Life - Environment
Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural
Development
LIFE05ENV/GR/000245
FINAL REPORT
Technical Issue
Covering the project activities from 01.12.2005 to 31.05.2009
Data Project
Project location
Greece (Lakonia)
Project start date
01-12-2005
Project end date
31-05-2009
Total project duration
(months)
42
Total budget
2,193,875 €
EC contribution
1,096,210 €
(%) of total costs
49,97
(%) of eligible costs
49,97
Reporting date: 25.08.2009
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Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
Data Beneficiary
Name Beneficiary
Prefecture of Laconia
Beneficiary representative
Dimitrios Liakakos
Contact persons
P. Koulogeorgiou / V. Papadoulakis
Postal address
2nd km National Road Sparta - Gythio,
GR-23100 Sparta
Visit address
2nd km National Road Sparta - Gythio,
GR-23100 Sparta
Telephone
+30 27310 93859
Fax
+30 27310 93805
E-mail
grafeio.symvoulou@lakonia.gr /
papkal1@otenet.gr
Project website
www.envifriendly.tuc.gr
Data Scientific Responsible
Name Beneficiary
Technical University of Crete
Contact person
Prof. Nikolaos Nikolaidis
Postal address
Department of Environmental Engineering,
GR-37132 Chania
Telephone
+30 28210 37785
Fax
+30 28210 37846
E-mail
nikolaos.nikolaidis@enveng.tuc.gr
URL
http://www.herslab.tuc.gr/
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LIST OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................ 6
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................... 7
2. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 9
3. LIFE – PROJECT FRAMEWORK ............................................................................. 12
3.1 Methodology of work and planning ................................................................. 12
3.2 Presentation of Partnership ............................................................................ 12
3.3 Modifications according to the initial proposal................................................... 13
4. TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................. 15
4.1 Descrption of the applied methodology and technologies ................................... 15
4.1.1. Methodology ......................................................................................... 15
4.1.2. Technologies......................................................................................... 15
5. PROGRESS RESULTS .......................................................................................... 21
5.1 General description ....................................................................................... 21
5.2 TASK 1 – Development of preliminary management plans and design of selected
demonstration technologies................................................................................. 27
5.3 TASK 2 – Monitored natural attenuation and water management ........................ 30
5.3.1. Monitored Natural Attenuation in Evrotas River Basin ................................. 30
5.3.2. Water Management in Evrotas River Basin ................................................ 36
5.3.3. Risk assessment of water management .................................................... 38
5.4 TASK 3 - Drainage canal and river bank management ....................................... 43
5.4.1. Management of Drainage Canals ............................................................. 43
5.4.2. Riparian Zone Restoration ...................................................................... 48
5.5 TASK 4 - Agricultural product waste management ............................................ 52
5.5.1.
5.5.2.
5.5.3.
5.5.4.
Use of OMW for irrigation of crops during the summer months ....................
OMW subsurface disposal and phytoremediation .......................................
Electrolytic treatment of OMW.................................................................
Prototype unit for treatment of Orange Juice wastewater ...........................
52
57
60
64
5.6 TASK 5 - Integration of socio-economic aspects ............................................... 68
5.6.1 Results of the fieldwork research .............................................................. 68
5.6.2 Report on socio-economic impacts (Integral Planning for Sustainable
Development) ................................................................................................ 73
5.7 TASK 6 - Development of integrated watershed management plans .................... 80
5.7.1.
5.7.2.
5.7.3.
5.7.4.
7.5.5.
7.5.6.
Agricultural Development .......................................................................
Drinking Water Supply ...........................................................................
Irrigation..............................................................................................
Pollution Control ....................................................................................
Coordinated response to floods and droughts ............................................
Biodiversity protection and restoration of river ecosystems .........................
80
83
83
84
86
86
5.8 TASK 7 - Evaluation of social acceptance and dissemination of results................. 91
5.8.1. Dissemination Strategy Plan ................................................................... 91
5.8.2 Observatory for Local Development .......................................................... 96
5.8.3 Open Farms and Mapping Trails ............................................................... 96
5.9 TASK 8 – Project Management ....................................................................... 99
5.9.1. Steering Committee and Advisory Board meetings ..................................... 99
5.9.2. Reporting to EC .................................................................................... 103
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6. DISSEMINATION ACTIVITIES & DELIVERABLES .................................................... 105
6.1. Dissemination activities ............................................................................... 105
6.2 Deliverables (last phase) .............................................................................. 105
6.3 List of project deliverables and milestones ...................................................... 106
7. EVALUATION & CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................... 107
8. AFTER-LIFE COMMUNICATION PLAN ................................................................... 112
ANNEX ................................................................................................................ 114
Annex 1: List of Partner‘s Data ........................................................................... 115
Annex 2: Detailed Description of EnviFriendly Project Results (Task 1 – Task 7) ....... 118
Annex 3: References ......................................................................................... 301
Annex 4: Project tablets .................................................................................... 312
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Lists of key-words (I) and abbreviations (II)
(I)
Environmental friendly technologies
Watershed management plan
Water management
Agricultural product waste management
Monitored Natural Attenuation
Evrotas River
(II)
AB: Advisory Board
AM: Alpha MENTOR
BDL: Below Detection Limit
CAP: Common Agricultural Policy
EE: Environmental Education
ERA: Evrotas Riverside Area
GIS: Geographical Information System
HCMR: Hellenic Centre for Marine Research
HMS: Habitat Modification Score
HQA: Habitat Quality Assessment
LIA: Land Improvement Agency
MCL: Maximum Contaminant Level
MNA: Monitored Natural Attenuation
NCSR: National Centre for Social Research
OJW: Orange Juice Wastewaters
OMW: Olive Mill Wastewaters
PL: Prefecture of Laconia
RDP: Rural Development Policy
RHS: River Habitat Survey
SC: Steering Committee
SDO: Sustainable Development Observatory
SPME: Solid Phase Microextraction
SPs: Sampling Points
TUC: Technical University of Crete
UA: University of Athens
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PREFACE
The present report to the European Commission, according to the time schedule of the
LIFE/EnviFriendly project, is the final report (technical issue) covering the period activities
between 01.12.2005 and 31.05.2009.
The final report is based on the guidelines for reporting and the final report model
obtained from the website (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/index.htm) LIFEEnvironment. This report has taken into consideration the notes of previous E.C. letters
to the Beneficiary and comments from the Life monitoring external team to the Task
Leaders.
The financial report is attached as separate issue.
Prof. Nikolaos Nikolaidis
Scientific Responsible of the Project
July 2009
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1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The
Water
Framework
Directive
(WFD
requires
the
development
of
watershed
management plans and remedial actions to improve water quality and ecological quality of
surface, ground waters and coastal zone. To date, environmental technologies have been
implemented in a ―surgical‖ approach without any concern of the impact to the watershed
area as a whole. The premise of the EnviFriendly was the following: ―The selection, design
characteristics and implementation of environmental friendly technologies for the
minimization of non-point source pollution from agricultural lands should be conducted in
conjunction with the development of watershed and coastal zone management plans.‖
The
design
of
environmental
technologies
was
integrated
with
the
watershed
management plans. The objective was the demonstration of a ―toolbox‖ of environmental
friendly technologies for the minimization of non-point source pollution from agricultural
lands and integration of their design in the watershed management plan of the Evrotas
river basin and its coastal zone. This project was in line with the Rural Development Policy
of EU regarding the objectives of axis 2 (land management/environment) and specifically
the agri-environmental measures.
The objectives were realized through a series of actions that included: (1) Identification
and quantification of pollution loads to the watershed; environmental impact assessment
of impacted water bodies; development of preliminary management plans. (2) Installation
of stations for monitoring the hydrology, ecology and geochemistry; and Monitoring
Natural Attenuation (MNA). (3) Installation of wells at a drainage canal site; systematic
sampling and evaluation of nitrate loss in the drainage canals; planting of poplar trees
(phytoremediation barrier) and river bank erosion control. (4) Installation of two
prototype electrolytic units: one for the removal of color from the final effluent of an
orange juice factory and another for the removal of odor from the effluent of an olive mill
waste. The later was relocated towards the end of the project at a different factory that
packages table olives for the treatment of the generated brines and the reduction of BOD
because the olive mill was relocated to a different location. (5) Installation of a prototype
unit for the subsurface disposal of olive mill waste and phytoremediation with poplar
trees. (6) Monitoring of the application of olive mill waste water for irrigation of a corn
field and evaluation of the impacts to ground water and soils. (7) Hydrologic and
geochemical
data
analysis;
calibration
of
watershed
and
coastal
zone
models;
development of scenarios and model simulations. (8) Development of the integrated
water resources management plans for the Evrotas River Basin. Furthermore, prior to
developing the integrated management plan, we conducted public consulatation (more
than 100 public meetings) and the input from local authorities and NGO representatives
was gathered, followed by an analysis of the local socio-economic conditions and
expectations. An evaluation of the activities and the degree of social acceptance was
determined following the dissemination campaign. Finally, a Sustainable Development
Observatory was created and staffed by permanent Laconia Prefecture employees to play
a vital role in the WFD implementation.
This project has mobilized the local authorities and communities for the proper WFD
implementation. The prefecture of Lakonia and the Municipalies have already planned the
design and implementation of several of the suggested environmental measures in the
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management plan for the reduction of water use and pollution in the river. The
demonstrated technologies showed that a significant reduction of pollution can be
achieved through the implementation. MNA can reduce nitrogen and phosphorous loads
by 96 and 98% respectively. Similarly the drainage canals and the riparian forest reduce
significantly non-point source pollution. Both the use of olive mill wastewater for irrigation
as well as the subsurface disposal did not impact the groundwater of the respective areas.
Finally, electrolytic treatment was shown as a viable refining technology for the treatment
of color and odor of orange juice and olive mill waste water. The project generated the
required infrastructure for the implementation of the WFD and the Rural Development
Policy of EU.
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2. INTRODUCTION
Evrotas River Basin is a predominantly rural river basin with aged population more than
20% of the total population. The watershed is considered as a ―Less Favoured Area‖ due
to its mountainous terrain and areas in danger of depopulation.
Sections of the
watershed are part of the NATURA 2000 Network. The watershed has intensive water
quantity and quality problems resulting in over utilization of the river water and intense
pollution problems.
Evrotas is a permanent river, however during drought and
uncontrolled use of water tends to become a temporary river.
An additional aspect that is unique in the basin is that agricultural activities are conducted
by small scale, family owned business that do not have the net worth to afford expensive
environmental technologies to mitigate the impact from their agricultural practices. This is
true not only in Greece, but also in other Mediterranean countries. On the other hand, in
the case of olive mill waste, Greece is unique because there are many small olive mill
units with small capacity as opposed in Spain that are more centralized large units. The
large units can afford advance treatment technologies as oppose to small unit. The
innovation of this project relied on:

the use of environmental friendly technologies,

the use of knowledge as the means to manage in a sustainable way the land and
water resources,

the
development
of
watershed
management
plans
for
sustainable
rural
development, and

the inclusion of all stakeholders and the buy-in of the farmers.
The social aspects of the project have been emphasized and the social scientists played a
very important role in the design and implementation of the project. The direct and
continuous interaction of the social scientists with the stakeholders and the farmers in the
field resulted in their involvement and buy-in of the project objectives and collaboration in
the development of the watershed management plans that would ensure the best use of
water resources and the sustainable growth of the region.
The demonstration character of the project had two distinct and complementary
strategies. The first strategy was to demonstrate a series of methods and technologies
that reduce agricultural pollution from point and non-point sources. The second strategy
dealt with the study of the social aspects of the region aiming at the identification of
potential for changes in management practices towards sustainable development.
The demonstrations of the first strategy were grouped into three categories.

Monitored natural attenuation and water management: Pollutants are naturally
attenuated in the environment. The capacity of this attenuation if monitored and in
combination with proper water management can establish the limits for additional
engineered approaches for minimizing the pollution loads and impacts.

Drainage canal and river bank management: In agricultural areas, drainage canals
decrease the levels of nitrates due to denitrification and plant uptake.
Drainage
canals are areas of accumulation of organic debris due to erosion and also areas of
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growth of plants such as Phragmitis australis (common reeds). We demonstrated
that appropriate management of the reed could result in the minimization of nitrate
pollution loads to surface waters. Plants like poplar trees have been shown to
decrease nutrient loads due to uptake and enhanced denitrification if they are
planted at the riparian zones of the river. Phytoremediation in conjunction with
river bank erosion controls was demonstrated as a combined remediation tool for
non-point source pollution of nutrients. The main objective was to apply
environmental friendly solutions which will gradually merge into the natural
environment and retain the equilibrium of the ecosystem. The benefits of proper
stream bank stabilization go far beyond preventing loss of land and keeping
sediment out of the rivers. It reaches to the point of quality and biodiversity of flora
and fauna habitat.

Agricultural
product
waste
management:
Demonstration
of
techniques
for
agricultural product waste management was the third area demonstration of
environmental friendly technologies which could substantially reduce the polluting
organic load entering the river watershed. Treatment and disposal of olive mill and
orange juice wastewater was the focus of the demonstration. Two prototype
electrolytic units were installed, one for the removal of color from the final effluent
of an orange juice factory and another for the removal of odor from the effluent of
an olive mill waste. The later was relocated towards the end of the project at a
different factory that packages table olives for the treatment of the generated
brines and the reduction of BOD. A prototype unit was installed for the subsurface
disposal of olive mill waste and phytoremediation with poplar trees. Finally,
monitoring of the application of olive mill waste water for irrigation of a corn field
and evaluation of the impacts to ground water and soils was conducted.
The second strategy of the demonstration character emphasized the interaction with the
farmers and other stakeholders. The objective was to lay a base for the management of
natural resources in a sustainable way. For that reason the following aspects were
examined and proposed in the management plan:

Changing the existing cultivations to more dynamic and less water-intensive.

