yasser Arafat (PLO leader) and
Yitzhak Rabin (Israeli leader) announced that: (a) A Palestinian authority would be set up to control daily life in
Case Study 3:
Al-Qaeda
Muslim tribal leaders, known as
the Mujahideen, fought against
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
The Mujahideen were funded by the USA (who wanted
to stop Communism) and Saudi Arabia (who wanted to
defend the Muslim country Afghanistan). Bin Laden was
Bin Laden was the very
rich son of a billionaire Saudi.
He came to fight in Afghanistan
with the Mujahideen in 1979. It
was there that he fell under the
influence of extremist preacher
Abdullah Azzam, who taught him
that Islam was under threat and
that all Muslims must join
together in ‘Jihad’ (Holy War) to
defend their religion. This led to
the creation of Al-Qaeda.
When Saddam Hussein threatened Saudi Arabia in 1990,
Bin Laden offered his help, but was rejected by the
Saudis who instead got American help. This made Bin
Laden furious. He set up his terrorist group in
THE BASICS
Al-Qaeda is a terrorist network with ‘terror cells’ around
the world (see map).
Their leader was Bin Laden.
They wanted an end to US involvement in the Muslim
world.
They used terrorist tactics which shocked the world such
as suicide bombings.
Their most famous atrocity was the 9/11 attack.
Destuction of US influence in the
Muslim world and removal of
US-friendly Muslim governments.
The destruction of Israel altogether.
All Muslims to join together in ‘Jihad’
(meaning ‘Holy War’) against the West.
For every Muslim country to follow
extreme and strict version of Islam.
The red areas on the world map above are the areas
where the US believe there are Al-Qaeda terror cells
(this means organised groups of terrorists who are
ready to launch terrorist attacks). This wide spread of
terror cells makes it very difficult for the US to defeat
Al-Qaeda, and makes them a worldwide danger.
Why does
Al-Qaeda
exist?
Anger that the oil in Muslim countries such
as Kuwait, which should have made ordinary Muslims
rich, was in fact making Americans rich.
The belief that the USA had no business
being in Muslim parts of the world in the first place. The
presence of US troops led to more recruits for Al-Qaeda.
Frustration and anger at
westernisation of Muslim world (e.g. secular law courts
and women at university). Felt that their way of life was
being destroyed.
Despite massive
wealth, Al-Qaeda was no match for the richest and most
powerful nation on earth (the USA), so had to resort to
One of the main aims of Al-Qaeda
is to follow that all Muslim countries follow an
extreme version of Islam.
Al-Qaeda terrorists often refer to
the USA as ‘the Great Satan’. They believe that
the capitalist, money-driven world of the west is
evil and hate when it spreads into the Muslim
parts of the world. They believe countries should
be run strictly according to their version of
Islam, and do not accept any compromise.
Because of the above, AlQaeda terrorists have come to see anyone from
an enemy country as a legitimate target, as we
can see in the indiscriminate 9/11 attacks. Al-
Why is AlQaeda so
difficult to
deal with?
Case Study 3:
Al-Qaeda
Bin Laden was a clever and
charismatic leader who had proved himself as a fighter and was
generous to his followers. His deputy Ayman Al-Zawahiri was
also widely respected in Al-Qaeda.
It is difficult to combat Al Qaeda because
they do not have a specific country. They are split up into many
different countries (see map). Also, many people are inspired by
Al-Qaeda but not formally linked to them. So individuals carry
out random acts of terrorism, inspired by Al Qaeda. An example
is Ramzi Yousef who attacked the World Trade Center with a
truck bomb in 1993, killing six people. He said he was inspired
by Bin Laden, but had no links to Al-Qaeda.
Bin Laden himself brought massive personal wealth
to support Al-Qaeda. They also have generous financial support
from Pakistan and Saudi Arabia and used to get lots of money
from the Afghan drug trade.
Followers of Al-Qaeda
are extremely committed to their cause. They were How
also able to
successful
train in Afghanistan under the protection of the Taliban.
The USA,
has the war
on terror
been?
It was easy
for Al-Qaeda to attack US embassies
around the world as they were not wellguarded. US embassies in Kenya and
Tanzania were attacked with truck bombs
in 1998, killing over 200 people in total.
Suicide
bombers drove a boat packed with
explosives into the side of a US warship
called USS Cole in October 2000, killing
seventeen US soldiers. The fact that AlQaeda’s terrorists are prepared or even
keen to die for their cause makes them
even more dangerous.
Al-Qaeda stunned the world by
flying two planes into the World Trade
Center and one into the Pentagon (a
fourth plane was brought down). Almost
3,000 people died, almost all civilians. The
event was celebrated by Al-Qaeda, with
Bin Laden issuing a video of himself
praising the attackers.
After 9/11, George W Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Bin Laden.
When they refused, the US (with the help of Britain) invaded Afghanistan. The Taliban were no match for the
Americans, but there was still no sign of Bin Laden. Bush declared a ‘war on terror’.
Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan and the Taliban were completely
defeated and Afghanistan got a new government. The terrorist training camps in Afghanistan were destroyed.
Most of Al-Qaeda’s weapons were destroyed or captured and the group lost most of its communication
equipment. Countries were sympathetic to the USA after 9/11 so they had a lot of support. The war on terror
allowed other countries to clamp down on terrorists in their own countries. Security at airports became much
tighter, making it much harder to hijack planes. USA was able to send experts, equipment and training to help
countries fight terrorism. US held suspected terrorists for years and even used torture to get information (they
were criticised around the world for this). There have been no further attacks in the USA since 9/11.
Afghanistan has been a nightmare to control as Taliban and AlQaeda continue to attack US forces. USA failed to win the support of Afghan people, who resented the US
presence there. Heroin production in Afghanistan increased. The USA’s actions increased the worldwide support
Terrorism - Key Moments & Events
You could be asked a question on:
- The reasons why they resorted to terrorism
- Their strengths
- Their methods
- The government response
- Whether they were successful or not
Whichever one you’re writing about, you
should try to fit some of the key moments &
events on this page into your answer.
During a peaceful civil rights march by nationalists
in Derry in Northern Ireland, protestors began to
clash with police. Stones were thrown at the
police, and the police opened fire into the crowd.
Nine unarmed nationalist protestors were killed.
This caused shock around the world and became
known as ‘Bloody Sunday’. It led to an increase in
the number of people joining or at least
supporting the IRA, and increased resentment
towards the police and the British in general.
Bobby Sands was a member of the IRA. He went
on hunger strike in the Maze prison. He was
protesting because he believed that IRA prisoners
were ‘political prisoners’ and should be treated
better than common criminals, but the British
government disagreed. Bobby Sands was also an
elected MP for Sinn Fein. Sands’s hunger strike
received massive publicity, and he eventually died
in prison. His coffin was carried by IRA terrorists,
and there are many songs and murals about him.
The Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher
(1979-1991) had adopted a ‘zero-tolerance’ policy
towards the IRA, and refused to give any ground.
The IRA grew angry and frustrated at this. The
Conservative Party Conference in 1984 was in
Brighton, which meant that all the government and
their families would be staying in a hotel on the
Brighton seafront. IRA man Patrick Magee put a
bomb in the hotel, which exploded killing four
people, but no members of the government. Even
so, the bomb shocked the country. Thatcher
survived narrowly, but the IRA sent a chilling
warning saying ‘today you were lucky, but
remember, we only have to be lucky once’. Five
years earlier, the IRA assassinated Lord
Mountbatten, a member of the royal family.
The British Labour government (under Tony Blair)
negotiated with Sinn Fein/IRA and both signed
the Good Friday Agreement. The British
government had to agree to respect the civil
rights of the nationalist community, and some of
the power of running Northern Ireland was
‘devolved’ (this means that Northern Ireland was
run partly from London, and partly from Belfast).
In return the IRA agreed to a ceasefire (an end to
terrorist attacks). American President Bill Clinton
also played a big part in the agreement. It caused
controversy on both sides in Northern Ireland,
but it was ultimately successful and pretty much
brought about an end to the era of IRA terrorism.
Whichever theme the question focuses on, to get the highest
marks, you will need to show off your KNOWLEDGE of these
SPECIFIC EVENTS. For example…
Terrorism - Key Moments & Events
After the Second World War (and
the Holocaust), Jews known as
Zionists declared a new country
called Israel. This was on land that
had previously been occupied by
Palestinian Arabs, leading to many
Arabs ending up in refugee camps.
The new country of Israel was
immediately accepted and
recognised in the west, but it
caused a great deal of resentment
in Arab countries. Since 1947, Israel
has grown inside and the
Palestinian Arab areas have shrunk.
Communist Russia invaded
Afghanistan in 1979 and the war
continued throughout the 1980s.
Thousands of Muslims from around
the world came to fight for
Afghanistan. They became known as
the Mujahidin. One of these was Bin
Laden. Because they were fighting
against Communist Russia, the
Mujahidin were given money and
weapons by the USA. These weapons
would later be turned against the USA.
In 1993, Ramzi Yousef attacked the
World Trade Center in New York with
a truck bomb, killing six people. Far
more famously, on 11th September
2001, four planes were hijacked by
members of Al Qaeda. One plane
was brought down, one was flown
into the Penatgon, and the other two
were flown into the twin towers of
the World Trade Center, live on
television, killing almost 3,000.
Eleven Israeli athletes were
kidnapped by a PLO group called
Black September. During an
attempted rescue by German
security forces, the terrorists
murdered the athletes, causing
shock around the world. This did
not when the PLO any support, but
it overshadowed the whole
Olympics and brought the world’s
attention to what was happening
in Palestine and Israel, which
would have been the terrorists’
intention.
The Intifada was a large-scale
uprising by the Palestinian
Arabs against the Israelis. It
was lead and organised by
Yasser Arafat, but it mainly
involved spontaneous uprising
by ordinary Palestinians. The
Israelis responded very
harshly to the Intifada,
bringing in curfews and closing
down Palestinian schools,
claiming that they were
creating terrorists in schools
Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1991 and
threatened to attack Saudi Arabia
(the holiest place in Islam). Bin Laden
offered his Mujahidin to help protect
Saudi Arabia, but they rejected his
help and instead accepted the help
of the USA. This was an insult to Bin
laden who was furious that the USA
now had soldiers on the most holy
Muslim land. This was the turning
point as Bin Laden’s Mujahidin from
this point began to become what we
know as Al-Qaeda.
Al Qaeda has carried out several more
attacks since 9/11, including suicide
bombings in London in 2005 which killed
52 people, and also in the island of Bali
killing 202 people in 2002. The USA,
meanwhile, has invaded Aghanistan and
removed the Taliban who had been
sheltering Bin Laden. Bin laden himself
has been assassinated. The USA has also
invaded Iraq. President George Bush said
this was all part of a ‘war on terror’.
After the snub by Saudi
Arabia, Bin Laden’s Al Qaeda
grew in strength and carried
out several attacks, usually
on American targets, around
the world. For example,
they bombed the American
embassies in Kenya and
Tanzania, killing 200 people
in the process. Embassies
were a ‘soft target’
22.SUMMARY OF TERRORIST GROUPS (LANDSCAPE)
International Relations 1948-2005
Key Topic 3: The Iraq War 2003
1.What was the background to the
conflict in Iraq?
2.Why did the USA invade Iraq in 2003?
3.Why was there so much worldwide
opposition to the Iraq War?
4.What were the key features of the Iraq
War of 2003?
5.What was the Iraqi insurgency and
what was its impact?
6.Why did the invasion of Iraq go so
badly wrong?
7.How successful was the handover to
transitional government?
8.What were the consequeunces of the
war in Iraq?
Key Question 3.1: What was the background to the conflict in Iraq?
1.British Influence (1918-)
 British took over the area in 1918.
 Created a country which was mixture
of Shi’a, Sunni and Kurds.
 Iraq gained independence in 1932.
 British retained an interest in Iraq
because of discovery of vast oil
reserves there.
3.The Iran/Iraq War (1980-1988)
 1979: Islamic (Shi’a) revolution in Iran.
Saddam worried it would spread to
Iraq.
 USA also worried about the Islamic
revolution in Iran spreading.
 USA sent weapons to Saddam, which
he used against Iran.
 Included chemical weapons, which he
used to kill 100,000 Iranians.
 ¼ million Iraqis died in the world.
Iraq went into $80 billion of debt.
5.The Situation in 1991
 Saddam had survived in power.
 US army had left Iraq.
 United Nations put strict terms on
Saddam:
o UN Resolution 678 demanded
that all Saddam’s WMDs be
destroyed, and that he had to
let a UN inspection team check
this was happening.
o UN Resolution 688 demanded
that Saddam stop attacking his
6.Saddam remained a problem because
 He obstructed UN weapons inspectors.
 He criticised the USA frequently.
 He built up good relations with
France, Russia and China, so they
would vote against any United Nations
invasion of Iraq.
 He treated his people terribly.
Malnutrition, disease and infant
mortality were high in Iraq, but
Saddam and his family lived in luxury.
 He played the different groups in Iraq
off against each other.
 He gave his close family and friends all
of the top important jobs in Iraq.
 He used bribery and threats.
 He had many opponents murdered.
2.Rise of the Ba’ath Party
 1958: Iraqi monarchy overthrown.
 1968: Ba’ath Party take control of Iraq
Rise of Saddam Hussein
 1979: Became leader of Ba’ath Party
and leader of Iraq.
 Came from poor, Sunni Muslim
background.
 Hard-working and charming.
 Ruthless with his enemies.
 500 members of his own party
executed within a year of taking over.
 Wanted to be leading figure in the
4.The First Gulf War (1991)
 Saddam’s Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1991
because:
o Iraq was in billions of $ of debt
and wanted to take control of
Kuwait’s vast oil wealth.
o Saddam wanted to show he was
still a major player in the Arab
world.
o Saddam wanted to teach
Kuwait a lesson.
o Saddam wanted to show the
strength of Iraq’s weapons.
 US President George Bush Snr led
attack on Iraqi forces and removed
Saddam’s troops from Kuwait with
ease. US killed thousands of Iraqis and
the war lasted just a few months.
 Bush initially intended to get rid of
Saddam, but stopped short of this,
hoping that Saddam’s Shi’a and
Kurdish enemies would get rid of him
themselves.
 The Shi’a and Kurds did rise up, but
ARE YOU ABLE TO DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
Why the USA supported Saddam
Hussein in the Iran/Iraq War.
Why the USA attacked Iraq in 1991.
What rules were imposed on Saddam
after the 1991 war.
How Saddam Hussein kept power.
How Saddam Hussein treated his own
people.
Why Saddam Hussein was a problem
for the USA
Key Question 3.2: Why did the USA invade Iraq in 2003?
1.George Bush Jnr
 Became President in 2001.
 Brash and headstrong.
 Prepared to act unilaterally,
and not too bothered what
the rest of the non-American world
thought about it.
 Believed if something was right for the
USA, it was automatically right.
 Controversially called Iraq, Iran and
North Korea ‘the axis of evil’.
 Particular dislike and distrust of
3.Support from UK
 British PM Tony Blair was
a strong ally and supporter
of the USA.
 Blair wanted Britain to be
the USA’s closest and most loyal
supporter.
 Provided British military and
diplomatic support for US invasion of
Iraq.
 US had plenty of other allies too such
as Spain, Italy and Australia, Poland
and Denmark, but UK was the
5.Saddam Hussein’s Behaviour
 Saddam kept disobeying
the United Nations.
 Broke the rules imposed
on him.
 Kicked weapons inspectors out of the
country.
 Now, no one knew if Saddam had
WMDs or not.
 In truth, he had no WMDs, but he
wanted people to think that he MIGHT
2.The Neo-Conservatives
 A group in the USA led
by Donald Rumsfeld and
Dick Cheney believed
that the only way to deal
with Iraq was ‘regime
change’ (getting rid of Saddam).
 Wanted to invade Iraq, remove
Saddam, take control of the country,
and then set up a democratic gov’t.
 Many of the neo-conservatives owned
oil companies, and knew that Saddam
was a threat to their wealth.
4.Failure of Iraqi people to
get rid of Saddam
 Saddam had lots of
enemies in Iraq.
 In 1998 alone, the USA gave $100
million to Saddam’s enemies to help
them get rid of him, but they had
failed.
 By 2001, the Iraqi economy was
stronger than ever and everyday life
was getting better for Iraqis.
 Saddam was now stronger than ever,
and there was no sign of Iraqi people
6.The 9/11 Attacks
 Attacks shocked USA
and convinced most
Americans of the need
for a response.
 US attacked Taliban in Afghanistan
who were sheltering Bin Laden.
 Suspicion in the USA that Saddam had
been involved in 9/11, despite there
being no evidence for this.
 Quick victory over Al Qaeda in
Afghanistan, so the USA turned its
ARE YOU ABLE TO DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
Reasons why the USA invade Iraq in
2003.
The personality of George Bush Jnr.
The role of the neoconservatives.
The attitude of Tony Blair and the UK
The strengthening of Saddam’s
position by 2001.
Saddam’s behaviour over WMDs.
Key Question 3.3: Why was there so much worldwide opposition to
the Iraq War?
1.Anger in the Muslim world
 Many Muslims believed
Iraq was only been
attacked because it was
a Muslim country.
 Many also believed that the USA was
only invading Iraq so it could control
Iraq’s massive oil reserves.
3.Absence of WMDs
 Weapons inspectors
returned to Iraq in
November 2002.
 Head of weapons
inspectors Hans Blix said there were
no WMDs in Iraq and no nuclear
weapons.
 The Americans found Iraqi informers
who told them there WERE WMDs in
Iraq.
 Blair told the British people that he
had clear evidence that Saddam had
WMDs.
 It has since been proved that there
were NO WMDs in Iraq at all. The only
debate now is whether Bush and Blair
knew this and were telling lies, or
whether they were genuinely
mistaken.
 The BBC famously said that the
reports of WMDs in Iraq had been
‘sexed up’ by the British government
to make an invasion more justifiable.
 Despite the lack of evidence of WMDs,
Bush and Blair went ahead with the
2.The War was illegal
 For an invasion to be
LEGAL, the United
Nations have to vote
in favour of it.
 2002: The UN passed a resolution
saying Saddam should face ‘serious
consequences’ if he didn’t let weapons
inspectors into Iraq, but didn’t say
what ‘serious consequences’ meant.
 Bush and Blair believed that ‘serious
consequences’ meant war.
 Many other countries (Russia, China
and France among them) criticised
Bush and Blair and said that the UN
had to pass a SECOND RESOLUTION
before any invasion could happen.
 Bush and Blair ignored the UN,
realising they would never get legal
permission to invade Iraq.
4.Opposition in the USA and UK
 Many British MPs were
Against the war because
of its illegality.
 Some important members
of Blair’s government resigned (Claire
Short, Robin Cook) because they
believed the invasion of Iraq was bad
and illegal.
 In the USA, many politicians expressed
doubts about the invasion.
 Well over a million people in Britain
joined the ‘stop the war’ protest in
London in February 2003.
ARE YOU ABLE TO DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
Reasons why there was opposition to
the invasion.
Reasons for Muslim anger.
The illegal nature of the invasion.
The issue of WMDs
The protests around the world, and in
London in particular.
Key Question 3.4: What were the key features of the Iraq War of
2003?
1.Key Facts about the war
 17th March 2003:
Bush gave Saddam
two days to leave
Iraq. He didn’t.
 ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom’ began with
a failed attempt to kill Saddam with a
bomb.
 Next came a huge air attack on Iraqi
military targets.
 130,000 US troops and 30,000 from
other coalition countries entered Iraq.
 US-led coalition defeated the Iraqis
easily because:
o They had advanced aircraft and
the Iraqis had no airforce.
o The Iraqis had no anti-aircraft
missiles.
o The Americans used the latest
technology to locate their
targets and carry out accurate
attacks.
 The immediate casualties were:
o 10,000 Iraqi armed forces.
o 6,000 Iraqi civilians
o 140 American armed forces
 Saddam fled into hiding but was
2.Immediate Consequences
of the war
 Mass looting – very
poor people took
an opportunity to
steal anything of value from hospitals,
museums, schools, universities,
factories and even homes. There was
no government and no police force to
stop this.
 Electricity supplies collapsed and dayto-day life became impossible for
millions in Iraq. Thousands of Iraqis
fled across the border into Iraq.
 Rivalries and arguments – Groups
within Iraq who were previously kept
down by Saddam’s iron fist now began
to emerge again. Iraq descended into
chaos as the different groups
3.Response of Iraqi people
 Most Iraqis were not sad to see the
back of Saddam Hussein. However:
 Millions of Iraqis now lived in chaotic
conditions with no law and order.
 Most resented the presence of
Americans, and many thought that the
Americans were to blame for the
problems.
 Most were angry at the looting and
lawlessness.
 Many Iraqis were afraid, and so they
armed themselves and looked for
groups who would protect them.
 This led to undesirable groups
becoming powerful in Iraq, and led to
ARE YOU ABLE TO DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
The key points about the war.
The consequences of the war.
The reaction of ordinary Iraqi people
to the war.
Key Question 3.5: What was the Iraqi insurgency and what was its
impact?
1.The Power Vacuum
 With Saddam gone, Iraqis turned to
various different groups for their security.