Changing some of the riparian uses towards more ecologically friendly ones.

Gradual adaptation of biological ways of production, perspective which might lead
on the one hand the products to a more ingrown dynamic infiltration to new
markets and on the other to the considerable decrease of the pollution from the
used fertilizers and chemicals.

Development of mild forms of industry processes of agricultural products.

Development of ecotourism projects, which will highlight the natural environment
and will integrate with it.
Finally, this project demonstrated that the integration of environmental friendly
technologies into the development of the watershed management plans will ensure
appropriate use of water resources, benefit the environment by improving the water
quality and maintain future growth for the region.
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Evrotas River Basin was selected for the integration of environmental friendly technologies
with watershed management plans for the following reasons:
1. Evrotas is a temporary river. About 42% of the area in Greece is covered by
temporary rivers. The percentage of temporary rivers around the Mediterranean is
much larger. Temporary rivers are more sensitive to extreme climatic conditions
(droughts and floods) and water management plans are more difficult to be
developed.
2. Common agricultural practices: Agricultural practices found in Evrotas River Basin
are common in many areas of Greece. For instance the problem of oil mill waste is
common to all areas of Greece, Italy, and Spain that produce olive oil.
The methodology applied in this project can readily be transferred to other regions of
Mediterranean. The problem of excess nitrates and pesticides in soils and waters is
present throughout Europe. In addition, all European countries are gearing up towards the
implementation of the Water Framework Directive and establishing watershed and coastal
zone management plans. The incorporation of the results from the demonstration of
environmental friendly technologies in the management plans will reduce the uncertainty
in decision making and facilitate the development of robust scenarios during the
development of watershed management plans. Finally, the methods and technologies that
will be demonstrated in this project are highly innovative and it will be appropriate to be
used in many other regions of Europe. It is a combination of methods and techniques that
acknowledge and quantify nature‘s ability to reduce pollution loads (monitored natural
attenuation, drainage canal) as well as intervene in environmental friendly ways
(phytoremediation, river bank erosion protection) to combat non-point source pollution.
On the other hand, it introduced innovative methods to reduce agricultural product waste
from olive mills and orange juice factories. These methods by themselves can be applied
in any part of the world; however, the incorporation of the results of these
demonstrations in the development of the watershed management plans was the first
application of its kind. This knowledge is complementary to research and application
projects underway in Europe.
The Central Water Agency of the Hellenic Ministry of Environment recognized the
significance of the results of this project and included the Evrotas River Basin in the Pilot
River Basins for Agricultural Measures (PRB-AGRI). The second PRB-AGRI meeting was
hosted in Sparta in October 2008 by the Central Water Agency and the Prefecture where
the results of the LIFE Project were presented. The project partners in coordination with
the Central Water Agency activily participated in the 3rd meeting in Wesser and will
participate in the future PRB-AGRI meetings.
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3. LIFE – PROJECT FRAMEWORK
3.1 Methodology of work and planning
The objectives of this proposal are the demonstration of environmental friendly
technologies for the minimization of point and non-point source pollution from agricultural
lands and integration of their design in the watershed management plans of the Evrotas
River Basin and its coastal zone.
To achieve these objectives the project was implemented in 4 Phases and 8 Tasks listed
below:

Phase
1:
Development
of
Preliminary
Management
Plans
and
Design
of
Demonstration Technologies – This phase include only Task 1. The objective during
the first 8 months of the project was to develop the preliminary management plans
and evaluate what information was necessary to be obtained in order to ensure
success in the development of the management plans.

Phase 2: Demonstration of Environmental Friendly Technologies – This phase
included Tasks 2, 3 and 4.

Phase 3: Development of Watershed Management Plans – This phase included
Tasks 5 and 6. The results from the previous two phases were incorporated in the
development of the management plans.

Phase 4: Evaluation of Social Acceptance, Dissemination of Results and Project
Management – The final phase included Tasks 7 and 8.
A time table for the completion of each phase and task is presented below. All phases and
tasks were completed successfully and on time with minor time deviations.
3.2 Presentation of Partnership
The partnership was comprised of 3 research institutions, 9 local authorities and 2
development companies. The partners and their role in the project was the following:
1. Prefecture of Lakonia – the beneficiary of the project. Prefecture employees
participated in every task of the project.
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2. Technical University of Crete – the scientific coordinator of the project
responsible for tasks 1, 3, 4 and 6 and participated in the remaining tasks of the
project.
3. Hellenic Centre for Marine Research – responsible for task 2 and participated
in the remaining tasks of the project.
4. National Centre for Social Research – responsible for tasks 5 and 7 and
participated in the remaining tasks of the project.
5. Alpha MENTOR Ltd – responsible for task 8 and participated in the remaining
tasks of the project.
6. Lakonia Development Company - participated in the all tasks of the project.
7. Municipalities – Elos, Skala, Pellana, Mystra, Oinountos, Faridos, Krokeon and
Therapnon participated in the all tasks of the project.
Details regarding each partner (responsible persons, contact information) are attached in
the annex of the present report.
3.3 Modifications according to the initial proposal
There were several modifications that were made from the initial proposal. These
modifications were necessary in order to better execute the project and fully achieve its
objectives. The modifications were the following:
1. One of the proposed applications was the treatment of orange juice wastewater
generated from the dumping of the surplus of oranges. During the conception of
the proposal, there was a local practice to dump the surplus of oranges in
uncontrolled dumps and receive subsidies from the EU. We had proposed to
intervene and demonstrate technologies that would treat the wastewater of the
leachate of the dump. By the time the project started the subsidies ended and the
practice stopped. This necessitated the change of the demonstration to another
problem related to orange juice production. We chose to improve the treatment of
orange juice wastewater at the Lakonia Mill near Sparta.
2. The electrolytic treatment of olive mill waste for odor control at the Toutoulis Olive
Mill was one of the proposed demonstrations. The technology was setup; however
the owner never used it properly and was unwilling to collaborate with us. The
technology was demonstrated in the lab. Towards the end of the project and after
two years of unsuccessful in-situ demonstrations we moved the technology to table
olive preparation plant to demonstrate the treatment of brines for the reduction of
BOD. The results are very incouraging.
3. Surface irrigation of olive mill wastewater was not one of the proposed
demonstrations. Tzinakos olive mill was using such technology, so it was decided
to evaluate its effectiveness and potential impact to the environment.
4. In the initial Dissemination Strategy Plan several modifications took place, due to
specific conditions and emerging problems:
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a. The first surveys in local residents and professionals and in the local
representatives of the ERA Municipalities, as well as the preliminary study
on 'Social and Economic dimensions – the first approach' revealed the low
sensitization on environmental issues and more specifically the absence of
any recycling and waste management systems. This condition called for a
new survey in the local population and in the representatives of public
agencies in order to evaluate existing capacity together with an effort for
more sensitization. In this context a review of existing systems functioning
at the national level was undertaken, in order to investigate their potential
implementation in the PL (currently one of the four less developed
Prefectures in Greece concerning recycling). Lists of the different waste
management
systems
were
produced
beneficiaries,
together
with
informative
and
distributed
material
to
potential
(posters,
leaflets).
Additionally, the potential recycling of expired drugs was investigated,
based on the innovative practice adopted by the Pharmasists' Copartnership in the Prefecture of Thessaloniki. Relevant material was
distributed to the pharmacists of the PL.
b. In the first year of the Project severe floods caused extended damags in
agricultural land and, in some cases, in settlements. The partners of the
Project
responded
by
several
means:
adequate
surveys
with
representatives and farmers, elaboration of studies on flood prevention,
data collection and processing in collaboration with the Hellenic Agricultural
Association,
organization
of
local
meetings
and
seminars
on
flood
prevention and restoration measures.
c. Water shortage in the area has been observed to increase in recent years,
due to reduced rains. This condition called for informative events, in order
to discuss the impact on agricultural production and possible methods to
decrease water consumption for agricultural and urban use. The example of
the water distribution system established by the Local Organization for Land
Improvement in the Prefecture of Serres was used as an indicative good
practice, in order to investigate the possibility of similar practices in the
ERA. Several relevant meetings with local representatives were organized.
d. In the summer 2007 forest fires destroyed a great part of forest and
agricultural land in the Region of Peloponness and in the mountainous part
of Lakonia. The partners of the Project, in collaboration with other agents,
responded by elborating studies on the restoration of the ecosystems, the
preservation of the agricultural land and the possible establishment of
stock-breeding parks, as in the case of the Municipality of Kyrros in the
Prefecture
of
Pella, Region
of
Central
Macedonia,
focusing
on
the
institutional framework and the economic viability.
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4. TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Descrption of the applied methodology and technologies
4.1.1. Methodology
The demonstration character of this proposal had two distinct and complementary
strategies. The first strategy was to demonstrate a series of methods and technologies
that reduce agricultural pollution from point and non-point sources. All technologies were
environmental friendly technologies because they were using nature‘s ability to reduce
pollution. The demonstrations were grouped into three categories.

Monitored natural attenuation and water management

Drainage canal and river bank management

Agricultural product waste management
The second strategy dealt with the study of the social aspects of the region aiming at the
identification of potential for changes in management practices towards sustainable
development.The strategy emphasized the interaction with the farmers and other
stakeholders. The objective was to lay a base for the management of the natural
resources in a sustainable way. For that reason the following aspects were examined:

Changing the existing cultivations to more dynamic and less water-intensive,

changing some of the riparian uses towards more ecologically friendly ones,

gradual adaptation of biological ways of production, perspective which might lead
on the one hand the products to a more ingrown dynamic infiltration to new
markets and on the other to the considerable decrease of the pollution from the
used fertilizers and chemicals,