 Many turned to ancient sources of
authority such as family, tribe or local
community. But many more turned to
local warlords (little more than gangsters).
o To add to this problem, Iraq was
now full of weapons so it was easy
for local warlords to get hold of
lots of weapons and intimidate
local communities.
 Many Shi’a Iraqis turned to popular Shi’a
leader Muqtada al-Sadr. He helped to
distribute food to desperate Iraqis and
brought them some security.
o But he also set up a militia to rule
over East Baghdad, which became
known as Sadr City. He went on to
control much of Shi’a Iraq (the
south) and was regarded as a
major threat to the Americans.
 There were lots of Sunnis who were exIraqi soldiers, and they were joined in Iraq
by leading members of Al-Qaeda, who
entered the country knowing that it was
moving towards all out war between a
Muslim country (Iraq) and the Americans,
something Al Qaeda desperately wanted.
o This meant that there were now
lots of well-trained Iraqi soldiers
waiting to be led, and lots of
ideological Al-Qaeda extremists
ready to lead them. The leader of
Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) was Al5.Impact of insurgency on Iraqi people
 Average of 16 civilian deaths per DAY
from suicide bombers in 2006.
 Average salary, life expectancy and access
to clean water all dropped massively.
 Child mortality and maternal mortality
rate increased dramatically.
 Complete breakdown in law and order.
 Prisons opened and criminals escaped.
 New police force unable to cope.
 No border controls, so free access for
terrorists with weapons.
 Lots of kidnapping for profit.
 60% of country unemployed.
 Insurgents attacked oil pipes, gas depots
and power stations to stop the ‘American
Iraq’ from working.
 5 million Iraqis displaced by violence.
2.Groups within the insurgency
 Left-over members of Saddam’s
government, who were trained in warfare
and hoped for a return to power once the
Americans left.
 Sunni Muslims, who had dominated Iraq
under Saddam and feared losing their
power to the Shi’a and the Kurds. Many of
these Sunnis were leaning towards AlQaeda and Mohammad Al-Zarqawi (leader
of AQI)
 Left-over members of the Iraqi Army who
now had no army to fight for. They took
their weapons, went back to their local
communities, and ruled them through
violence and terror.
 Al-Qaeda, whose presence was growing in
Iraq. They found it easy to get in and out
of Iraq, and to get weapons in, because
there was no border control. They were
getting closer to the all-out war between
Islam and the West that they craved.
 Shi’a Muslims in the south, led by
Muqtada al-Sadr, who wanted the USA out
of Muslim lands. They received training
and weapons from Islamic Iran (a long3.Insurgents’ methods
 Roadside bomb attacks
 Sniper attacks
 Suicide bombers.
 Kidnapping and executions.
4.Reasons for insurgents’ success
 Good knowledge of the territory.
 Most were well-trained military men from
the old Iraqi Army.
 Local people were sympathetic to them
and would protect and shelter them.
ARE YOU ABLE TO DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
Why there was an insurgency.
Who the different insurgent groups
were.
The growth of Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI)
The role of Muqtada-al-Sadr
The methods used by insurgents.
Reasons why the insurgents were
successful.
How the Iraqi insurgency affected the
people of Iraq.
Key Question 3.6: Why did the invasion of Iraq go so wrong?
1.Not enough troops
 Only 130,000 US troops and 30,000 British
troops were sent. It would have needed at
least twice as many to control Iraq.
2.Bad planning
 The US military planned how to invade
Iraq and get rid of Saddam, but didn’t
really plan out what would happen
afterwards.
 When they first took over Iraq, the US set
up the Coalition Provisional Authority
(CPA) but it had no offices, no telephones
3.Underestimating the damage done to Iraq
 The US had underestimated the chaos in
Iraq after the war.
 Years of wars and sanctions had done
massive damage to Iraq.
 Railways, roads and other facilities had
been destroyed in the war.
 Computer networks and important data
had been lost or looted during the
4.Mistakes and Assumptions
 USA assumed there would be a complete
surrender by the Iraqis.
 What actually happened was Iraqi soldiers
left the army, but took their weapons and
went back in amongst the population.
 USA also assumed they would be greeted
as heroic liberators.
 What actually happened was most Iraqis
were glad to be rid of Saddam, but saw
the Americans as invaders and enemies.
 Bush and Blair continued to say the
invasion would ‘free the Iraqi people’, but
5.Wrong People and Wrong Tactics
 Paul Bremer was head of the CPA, and had
no experience of the Middle East. He made
two major mistakes:
 Firstly, he banned anyone who had been a
member of Saddam’s Ba’ath Party from
holding any position in public services.
This was a mistake because, under
Saddam, you had to join the Ba’ath Party
to even get a job, so the Americans were
in fact ruling a lot of the most able people
out of the most important jobs.
 Secondly, he got rid of the Iraqi army and
security services altogether. This put
300,000 armed and trained men out of
work and made them angry and resentful.
6.The Green Zone
 The USA based themselves in a secure area
of Baghdad called ‘The Green Zone’. It was
cut off from what was really happening in
Iraq.
 The only Iraqis they consulted were those
returning to the country who had been
kicked out by Saddam.
 75% contracts for rebuilding Iraq were
given to American companies, and only
2% to Iraqi companies. This angered the
people of Iraq as it seemed like Americans
were getting rich from the destruction
they had caused in Iraq.
 Bremer began drafting a new constitution
for Iraq, but this caused more anger. The
top Shi’a in Iraq, Ayatollah Al-Sistani, said
that it was not acceptable for foreigners to
decide the constitution of Iraq. Bremer
had to reluctantly agree.
 July 2003: Iraqi Governing Council (IGC)
was set up to voice Iraqi view and to work
on the new Iraqi constitution.
7.The Battle for the Hearts and Minds of Iraqis
 Americans were seen by most Iraqis as
occupiers and invaders.
 10,000 Iraqis were held without trial in USrun detention camps, which to the Iraqis
seemed no different to what used to
happen under Saddam.
 A scandal at the American-run Abu Ghraib
prison camp in Baghdad did further
damage to the American reputation.
Photographs were found showing
American soldiers torturing and abusing
Iraqi prisoners (who had not been found
guilty of anything).
 Mistakes and scandals such as these only
ARE YOU ABLE TO DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
The mistakes made by the Americans
and their allies in planning the war.
The wrong assumptions made.
The attitude of Iraqis to the
Americans.
The mistakes made in the aftermath
of the war.
The role of Paul Bremer
The problems over the new Iraqi
constitution
The problems with the ‘Green Zone’
Key Question 3.7: How successful was the handover to transitional
government?
1.The Transition
 Ayad Allawi was appointed (not elected)
Prime Ministerin June 2004, and made
security and an end to the insurgency his
top priority.
 He targeted armed groups but ignored
low-level violence such as violence,
kidnapping and general crime. This made
him unpopular with Iraqis, especially as
they hadn’t voted for him.
 January 2005: First Iraqi elections. Only
58% of country voted. Sunnis boycotted
the vote altogether.
 Shi’a politician Ibrahim al-Jafari became
Prime Minister, largely because no Sunnis
2.Unresolved issues
 Disagreement over the new constitution:
o Many Shi’as and some Sunnis wanted the new law to be based on Islam.
o Educated Iraqi women feared this as it would probably lead to their freedom being
restricted.
o The Kurds wanted Iraq to split up into three secular states rather than a single country.
 Ministers in the new government – Kurds, Sunnis and Shi’as, saw this as an opportunity to dominate
their historical rivals. This led to a fierce power struggle.
 Ordinary Iraqis still saw the new government as an American one, so didn’t respect it.
 Food shortages and water shortages continued.
 The new government, even with American help, could not stop the insurgency, and civilian
casualties increased even more.
ARE YOU ABLE TO
DESCRIBE & EXPLAIN:
-
-
The role of Ayad
Allawi.
The attitude of
Iraqis towards the
transitional
government.
The results of the
first Iraqi elections.
Disagreements
over the new
constitution.
The power struggle
in Iraq.
Problems faced by
Key Question 3.8: What were the consequences of the war in Iraq?
1.International Consequences
 Iraq War caused deep divisions in UK and
US governments, including many
resignations.
 The war damaged relations between the
USA and many European countries,
especially France and Russia who strongly
disapproved of the invasion.
 The war also increased support for
extremist Islamic groups around the
world, and led directly to the creation of
Islamic State.
 The war also made the USA and the UK
particular targets for terrorists (such as the
7/7/2005 attack on London).
 The Iraqi insurgency showed that a
determined terrorist movement could not
be dealt with just by America’s military
power.
 The war is internationally regarded by
most people as a badly handled mistake,
2.The Wider Signficance
 The biggest impact of the war was
obviously in Iraq – deaths, injuries,
homelessness, chaos and fear.
 The Iraq War seems to be having a
wider significance, with both sides
fighting for a bigger prize than just
the future of Iraq:
o The US saw it as a wider war
against Islamic extremists and
terrorists after 9/11, and an
opportunity to show the
world that America would not
be scared or pushed around.
o The insurgents saw it as a
wider war against the US and
its allies, and a defence of the
whole Middle East and a
defence of Islam, rather than
just a defence of Iraq itself
(remember, the country of
ARE YOU ABLE TO
DESCRIBE &
EXPLAIN:
-
-
-
The damage
done to USA
and UK’s
reputation
by the Iraq
War.
The
increased
danger to
the USA and
the UK as a
result of the
Iraq War.
International
opinion on
the Iraq War.
The impact
of the war
on Iraqis.
The ‘wider
fight’, as
International Relations 1948-2005
Key Topic 3: The Iraq War - Timeline
1918
Britain takes over the area and calls it ‘Iraq’ with a mixture of Kurds, Shi’as and
Sunni Muslims.
1932
Iraq becomes independent, but still with most oil controlled by British companies.
1958
The Iraqi monarchy is overthrown.
1968
The Ba’ath Party take control of Iraq.
1979
Saddam Hussein becomes leader of the Ba’ath Party and dictator of Iraq.
1980
Saddam’s Iraq goes to war (supported by the USA) with the Islamic Republic of
Iran. The war is long, bloody and very costly.
1991
Saddam’s Iraq invades Kuwait.
1991
USA attacks Iraqi forces following invasion of Kuwait. Iraqi forces are beaten
easily, but USA stop short of getting rid of Saddam, thinking the Iraqis will do it.
1991
The UN places certain terms and conditions on Saddam Hussein, mainly that he
has to allow weapons inspectors into Iraq.
2000
Saddam, his power restored, begins obstructing weapons inspectors, leading some
to suspect that he has WMDs.
2001
Terrorist attack on World Trade Centre in New York kills nearly 3,000. Some,
including President Bush, believe that Saddam Hussein is connected in some way.