development of mild forms of industry processes of agricultural products,

development of ecotourism projects, which will highlight the natural environment
and will integrate with it.
Finally, this project demonstrated that the integration of environmental friendly
technologies into the development of the watershed management plans will ensure
appropriate use of water resources, benefit the environment by improving the water
quality, and maintain future growth for the region.
4.1.2. Technologies
Seven technologies were demonstrated during the project. These are:
1. Monitored Natural Attenuation and Water Management
Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) is a remediation technology based on understanding
and quantitatively documenting naturally occurring processes that ―destroy‖ or immobilise
contaminants at a contaminated site in order to protect human and ecological receptors
from unacceptable risks of exposure to hazardous contaminants. MNA is a ―knowledgebased‖ remedy where scientific and engineering knowledge is used to understand and
document naturally occurring processes, instead of imposing active controls with
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engineering remedies. In order to apply MNA at a basin scale, field (collection of samples
that would indicate that pollutants are being reduced as they follow their path to the river
and eventually to the sea) and laboratory evidence (lab studies of the processes that
attenuate pollutants and quantification of the kinetic rates of reactions) as well as
modeling studies (modeling of the site that would illustrate how the pollutant behaves in
nature and that the attenuation will continue to occur over geologic times) are required.
2. Drainage Canal management
The drainage canal under study was located in region of Skala and drained fields of an
orange grove. The length of the canal was 180m and the width of the vegetated zone was
approximately 1.5m. Plants covered two distinct areas with Phragmites australis and
Arundo donax. The objective of this demonstration was to evaluate the removal efficiency
of nutrients due to natural attenuation mechanisms in drainage canals in Evrotas River
delta in Greece (Fig. 4.1).
Figure 4.1. Drainage canals at Skala region, Evrotas River delta in Greece.
We investigated nutrients balance in groundwater, sediments, and reeds (Phragmites
australis and Arundo donax) of the drainage canal. To monitor the temporal 3dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of surface and ground water in the
drainage canal, eleven multi-level (3m, 4m and 5m) wells were installed. Field sampling
(groundwater and surface water sampling) was conducted every two months, in order to
assess the fate and transport of nutrients as they move from the groundwater to the
drainage canal. In addition, laboratory studies were used to assess the biogeochemical
processes that control the Nitrogen and Phosphorous cycles and evaluate the efficiency of
the sediments to attenuate pollutants. Finally, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus)
uptake fluxes by Phragmites australis and Arundo donax were measured on a monthly
basis in order to determine the timing of harvesting reeds that will maximize the removal
of nutrients by plant uptake.
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3. River Bank Mangement
Temporary rivers are flashy in nature and under extreme precipitation events produce
floods with extremely high erosion potential. An example of the flood destruction is a site
in the area of Sparta where the river bank erosion control and phytoremediation was
demonstrated. At the site, we designed and constructed a bank restoration system using
large stones following the rivers curvatures to stabilize the bank and the riparian zone
from future flood events. The bank erosion was therefore restored using a stone hedge of
large boulders (Fig. 4.2). The length of the stone hedge was 120m, the width 2.5m at the
bottom and 1m at the top, and the height 3.5m. In addition, we planted a riparian forest
of 200 poplar trees to decrease nutrient loads due to uptake and enhanced denitrification.
In this way, phytoremediation in conjunction with river bank erosion controls was
demonstrated as a combined remediation tool for non-point source pollution of nutrients.
To monitor the temporal 3-dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of ground
water, nine multi-level (3m, 4m and 5m) wells were installed. Groundwater sampling was
conducted every two months, in order to assess the fate and transport of nutrients as
they move from the groundwater to the River and assess the efficiency of the technology.
Figure 4.2. Sparta area – Riparian zone river bank erosion control and phytoremediation.
4. Olive Mill Waste Irrigation
The basic idea behind this technology was to pre-treat the OMW with lime and pump the
liquid to a nearby ―evaporation pond‖ for storage for the next 3 to 6 months. From the
beginning of June the OMW was used for irrigation (after dilution with water) of a corn
field. This approach has been used in a 20.000 m2 area near the ancient lake mentioned
by Pafsania for the last 5 years (Fig. 4.3). The overall results from the corn production
have been very positive as well as all wastewater in the pond was used up before the end
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of the summer. The primary objective of the EnviFriendly program was to evaluate any
potential problem with the aquifer under the corn field. The particular location where this
technology was implemented was the olive mill ―P. TZINAKOS Ltd‖ in Aiges (Gytheio,
Laconia). The irrigation facility consisted of a CaO pretreatment tank, evaporation lagoon,
mixing with fresh water and finally land application in cultivated corn field. We
investigated the soil physical and chemical properties for the identification of soil effects
after 5 years of land application of CaO pretreated OMWW.
Figure 4.3. Corn field where OMW irrigation is implemented (―P. TZINAKOS Ltd‖ olive mill in Aiges,
Gytheio, Laconia).
5. Olive Mill Waste Subsurface Disposal
The site where this technology is implemented is the KOKKOLIS Olive Mill in Vassilaki,
Laconia (Fig. 4.4). In this case, the poplars were planted in rows with a spacing of about
1.2 to 1.5m betweens the plants and a spacing of about 3.2m between the rows. The twoyear old poplars were planted in late November of 2006 and subsurface disposal was
initiated in December of 2007. The OMW delivery system includes pumps and PVC pipes
needed to transfer the OMW from the olive mill facility to the distribution system at the
poplar site. The OMW is distributed in subsurface perforated pipes placed between the
poplar rows. The distribution pipe is located approximately 40cm below the surface and it
is placed in an excavated channel with a cross-sectional area of 50 cm X 50 cm. The
channel is filled with medium size gravel. The maximum quantity of OMW that can be
disposed on a particular site should be less than the Specific Retention of the soil in the
area. Specific Retention is the measure of the water retained in the soil against gravity by
capillary and hydroscopic forces when the water table of an unconfined aquifer drops. In
our case, it is actually the maximum volume of water and OMW that can be retained
against gravity in a unit area of the investigated site. Therefore, for a plant with a root
system that reaches 5 m deep, the objective is not to allow the OMW plume to go beyond
this limit. This corresponds to a maximum volume of OMW retained in a volume V (m 3)
equal to 5m
 Area (m ).
2
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Figure 4.4. Subsurface disposal of OMW with phytoremediation at the ―Kokkolis LTd‖ olive mill in
Vasilaki, Hania).
6. Electrolytic Treatment of Olive Mill Waste
One of the alternative methods for OMW partial treatment is the use of advanced
oxidation processes for the complete oxidation of the phytotoxic polyphenols present in
the OMW as well as for the simulataneous reduction of COD through oxidation and the
removal of coagulated particles of high COD. The advanced oxidation process used in this
application is electrolysis. OMW is often disposed in Evrotas riven without any prior pretreatment to remove at least the content of polyphenols. Electrolytic treatment of OMW
for a short period can reduce substantially the polyphenols concentration and at the same
time achieve a noticeable reduction in the COD of the OMW prior to disposal. As part of
the LIFE EnviFriendly program, an electrolytic treatment unit was installed at the ―Ν & Α
TOUTOULIS‖ Olive Mill in Platana (Laconia) with the following characteristics:
(1)
Electrolytic Cell.
(2)
DC Power supply.
(3)
Recirculation pump.
(4)
Stirring vessels.
Following one season of unsuccessful operation due to complete unwillingness of the olive
mill owner to follow the operating instructions, it was decided to change the location of
the electrolytic unit to another place in Laconia, where the wastewater is from the
production of table olives (EUROAMERICANA S.A.).
Figure 4.5. Electrolytic treatment of olive mill wastewater at ―Toutoulis Ltd‖ and treatment of
Brines at EUROAMERICANA SA.
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7. Electrolytic Oxidation of Orange Juice Waste
The Lakonia Orange Juice Plant produces large amounts of orange juice and although it
has a complete biological wastewater treatment facility already in place, significant
problem in the effluents are observed particularly during the period of peak production.
We investigated possible improvements in the treatment and arrived at a few changes in
the current operation of the facility. We installed an electrolytic pretreatment unit. The
unit is placed in the outlet of the dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit and prior to the
biological treatment. The location of the unit (Figure 4.6) is expected to aid by partially
oxidizing the wastewater and making more easily degraded by the microorganisms.
Excluding the mixing vessel, the rest of the equipment is placed on four wheels to make it
easily transportable to another location in the plant. The installed electrolytic unit was
evaluated for its capability to aid the overall operation (lower COD in the effluent stream)
and decolourization of the final effluents.
Figure 4.6. Installation of the electrolytic Unit in the Lakonia orange juice mill.
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5. PROGRESS RESULTS
5.1 General description
A brief overview of the project results per task is presented in the following sections of
this chapter.
A detailed description of the results can be found in Annex 2. This detailed description was
necessary (eventhough it increases substantially the length of this report) since the
deliverables were produced in the Greek language and the results have not been
published in the scientific literature as of yet.
The table below presents the percent completion of the progess indicators in each task
according to the initial proposal.
Progress Indicator
Percent
Completion
Comments
Task 1
Collection of existing literature
150%
During the first 8 months two CDs were produced,
one with the existing literature and another with
the GIS information for the basin
Development of database for
nutrient and pesticide load
estimation
100%
All existing data were collected for initial load
estimation and model simulation
Site visits and field campaigns
100%
All the proposed and planned site visits and field
campaigns were conducted
Identification of demonstration
sites
100%
Sites were identified and preliminary design was
incorporated in the management plans
Task 2
Installation of instrumentation
and monitoring stations
100%
Establishing routine
monitoring and analytical
techniques
100%
Completion of intermediate
studies
100%
All the proposed instruments were installed and all
the planned monitoring stations were established in
Evrotas
All the proposed monitoring and analytical
techniques for water quality and ecological
assement sampling were established
All intermediate studies were completed
Task 3
The planned groundwater monitoring wells were
installed
The proposed monitoring network was established
both at the drainage canal and the riparian zone
Equipment installation
100%
Establishing monitoring
network
100%
Evaluation of background
conditions
100%
Field campaigns were conducted to establish
background conditions
Planting of trees for
phytoremediation
100%
200 poplar trees were planted at the riparian zone
site
River bank erosion control
100%
A rip-rap stone wall was built for erosion control
Construction of prototypes
100%
The electrolytic prototypes and the underground
disposal system were constructed
Installation of prototypes
100%
All prototypes were installed at the respective
facilities
Task 4
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100%
Three prototypes (Kokkolis, Tzinakos, Lakonia)
were operated for 2 years and one prototype
(Toutoulis) was moved to EuroAmericana
Development of
questionnaires
100%
Questionnaires were developed for the different
type of stakeholders
Field data collection
100%
Questionnaires were field out during field
campaigns
Completion of modelling
100%
Hydrologic and nutrient modeling was conducted for
the basin
Stakeholder participation
during open meetings
100%
Two stakeholder open meetings were held for the
discussion of the management plans
Scenarios development
100%
Alternative environmental practices and scenarios
were included in the management plans
150%
More than 100 meetings were held during the
project
100%
A website is in operation www.envifriendly.tuc.gr.
100%
Several inormational brochures were printed
100%
A brochure was created identifying potential trails
and open farms
100%
A final conference was held in May 2009
Operation of prototypes
Task 5
Task 6
Task 7
Frequent stakeholder
meetings
Website operation
Development of printed
material
Identification of potential trails
and open farms
Final conference
Task 8
Advisory Board Meetings
100%
Steering Committee meeting
100%
Progress reports
100%
The proposed (7) advisory board meetings were
held
The proposed (7) steering committee meetings
were held
The proposed (4) progress reports were completed
Final report
100%
1 final report was completed
The graph below shows the overall project development and the planned activities until
the end of the project (May 2009).
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Final Report Period
Interim Report Period
2
1st Progress Report
Period
05
Bimonthly period
TASK 1:
1.D1
1.D2
1.M1
1.M2
1.M3
6
Development of preliminary
management plans and design of
selected demonstration technologies
Preliminary Watershed and Coastal Zone
Management Plan
Experimental design of demonstration
technologies
Identification and quantification of pollution
loads to the watershed
Environmental impact assessment of
impacted water bodies
th
2006
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
nd
Progress Report Period
2007
5
th
6
th
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
2008
th
5
th
Completed
Collection of existing data
1.M4
TASK 2:
2.D1
2.D2
Watershed and coastal zone preliminary
modeling
Monitored Natural Attenuation and
water management
Report on hydrologic and biogeochemical
monitoring
Completed
Report on MNA demonstration results
2.D3
2.M1
2.M2
2.M3
2.M4
2.M5
TASK 3:
Report on risk assessment of water
management
Installation of stations for monitoring the
hydrology and geochemistry
Instrumentation of field sites for risk
assessment evaluation
Protocol for a rapid assessment of riparian
zone conservation
Monitoring Natural Attenuation preliminary
assessment
Risk assessment of water management
(preliminary assessment)
Drainage canal and river bank
management
3.D1
Efficiency of nitrate loss in drainage canals
3.D2
Drainage canal management techniques
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3rd Progress
Report
Period
Completed
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6
th
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
2009
th
5
th
6
th
1
st
2nd
3rd
Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
05
6th
3.D4
3.M1
3.M2
TASK 4:
4.D1
4.D2
4.D3
4.M1
4.M2
TASK 5:
5.M1
5.M2
5.M3
5th
6th
1st
2nd
2007
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
2nd
2008
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
Evaluation of nitrate loss in the drainage
canals
Planting of poplar trees and river bank
erosion control
3.M4
5.D3
2006
3rd
4th
Monitoring network sampling
3.M3
5.D2
2nd
Manual of practice for the management of
drainage canals
Impact of phytoremediation and bank
erosion control in the minimization of
nitrate loads to the river
Installation of wells at two drainage canal
sites
3.D3
5.D1
1st
Agricultural product waste management
Completed
Report on installation of the three prototypes
and their operational characteristics
Report on first evaluation of the
demonstrated waste management
technologies – Fine tuning of operational
conditions for optimal results
Report on second evaluation of the
demonstrated waste management
technologies.
Installation of all three prototypes for waste
management – operational testing completed
- monitoring and sample analysis procedures
established.
First evaluation of demonstrated technologies
for waste management; fine tuning
adjustments; alternative management
options tested.
Integration of socio-economic aspects
Completed
Results of the fieldwork research
Integral Planning for Sustainable
Development
Executive Summary and Conclusions of the
local society‘s attitude
Questionnaire completion
Collection of existing data / Sampling and
methodology of field research
Statistical analysis and survey on socioeconomic impacts
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3rd
Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
05
6th
TASK 6:
6.D1
1st
2nd
2006
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
2nd
2007
3rd
4th
5th
Development of integrated watershed
management plans
6th
1st
2nd
2008
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
Completed
Integrated management plans
Minutes from open meetings on management
plans
Assessment of efficiency of technology
demonstration and scaling up
6.D2
6.M1
6.M2
Open meetings on management plans
6.M3
Modeling of Watershed and Coastal Zone
6.M4
Development of scenarios
TASK 7:
Evaluation of social acceptance and
dissemination of results
7.D1
Final Report with the results of evaluation.
7.D2
Executive Summary and Conclusions
7.D3
Creation of a Site in the Internet
7.D4
Creation of scientific observatory
7.D5
Final - International Conference
7.D6
Demonstration event
7.D7
Minutes from meetings
7.D8
International Water Day Event
7.D9
15 seminars with local stakeholders
7. D10
Creation of local network
7. D11
Publication of 2 booklets (brochures)
7. D12
Special education kit
7. D13
Dissemination strategy plan
7.M1
Creation of a local Development Observatory
7.M2
13 Meetings with local representatives
7.M3
Creation of local network
7.M4
Mapping of trails and open farms
TASK 8:
Project Management
Completed
Completed
st
8.D1
1 Progress report
8.D2
Interim report
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3rd
Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
05
6th
8.D3
2nd Progress report
8.D4
3rd Progress report
8.D5
Final Report
8.D6
1st Advisory Board minutes
8.D7
1st Steering Committee meeting minutes
8.D8
8.D9
8. D10
8. D11
8. D12
8. D13
8.M1
1st Advisory Board meeting
8.M3
1st Steering Committee meeting
8.M5
8.M6
8.M7
8.M8
8.M9
2nd
2006
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
2nd
2007
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
2nd
2008
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st
2nd Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings minutes
3rd Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings minutes
4th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings minutes
5th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meeting minutes
6th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings minutes
7th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings minutes
Creation of Advisory Board and Steering
Committee
8.M2
8.M4
1st
2nd Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings
3rd Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings
4th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings
5th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings
6th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings
7th Advisory Board and Steering Committee
meetings
Deliverables (Reports or any other material produced)
Delay
Achieved
earlier
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Deliverables (Reports or any other material attached to the final report)
New action –
not proposed
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Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
5.2 TASK 1 – Development of preliminary management plans and design of
selected demonstration technologies
The first action taken by the team was the collection of the existing data and studies of
the
watershed
and
the
coastal
zone.
We
collected
the
available
hydrologic,
hydrogeologic, meteorologic and water quality data from all known public and private
institutions. In many cases, these data were not in electronic format, so we entered them
in data bases. Similarly, we obtained available GIS databases such as CORRINE land use
database from the JRC-ISPRA, the digital elevation model, geology, population, river
network etc. In cases, portions of the GIS theme map was missing (such as in the case
of geology), we digitized it. Finally, the reports from various studies were scanned in
order to develop an electronic data base of all available studies. At the end, two CDs
were produced, one with the GIS information for the basin and another for the existing
studies (the cds were submitted to E.C. with the Interim Report). We worked very closely
with two scientists from the Prefecture of Laconia, the hydrogeologist, Mr. Papadoulakis
and the health inspector, Mr. Kouvatsos. This collaboration was necessary for us in order
on one hand to acquire their scientific knowledge of the area and assessment of the
problem and on the other hand to initiate their training in managing the watershed. The
main pollution point sources are urban waste water, olive oil mills, and orange juice
factories while diffuse sources are agricultural activities and livestock pollution.
Based on the distributed information on the point and non-point sources for the
watershed of Evrotas River, the nutrient (N and P) loads were estimated. The total input
nitrogen load was estimated to be 46471 tn/yr and the P-load 19323 tn/yr. Agricultural
activities contributed 43865 tn/yr of nitrogen (94.4%) and 18855 tn /yr of phosphorous
(97.6%). Livestock, atmospheric deposition, urban waste water, olive oil mills and
orange juice factories contributed the remaining of the load. Approximately 50% of the N
and P fertilizer loads is contained in the produce and does not enter the system.
Therefore, the net loads of N in the watershed were estimated to be 24539 tn/yr and of P
9896 tn/yr. Agricultural activities contributed 21933 tn/yr of N (89,4%) and 9896 tn/yr
of P (95,3%). In this phase, we attempted to conduct a complete integrated study on
nutrients for the development of the Preliminary Management Plan.
A preliminary environmental assessment was based on the identification of pollution
sources, estimation of pollution loads, assessment of hydro-morphological alterations and
on the vulnerability of the basins‘ water resources. In addition, field investigations and a
preliminary biological quality assessment, from the first sampling campaign were
considered. Ecological quality assessment included the entire river basin (main stem and
tributaries) and was be based on abiotic and biotic elements. A set of abiotic variables
was selected on which an initial biotic typology (System B) for Greek running waters
could be based. These variables include: catchment area, altitude, slope and geology. By
combining GIS-layers of geology, altitude and slope on Evrotas basin, it results that 95%
of the catchment area is covered by 11 theoretical types, while the sampling network
belongs to 7 distinct types.
During the first field campaign (5-12.04.2006), the following actions were carried out:

Estimation of the geographical coordinates of each site.
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
At each sampling reach photos and videos were taken. In addition, photos and
videos of four fish species have been taken (in situ, ex-situ).

In-situ
measurements
conductivity,
pH,
Eh,
of
physico-chemical
dissolved
oxygen,
variables
current
velocity
(temperature,
with
portable
instruments) and estimation of the wetted cross section.

Water sampling - Samples were analyzed for hydrochemical variables (total
hardness, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3-, CO32-, Cl-, SO42-, SiO2) and conventional
pollutants (nitrate, ammonia, nitrite, total nitrogen, orthophosphate and total
phosphorous).

Sediment sampling - In selected stations sediment samples were collected for
the estimation of mineralogical and chemical variables.

Registration of river bed, river bank and riparian zone characteristics - For
this purpose the AQEM/STAR protocol was applied, that aims to give an
impression of river and floodplain morphology, hydrology, hydrochemistry and
vegetation composition. The collection of these data was conducted at a distance
of 500 m upstream and downstream of each sampling site.

Hydro-morphological analysis was performed with the use of the river Habitat
survey (RHS) method. RHS assesses the physical character of a sampling site at a
500 m length and involves the collection of numeous features recorded at a 10
spot-checks in 50 m intervals. The habitat quality of each site (stream channel
and riparian habitat) was evaluated with the use of the Habitat quality
Assessment score (HQA) and Habitat Modification Score (HMS). HQA assesses the
habitat diversity, while HMS represents habitat modification.

Sampling of benthic invertebrates - The AQEM/STAR macroinvertebrate
sampling methodology was applied.

Fish sampling - Field investigations on the presence of fish species and a
preliminary sampling were carried out with the use of electrofishing, nets, etc.
Additional sites have been selected for a systematic fish sampling during the next
stages of the ecological assessment.
As a result of the combined actions of water infiltration within the alluvial deposits and
the karstic basement, surface water abstractions and groundwater pumping, parts of
Evrotas main
stem
(headwaters, near Vrodamas-bridge, within Vrodamas-gorge,
upstream of Skala village) dry out during the dry season. The vast majority of Evrotas
tributaries, dry out in summer. In general, downstream of water abstraction facilities
tributaries fall dry. Oinus, the main Evrotas tributary, episodically becomes temporal due
to water use for irrigation. Similarly, the downstream portions of Gerakaris, Kakaris,
Rasina, Xerias, Lagada (Magoulitsa) and other smaller tributaries have become temporal.
The water resources problems of Evrotas River Basin can be summarized as follows:

Quantity problems – These are problems caused due to flooding and include the
weathering of soils and the river banks, as well as flooding of low elevation areas
and destruction of properties.
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
Quality problems – degradation of surface and ground water quality due to point
and non-point source pollution.

Ecological problems – Fish populations can not be established in many parts of the
river because it dries out due to over-pumping of ground water.
For the preliminary management plans, an emission based model, MONERIS was used to
model the nutrient emissions from the watershed to the coastal zone. In addition,
Laconikos Gulf was modelled with a simple mass balance model, CABARET, following the
LOICZ methodology. Figure 5.2.1 presents a comparison between modeled and
measured nitrogen loads for the watershed. The total nitrogen emissions were estimated
to be 1940 t/yr. 58,7% of the emissions entered the river through ground water, 10,8%
from urban waste water, 4,5% from point sources, 9,2% from erosion of soils, 5,5%
from surface runoff and 0,4% from the atmosphere (directly to the river).
Finally, in-
stream loads contributed 10,8%. The total phosphorous emissions were estimated to be
208 t/y.
11,3% of the emissions entered the river through ground water, 2,9% from
urban waste water, 29,6% from point sources, 44,1% from erosion of soils, 11,4% from
surface runoff and 0,7% from the atmosphere (directly to the river). The results indicate
that there is evidence of natural attenuation of nutrients in the watershed. The net
annual nitrogen loads to the basin were reduced from 24539 tn/yr to 1940 tn/yr that
entered the coastal zone (92% reduction). The net annual phosphorous loads to the
basin were reduced from 9896 tn/yr to 208 tn/yr that entered the coastal zone (98%
reduction). The coastal zone of Laconikos Gulf was modeled using the LOICZ
methodology and the CABARET model. CABARET conducted mass balance calculations for
water, salinity, dissolved inorganic and total nitrogen and phosphorous. It was estimated
from
the
nutrient
balance
that
ΓDIN=-377E+3
moles/day
and
ΓDIP=-12,7E+3
moles/day. Therefore the coastal zone is operating as a consumer of DIN and DΟΡ. The
difference between photosynthesis and respiration (p-r) was 19 mmoles/m2/day.
A
positive difference (p-r) indicates that the system is a net organic matter producer. The
difference
between
nitrogen
fixation
and
denitrification
(Nfix-denit)
was
-2,5
2
mmoles/m /day. The negative difference (Nfix-denit) indicates net denitrification. The
fact that the system was oligotrophic in 1992, and consumed nutrients suggests that it is
not saturated. It is not expected to have a nutrient status change if the nutrient loads to
the system do not change significantly. Finally, 3 scenarios were simulated using
MONERIS in order to evaluate the impact of the demonstrated technologies in reducing
the nutrient loads to the coastal zone.
100000
100000
Nitrogen emissions-load
10000
DIN-load [t/a]
TN-load [t/a]
10000
1000
100
100
Nitrogen (hydraulic load)
1000
100
1000
10000
Calculated TN-load [t/a]
100000
100
1000
10000
calculated DIN-load [t/a]
100000
Figure 5.2.1. Modeling results of Evrotas river basin – Comparison between modeled and field
total nitrogen (TN) and Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN).
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5.3 TASK 2 – Monitored natural attenuation and water management
5.3.1. Monitored Natural Attenuation in Evrotas River Basin
Monitored
Natural
Attenuation
(MNA)
is
a
remediation
technology
based
on
understanding and quantitatively documenting naturally occurring processes that
―destroy‖ or immobilise contaminants at a contaminated site in order to protect human
and ecological receptors from unacceptable risks of exposure to hazardous contaminants.
MNA is a ―knowledge-based‖ remedy where scientific and engineering knowledge is used
to understand and document naturally occurring processes, instead of imposing active
controls with engineering remedies. In order to apply MNA at a basin scale, field
(collection of samples that would indicate that pollutants are being reduced as they follow
their path to the river and eventually to the sea) and laboratory evidence (lab studies of
the processes that attenuate pollutants and quantification of the kinetic rates of
reactions) as well as modeling studies (modeling of the site that would illustrate how the
pollutant behaves in nature and that the attenuation will continue to occur over geologic
times) are required.
5.3.1.1. First step: Field evidence
Historic water quality data of Evrotas River were collected to establish the first evidence
for the reduction of contaminants in the study area. Pollutant concentrations (such as
COD, Total N and Total P derived from diffuse pollution (agriculture, livestock etc.) and
point sources (olive mills, juice producing factories, towns)) were decreasing along the
river indicating active attenuation processes operating within the watershed. To augment
the historic data, a sampling network was designed and intensive field campaigns were
carried out to introduce new field evidence and account for all major ecotopes in the
basin aiming at tracking the foot print of contamination (tracking contaminants from
pollution sources to ground and surface water). The pollutants studied were nutrients,
organic load and total phenols (a component of olive mill waste).
Evrotas river basin has a complex hydrogeology and hydrographic network. It was
necessary to develop a sampling network based on the hydrology of the region, the
geology, the relief, slopes and land uses. Evrotas river basin was separated into seven
sub-basins. The selection of the position of each sampling point was based on the
typology of the basin (relief, slopes, geology, land use and point source maps) created
using GIS.
The selection of the sampling points (SPs) was based on the understanding of the
hydrology and hydrogeology of the region. Surface water sampling points were chosen
throughout the length of the river. The majority of the ground water sampling points
were selected to be in sub-basins 5 and 7 (Sparta and Skala regions), since many point
sources of pollution exist and agricultural activities are extensive. Additionally, sub-basin
5 has many and important tributaries of Evrotas river. Finally, important groundwater
aquifers are found in the region and the ground water is used for irrigation and water
supply. Based on the above considerations the sampling network consisted of 64
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sampling points: 32 for surface water (Map 5.3.1) and 32 for underground water (10
Springs, 10 Shallow Well, 12 Deep Wells- Map 5.3.2).
Six sampling campaigns were conducted on: (1st) 9-12 of May 2006, (2nd) 8-12 of
September 2006, (3rd) 12-17 of January 2007, (4th) 26 of May – 1 of June 2007, (5th) 26
September - 12 December 2007, (6th) 3-5 of March 2008. During those field campaigns
psychochemical parameters of the samples were measured in situ while water samples
were taken to the laboratory for chemical analysis. The water samples were analyzed for
Nitrate Nitrogen (NO3-N), Nitrite Nitrogen (NO2-N), Ammonia (NH4-N), Dissolved
Inorganic Phophorous (DIP), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), phenols, selected heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb and Ni) and pesticides. The
physicochemical parameters pH, Eh, Dissolved Oxygen and conductivity were measured
in situ.
Map 5.3.1. Sampling points of surface water.
Map 5.3.2. Sampling points of groundwater.
Evidences of Natural Attenuation in surface water
Evrotas River samples were analyzed in order to evaluate the existence of natural
attenuation. The sampling points along the river were: Pardali (8), Karavas (52), Sparta
Bridge (53), Sparta Biological treatment (54), Skoura (22), Vrodamas Bidge (34),
Palaiomonastiro (55) and Evrotas Estuaries (56). The following observations can be
made:
The highest average COD concentration was found at Skoura (14 mg/L) and
there was a significant attenuation after the peak. The COD value at the Estuary of
Evrotas was below detection limit. The COD concentration decreased significantly due to
in-stream attenuation processes and dilution from unpolluted tributaries.
The same
trend existed for the other pollutants as well. The highest concentrations of NO2-N, NO3N and Total phenols were also measured at Skoura with a significant attenuation
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observed downstream. Phosphates peaked close to the wastewater treatment plant of
Sparta. This peak was due to the outflow of the treatment plant.
Evidence of Natural Attenuation in Ground Water
The main ground water aquifer is found in the plain of Sparta. Ten shallow ground water
wells and twelve deep ground water wells have been sampled. The following observations
can be made:

The average nitrate concentrations of the shallow wells 41 and 38 was reduced from
14.5 mg/L to 9 mg/L. In addition following ground water direction for shallow wells 46
to 37, a similar reduction for nitrates was taking place (13.1 mg/L to 12.6 mg/L).
Nitrates reduction was also observed from the spring of Peristeri, 13.7 mg/L to
shallow well 37, 12.6 mg/L. The results indicated that high nitrate concentrations
were found in the Sparta aquifer and they were being attenuated as the water moved
towards the area of Vrodamas.

Total phenols concentration of shallow well 41 was 1.5 mg/L and the concentration of
well 38 decreased to 1.2 mg/L. Similar reductions were observed for shallow wells 46
and 37.