2003
USA invades Iraq and wins the war easily. Saddam Hussein is captured.
2003-Present
2006
Chaos in Iraq. Insurgency. Different groups in Iraq at war with each other and
many also at war with US forces. Growth of Al-Qaeda in Iraq and IS (Islamic State).
Saddam Hussein executed following a long trial.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
4.USA LAND OF FREEDOM – TITLE PAGE
1.The Red Scare &
McCarthyism
2.Black Civil Rights in the
1950s
3.Black Civil Rights in the
1960s and 1970s
4.Civil Rights of other groups
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
36.RED SCARE & McCARTHYISM (1)
Key Topic 4: The Red Scare & McCarthyism
Key Question 4.1: What were the main differences between capitalist and communist beliefs?
COMMUNIST (RUSSIAN) BELIEF
People should get roughly the same pay for every job.
Everyone should have around the same wealth.
No one should be allowed to make personal profit
The government should control what is made
There is no need for any choice in consumer goods.
There should not be elections – all power to the Communists.
CAPITALIST (AMERICAN) BELIEF
People should be paid different amounts.
Some people should be richer than others if they deserve it.
Everyone should try to make personal profit.
Private individuals decide what to make according to demand.
People should be given as much choice as possible.
People should be allowed to choose who leads the country.
Key Question 4.2: How did international events lead to a Red Scare in the USA?
 1945-49: COMMUNIST TAKEOVER OF EASTERN EUROPE – Countries such as Czechoslovakia and Hungary were
taken over by Communist Russia at the end of WW2. This increased fear of Communism spreading across Europe
and the rest of the world.
 1948-49: BERLIN CRISIS – Stalin closed all routes into West Berlin in an effort to force the capitalist western nations
out of the city. In the end the Americans flew supplies into West Berlin. This increased fear and tension because it
showed that the USA and Russia were now enemies.
 1949: COMMUNIST EXPANSION INTO ASIA – This showed that Communism was spreading even more than the
Americans had feared. China became Communist, and half of Korea (the North). This increased fear of Communism
because it made Americans convinced that Communists had plans to dominate the world.
 1949: RUSSIAN ATOMIC BOMB – Until this point, the USA were the only country who had nuclear weapons, but
now the Russians had developed nuclear weapons. This increased fear of Communism because it meant the USA
was no longer necessarily the most powerful nation.
 1940s: REJECTION OF TRUMAN DOCTRINE – The USA offered financial help to all the countries of Eastern Europe to
help them recover from World War Two. The Communist countries rejected this (because Stalin told them to). This
increased fear of Communism in the USA because it again showed that Russia was now an enemy and not a friend.
Key Question 4.3: How did the Red Scare develop in the USA?
 FELP (Federal Employee Liability Programme) – This organisation was set up by the government to investigate the
backgrounds of every person who worked for the US government to try to root out Communist spies.
 J EDGAR HOOVER – In the 1940s and 50s, J Edgar Hoover was leader of the FBI. He was obsessively anti-Communist
and believed the country was being over-run by spies. He spent millions of dollars using the FBI to try to track
down Communists.
 HUAC (House of Unamerican Activities Committee) – This organisation was set up by the government to investigate
Hollywood and the film industry. They believed that Communist spies could be hiding subliminal messages in their
films.
 THE HOLLYWOOD TEN – These were ten Hollywood directors, producers and actors who refused to answer the
questions of HUAC. They believed it violated their civil rights and was an abuse of their privacy. They were put in
prison. This shows the hysteria of America at the time.
 ALGER HISS – He was a government employee who was accused of being a Communist spy. No evidence of this was
ever found, but police did find government papers hidden in a pumpkin at his house. He was sent to prison for five
years for perjury, despite no evidence to show he was a spy
 THE ROSENBERGS – These were a Jewish-American couple who were accused of being spies. There was very little
evidence against them, but because of the hysteria in America at the time they were found guilty of sending
nuclear secrets to the Russians, and executed by electric chair.
 THE McCARRAN ACT – This new law said that anyone who had ever joined the Communist Party now had to give
their details to the US government, so that the US government could keep an eye on them. It also gave the
government the right to put Communists in detention centres without trial.
 THE SUBVERSIVE ACTIVITIES CONTROL BOARD – This law increased the government’s powers to ‘spy’ on people
they thought were suspicious. It also banned people with Communist connections from working in armaments
factories.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
Key Topic 4: The Red Scare & McCarthyism
Key Question 4.4: What was the impact of McCarthyism in the USA?
McCARTHY’S CLAIMS
 McCarthy claimed he had a list of 205 communist spies working for the US government.
 Senator Tydings was put in charge of investigating McCarthy’s claims, but McCarthy accused HIM. There was no
evidence, but Senator Tydings was voted out at the next election, showing McCarthy’s power.
 Events like this were known as ‘the McCarthy witch-hunts’
McCARTHY’S METHODS
 BLACKLISTING – People would be put on a blacklist and unable to find work once McCarthy had accused them.
 THE MEDIA – McCarthy had a lot of friends in the US media who printed and publicised his claims.
 FEAR – People were too scared to stand up to McCarthy because they knew he could easily accuse them next.
 SPECIAL POWERS – McCarthy was given the power to decide if books should be withdrawn from bookshops if he
believed they had ‘Communist messages’.
McCARTHY’S FALL
 ARMY TRIALS – McCarthy went too far when he accused several army generals of being communists. The trials
were televised and the general came across as polite and nice, whereas McCarthy came across as rude and
aggressive. This meant he lost a lot of his support.
 LOSS OF POWER – President Eisenhower took over control of hunting for communists, which reduced McCarthy’s
power.
 THE INTERNATIONAL SITUATION – There was a temporary easing of tension between Russia and the USA, which
meant people were less scared in the USA.
McCARTHY’S LEGACY
 DESTROYED LIVES – People had been blacklisted.
 REDUCED FREEDOM – People were no longer allowed to be in the Communist Party.
 CLIMATE OF FEAR – People were scared to do or be anything ‘different’ for fear of being accused.
 SLANG TERMS – Such as ‘pinko’, ‘commie’ or ‘leftie’.
How did McCarthyism work?
McCarthy accuses someone
of being a Communist.
No evidence is found, and
the accused person goes
free.
Most people still
believe the accused
person is guilty.
The person is interrogated
aggressively by McCarthy
behind closed doors.
The accused person is
unable to find work or
rebuild their life.
The media support
McCarthy’s claims that the
person is a Communist.
The accused person is
blacklisted and forced to
leave their job.
People who can see through McCarthy’s
lies are too scared to say anything,
fearing they will be accused next.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
38.CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE 1950s (1)
Key Topic 5: Black Civil Rights in the 1950s
Key Question 5.1: What was the situation for African Americans immediately after the Second World
War (1945)?






JIM CROW LAWS: These laws were laws which existed in the southern states (‘the deep south’) of the USA. They
allowed segregation of various things such as schools, transport, parks, toilets and restaurants – they also did not
allow inter-racial marriage.
THE ARMED FORCES: During World War Two, millions of African Americans served in the American armed forces.
Throughout the war, the army was segregated. President Truman ended segregation in the army after WW2.
THE DOUBLE V CAMPAIGN: African Americans saw the irony of fighting against Hitler’s racist empire in Europe, but
facing racism themselves back home. So they set up the ‘Double V Campaign’ – this meant ‘V’ for ‘Victory’ over
Hitler, but also victory over racism back home in the USA.
DISCRIMINATION: Slavery had been abolished by the 14th Amendment in 1866. However, nearly 100 years later,
blacks still lived in the worst areas and faced discrimination in education and employment. They were not allowed
to attend the top universities, and always had to live with segregated, inferior facilities.
CIVIL RIGHTS GROUPS: African Americans had started to form organisations to campaign for their civil rights. The
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People) and CORE (Campaign for Racial Equality)
were set up by African Americans to stand up for their rights (usually by taking people who discriminated against
black people to court).
VOTING RIGHTS: Most Presidents and politicians did little or nothing to help black people because black people
rarely voted. This was either because of literacy tests, which prevented a lot of black people from voting by saying
only literate people could vote (many black people could not read and write because of their bad education) or
they were prevented from voting by racist violence and intimidation.
Key Question 5.2: Why was the struggle for desegregated education so important?




THE SITUATION BEFORE 1954 – Most schools in the deep south were segregated. Judge Jules Waring said that
this was ok as long as the schools were ‘separate but equal’, but in reality they never were.
BROWN v TOPEKA BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954) – Linda Brown was an 8 year old black girl in Topeka,
Kansas who had to walk several miles to her nearest black school, even though she lived next door to a
‘white’ school. Her parents took the town (Topeka) Board of Education to court, and Judge Earl Warren ruled
that she should be allowed to go to her local ‘white’ school. He ruled that segregation was illegal and
unconstitutional. This was a massive breakthrough as it meant all black children across the USA had the right
to go to their local school.
LITTLE ROCK HIGH SCHOOL (1957) – Following the Brown ruling (above), nine black students were due to
start their studies at Little Rock High School in Arkansas in September 1957. Governor of Arkansas Orval
Faubus did not want school integration, so he sent state guardsmen to prevent the students from entering
the school and the students could not get in. President Eisenhower sent US troops down to Arkansas to
ensure the students got into the school, but when they went in they suffered horrific racial and physical
abuse from students and teachers. Orval Faubus even closed the school completely for a year to try to stop
integration. In the end, the students settled at the school but Orval Faubus, the racist governor who tried to
keep segregation, was voted one of the most popular men in the USA, showing that many ordinary
Americans were still in favour of segregation. This event was important because it showed that black people
would not give in to racist intimidation.
JAMES MEREDITH AND ‘OLE MISS’ (1962) – Mississippi University (in the deep south) had never had a black
student, but in 1962 James Meredith (an African American) qualified for the university. The university tried to
stop him entering but President Kennedy sent troops down to get him in. After much fighting and rioting in
which 2 people were killed, Meredith eventually studied at the university, another important breakthrough.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
Key Topic 5: Black Civil Rights in the 1950s
Key Question 5.3: What was the significance
of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955/56)?




ROSA PARKS – Rosa Parks refused to give up
her seat on a bus for a white person and was
arrested and imprisoned.
BOYCOTT – The NAACP and Martin Luther King
set up a boycott of the bus company and also
set up the Montgomery Improvement
Association (MIA) to campaign for integration.
IMPACT OF BOYCOTT – 70% of bus users were
black, so the boycott hit the bus company
hard. However, the boycott was not easy as
people could no longer get to work or to
school. The NAACP paid for taxis to take
thousands of people to work/school to keep
the boycott going. Also, boycott leaders were
arrested and their homes attacked. Eventually,
after much publicity, the Supreme Court said
segregation on buses was illegal.
SIGNIFICANCE – The boycott showed what
non-violent direct action could achieve. It
showed what people could achieve by working
together. Martin Luther King became wellknown. White racist groups such as the KKK
stepped up violent attacks and lynchings on
black people.
Key Question 5.4: How much progress had been made in African American civil rights by 1960?





THE 1957 CIVIL RIGHTS ACT – President Eisenhower brought in the new law which said that black people
could serve on juries. He also set up the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate cases where black
people were being prevented from voting. It also gave the President the right to intervene if black people
were not being allowed to vote.
THE 1960 CIVIL RIGHTS ACT – This new law just added that people could be fined if they were preventing
black people from voting. This law did not make much difference, and many people believed that
President Eisenhower was not going to do anything to help black people because few of them voted. This
made voting rights into the key issue.
SIT-INS – These were protests where black people and white people who supported them would ‘sit in’
segregated, white-only areas in restaurants, diners or libraries, for example. This would attract publicity
and would also lead to violent attacks on them by white racists. This showed the protestors in a good
light, but it was essential that they themselves remained non-violent.
FREEDOM RIDERS – These were civil rights campaigners who rode, black and white mixed together, on
buses into the deep south. When they got there, they were often attacked and fire-bombed by the KKK
and other racist groups. This again attracted national attention and showed that the civil rights
campaigners were innocent and the white racists were the ‘bad guys’.
BY 1960 – Civil rights was now front page news, and slow, gradual progress was being made. The USA was
still an unfair, unequal and very racist country though. The 1960s was to be the golden era for civil rights.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
Key Topic 6: Black Civil Rights in the 1960s
Key Question 6.1: WHAT WAS THE ROLE OF MARTIN LUTHER KING?
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IDEAS & METHODS: Believed in non-violent protest and direct action such as sit-ins, freedom rides and boycotts. He was
leader of the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) which organised non-violent protests about black civil
rights.
INCREASING SUPPORT: MLK’s methods appealed to students, and he helped to set up the SNCC (Student Non-violent
Co-ordinating Committee). Many members of the SNCC dropped out of university to work for the SNCC full time. The
SNCC was similar to the SCLC in its aims, but was even more deliberately provocative.
THE VOTER EDUCATION PROJECT: MLK organised a meeting of SNCC, CORE, SCLC and NAACP – all four civil rights groups
– with Attorney-General Robert Kennedy. Together they set up the Voter Education Project, designed at getting more
black people to vote.
BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA (1963): MLK organised a march in the racist, segregated town of Birmingham in Alabama,
aiming to bring national attention to the racist segregation there. The town’s racist police chief, Bull Connor, turned
dogs and fire-hoses on the peaceful protestors and over 1,000 protestors were arrested (including King). The police’s
behaviour had the effect that MLK had intended – massive increase in support for civil rights campaigners across the
country, which in turn put pressure on the president to help black people. The police looked brutal and violent, and the
protestors looked like innocent, peaceful people who had been attacked.
THE MARCH ON WASHINGTON (1963): MLK organised a march of 200,000 blacks and 50,000 whites to the White House
in Washington to put pressure on President Kennedy to introduce a Civil Rights Bill (new laws to help black people). The
event snowballed and became famous across the world, and MLK gave his famous ‘I have a dream speech’. This was the
pinnacle of the civil rights movement.
FREEDOM SUMMER (1964) – Thousands of people across the country joined protests for African American civil rights,
and 430,000 African-Americans registered to vote for the first time. Black people were making a lot of progress, but not
fast enough for some.
SELMA (1965) – MLK organised a march through Selma to protest against racist sheriff Jim Clark. Marchers were
attacked by police and racist white groups. This became known as ‘Bloody Sunday’. King organised another march but
compromised with the police by moving it away from the town. This turned a lot of black Americans against MLK as
they thought he wasn’t fighting hard enough.
VOTING RIGHTS BILL (1968) – This new law, brought about by MLK-led protests, said that government agents would
inspect voting procedures in every state to make sure they were fair, and also ended literacy tests which had stopped a
lot of black people from voting. The vote was very important because, if black people voted, it would force the
president to listen to their concerns.
Key Question 6.2: WHAT WAS THE ROLE OF MALCOLM X AND THE BLACK POWER
MOVEMENT?
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IDEAS & METHODS OF MALCOLM X: Believed that black people should TAKE their rights rather than BEG for them. Malcolm X
accused MLK of behaving like a white man and encouraging white men to continue discriminating. MX wanted black people to
TAKE their rights ‘by any means necessary’. He referred to white people as ‘the devil’. Ultimate aim was a return of all black
people to Africa. MX believed in segregation whereas MLK believed in integration. MX believed MLK’s progress was too slow
and would never achieve equality. MX encouraged violence in self-defence, believing that whites would never listen to reason.
BACKGROUND & AIMS OF MALCOLM X: MX came from a very poor background and had spent time in prison, whereas MLK
came from a religious, wealthy background and had been to university.MX was from the north of the USA where blacks lived in
poverty whereas MLK was from the south where they were subjected to violent racist attacks. MX’s aims were to solve more
immediate problems such as poverty and lack of jobs, whereas MLK focused on more long-term things such as education and
voting rights, which wouldn’t make a difference straight away. In a way, both had similar aims (equality, end to discrimination,
etc), but had very different methods. Both were assassinated (MX by a black man in 1965; MLK by a white racist in 1968). MX
had begun to soften his views before his death, which angered many of his followers.
GROWTH OF ‘BLACK POWER’: During the race riots (see next page), Stokely Carmichael and other members of the SNCC
wanted blacks to take power for themselves. He wanted blacks to have pride in their heritage and promoted African forms of
dress and appearance. Carmichael left the SNCC and became associated with the Black Panthers before moving to Africa in
1969. The Black Power movement got publicity at the 1968 olympics when the US relay team all gave Black Power salutes and
were kicked out of the US Olympic team and received death threats.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
Key Topic 6: Black Civil Rights in the 1960s
Key Question 6.2 (continued):
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RACE RIOTS (1965-67) – Despite the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act, many black Americans were unhappy with high
rates of unemployment, poverty, discrimination and police violence. In August 1965, this frustration exploded onto the
streets with a major riot in the Watts District of LA, leaving 34 dead and 10,000 injured. 4,000 people were arrested and $40
million of damage caused. Race riots continued across America, peaking in 1967 when there were riots in 125 US cities. The
two largest were in Newark (26 killed, 1,000 injured) and Detroit (40 killed, 1,000 injured, 7,000 arrested). The riots in total
cost the USA $700 million.
THE BLACK PANTHERS – Inspired by Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam movement, the Black Panthers were a uniformed and
armed group with 2,000 members. They were set up by Huey Newton and Bobby Searle, both of whom were heavily
influenced by Malcolm X, in response to racist attacks on black people. They often clashed violently with police. Nine police
officers were killed between 1967 and 1969. The Black Panthers were the most extreme aspect of Black Power, and some
believed that the USA was on the brink of civil war at this point. They were prepared to work with white racist groups if this
would help to prevent integration and bring down the American system. The Black Panthers wanted an end to capitalism and
to create a Socialist society. They carried weapons and wore uniforms. In 1969, 27 Panthers were killed. They were harassed
by the police. The group stopped having so much influence in the 1970s, and ceased to exist in 1982.
THE NATION OF ISLAM – One of the main influences in the Black Power Movement was the Nation of Islam or ‘the Black
Muslims’. They wanted segregation and abandoned their ‘slave names’ (e.g. Malcolm Little changed his name to Malcolm X).
They believed in Islam rather than MLK’s Christianity. 75% of the members of the Nation of Islam were black men aged 17-35.
The leader of the NAACP Thurgood Marshall called them ‘a bunch of thugs organised from prisons’, and many members of
the civil rights movement did not approve of the Nation of Islam as they were seen as anti-white racists. Elijah Mohammed
was leader of the Nation of Islam but its most famous member was Malcolm X, until he softened his views after visiting
Mecca and started to believe in integration (shortly before his assassination). Three members of the Nation of Islam
assassinated Malcolm X in 1965.
Key Question 6.3: How much progress was made
under President Kennedy (1960-1963):
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ACHIEVEMENTS – JFK wanted to make improvements and
genuinely supported blacks in their quest for civil rights.
He put forward the Civil Rights Bill in 1963 before his
assassination.
SHORTCOMINGS – Unemployment remained twice as high
for black people. Many blacks moved north to get away
from the racist south, causing racial tension in the north.
Southern states ignored a lot of JFK’s integration laws. JFK
began to do less about civil rights once he realised it was
losing him southern support.
Key Question 6.4: How much progress was
made under President Johnson (1963-1968):
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Key Question 6.5: How much progress was made
under President Nixon (1968-74)?:
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ACHIEVEMENTS – Introduced affirmative action, which
forced companies and universities to accept a certain
number of blacks.
SHORTCOMINGS – Stopped the system of ‘bussing’, which
had been set up to help achieve a racial balance in
southern schools. Did very little for civil rights in general
for fear of losing his support in the south.
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CIVIL RIGHTS ACT 1964: Put forward by JFK
and signed by Johnson in 1964. Made it illegal
for states to discriminate in housing and
employment. Banned segregation and ended
bans on inter-racial marriages.
ACHIEVEMENTS – Appointment of first ever
black person to White House Cabinet and
Supreme Court. Immigration Act 1965 ended
racial quotas on immigration to USA. Johnson
set up government-funded healthcare for
elderly and families on low incomes.
Increased minimum wage from $1.25 to
$1.40. Increased funding with Aid to Families
with Dependent Children (AFDC). Set up
VISTA programme to get people jobs in poor
inner-city areas. Provided funding for schools
in poor areas and Model Cities Act 1966
helped to clean slums and provided parks and
sport facilities.
SHORTCOMINGS – Did not have JFK’s
charisma or popularity. Criticised by some for
spending too much on civil rights and welfare,
criticised by others for not spending enough.
Led USA into Vietnam which took attention
away from civil rights.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
Key Topic 7: Civil Rights of Other Groups
Key Question 7.1 – What was the impact of WW2 on women?
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WORK – By 1945, one third of industrial workers were women (there were hardly any
before the war).
ARMED FORCES – Over 350,000 women served in the army and 6 million worked in
production factories.
WOMEN’S ROLE IN SOCIETY – Women proved they could do jobs in male-dominated
areas such as shipyards. When men returned at the end of the war, some women
resented losing that independence that a salary had given them (though others left
work willingly). Women were still generally excluded from the top jobs though and
earned only 50-60% of what a man would earn for the same work.
Key Question 7.2 – How did the Women’s Movement Develop in the 1950s & 1960s?