The COD and nitrate nitrogen concentrations of ground water deep wells indicated
that
the
pollution
load
was
attenuated
along
the
ground
water
flow.
The
concentrations of COD and nitrate nitrogen of groundwater deep wells of SPs 12, 13,
14, 18 and 20-b were higher than those of SPs 16 και 17 despite the fact that there
were many villages and significant agricultural activities taking place in the region.
These results provide evidence of natural attenuation in groundwater.
Overall, significant attenuation of pollutants was observed in the Evrotas river basin both
for surface and ground water. Organic pollution was originated mostly from point sources
and impacted the surface water (6.2 mg/L COD) as opposed the ground water (springs
about 4 mg/L COD). Nitrates-N pollution impacted more the ground water (9 mg/L in
shallow wells) and it was attenuated to 1.4 mg/L by the time it reached the surface
water. Nitrates have impacted significantly the deep wells with average concentration of
approximately 6 mg/L and a standard deviation of 12 mg/L. Phosphate-P was highest at
the deep wells (0.163 mg/L) and it decreased to 0.087 mg/L at the springs and 0.055
mg/L at the shallow wells and surface water.
The results suggest intense agricultural activities have impacted historically the deep
ground water wells while recent practices have improved the water quality (lower
concentration in shallow wells).
5.3.1.2. Second step: Modeling evidence
Evrotas river basin modelling – MNA evaluation
Evrotas River is a complicated hydrologic system that drains an area of 2420 km2, 50%
of which is covered by limestone-karstic formations. The mountains of Taygetos and
Parnonas, reaching an elevation of 2404m, affect drastically its hydrologic patterns.
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Modeling of the hydrology and nutrient emissions of the watershed was accomplished
using the WMP-Med (Watershed Modeling Platform –Mediterranean) which is comprised
of the Karstic Model and the ETD (Enhanced Trickle Down) Model and the model
MONERIS.
To simulate the hydrology of the watershed, it was subdivided into 6 subcatchments (NE
Taygetos, NW Parnonas, NW Parnonas, Central Taygetos, Skalas and Gytheiou). The
simulation period was 2000-2007 (8 years long). The hydrologic simulation results for
the Vivari station (NE Taygetos subcatchment), the Kelefina station (NW parnonas) and
Vrontamas station (Central Taygetos) are presented in Figure 5.3.3. The WMP-Med model
was able to capture the seasonal and inteannual variability of the flow very well. The
correlation coefficient between the simulated and field data was between 0.92 and 0.84
and the Nash Sutcliffe efficiency was between 0.61 and 0.68. The mean error in the
annual flows was less than 10%.
The annual average hydrologic balance of Evrotas River was as follows: the precipitation
was 1048 Mm3, the karstic discharge 330 Mm3, the evaporation was 727 Mm3, stream
discharge was 133 Mm3, stream withdrawals were 16 Mm3, and the change of storage in
the watershed was 38 Mm3.
estimated at 174 Mm
3
The annual irrigation needs of the watershed were
based on typical irrigation plant requirements for the region.
These irrigation needs were used in the model simulations. However, the real irrigation
use was not known since there are more than 3500 public and private wells in the
watershed, none of which water consumption has been monitored.
The model estimated
3
that irrigation was underestimated by 337 Mm . The modeling results suggest that
on the average irrigation used 3 times more water than the recommended
values.
The results from the hydrologic simulation were used as inputs in the MONERIS model.
The MONERIS model was used for the simulation of nutrient emissions from Evrotas river
basin. The model calibration was achieved by changing parameters such as phosphorous
atmospheric deposition (0.99 kg/ha-yr) and inhabitant specific Phosphorous output factor
(1.8 g/inhabitant-day). The dissolved inorganic nitrogen loads used for the calibration
were 97 tn-N/yr in Selasia, 133 tn-N/yr in Sparta, 375 tn-N/yr in Vrontama and 413 tnN/yr in Tafros Omega. Figure 5.3.4 presents a comparison between measured and
modeled nitrogen emission loads. The highest fluxes of nitrogen originated from the delta
area (47.8%), followed by groundwater (24.7%), urban areas (13.9%) and point sources
(8.6%). On the other hand, the highest fluxes of phosphorous originated from point
sources (72.3%), followed by erosion (10.1%) and the delta area (7.8%). The total
nitrogen emissions were estimated to be 1092 t/y which corresponded to 4.5% of the
total Nitrogen input (24539 tn/yr) and the total phosphorous emission loads were 179.2
t/yr which corresponded to and 2% of the total Phosphorous input (9896 tn/yr). The
modeling exercise quantified the reduction of nutrient loads in Evrotas watershed by
natural attaenuation mechanisms.
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Figure 5.3.3. Evrotas river hydrologic simulation results using the WMP-Med model for the period
of 2000-2007.
Figure 5.3.4. Results of Evrotas modeling Comparison Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen model and
field.
5.3.1.3. Third step: Laboratory evidence
The main objective of this phase was the quantification of the biogeochemical processes
operating at the watershed. The processes were studied using mesocosm and microcosm
laboratory experiments in order to quantify the kinetic rates of the processes that take
place and result in the attenuation of pollutants by the soils. A soil sampling network was
designed to cover most of the soil types found in Evrotas river basin. In Evrotas river
basin 11 soil types are found according to the Greece soil map (1:1.000.000, 1967), 6 of
those cover 94% of the watershed area. The location of the soil sampling was near the
riparian zone of the Evrotas river. Riparian zone are areas where ground water interacts
with surface water and active attenuation processes take place. Sampling took place in
November 2007. Nine surface sediment samples (0-10 cm) and ten cores (50 cm depth)
from 11 different locations were obtained.
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The total Nitrogen content ranged from 0.63 up to 1.99 g/kg and organic matter from
0.46 up to 2.36%. The soil pH ranges from 7.87 up to 8.41 and Electrical Conductivity
from 587 up to 1075 μS/cm.
Two soils (9A and 9B) were used to study the long term release of nitrogen species from
the sediments. A release of organic N, ammonium N and nitrate N was observed in both
soils. The released concentrations of organic N ranged between 4 to 9 mg/L, for
ammonium N ranged between 0.4 to no detect and nitrate N ranged between 0.2 to 1.4
mg/L for soil 9A. The respective concentration ranges for soil 9B were 10-25 mg/L for
organic N, 2 to no detect for ammonium N and no detect to 8 mg/L for nitrate N.
Ammonium N was converted to nitrate N within a few days. The results between the two
soils exhibited high variability due to variation in their oxidation-reduction capacity. DON
reached a constant partitioning with the sediment bound organic nitrogen within 5 days.
The DON concentrations at equilibrium were 8 and 11 mg/L for the two sediments
respectively. Ammonia N was lost within 6 days and nitrate N followed a release and
dissapperance cycle that lasted between 12 and 14 days. It is hypothesized that organic
N is mineralized to ammonia and nitrate. Nitrate reached a maximum dissolved
concentration after 6-10 days since the commencement of the experiment and then it
dissappeared presumably due to denitrification. Nitrogen removal was most intense in
sample 9B compared to 9A due to higher reduction capacity.
To better understand the nitrate loss due to denitrification, an experiment was performed
using sediment sample 5 by spiking the solution with 5 mg/L of nitrate N. Figure 5.3.14
presents the evolution of the concentrations of Nitrate-N and Ammonia-N in time. Only 3
out of the 5 mg/L nitrate N were measured in solution at steady state while ammonia N
concentrations were not different between the spiked and the non spiked samples. The
results suggest that the denitrification process is active and that it reaches steady state
within 4 days.
The phosphate sorption kinetic rates were estimated to be 0.19/d and 0.11/d for samples
9A and 9B respectively. Soil 9A is behaving as phosphate sink, since its EPC0 is less than
0.1 mg/L. In contrary Soil 9B is behaving as phosphate source (EPC0>0.1 mg/L).
Similar phosphate sorption kinetics were found in 7 other sediment samples. The
phosphate sorption kinetic rates ranged between 0.16/d and 0.32/d. The half life of
phospahte sorption ranged between 2 and 4 days and the time to reach 95% steady
state ranged between 9 and 19 days. Soils with high organic matter content had higher
phosphate sorption capacity.
The vertical variability of soil characteristics were examined using soil cores. The cores
(50 cm length) were split into two parts (2/3 and 1/3 from the top) and were analyzed
for electrical conductivity, pH, organic carbon and total nitrogen. The results are
presented in Table 5.3.7.
The electrical conductivity ranged between 253 and 1047
μS/cm, the pH between 7.66 and 7.99, the organic carbon between 0.5 and 5.7% and
total nitrogen between 0.12 and 0.37%. The rates ranged between 0.23 and 0.55/d. In
general, the results showed lower concentrations of organic carbon, TN and sorption rate
with depth.
The mineralization potential was estimated as the difference in ammonia concentration in
solution in one week minus the ammonia concentration of the leachate in one hour. The
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PMN ranged from 0.13 to 3.29 mg/Kg and the partitioning coefficient from 664 to 13433
ml/g. Organic nitrogen was tightly adhering to the soil and the retardation factor (ratio of
the velocity of the water to the velocity of the chemical) was between 2500 and 50000.
In general, soils in Evrotas appear to have significant mineralization, nitrification and
phosphate sorption capacities to attenuate nutrients originating from agricultural
activities.
5.3.1.4. Conclusion
The three steps of MNA implementation have been completed providing sufficient and
documented evidence that mechanisms of natural attenuation operate at the
Evrotas River Basin. The attenuation of nitrogen and phosphorous were quantified
using an emission based model, MONERIS. 95.5% of the nitrogen and 98% of
phosphorous were attenuated with the watershed. The nitrogen and phosphorous
emissions to the coastal zone were 1092 tn/yr and 179 tn/yr, respectively.
Organic nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, denitrification and phosphate sorption were
studied in the laboratory using soil samples. Kinetic rates of the processes that control
nitrogen and phosphorous attenuation were quantified in order to be guaranteed that
these processes will operate long term. The results indicated that significant
attenuation of nitrogen and phosphorous exist in the watershed and that MNA is
a viable remedial measure for the watershed.
5.3.2. Water Management in Evrotas River Basin
In the framework of the EnviFriendly project, the assessment of the “Hydrologic and
biogeochemical monitoring” of Evrotas River was implemented according to the
demands of the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC. The main tasks that were
carried out included the estimation of the spatiotemporal hydrochemical regime and the
assessment of pressures and impacts on the river network, and the ecological assessment
of the river basin. The latter based on the typological characterization of the basin, the
establishment of type specific reference conditions, and the classification of running
waters
using
chemical,
hydromorphological
and
biological
components.
For
the
development of conservation schemes, the ecological requirements for endangered fish
species
were
investigated.
In
addition,
since
the
river
is
subjected
to
severe
hydromorphological pressures, the status of riparian vegetation of its courses (not
included in the project‘s proposal) was evaluated. In the framework of the “Risk
assessment of water management”, a methodology was developed and applied for
the identification of natural and anthropogenic causes of desiccation. In addition, the
geographical extent of desiccation and the impacts of water management on the river‘s
ecosystem were carried out. The results of these studies assisted the development of
specific measures and the design of management plans for the improvement of the
ecological status of the river.
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Hydrologic and biogeochemical monitoring
The implementation of Task 2 within the EnviFriendly project revealed specific pressures
acting in Evrotas River Basin and assessed the impacts on river hydrology, river and
riparian morphology, aquatic quality and biota. The Evrotas main course revealed higher
nutrient levels than larger Balkan rivers. High loadings of organic matter and nutrients
cause eutrophication, especially at the main course of the river below Sparta.
Management of phosphorous sources of pollution is of first priority to control
eutrophication. Herbicides, fungicides and insecticides were detected in 50% of the
waters and sediments examined with concentrations in waters mostly exceeding the
acceptable limit for potable water (0.1 μg/L). Olive oil and fruit juice processing wastes
were proved toxic (according to LC50 tests) for certain macroinvertebrate species and
receiving water bodies score a bad ecological status, especially during operation time.
After the end of the olive oil production period, the biotic community recovered in
contrast to fruit juice wastewaters where the biotic community was severely impacted
throughout the year. Moreover, there is evidence of improper operation of the Municipal
Waste Water Treatment Plant of Sparta (MWWTP). In order to achieve good ecological
status for running waters, it is essential to apply best agricultural practices aiming in
drastic reduction of agrochemicals and effective treatment of agro-industrial wastes. In
addition, the MWWTP should operate properly throughout the year.
Regarding the ecological assessment, the hydro-morphological status ranged from high
to good in the upper parts of Evrotas tributaries and from poor to bad in the middle and
lower part of the Evrotas main course. The river used to be famous for its lowland
riparian forests. Today, the Evrotas has the most extensive and best preserved lowland
riparian forests in Peloponnese. Nevertheless, the former extensive riparian forests are
restricted in six main stands. The vast majority of these stands is affected by human
activities and present lower than good status.
The physico-chemical status ranged between high and moderate, with the majority of
samplings sites (84%) classified between high and good. The biological status based on
macroinvertebrate communities showed high spatial and temporal variability depending
on the distribution of point pollution sources. In the majority of the examined stations
(60%), the biological status scored between high and good. The ecological status in
Evrotas River Basin, according to hydromorphological, physico-chemical and biological
(macroinverte-brates) quality elements showed that the majority of the sites (70%) were
classified good. The correlation coefficient between the metric scores of the biological and
physico-chemical status was satisfactory, thus providing evidence for the dependence of
biological
assemblages
on
river
quality.
Ichthyofauna
was
used
for
assessing
hydromorphological alterations. Fish fauna assessments showed a generally poorer
biological status compared to macroinvertebrates, with more than half (52%) of the
sampling sites classified as bad. This situation was largely the consequence of an unusual
drought event which occurred in summer 2007, combined with overexploitation of the
water resources. As a result, almost all tributaries and about 80% of the main river
course dried out causing massive fish deaths in isolated reaches that maintained water
(i.e. in remaining pools). In the remaining part of the river, where summer flow was
maintained, the biological status of fish fauna ranged between high and moderate.
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The overall ecological status, including all the examined quality elements (for the main
course of Evrotas and in Oinous, were fish communities were examined), was determined
by fish, which in all cases presented a worse status than any other quality element. The
vast majority of Evrotas tributaries dry out artificially and fish assemblages are either
missing or strongly disturbed. According to local citizens, in the past fish were present in
almost all Evrotas tributaries. If fish have been included in the assessment system of
these tributaries, their ecological status would be termed, according to expert judgment,
poor or bad.
The Evrotas basin is a unique conservation hotspot in Greece, with a high biodiversity,
including many local endemic plants and vertebrates. Three out of five native species
inhabited in Evrotas are range-restricted endemics of high conservation value: Squalius
keadicus and Pelasgus laconicus, which are confined exclusively to this river, and
Tropidophoxinelus spartiaticus, which also occurs in some rivers of southern Peloponnese.
In the framework of the project, the ecological requirements of fish were investigated
aiming on the development of a fish based index for quality assessment and classification
purposes and the design of appropriate conservation schemes.
5.3.3. Risk assessment of water management
Water management practices in the Evrotas River Basin include intensive water
abstractions from the river channel network and from the groundwater aquifers for
irrigation, while severe morphological modifications of river channels, river banks and
riparian vegetation, result from irrigation, land reclamation, flood protection and
construction activities. These practices limit water and habitat availability and severely
affect aquatic and riparian biota.
Hydrological pressures
Many reaches of the Evrotas River main course dry out during the summer for many
kilometres, even in normal hydrological years. In 2007, 80% of the main river course
desiccated. In addition, most tributaries dry out at the mid and lower reaches, and few
only retain water at their upstream reaches near the springs. In the past, the Oinous, the
major Evrotas tributary, used to retain water throughout the year; nowadays it retains
water only at its upper reaches and in few spring areas midway.
Intense water abstractions for irrigation during the last decades substantially affected the
hydrological regime of the river network which has thus become intermittent. The
following facts and evidence support this: a) historical analysis, which reveals that in the