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WOMEN ROLE IN THE 1950s – By the 1950s, women were losing the progress they had made during the war. Women were
being encouraged to adopt traditional family roles and be ‘typical’ mothers. Women who worked were treated with suspicion
from the rest of society, as were unmarried women.
WOMEN’S ACTION IN THE 1950s – Many middle class women became frustrated with their housewife role and felt there must
be more to life than looking for a husband then bringing up children. By this time, women were much better educated in
general, but their choices of work were very limited once they got married.
THE 1960s – Many female teenagers were influenced by the ‘Swinging 60s’ in which they were encouraged to rebel and
challenge traditional lifestyles.
THE PILL - The contraceptive pill enabled women to postpone having children, allowing them to have a career if they wanted.
ELEANOR ROOSEVELT - Eleanor Roosevelt made an important contribution when she ordered a commission into the status of
women at work – she had long been a supporter of female rights but now President Kennedy appointed her officially to look
into women’s role in the USA. The report of the commission revealed that 95% of company managers were men, and 85% of
technical workers were men. Only 7% of doctors and 4% of lawyers were women, and women were earning half the wages of
a man who did the same job.
THE FEMININE MYSTIQUE – This was a book written by Betty Frieden which put into words the thoughts of many women at
the time about how there should be more to life than just being a housewife. Frieden called on women to stop being
‘traditional women’ and to demand equality in the workplace. She also demanded that bringing up a family should be a
shared role between husband and wife.
LIMITED PROGRESS – The 1963 Equal Pay Act & 1964 Civil Rights Act made slight improvements to women’s position.
NATIONAL ORGANISATION OF WOMEN (NOW) – This organisation was set up in 1966 to campaign for women’s rights.
Key Question 7.3 – What progress did the women’s movement achieve?
Date
1963
Key Development
Equal Pay Act
Achievement
Women to be paid the same as men.
1964
Civil Rights Act
Illegal to discriminate on grounds of gender
1966
National Organisation for
Women (NOW)
Set up by middle class white women to attack
discrimination. Organised demonstrations. Got
some back-pay for women who had been
underpaid.
1967
Sport
1972
Education Act
Previously, women had not been allowed to
compete in marathons but a woman entered in
1967. 2 years later, this was legalised.
Stopped discrimination in education.
Limitation
Did not address
discrimination against
women in job interviews.
Equal Opportunities
Commission did not take sex
discrimination seriously.
Methods were too moderate
and slow for some
campaigners, and
discrimination was hard to
prove.
Female tennis players were
still played less money than
male tennis players.
Took a long time to become
law.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
Key Topic 7: Civil Rights of Other Groups
Key Question 7.4 – How did the women’s movement develop in the 1970s?
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WOMEN’S LIBERATION MOVEMENT – With more radical aims than NOW, they were also known as ‘feminists’ and were
much more active in challenging discrimination. All signs of male supremacy were to be removed, including male
control of employment, politics and the media. They believed in wearing no make-up and burnt their bras as a symbol
of rebellion against female enslavement. In 1968, they picketed the Miss America beauty contest. They had much
support, but also attracted much ridicule and criticism, and ultimately became a distraction from the real issues of the
women’s movement (pay, education, equal opportunities, etc).
THE CAMPAIGN TO LEGALISE ABORTION – Abortion was illegal in the USA. Feminists challenged this, saying it aws
wrong to force women to have a child they didn’t want. Estelle Griswold challenged the abortion laws in Connecticut.
Her lawyers argued that preventing her having an abortion was against her right to privacy. They won the case. Jane
Roe had three children, all of which had to be taken into care, and when she fell pregnant again she wanted an
abortion. Again, she won her right to an abortion in court, and this changed the law for all women on abortioni.
OPPOSITION TO THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT – Some women opposed the women’s movement because they believed
NOW was dominated by middle class white women. Others objected to the extreme demands and methods of the
Women’s Libbers, and many women actually approved of the ‘traditional role’. Other women were anti-abortion, which
brought them into disagreement with the women’s movement. The most influential opponent to the women’s
movement was Phyllis Schlafly, who set up STOP ERA. ERA was the Equal Rights Amendment Act to change the
constitution to give women equal rights. Schlafly disapproved of this because ERA would require women to fight in
wartime, which she felt would damage family values and family life. She was successful in stopping ERA being passed.
Key Question 7.5 - Why were there so many Hispanics in the USA
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MEXICAN AMERICANS – By far the biggest group of Hispanics in the USA were the MexicanAmericans. Mexico was right on the border of the USA and Mexican immigrants came into
the USA throughout the 20th century, particularly in the 1930s (after the Depression) and
then again during the Second World War (plenty of jobs). Mexico was very poor compared
to the USA and Mexicans were attracted by the ‘American Dream’ of better work and
higher wages, which could then be sent to their family back home.
FARM WORK – The most common place for Mexicans to find work was on farms as many
Mexicans had experience of working on farms back in Mexico. The 1942 Bracero Program
brought in by the US government brought thousands of Mexicans to work on American
farms as labourers in areas such as Texas, Arizona, California and New Mexico The program
continued until 1964, at which point many Mexicans decided to stay and settle in the USA
rather than go back to Mexico as had been intended.
IMMIGRATION & NATIONALITY ACT 1965 – This new law allowed farmers’ families to come
from Mexico to join them – led to much more immigration.
ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION – As well as the many Mexicans who entered the USA legally, there
were many of illegal immigrants. By 1978, there were around 7 million Hispanics in the USA
(with 1 million in Los Angeles alone).
Key Question 7.6 – What was Chicano Nationalism?
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DISCRIMINATION FACED BY HISPANICS - Similar discrimination to black Americans – high unemployment, bad treatment
and low wages in the work place, poor housing, educational segregation and discrimination by police (and police
brutality). Discouraged from voting or joining trade unions or political parties. Very few Mexican-Americans involved in
politics – very few voted, and very few stood for election – so very few people would fight Hispanics’ corner.
CHICANO NATIONALISM – REIES TIJERINA – Mexican Americans began to see themselves as separate and refer to
themselves as ‘Chicanos’. Chicano Nationalism grew in the form of asserting national pride and identity. In the mid1960s Reies Tijerina launched a legal campaign to return large areas of land in New Mexico to Chicanos. This was
rejected, so Tijerina led a raid on a court house in New Mexico. Despite the failure, it showed the problems facing
Chicanos in the USA and encouraged young Chicanos to value their background and identity.
CHICANO NATIONALISM – RODOLFO ‘CORKY’ GONZALES – Gonzales founded the Crusade for Justice in Denver. He was
part of Martin Luther King’s Poor People’s Campaign aimed at ending discrimination in the USA. Gonzales led Chicanos
on a protest march in Washington in 1968 to protest against racism, poverty and the Vietnam War.
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975
44.CIVIL RIGHTS OF OTHER GROUPS (3)
Key Topic 7: Civil Rights of Other Groups
Key Question 7.6 (continued) – What was Chicano Nationalism?
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CESAR CHAVEZ – Chavez was the most famous of the Chicano campaigners – he believed in peaceful protest. He was cofounder of the United Farm Workers (UFW) which represented Hispanic farm labourers. In 1966, he led a strike by
Californian grape-pickers for higher wages and safer working conditions, and went on hunger strike himself. The UFW
called on the USA to boycott grapes in protest at the treatment of grape-pickers. The strike attracted national attention.
Most farm-workers got better pay and working conditions as a result of the strike, but Hispanics remained one of the
poorest and most discriminated-against groups in American society.
HIGH-SCHOOL BLOW-OUTS – Very few Chicanos went onto college courses after high school due to high school drop-out
rates. Chicanos were segregated from white students and suffered from poor equipment and poor buildings. There was a
lack of Hispanic teachers and young Hispanics had to learn a curriculum that was largely irrelevant to them. In 1968,
20,000 students walked out of schools in Los Angeles. It was successful as it gained lots of media attention. Robert
Kennedy spoke to the drop-outs’ leaders, but nothing changed (despite more walk outs in 1971-74). There were also
violent clashes between students and police, who had been brought in to force students back to school.
Key Question 7.7 – What problems did Native Americans face in the USA?
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RESERVATIONS – Native Americans were forced to live on reservations with no job
opportunities, poor education and no prospects. This led to high rates of alcoholism,
mental health problems, economic problems, illiteracy and crime – the highest rates among
any American group.
MIGRATION TO TOWNS – By 1980, there were 1 million Native Americans, many of whom
had migrated to US towns to find work. A government programme was set up to help this
but they met the same discrimination and problems as other minorities. Most returned to
the reservations disappointed.
FORCED STERILISATION – In the 1970s, the US government made Native American women
undergo forced sterilisation. One sad story tells how a Native American woman in 1972
walked into a doctor’s surgery and asked for a ‘womb transplant’, because she did not
know that sterilisation was permanent. 25% of Native American women were sterilised.
Key Question 7.8 – How did Native Americans protest?
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RED POWER – In 1969, a female Native American wrote a book called ‘Custer died for your sins’. In this book she
attacked the US government for how it had treated Native Americans, and demanded ‘Red Power’ (just like Black Power
– see pages 38-39).
AIM – The American Indian Movement (AIM) was a group of Native American protestors. In 1969 they occupied Alcatraz
Island and demanded that the US government sell it to them for $24 (the same price a white settler had paid the Native
Americans for New York in 1600).
MARCH ON WASHINGTON – In 1972, native Americans marched to Washington in protest at their treatment, and took
over the offices of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (the government department in charge of Native Americans. The Bureau
had been doing a very bad job of looking after Native Americans.
WOUNDED KNEE – In 1973, Native American protestors occupied the trading post at Wounded Knee saying it had to
become an independent Native American land (Wounded Knee was where hundreds of Native Americans were
massacred by the US Army in 1890). They demanded an end to segregation and an end to the Bureau of Indian Affairs,
accusing its boss Dick Wilson of stealing money from it to build his own private army. They also wanted to draw
attention to the bad situation of Native Americans. The siege lasted 71 days with 2 deaths. It attracted huge public
interest and forced the government to act.
GOVERNMENT ACTION – In 1969, President Nixon appointed a Native American as Commissioner for Indian Affairs and
returned 48,000 acres of sacred land to Native Americans. In 1974, the Indian Child Welfare Act was passed which
prevented children from being taken away from reservations and forced to go to white schools. The 1975 Self
Determination Act ended the policy of integration and allowed Native Americans to govern themselves (while still
receiving help and protection from the US government).
USA Land of Freedom? 1945-1975 - Timeline
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1942 – Double V Campaign launched by African Americans.
1942 – Bracero Program introduced to bring Mexican farm labourers to the USA.