past the Evrotas was a perennial river, b) the existence of fish in the majority of its
tributaries in the recent past, c) the dramatic diminishing in river runoff, which is the
highest compared with 10 major Balkan rivers, d) the abrupt interruption of river flow in
summer, and e) the estimation that the water balance without olive groves irrigation
would ensure a substantial increase of summer flow.
In particular, a long-term decrease of both rainfall and discharge in Evrotas Basin is
evident within the last 35 years. Within the last decade, the average rainfall diminished
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by 13%, while the average discharge decreased by 53%. This fact provides evident for an
―artificial‖ discharge diminishing in the Evrotas Basin.
Hydrograph analysis showed that in summer, water discharge in Evrotas at Sparta and
Kelefina bridges reached the zero point abruptly indicating the impact of water
abstractions.
To quantify the effects of agricultural water uses on Evrotas discharge, the water balance
of the river basin was estimated a) according to the current water uses and b) according
to the current water uses by abstracting the water used for irrigation of olive groves. This
approach was dictated by the fact that irrigation of olive trees has been recently
introduced in the basin. The results of the monthly water budget analysis indicated that
today in the end of the hydrologic period the remaining water resources in the catchment
is less than 2.9 m3/s. Prior the irrigation of olive groves the discharge was 9.4 m 3/s.
Considering that 50 years ago agricultural land was less extended than today it is realistic
to assume that during that time the summer discharge of the river was almost four times
higher, which is assumed to be enough to maintain water flow throughout the year.
Morphological pressures
Within the last decades, cultivations in Evrotas Basin have been extended towards
natural and semi-natural land. In many parts of the Evrotas course, crops end where the
river water starts. In order to protect the agricultural fields that lie besides the river, and
also in order to facilitate the distribution of water into the agricultural land, the riparian
zone of Evrotas has been shrunk, straightened, embanked, reinforced with grit or large
stones or even with construction waste, while its natural vegetation has been removed.
Riparian forests known from the recent history of the area for their role in flood control
were reduced dramatically. A few decades ago, the Evrotas at its downstream (southern
of Skala, Special Protection Zone - NATURA 2000) was meandering and was marked by
extensive floodplains and marshes. This river section was straighten and embanked and
the floodplain and the marshes turned to agricultural land.
Over the last decades, as a result of deforestation in mountainous and semi-mountainous
areas and climate change, the frequency and intensity of flood events has increased. To
protect crops from flooding, the Laconia Prefecture regularly deepens river stretches by
removing river bed material in an inappropriate and often catastrophic manner for river
habitats and biota. The recent (2007) wildfires raised concern over probable winter floods
and led to the decision to intensify flood-control interventions in the river bed and banks.
Flood-control measures have adverse effects on the riverine habitats and ecosystems, in
addition to having a high economic cost associated with them. Moreover, their usefulness
against flooding events is doubtful, because the material deposited on the river banks will
be flashed out and return to the river during the next severe flood event. In addition,
illegal extraction of river bed material for construction activities takes place (e.g. huge
amounts of gravel were removed from the river bed at Skoura to construct a new
bridge).
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Impacts on water quality
River water in summer showed increased nitrate and, especially, ammonia levels,
compared to the wet periods as a result of discharge reduction, which causes diminishing
of the river‘s dilution capacity. Moreover, low flow or standing waters enhance the
development of aquatic vegetation and the expression of eutrophication conditions. The
later may lead to anoxic state.
Impacts on biota
Fish
fauna
can
be
considered
as
the
most
appropriate
indicator
to
assess
hydromorphological degradation in its various forms. The application of fish based
assessment systems revealed that the main environmental problem for the river basin
faces is the immense and uncontrolled water abstraction. The hydrological effects on fish
fauna can be divided in drought and post drought effects. During the summer 2007, in
the drying river areas, fish either died or assembled at residual pools where
hyperthermia, anoxia and increased predation from birds and otters led to significant
mortality. Large bodied individuals appeared to be more sensitive than smaller-bodied
ones. On the contrary, in limited river stretches which maintained a satisfactory flow the
fish fauna assemblages were not affected. The sections which remained wet during the
dry season, provided refugia. In 2008, fish populations started to recolonise the areas
affected by drought by passive downstream dispersion of young or small sized
individuals. Considering the absence of larger individuals, fish communities in the
affected areas did not show signs of significant recovery. It seems that a series of
hydrologically undisturbed years is required to restore fish assemblages in Evrotas main
course. As it concerns the effects of morphological alterations, habitat-specialist species,
like T. spartiaticus and S. keadicus are in severe recession, mainly as a result of bed
leveling or pebble abstraction, which has led to loss of the specialised habitats these two
species are utilising.
Management implications
Climatic models for the Mediterranean basin predict a reduction in precipitation and river
runoff in summer and autumn. At the same time, agriculture will require more water
especially in the hotter drier regions. An increase in water temperatures and lower river
flows will affect water quality. In the case of Evrotas River, surface runoff has
dramatically diminished and groundwater levels have severely dropped. Hence, climate
change will further deteriorate aquatic quantity and quality. The ichthyological research
illustrated how the 2007 drought caused substantial mortality that may affect the
community composition in the long term. More severe droughts expected under altered
future climates and elevated water consumption may result in severe declines or
extinctions of sensitive species. Moreover, the occurrence of floods generates further
stress to fish populations, exacerbating the stresses already experienced due to the
drought events. If the current water management practices remain unchanging, it is most
probable that unique endangered species will extinct.
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In the following, a number of actions are proposed to be applied in the framework of the
Evrotas River Basin Management Plan to reduce adverse effects in the river system:
Reduction of water abstractions
A scenario focusing on reducing the irrigation water use by 40% is proposed.
The implementation of that measure will improve the hydrological balance of the basin
(Fig. 5.3.5). The surface and subsurface runoff in summer will increase from 2.9 to 6.5
m3/s (increase by 2.25 times). This would have positive effects on the conservation of
aquatic and riparian ecosystems and would diminish river bank erosion. The proposed
scenario is feasible through the improvement of the irrigation systems (installation of
closed pipes) and the implementation of best agricultural practices (drip irrigation,
development of irrigation systems according to the water needs of plants and the soil
moisture), restructuring of agriculture, etc.
Minimisation of morphological modifications
It is essential to strictly forbid any extension of agricultural land towards the river
courses and to apply integrated and sustainable flood control measures in order to
minimise river bed scouring. The survival of aquatic biota and especially of fish during
summer drought directly depends on the existence of deep remaining ponds that act as
refuges, and over and above on the connectivity between aquatic habitats. Hence,
morphological alterations should be minimised. It is additionally recommended that
Environmental Impact Assessment Studies affecting river morphology should take into
account the opinion of experts. Moreover, it is of first priority to protect and restore
riparian vegetation.
Figure 5.3.5. Monthly surface and subsurface runoff according to the current hydrological
balance and according to a 40% irrigation water reduction scenario.
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Up-to-date flood control measures
Current flood control measures are implemented in the plain areas with doubtful results
and have dramatic effects on aquatic and riparian habitats. The implementation of flood
control measures on the mountainous and semi-mountainous part of the basin, with
afforestations, construction of small reservoirs and inhibitory weirs, artificial groundwater
recharge and conservation/remediation of riparian vegetation in the riparian zones,
should be the first priority. The uncontrollable development on floodplains significantly
affects the extend and spatial display of floods. It is hence recommended to
designate flood protection zones, where specific activities will be prohibited and
may hinder floods to proceed downstream.
Protection and conservation of fish fauna
In the first instance, it is proposed that a perennial flow regime will be maintained, at
least in certain areas which are of vital importance for fish conservation and
management. We identified four areas of conservation priority, all of which
include reaches fed by important springs: the Vivari and the Skoura areas, the
Evrotas segment upstream the confluence of Kolliniotiko stream, and the Oinous midway.
We recommend that these areas should be included in a management plan and be
protected from surface water abstraction, while groundwater abstraction should be
carefully regulated and should be designated as core areas for fish conservation. Bearing
in mind that the fish fauna of the Evrotas contains unique range-restricted endemics, it is
proposed that the local fish communities should be monitored on a regular basis to
ensure that any impacts from human activities or water management measures are
detected as early as possible. Special consideration must be given to the evaluation of
the population status and trends during drought periods, when the frequency of sampling
should increase. A monitoring programme designed to provide assessment of the
chemical and ecological status of the Evrotas river is to be established, in accordance
with the demands of the Water Framework Directive. With slight modifications and
expansions, this programme can well accommodate the needs of fish conservation so
that to provide on routine basis information on the status of fish populations and
assessments of the human impacts on the ecosystem. Finally, it is important that a study
will be undertaken to examine the minimum flow requirements in the area of the
scheduled construction of in the Oinous R. dam, and this study will take into account the
results of the present study.
The implementation of the proposed actions will be only possible in the framework of an
Integrated Management Plan of Evrotas River Basin. The development and continuous
update of such a Plan will serve as the basis for water resources management, protection
and conservation of the ecosystem both during ―normal‖ hydrological years as well as
when extreme climatic events occur.
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5.4 TASK 3 - Drainage canal and river bank management
5.4.1. Management of Drainage Canals
Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) inputs are essential for increasing agricultural
production and maintaining the economic viability of farming systems worldwide.
Increases in worldwide use of N fertilizers combined with average N use efficiencies of
50% have contributed to increase of N concentration of surface waters. Fertilized
farmland is frequently the main non-point source of nitrogen and phosphorus excess
input to surface and groundwater ecosystems. A number of approaches have been
identified to reduce nutrient (nitrate) losses to surface waters including controlled
drainage, diverting or directing drainage discharge through natural or constructed
wetlands, bioreactors-zones that surround or border the drain pipes and in stream
denitrification
Agricultural drainage canals have been used in poorly drained agricultural landscapes for
regulating water retention to allow for crop production and for mitigating pollution
(nutrients, pesticides and herbicides) as well as for erosion prevention. Drainage canals
provide habitat to both aquatic and terrestrial biota and operate as nutrient pool due to
decomposition of OM (lacking otherwise in dry and intensively managed agricultural
areas). Drainage canals, usually situated in river deltas, which are areas of accumulation
of organic debris (sediment deposition) and growth of macrophytes, such as Phragmites
australis (common reeds) and Arundo donax (giant reeds). Such areas provide the
suitable anaerobic conditions and electron donors for denitrification. In addition, plants
(like reeds) can also promote phosphorus absorption onto the sand and prevent
ammonia accumulation by the release of oxygen from the roots. The removal of N in
riparian wetlands, zones, strips and drainage canals is mainly attributed to denitrification.
Therefore, drainage canals are likely to act both as narrow buffers in filtering runoff
waters and phosphorus pools during the dormant stage. Although, ditch performance has
been shown to be highly variable, no holistic studies are available on the functioning of
small field drains, with or without permanent water.
Hydrologic Balance - Based on hydraulic conductivity (0.691 m/day for groundwater,
and 0.587 m/day for Drainage canal recharge) and hydraulic gradients established by the
piezometric heads of the water table, the velocity of ground water was determined to be
0.062 m/day (travel time, 16 d/m) and close to drainage canal-where the gradient is
steeper-was 0.354 m/day (travel time, 3 d/m). The infiltration rate under steady state of
moisture was estimated using Horton‘s equation to be 0.0135 cm/min and the constant K
was 0.125±0.003 cm/min. Average potential evapotranspiration was 899±547 mm, and
precipitation was 543±199 for the hydrologic years 2000-01 to 2006-07. Precipitation
during 2006-2007 was 425 mm, while for 2007-2008 (until 31/05/2008) was 492 mm,
indicating dry conditions. The estimated average potential water deficit for the studied
region was estimated from April to October. Surface runoff to the drainage canal was
estimated to take place only during precipitation events higher than 25 mm/day.
Surface and ground water chemistry monitoring - Groundwater of the orange grove
field was anoxic with high COD, phenols, DOC and DON and ammonia and seasonally
with nitrates (Figure 5.4.1). The high organic load is due to the type of soil which is tyrf.
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The drainage canal had significantly lower concentrations of ammonia, COD, and DOC.
Nitrate concentrations in drainage canal were less than in ground water with the
exception when there was significant contribution from surface runoff. There was
generally a consistent decrease of pollutants between ground water and drainage canal
suggesting natural attenuation mechanisms in action. Organic N was ranging on average
(sampling sessions) from 34% to 84% of total N for ground water. The average ratio of
DOC to DON in ground water was relatively low ranging from 3.6 to 33.8 with a total
average of 15, suggesting abundance of organic N. The molar DIN/DIP ratio for ground
water was highly variable ranging on average (sampling sessions) from 10 to 288, with
an average of 58 whereas for drainage canal ranged from 6 to 849 suggesting P
limitation to eutrophication. The drainage canal phosphate concentrations were also
highly variable, ranging from 9 μg/L to 399 μg/L, and exceeded the eutrophication
criteria for lakes (20 μg/L). Drainage canal was oligotrophic due to reeds P uptake and
once the reeds were cut (December 2006) it became successively mesotrophic to
eutrophic.
Sediment physicochemical characteristics - The results of the physicochemical
characterization of the sediment are presented in table 5.4.3. pH of the sediment was
slightly basic (7.64), while conductivity was not high (218 mS/cm). Dry bulk density was
estimated to be 1125 kg/m3. The texture of the sediment was silty. Total organic carbon
content was 11434 mg/kg whereas total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) was 1886 mg/kg and
the total phosphorous is 3124 mg/kg. Therefore, the organic matter was enriched in
nitrogen and phosphorus and the C/N ratio was 6. The chemical analysis indicated that
sediments contained mostly aluminium (15.5 %) and silicon (54.8 %) oxides, while the
high percentage of loss of ignition implied high content of organic matter.
The sediment samples contained significant amounts of exchangeable nitrogen content,
4.65±0.36 mg NH3-N/kg sediment, 17.79±8.39 mg NO3-N/kg sediment, and 56.53±7.18
mg DON/kg sediment. Short term PMN and PTSN was also significant, 15.21 and 73.73
mg N/kg sediment, respectively. Anaerobic conditions prevented nitrification during the
experiment. Mineralization rate, estimated by the leaching kinetic experiment, was found
to be 0.21 mg N/L d, and therefore total capacity (adjusted for 7 days) was 10 mg N/Kg
sediment, verifying the short term PMN values. Partitioning coefficient (kd), mL/g, for
EMN, and PMN, was 400 and 600 mL/g, correspondingly, while for DON was much lower
200 mL/g, indicating the trend of the sediment to release DON. The sediment released
80 mg DON/Kg sediment. The aromaticity estimated in the leachate of the PMN test (ArIDOC, 1.169±0.052 L/mg C m, ArI DON, 280, 3.076±0.431 L/mg N m) compared with
aromaticity observed in a range of Greek agricultural soils could be considered to be of
the low-medium class explaining the enhanced mineralization response of the sediment.
NO3-N concentration decline, observed in the kinetic experiment, could be attributed in
denitrification since dissolved oxygen was negligible and redox potential was below 100
mV. Finally, the redox potential (Eh) of the sediment reached values lower than -50 mV
in 200 h, suggesting potential for denitrification under anaerobic conditions and available
electron donors.