1945 – End of Second World War. Communist takeover of Eastern Euope.
1947 – Communist countries of Eastern Europe reject American help in the Truman Doctrine.
1947 – Creation of FELP (Federal Employee Liability Programme)
1947 – The imprisonment of the Hollywood Ten
1948/49 – Berlin Crisis. USA and Russia almost go to war with each other over West Berlin.
1949 – Communist expansion into Asia – China and North Korea become Communist.
1949 – Russians create and test their first atomic bomb.
1950 – Creation of the McCarran Act and the Subversive Activities Control Board
1953 – Execution of the Rosenbergs as communist spies
1954 – Army hearings in which McCarthy’s reputation was destroyed.
1954 – Brown v Topeka case
1955 – Arrest of Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott (lasting until 1956)
1957 – Little Rock High School (‘the Little Rock Nine’)
1957 – First Civil Rights Act passed.
1960 – Second Civil Rights Act passed.
1961 – Contraceptive pill becomes available
1962 – James Meredith and Ole’ Miss (Mississippi University)
1963 – March in Birmingham, Alabama
1963 – March on Washington and the ‘I Have a Dream’ Speech
1963 – Civil Rights Bill proposed
1963 – President Kennedy assassinated
1963 – Johnson becomes President
1963 – Equal Pay Act
1963 – Publication of ‘The Feminine Mystique’ by Betty Friedan.
1964 – The Freedom Summer
1964 – Third Civil Rights Act passed.
1964 – End of Bracero Program
1965 – Voting Rights Bill proposed
1965 – Selma – Bloody Sunday
1965 – Assassination of Malcolm X
1965 – Immigration & Nationality Act
1965 – Race Riots – lasting until 1967
1966 – Creation of National Organisation for Women (NOW)
1966 – Grape-pickers strike led by Cesar Chavez
1967 – Black Panthers rise to prominence (9 police officers killed by 1969)
1968 – Voting Rights Act passed
1968 – Black Power salutes at Mexico Olympics
1968 – Women’s Liberation Movement picket the Miss World beauty contest
1968 – Hispanic March on Washington led by Rodolfo ‘Corky’ Gonzales
1968 – Assassination of Martin Luther King
1968 – Nixon elected president
1968 – Hispanic High School Blow-Outs
1969 – Publication of ‘Custer Died for Your Sins’
1969 – Native American occupation of Alcatraz Island
1972 – Education Act stops discrimination in education
1972 – Native American March on Washington
1973 – Native American occupation of Wounded Knee
1974 – Indian Child Welfare Act
1975 – Roe v Wade – legalisation of abortion
1975 – Self Determination Act
The Red Scare &
McCarthyism
Civil Rights in the
1950s
Civil Rights in the
1960s & 1970s
Civil Rights of
other groups
44.NEW WORLD PAST QUESTIONS (LANDSCAPE)
45.LAND OF FREEDOM PAST QUESTIONS (LANDSCAPE)
How do I answer exam questions?
‘DESCRIBE’-type
questions (4 marks)
These are the simplest questions on the exam. You will have to
answer two of these questions. This is the ONLY question in
which you can just list factors and the ONLY one in which you
can use bullet points. You should DEFINITELY use bullet points
as this will save time.
Example Question – Describe the methods of the Black Panthers (June 2015 question)
This answer would score
4 out of 4 because it
also has 4 specific,
separate points.
CANDIDATE ONE
 They wore uniforms.
 They carried guns.
 They frequently clashed with police.
 They wanted people to be proud of being black.
This answer would also
score 4 out of 4 because
it also has 4 specific,
separate points.
CANDIDATE TWO
 They wore uniforms.
 They carried guns and said they were going to defend the black
community.
 They frequently clashed with police.
This answer would also
score 2 out of 4. It has 3
ACCURATE points, but
only 2 of them are
RELEVANT to the
question.
This answer would score
full marks – 4 out of 4.
HOWEVER, this candidate
has wasted 5 or 6 minutes
writing this answer, when
they could have got
exactly the same mark (4
out of 4) in less than a
minute if they had done
bullet points like
Candidates One and Two.
CANDIDATE THREE
The Black Panthers were a group of people who lived in the USA during the time
of civil rights campaigns. They were created by Bobby Searle and Huey Newton.
They were military uniforms and they carried guns which they would use to
protect themselves if they got into fights.
CANDIDATE FOUR
The Black Panthers wore military-style uniforms. This made them seem like a
paramilitary army. This caused a lot of fear in communities and led them to get
into a lot of fights with police. For example, on 4th December 1969, between 4
and 4:30am, a fight broke out between police and black panthers in Illinois and 3
Black Panthers and 2 policemen were killed, and several more injured. They also
carried guns, which added to the fear as most people in America were not
armed at that time, and it made black people appear more threatening than
they did when following Martin Luther-King’s non-violent beliefs. They wanted
to promote a black pride, and a sense of black people’s heritage, encouraging
African-style dress and encouraging people to be ‘black and proud.
How do I answer exam questions?
‘EXPLAIN’-type questions
(6 marks or 8 marks)
You will have to answer 3 of these questions (two 6
markers and one 8 marker) on the exam. You need a
MULTI-CAUSAL explanation with each factor backed up
with specific CK. For 8 markers, try to explain THREE
different factors for the top marks.
Example Question – Explain why there was opposition to the invasion of Iraq in 2003. (6) (June 2015)
This answer would
score full marks – 6
out of 6 – because it is
a MULTI-CAUSAL
EXPLANATION with
SPECIFIC DETAILS.
Make sure you have two,
clearly separate factors. This
will ensure that you have a
MULTI-CAUSAL argument
(Level 3 once you add
contextual knowledge). Put
more than two if you feel able
to. For eight markers, try to
have at least three.
This answer would be
stuck in Level 1 (2 out
of 6) because the
candidate has just
listed reasons rather
than explained them.
Firstly, there was opposition to the invasion because
many believed that the war was legal. In 2002, the UN
had passed a resolution saying that Saddam should face
‘serious consequences’ if he obstructed weapons
inspectors in Iraq, but they didn’t specify what ‘serious
consequences’ meant. Bush and Blair wanted to go to
war with Iraq, so they took ‘serious consequences’ to
mean invasion. Most other countries believed that the
UN had not given permission to the USA and Britain to
invade Iraq, so the invasion was illegal, which made
people angry about the war.
Secondly, there was opposition because of the lack of
WMDs in Iraq. Head of weapons inspector Hans Blix
said there were no WMDs in Iraq, but Blair and Bush
chose to believe an Iraqi informer instead – an informer
who said that Saddam did have WMDs. The British
government was accused of exaggerating (‘sexing up’)
this ‘evidence’ so they could justify going to war, and
government ministers Claire Short and Robin Cook
resigned. It also led many people around the world to
think that Bush and Blair had been lying along, and
therefore they opposed the war.
CANDIDATE TWO
There was opposition to the invasion because Muslims
were angry about a Muslim country being attacked.
Also people were angry because there was no evidence
of WMDs. Many people also believed the war was
illegal.
At this point this is a monocausal answer (Level 2)
Give SPECIFIC CK whenever
possible.
Now it is a multi-causal
explanation (more than one
cause explained), and therefore
in Level 3. The specific CK puts it
at the top of Level 3.
Notice how, in this answer, there
is no contextual knowledge. It
has been answered in the style of
a four marker, with just a list of
reasons.
MARK SCHEME FOR EIGHT MARKERS
Level 3 – Multi-causal explanation with CK given for at least
two factors (three factors with developed and specific CK
for 8 marks; two factors with developed and specific CK for
7 marks; 2 or more factors with general CK for 6 marks)
MARK SCHEME FOR SIX MARKERS
Level 3 – Multi-causal explanation with CK
given for at least two factors (developed
and specific CK for 6 marks; general CK for 5
marks)
Level 2 – Mono-causal explanation with CK
given (developed and specific CK for 4
marks; general CK for 3 marks)
6 = A*
Level 1 – Mentioned or described
5=A
valid reason(s) (two or more
4=C
factors for 2 marks; one factor for 1)
It only becomes an ‘explanation’
when you make a P-E-E
paragraph like this. Make your
point, add contextual knowledge,
then link it back to the question.
3=D
2=E
1=G
0=U
Level 2 – Mono-causal explanation with CK given
(developed and specific CK for 5 marks;
8 = A*
general CK for 4 marks; basic CK for 3)
7=A
6=B
Level 1 – Mentioned or described valid
5=C
reason(s) (two or more factors for 2
marks; one factor for 1 mark)
4=D
3=E
2=F
1=G
0=U
How do I answer exam questions?
‘MESSAGE’-type questions
(6 marks or 7 marks)
For this type of question, you will need to answer one 7
marker and one 6 marker. You NEED to be aware of
what this question is asking you – not only do you have
to explain the message of the source, you MUST USE
CONTEXTUAL KNOWLEDGE AS WELL!
Example Question – Study Source A. What is the message of this cartoon. Use details of the source and
your own knowledge to explain your answer. (June 2013)
Describe the source in a
sentence at the beginning. This
guarantees a mark. You don’t
need to do this if you’re VERY
confident about the rest of the
question.
This would be a Level 5 answer (7
out of 7) because it gives the
MAIN message of the source and
supports it with DETAILED and
SPECIFIC CK, linking that CK to the
cartoon.
If you can, try to link your contextual
knowledge directly to the cartoon.
The source shows a defenceless old lady being brutally
beaten up by a man, with a policeman watching on and
supporting the violent man. The main message of this
source is that Russia, represented by the policeman, is
backing up the cruel Polish government (represented by
the violent man) against Solidarity (represented by the old
lady). The message is that the cartoonist disapproves of
Russia’s actions, as what the man is doing in the cartoon is
clearly bad, yet Russia is allowing it and in fact even
supporting it. Another message could be that Russia
approves of violence to crush Solidarity. Another message
could be that Solidarity has done nothing wrong and does
not deserve to be treated like this.
Solidarity was a trade union in Poland led by Lech Walesa
which had 9.4 million members. The Communist
government of Poland at first allowed Solidarity to exist
because they did not want to be unpopular with the Polish
people but eventually the Communist puppet leader
General Jaruzelski turned on Solidarity. Its leaders were
arrested and beaten up, despite having done nothing
wrong, as represented by the cartoon, and Solidarity was
banned. This showed the world that Communist
governments could only survive through force, violence
and brutality, as represented by the man in the cartoon.
MARK SCHEME FOR A SEVEN MARKER
Level 5 – Identify the MAIN message of the
source and add specific CK linked to the cartoon
(7)
Level 4 – Identify the MAIN message of the
source and add CK (specific for 6 marks; general
for 5 marks) (5-6)
Level 3 – Identify a SUB message of the cartoon
and add CK (specific for 4 marks; general for 3
marks) (3-4)
Level 2 – Identify the MAIN
message or a SUB message
of the cartoon (2)
Level 1 – Describe cartoon
at face value (1)
7 = A*
6=A
5=B
4=C
3=D
2=E
1=G
0=U
There is no real difference
between a six-marker and
a seven-marker in terms of
how you should answer it.
The seven-marker will be a
compulsory question in the
International Relations
section, and the six-marker
will be a compulsory
question in the Land of
Freedom section. Just
remember, for both
questions, you need a
paragraph on the message
of the source, and another
paragraph of contextual
knowledge (linking the two
together for the top mark).
Identify the main
message of the source as
soon and as clearly as you
can.
If you’re not sure about
the message, give a few
different messages. It
doesn’t matter if some of
them are wrong, as long
as one of them’s right.
Then in your second
paragraph you add
contextual knowledge.
MARK SCHEME FOR A SIX MARKER
Level 5 – Identify the MAIN message of the
source and add specific CK linked to the
cartoon (6)
Level 4 – Identify the MAIN message of the
source and add CK (5)
Level 3 – Identify a SUB message of the
cartoon and add CK (specific for 4 marks;
general for 3 marks) (3-4)
Level 2 – Identify the MAIN
message or a SUB message
of the cartoon (2)
Level 1 – Describe
cartoon at face value (1)
6 = A*
5=A
4=C
3=D
2=E
1=G
0=U
How do I answer exam questions?
‘PURPOSE’-type questions
(7 marks)
There will only be one of these type of questions on
the exam. It will be in the compulsory bit of the Land of
Freedom section. It is similar to a ‘message of the
source’ question, but then with an extra bit about the
PURPOSE of the source (with CK of course).
Example Question – Study Source B. Why was this cartoon published in 1962? (7 marks)
Just like the message question,
start by describing the source
briefly. This is a Level 1 answer
at this point. This bit is not
necessary if you are confident
in the rest of your answer.
At this point it is a Level 2
answer, because they have the
message but there is no
contextual knowledge.
This is SPECIFIC contextual
knowledge because it gives
actual facts and details – such
as saying Linda Brown was 8
years old or saying that she
had to walk 5 miles to school.
This would be a Level 4
answer (7 out of 7)
because it identifies the
message & purpose of the
source, and supports it
with detailed CK.
The source shows a little black girl saying that it is eight
years since the Supreme Court ruled that segregation was
illegal. She is sat outside a school called ‘Jim Crow School’.
The main message of this cartoon is that, despite the
court’s decision in 1954 in Brown v Topeka that
segregation in schools was illegal, schools were
continuing with segregation in some areas of the USA –
particularly the south. The school is called ‘Jim Crow
School’ because the Jim Crow Laws were the old laws in
some American states which kept black and white people
separate (this was called segregation). In 1954 the family
of an 8 year old girl called Linda Brown took the Topeka
Board of Education to court. They felt it was unfair that
Linda had to walk eight miles through dangerous places to
get to her nearest ‘black’ school, when there was a
‘white’ school just yards from her house. The court ruled
in the family’s favour, but years later many schools had
carried on with segregation, and it was difficult for black
people to get access to ‘white’ schools, such as in the case
of Little Rock High School where black people were
abused as they tried to use their legal right to go to their
local school.
The purpose of this cartoon is to convince people that not
enough is being done to ensure that segregation has
ended. It is meant to shock people that segregation is still
going on, and make them feel sorry for the black girl who
is not allowed into the school even though the law says
she should be.
MARK SCHEME
Level 4 – Identify the MAIN PURPOSE of the cartoon and add CK (specific and
developed CK for 7 marks; more general for 6 marks) (6-7)
Level 3 – Identify the MAIN MESSAGE of the cartoon and add CK (specific and
developed CK for 5 marks; more general for 4 marks) (4-5)
Level 2 – Identify a SUB-MESSAGE or the MAIN MESSAGE,
or a SUB-PURPOSE or the MAIN PURPOSE, but without
CK (main for 3 marks; sub for 2 marks)
Level 1 – Describe cartoon at face value
7 = A*
6=A
5=B
4=C
3=D
2=E
1=G
0=U
Next you need to explain
what the MESSAGE of the
source is.
Now that plenty of CK has
been added, it is a Level 3
answer (message of the
source together with
contextual knowledge).
And now the purpose has
been identified, it is a Level
4 answer – main purpose
supported by contextual
knowledge.
How do I answer exam questions?
‘JUDGEMENT’-type
questions
(10 marks or 7 marks)
There will be one source-based question where you have to make a
judgement using your own knowledge and the source (in the compulsory
Land of Freedom section, worth 7 marks). There will also be two
questions each worth 10 marks where you have to make a judgement
with no sources. You will have to choose one in the Land of Freedom
section and one in the International Relations section.
Example Question – How successfully have governments responded to terrorism? Explain your answer with
reference to specific terrorist groups. (January 2011)
In some ways, governments have been successful when dealing with terrorism. For example, the
British government was able to negotiate with the IRA in order to bring about the Good Friday
Agreement in 1998. This agreement gave some power to the Catholics in Ireland but also brought
about a permanent ceasefire from the IRA. In this respect the British government was successful.
The British government was also successful in using covert operations to deal with the IRA. They
used informers, spies and technology to stop the IRA before they carried out their attacks. For
example, six unarmed suspected IRA terrorists were shot in Gibraltar by British security forces in
1988 because the British had evidence that the men were planning a terrorist attack.
This would be a Level 5
answer (10 out of 10) because
it gives detailed CK on both
sides of the argument, and
then gives a strong conclusion
with a ‘clinching argument’.
The Israeli government has also been successful at times in dealing with the PLO. They have used
targeted assassinations such as the killing of PLO Commander Abi Jihad in 1998. They have also
successfully used missiles or aircraft to kill PLO leaders. They got tough with the PLO during the
Intifada, introducing a curfew on all Palestinians and closing down Palestinian schools. Similarly,
the USA has been successful in dealing with Al Qaeda in that Bin Laden and most of the original Al
Qaeda leaders have been killed or captured as part of the war on terror.
On the other hand, governments have sometimes made mistakes in dealing with terrorists. For
example, the British government used internment which allowed security forces to arrest and
interrogate anyone they suspected of terrorism, even without evidence. This seemed like ‘getting
tough’, but actually only increased the number of recruits to the IRA as people were angry about it.
Also, Thatcher’s government in the 1980s made itself look foolish when it banned Gerry Adams
from talking on British TV and used an actor’s voice.
The Israeli government has also made mistakes when dealing with the PLO, such as causing fury by
killing innocent Palestinian civilians with bombs aimed at PLO leaders. This has caused anger and
led more people to join the PLO. Also, the USA made itself look very bad by having a prison on
Guantanamo Bay where terror suspects were held and tortured by the US Army. This damaged the
USA’s reputation around the world.
In conclusion, governments have made some good moves but also some mistakes in dealing with
terrorists. The Israeli government has been the toughest on terrorists but has still ended up having
to negotiate with terrorists in the end. The British government tried lots of different responses but
was only successful once it started negotiating. The Americans have only been partly successful in
dealing with Al-Qaeda. The problem governments have is that when you are tough with terrorists,
you kill innocent people and end up creating more terrorists than were there to begin with, which
is why governments have had limited success in dealing with terrorists.
Level 5 – Discuss both sides of the argument with specific CK, and give a reasoned
judgement in a conclusion which should also contain a clinching argument (10)
Level 4 – Discuss both sides of the argument with CK (specific and detailed for 9 marks,
more general for 7 marks) and make a final judgement in a conclusion (7-9)
Level 3 – Discuss both sides of the argument but largely descriptively
(though with some CK), without making a clear and reasoned
judgement (5-6)
Level 2 – Discuss only one side of the argument with CK (3-4)
Level 1 – Just make basic comments about the issue (1-2)
10=A*
9=A
8=A
7=B
6=C
5=D
4=E
3=F
2=G
1=U
No need for an introduction. The
candidate has jumped straight in by
talking about ways in which
government HAS been successful,
giving specific examples from the
IRA, PLO and Al Qaeda.
Use SPECIFIC details whenever you
can.
At this point it is a Level 2 answer
(4/10) because it has given ONE
side of the argument with detailed
and specific CK
The second part of the essay is
where you discuss the OPPOSITE
side of the argument, again using
specific and detailed CK.
Your conclusion should give a final
clinching argument as to which
side of the argument you are on
and why.
REMEMBER, THE FIRST TEN
MARKER ALSO HAS 6 MARKS FOR
SPELLING, PUNCTUATION AND
GRAMMAR.
You will also get a source-based
knowledge question. It will ask
something like ‘How far do you agree
with the view that….’ – use the source
and your own knowledge. Or it might
say ‘are you surprised by this source’.
Whatever it says, you need to give two
sides of the argument and then make a
judgement. Obviously less is required
for the source-based 7 markers than for
the knowledge-based 10 markers
(though plenty of CK is needed for both.
51 – EXAM TECHNIQUE SUMMARY SHEET (LANDSCAPE)
The Exam is on MONDAY 6th JUNE at 9:00 am
You can IGNORE SECTION A (Questions 1,2 and 3) - we don’t do this.
SECTION B – You MUST do Question 4 – it is COMPULSORY.
It will be on EITHER Soviet control, terrorism or Iraq.
Part (a) will be a message of a source-type question (7)
Part (b) will be an explain-type question (8)
SECTION B – You must do EITHER Question 5 (a, b and c) OR Question 6
(a, b and c) – you can’t mix and match.
Questions 5 & 6 will be on whichever two of Soviet control, terrorism and
Iraq were not covered in the compulsory Question 4.
Part (a) will be a describe-type question (4)
Part (b) will be an explain-type question (6)
Part (c) will be a judgement-type question (10)
Part (c) also has 6 marks for SPAG
SECTION C – You MUST do Question 7 – it is COMPULSORY
It will be on EITHER the Red Scare, black civil rights in the 50s, black civil
rights in the 60s or civil rights for other groups
You MUST answer all three parts of Question 7 (a, b and c)
One of these will be a message of a source-type question (6)
One of them will be a purpose of a source-type question (7)
One of them will be a judgement-type question (using a source) (6)
SECTION C – You must do EITHER Question 8 (a, b and c) OR Question 9
(a, b and c) – you can’t mix and match.
Question 8 will be on one of the Red Scare, black civil rights in the 50s,
black civil rights in the 60s, or civil rights of other groups.
So will Question 9.
Part (a) will be a describe-type question (4)
Part (b) will be an explain-type question (6)
Part (c) will be a judgement-type question (10)
You can answer the questions in any order, but remember to write the question number clearly in the margin.