The sediment also released small quantities of phosphates (0.465±0.265 mg/kg PO4-P)
as it was indicated from the leaching experiment. On the other hand, it had a large
capacity to absorb phosphorous and no plateau was reached in the sorption experiment.
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This suggested that during the experiment (4 days) the equilibrium probably was not
reached, but it was also an indication for possible surface precipitation. Therefore the
experimental data couldn‘t be modelled by Freundlich, Langmuir or BET isotherm and the
linear trend was obtained. The partitioning coefficient (Kd) was estimated to be 300 mL/g
and the retardation factor 1092 or 1774 if instead of the estimated dry bulk density the
typical value 2.65 g/cm3 was used. Equilibrium P concentration (EPC0) was estimated to
be 0.08 mg/L.
Figure 5.4.1. Seasonal averages from eight sampling sessions of physicochemical parameters of
surface water and ground water underneath Drainage Canal at Skala.
Phragmites australis and Arundo donax temporal nutrient content - During the
monitoring period nutrient concentrations were higher in upper part and lower in lower
part of above ground biomass, apart from certain periods of low concentrations, where
concentration values among the three parts were relatively identical (15/2/2008 and
1/8/2008). Upper part (leaves) had higher N (and not P) content and N/P molar ratio
compared to middle and lower part indicating the need of leave for N for chlorophyll
formation. On the other hand, during growth periods where there was great need of P for
the formation of new tissues the N/P ratio was decreased in the above ground biomass,
and then remained relatively constant.
The biomass was maximum soon after the maximum concentrations in June for P.
australis (47 g/reed clone, 705 g/m2) and in late July for A. donax (204 g/reed clone, 3.1
kg/m2) (Figure 5.4.2) in accordance with other studies which also showed maximum reed
biomass in early summer. Above ground biomass has been found to range from 97 g/m 2
(pristine nutrient substrate, translocation ecotype) to 1500 g/m2 (Rich nutrient substrate,
assimilation ecotype) in August for P.australis.
On the other hand, peak standing stock of nutrients was attained in June for both plants
(A.donax: 432 mg P/shoot and 2023-2132 in July- mg N/shoot, P.australis: 151 mg
P/shoot, 586 mg N/shoot) (Figure 5.4.3). Converting these contents to mg/g DW (Dry
Weight), then P.australis exhibited 12.4 mg N/g DW and 3.2 mg P/g DW, while A.donax
exhibited 18.4 mg N/g DW and 3.74 mg P/g DW. In literature, nutrient contents of
P.australis observed during summer are 17.5-24.3 mg N/g DW and 1.3-3.14 mg P/g DW.
Accounting for the reed density the square meter nutrient content is 8.78 g N/m2 and
2.26 g P/m2 regarding P.australis and 30.34 g N/m2 and 6.48 g P/m2 regarding
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A.donax, while in the literature the following ranges 17.8-35 g N/m2 and 0.96-3 g P/m2
have been observed.
Phragnites Australis
Arundo donax
g of biomass/shoot
g of biomass/shoot
250
200
150
100
50
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
May
June
Month
July
May
September
June
July
September
Month
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.4.2. Temporal variation of biomass of a) A.donax and b) P.australis from May to
September.
Nitrogen buffering processes - Drainage canals are areas of accumulation of organic
matter (source of nutrients for microrganisms) due to erosion and growth of plants such
as Phragmites australis and Arundo donax, that is important for nitrogen microbial
processes (mineralization, nitrification, denitrification). In the drainage canal under study
the substrate was tyrf and enriched in organic nitrogen. Groundwater exhibited high
levels of DOC (approx. 14 mg/L) and DON (approx. 2.5 mg/L). Mineralization of organic
nitrogen (15 mg/kg PMN, 0.21 mg/L d) was enhanced due to low aromaticity of DON
which was released from the sediments. The reduction of groundwater DON flux passing
through the riparian zone was an estimation of mineralized nitrogen for the study period
and it was estimated to be on average 37.6 mg N/m2 (13.72 g/m2 year).
Figure 5.4.3. Temporal variation of standing stock
(S1) and b) P.australis (S2-S3) from May to September.
of
nutrients
of
a)
A.donax
Nitrification is an important aerobic process for the prevention of toxic ammonia
accumulation. The process due the anaerobic substrate is strongly guaranteed on the
oxygen release from the roots. The reduction of groundwater ammonia flux passing
through the riparian zone indicated that the amount of nitrified nitrogen during the study
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period was on average 26.6 mg N/m2 day (9.72 g N/m2 year). Denitrification is the main
processes responsible for the buffering capacity of drainage canals against diffuse nitrate
pollution as described also by others. Denitrifers require, apart from electron donors,
anaerobic and reductive conditions and such conditions observed in our case, since
groundwater exhibited both low dissolved oxygen (mean value 1.6 mg/L) and redox
potential (mean value 111mV, range: -182.5 mV έως +340.8 mV). Moreover, sediment
redox potential under anoxic conditions was also low -50 mV. Hence, accounting that the
microporosity environment would be even more anoxic, there was strong potential for
dentitrification. The reduction of groundwater NO3-N flux passing through the riparian
zone gave evidence that on average 56.1 mg N / m2 day (20.48 g N/m2 year) was
denitrified. This nitrogen amount was removed from the system before entering the
surface water.
Phosphates buffering processes - Sediments showed a large capacity to absorb
phosphorous. DIP concentration in groundwater was higher than the equilibrium
concentration (EPC0 = 0.08 mg/L), therefore groundwater phosphate load was retained in
sediments and the load entering the drainage canal was minimized. On the other hand,
the levels of phosphorous in the drainage canal were seasonally below the EPC 0 making
the process inactive. Thereafter, drainage canal buffering capacity concerning phosphates
was not spent and higher phosphate loads could be absorbed. Root oxygen release was
also important for adsorption as it enhances the oxidation of the soluble Fe +2 to the Fe+3
form that can be precipitated oxyhydroxides that bind phosphate. In this study PO4-P
ranged from 0.009 (Method Detection Limit) to 0.437 mg/L, with DO from 0.45 to 5.00
mg/L and ORP from 140 to -215 (outlier -382). When the DO was higher than 3 mg/L the
PO4-P ranged from 0.058 to 0.183 mg/L. However, there was no correlation of PO4-P
concentrations higher than EPC0 with DO and ORP. Thus, we could assume that the redox
potential enhances denitrification and not iron (Fe+3) reduction.
Management issues of reed biomass - Harvesting of above ground biomass in June,
when peak nutrient content of reeds was observed and N/P ratio of surface water was
high enough to avoid toxic algal blooms, would remove 0.74 Kg P (2.73 g P/m 2) and 3.02
Kg N (11.2 g N/m2). Totally, 76.5 % of nitrate nitrogen (14.64 g N/m 2 year) and all
phosphorus (1.39 g P/m2 year) entering the drainage canal would be removed by plant
uptake. However, determination of the time of the management should take into account
the effect of harvesting to re-growth and to ecological functioning of the habitat.
Moreover, O2 supply to rhizomes depends on the redox potential of substrate and the
water depth, and should be considered in the management plans. Harvesting either
during the winter or the growing season has not been found to seriously affect re-growth
of reeds and no clear differences have been found in total biomass production per unit
area.
Time of harvesting and ecological factors - Although, in general reed management
has been found to have a significant negative impact on invertebrate community, a short
term management (1-2 years) had no effect on invertebrates. On the other hand, reed
harvesting and burning has been found to reduce abundance of passerine birds by about
60%, but this was probably associated with flood limitation as the numbers of butterflies,
beetles and some spiders were reduced. Therefore, the optimal reed management regime
to preserve number of birds and invertebrates in reedbeds could be indeed a rotation of
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short term management (1-2 years). Finally, the Hellenic Ornithological Society
suggested that in alluvial Evrotas River plain reed harvesting is permitted from the 15th
of June to the 30th of September (official communication with Hellenic Ornithological
Society), excluding in this way the winter harvesting.
Oxygen transport - The below ground parts of emergent macrophytes are dependent
on oxygen transported from the shoots, since O2 is usually absent in the substrate.
Oxygen is needed in these parts primarily for respiration and O 2 deficiency may limit the
maximum water-depth penetration of emergent vegetation. Oxygen release from the
roots of macrophytes to the surrounding substrate may have a positive influence on plant
growth by oxidizing reduced, phytotoxic metabolites in the substrate (e.g. S 2-, Fe+2,
Mn+2),
promote
phosphorus
absorption
onto
the
sand
and
prevent
ammonia
accumulation. P. Australis growing in a reducing substrate are more sensitive to a
reduction in the O2 supply to rhizomes than reeds growing in a more oxidizing substrate.
Conclusions - Sustainable agricultural practices have minimum environmental impact
without imposing significant financial burdens on the farmers. Thus, understanding and
implementing innovative technologies based on natural attenuation processes offers such
advantages. The objective of this research was to elucidate removal of nutrients due to
natural attenuation mechanisms in drainage canals in Evrotas River delta in Greece. We
investigated nutrients balance in groundwater, sediments, and reeds (Phragmites
australis and Arundo donax) of the drainage canal. Groundwater fluxes indicated that the
rate of mineralization was 37.6 mg N/m2 day. The accumulation of toxic ammonia was
prevented through the nitrification process (26.6 mg N/m2 d). The decrease of NO3-N
flux in groundwater in the riparian zone, was calculated to be 56.1 mg N/m2 day (20.48
g N/m2 year). Phosphate was absorbed to sediments and its load to the drainage canal
was minimized. Harvesting of above ground reed biomass in mid June, when maximum
standing stock of nutrients was attained for both plants, would remove 2.73 g P/m2 and
11.2 g N/m2. 76.5 % of the nitrate nitrogen (14.64 g N/m2 year) and all the
phosphorus (1.39 g P/m2 year) entering the drainage canal was removed by
plants.
This field and laboratory study revealed that the riparian zone of the
agricultural drainage canal under study in the Evrotas River delta, natural
attenuation mechanisms (denitrification and adsorption of phosphates), as well
as phytoremediation (P. australis and A. donax nutrient uptake and harvesting
of their above ground biomass), could remove significant amounts of N and P.
The harvesting of above ground biomass of reeds (P.australis and A.donax) is suggested
to take place in mid June when maximum standing stock of nutrients was attained for
both plants P.australis and A.donax. Overall, drainage canal management is suggested as
an efficient low cost – high gain agri-environmental measure, which is easy to be
adapted by farmers, to reduce diffuse nutrient pollution.
5.4.2. Riparian Zone Restoration
Temporary rivers are flashy in nature and under extreme precipitation events produce
floods with extremely high erosion potential. An example of the flood destruction is a
site in the area of Sparta where the river bank erosion control and phytoremediation was
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demonstrated. At the site, we designed and constructed a bank restoration system using
large stones following the rivers curvatures to stabilize the bank and the riparian zone
from future flood events. The bank erosion was therefore restored using a stone hedge of
large boulders. In addition, we planted a riparian forest of 200 poplar trees to decrease
nutrient loads due to uptake and enhanced denitrification. In this way, phytoremediation
in conjunction with river bank erosion controls was demonstrated as a combined
remediation tool for non-point source pollution of nutrients. To monitor the temporal 3dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of ground water, nine multi-level wells
were installed. Groundwater sampling was conducted in order to assess the fate and
transport of nutrients as they move from the groundwater to the River. The groundwater
movement is almost paraller with the river flow. The average hydraulic conductivity was
estimated to be 0.01 cm/sec. The infiltration rate under steady state of moisture was
estimated using Horton‘s equation to be 0.0596 cm/min. Ground water chemistry
monitoring gave the following findings:
1. The ground water presented low levels of dissolved oxygen. The samples from the
5m probes were colored (black) and smelled.
2. The ground water presented high levels of COD, which increased with depth,
Τ.phenols, DOC, DON and NH3-N and seasonally of NO3-N and PO4-P.
3. The organic N was as significant as the inorganic N and was estimated to be
approximately 60% of the total dissolved nitrogen.
4. Moreover the average DOC-to-DON ratio was relative low and ranged from 2.5 to
15, indicating abundance of organic N.
5. The molar DIN/DIP ratio for ground water was highly variable ranging on average
(sampling sessions) from 30 to 350, suggesting P limitation to eutrophication.
6. There was generally a consistent decrease of pollutants in the restored riparian
zone suggesting the role of phytoremediation and probably other natural
attenuation mechanisms in action.
Reduction of the pollutants at the restored Riparian Zone - The collected data from
the monitoring of qround water quality allowed for the estimation of the nitrate reduction
taking place at the riparian zone. As it was already mentioned denitrification was not
expected to contribute significantly in the nitrate reduction due to the relative high
dissolved oxygen and redox potential. Therefore the potential reduction would be
attributed to the poplar trees uptake. The nitrate flux reduction was calculated for the 70
m length of the riparian zone for two equally divided parts (35 m). The water flow was
calculated from the piezometric gradient between the wells (pairs of wells 3 andι 4, and 5
and 6), and then the difference between the concentrations resulted in the calculation of
the flux. Totally, 8.2 kg ΝΟ3-Ν/y or 39 g ΝΟ3-Ν/m2y (for 3 m width of poplar trees)
reduction of nitrates was estimated (70 % reduction). It is worth noting that the
reduction the first period (until the July ‘07 sampling) was 60%, while the second period
was 80%, coinciding with the further growth of the poplar trees and their root system.
Moreover, accumulation of nitrogen ammonia was also observed which decreased in
time, suggesting the contribution of the oxygen release from the trees‘ roots. The
graphical depiction of the seasonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the wells
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before and after the poplar trees planted (Figure 5.4.4) indicates also the reduction of
the ammonia accumulation after the July ‘07 and the enhancement of the nitrate
reduction in the respective wells (after the trees). It is noticeable that nitrates presented
during the six sampling sessions on average 81% higher, and 11.6, 18.9, 37.0, 49.4, and
32.7 lower concentration after the poplar trees planted zone. On the other hand the
nitrate reduction in the 150 m filed from the irrigation well to the riparian zone (before
the planted zone) was estimated to be only 8-25%.
The nitrate flux reduction was calculated for the 70 m length of the riparian zone for two
equally divided parts (35 m). The water flow was calculated from the piezometric
gradient between the wells (pairs of wells 3 and 4, and 5 and 6), and then the difference
between the concentrations resulted in the calculation of the flux. Totally, 8.2 kg ΝΟ3-Ν/y
or 39 g ΝΟ3-Ν/m2y (for 3m width of poplar trees) reduction of nitrates was estimated
(70% reduction). It is worth noting that the reduction the first period (until the
July ‟07 sampling) was 60%, while the second period was 80%, coinciding with
the further growth of the poplar trees and their root system. Moreover,
accumulation of nitrogen ammonia was also observed which decreased in time,
suggesting the contribution of the oxygen relese from the trees‘ roots. The graphical
depiction of the sesaonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the wells before and
after the poplar trees planted indicates also the reduction of the ammonia accumulation
after the July ‘07 and the enhancement of the nitrate reduction in the respective wells
(after the trees). It is noticable that nitrates presented during the six sampling sessions
on average 81% higher, and 11.6, 18.9, 37.0, 49.4, and 32.7 lower concentration after
the poplar trees planted zone. On the other hand the nitrate reduction in the 150 m filed
from the irrigation well to the riparian zone (before the planted zone) was estimated to
be only 8-25%. Consequently, phytoremediation in conjunction with river bank erosion
controls is suggested as a combined efficient remediation tool, low cost – high gain, for
non-point source pollution of nutrients.
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COD
Concentration, mg/L
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mar-07
May-07
Concentration, mg/L
Irrigation well
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
NO2-N
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
Mar-07
May-07
Irrigation well
Jul-07
Nov-07
before poplar trees planted
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
NO3-N
3
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
before poplar trees planted
2
2
1
1
0
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
NH3-N
0.70
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
before poplar trees planted
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Jul-07
Nov-07
before poplar trees planted
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
Figure 5.4.4. Seasonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the irrigation well and the
groundwater before and after the poplar trees planted.
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5.5 TASK 4 - Agricultural product waste management
The demonstration of agricultural waste treatment technologies was focused on the two
most important point sources of pollution in Laconia, namely, olive mill effluents and
wastewater from orange juice production. Two general technologies were used in four
application sites:

subsurface distribution of waste with phytoremediation and

electrolytic treatment of wastes.
The environmental impact of the olive oil production is very significant because of the
very high COD content and the toxicity of some ingredients. The volume of the liquid
effluents from the olive mill can be double or even quadruple the amount of olive oil
produced, and there is a need to reuse or dispose large amounts of solids and liquid
effluents in an environmentally acceptable manner. Whatever the type of the production
plant (classical, two-phase or three-phase), about 1500 kg of by-products result from the
production of 1000 kg of olive oil, either in the form of high humidity solids (2-phase
process) or as vegetation water and medium humidity solids (classical and 3-phase
processes). The disposal and treatment of this liquid waste are the main problem of the
olive oil industry because of its high organic load and content of phytotoxic and
antibacterial phenolic substances, which resist biological degradation. OMW has also a
high potassium concentration and notable levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium, and iron, important factors in soil fertility. Lime precipitation and water
evaporation in ponds constitute common practice in OME treatment.
As part of EnviFriendly LIFE program, the following alternative treatment technologies
have been implemented and their efficiency demonstrated.
5.5.1. Use of OMW for irrigation of crops during the summer months
The basic idea behind this technology was to pre-treat the OMW with lime and pump the
liquid to a nearby ―evaporation pond‖ for storage for the next 3 to 6 months. From the
beginning of June the OMW was used for irrigation (after dilution with water) of a corn
field. The overall results from the corn production have been very positive as
well as all wastewater in the pond was used up before the end of the summer
on an annual basis. The primary objective of the EnviFriendly program was to evaluate
any potential problem with the aquifer under the corn field.
The particular location where this technology was implemented was the olive mill ―P.
TZINAKOS Ltd‖ in Aiges (Gytheio, Laconia). The irrigation facility consisted of a CaO
pretreatment tank, evaporation lagoon, mixing with fresh water and finally land
application in cultivated corn field. We investigated the soil physical and chemical
properties for the identification of soil effects after 5 years of land application of CaO
pretreated OMWW. The area was mainly comprised of Alluvial (quaternary) formations of
conglomerates and loose sediments, of Tertiary formations mainly marls and phyllites
and quarzites. The soil was characterized as alluvial mixed with regosols. The olive mill
plant was a three phase olive mill and the OMWW management practice included liming
of OMWW in tanks and then pumping the waste in lagoons during the olive oil production
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period (November to February). Evaporation lagoons accommodated the waste water up
to May when the irrigation season commenced. From June to September waste water
from the lagoons was mixed with fresh water to a ratio of 1/3 (OMWW/water) and was
used for the irrigation of the maize field. The irrigation flow was 30 m3/h for 3 days a
week. The surface area of the maize field was 18,750 m2 (1.8750 ha) which
corresponded to 18,432 m3/ha/year (irrigation period for 4 months). Taking into account
the dilution ratio (1/3), the total supply of OMWW was 6144 m 3/ha/4 months or a dose of
51.2 m3/ha/d for the irrigation period from June to September.
Two experimental wells were constructed for groundwater monitoring to a depth of 10 m.
The water table varied from 5 to 6.5 m seasonally (wet to dry period). Four topsoil
samples (T1-T4) (0-15 cm) and an undisturbed core sample (C1-C3) were used for
analysis, whereas, a control uncultivated topsoil sample (N) from an adjacent area
covered with shrubs was used as reference soil. Sampling was conducted by obtaining 15
topsoil samples (0-15 cm depth) and three undisturbed soil cores C1-C3 (0-50 cm).
Samples collected in November 2007 which was two months after the end of irrigation
period (May-September) with treated OMWW.
Six field campaigns (January 2007, March 2007, June 2008, August 2007, December
2007 and March 2008) were conducted for ground water sampling. Groundwater was
sampled with a low flow peristaltic pump (< 1 L/min), so as turbidity was maintained at
minimum levels and no atmospheric oxygen was introduced to the sample. The following
physicochemical parameters: pH and temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved
oxygen, and redox potential were measured, in situ. The samples were filtered, in situ,
through a 0.45 µm Nylon filter and analyzed for nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, phosphates,
total phenols, dissolved organic carbon, chemical oxygen demand, and total nitrogen or
Kheldalh nitrogen as well for cations like Ca, Mg, K.
Dry bulk density was estimated to be 1698 ±70 Θg/m3 for cultivated soil (T1-T4) and
1612±62 Θg/m3 for control soil (N) whereas porosity was 38.5±2% and 35±2%,
respectively. Infiltration was calculated to be 0.012 m/min in the treated soil. Topsoil
organic carbon content decreased by 29%, and total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) decreased
by 25% compared with the control uncultivated soil (N) (1.55 and 0.25% respectively).
The lower organic matter content of the cultivated soil as well as the lime pretreated
OMWW application was depicted in the higher pH (7.75) compared to control soil (N)
(6.26). Electrical conductivity also increased by a 4.4 fold compared to that of control
sample (N) (174 μS/cm). Magnesium availability decreased in the cultivated soil by 28 %
compared to the control soil (N). On the other hand, calcium and potassium availability
increased by 154 and 56 %, respectively. Finally, CEC increased by 86%.
The bioavailability of phosphorous was extremely low (0.03 mg/Kg) in control soil, while
it was high as 0.64 ± 0.2 mg/Kg in the cultivated soil. Exchangeable mineral nitrogen
(EMN) was found to be 29% higher in the cultivated soil compared to the control (20
mg/kg) and was dominated by nitrate nitrogen in both soils (90% and 81% of EMN for
cultivated and control soil, respectively). Potential mineralizable N (PMN) was estimated
to be 22 and 29 mg/Kg for cultivated and control soil respectively. The dissolved organic
nitrogen (7 day extraction) showed no significant changes for the cultivated soil (T1-T4)
and the control soil (N) (Fig. 5.5.1).
The total phenols were on average lower in the
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cultivated soil, and only T1 exhibited 20% higher content compared to the control.
Finally, the dehydrogenase activity did not present any statistically important change. A
spatial variability was observed mainly in the T1 composite with increases in the physicochemical parameters. K+, Ca, P-PO43-, N-NO3-, phenols and CEC increased for composite
T1 (62%, 35%, 72%, 30% 66% and 18% respectively) compared to T3 and T4. T2
composite also presented some increase in N-NO3- and phenols compared to other
composites (T3 and T4).
12.00
2a
10.00
mg/l
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
T1
T2
T3
Mineral N
3500
3000
T4
N
PMN (7 days)
Cu
Cm
Cd
Cm
Cd
DON (7 days)
2b
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
T1
T2
T3
Kd Mineral N
T4
PMN (7 days)
N
Cu
Kd DON (7 days)
Figure 5.5.1. Mineralizable Nitrogen (Mineral N=Ν-ΝΟ3- + Ν-ΝΖ4+) after 1 hour extraction with 2Μ
KCl and Potential mineralizable nitrogen (PMN=Ν-ΝΟ3- + Ν-ΝΖ4+) and dissolved organic nitrogen
(DON) after 7 days extraction with 2Μ KCl. 2b) Distribution coefficient Kd of mineral N, PMN and
DON.
The soil core samples Cu, Cm, and Cd showed similar pH values as the topsoil samples
whereas the electrical conductivity was decreased in deeper horizons (by 48% in the Cd
compared to Cu). TOC decreased with depth from Cu (1.0%) to Cd (0.7%). Total
Kjeldahl nitrogen also decreased with depth from Cu (0.19%) to Cm (0.15%), while in
the deeper horizon (Cd) presented an enrichment (34%) that can not be explained with
the available data. Magnesium was relatively constant (4.57-4.93 g/kg) throughout the
core depth, whereas potassium and phosphate content decreased with depth. It is worth
noting that the availability of potassium and phosphorous of the Cm and Cd part of the
soil core was similar to those of the control topsoil sample. Exchangeable mineral
nitrogen (EMN) was estimated to be constant throughout the soil depth ranging from 18
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to 20 mg/Kg. Potential mineralizable N (PMN) was constant between Cu and Cm (12.5
and 12 mg/Kg, respectively) and appeared to be negligible in the lower part of the core
(Cd). DON (after 7 days extraction) was stable for all horizons.
pH was alkaline (9.65) due to lime treatment. There was substantial decrease in COD (89
%), total phenols (90%) and TOC (48%) content. However, the electrical conductivity
remained high and this was probably related to high potassium content. Nitrogen
concentration in the treated OMWW was 1111 mg/L (54% DON, 30% N-NO3-, and 16%
N-NH4+). The DOC/DON ratio was slightly higher than 20, indicating nitrogen as the
limiting factor. Phosphate phosphorous concentration was 25.6 mg/L. The average
physicochemical properties of groundwater are presented in Table 5.5.3. No significant
spatial variability was observed between wells A1 and A2. The groundwater had high
electrical conductivity, neutral pH, low nutrient concentrations and DO and reducing
conditions.
In general, no adverse effects were observed in ground water due to the
surface application of the OMWW. However attention should be drawn to the electrical
conductivity which could be related to potassium leaching from OMWW application and/or
to geogenic factors due to interaction of groundwater with marls (rich in calcium) and
phyllites (rich in potassium) from the soil parent material.
Several publications referred to pH decreases in soil after irrigation with untreated
OMWW which was however attributed to soil buffering capacity. Time dependent
experiments showed initial decrease in pH and finally recovery to normal soil pH levels.
In the present study the application of lime pre-treated OMWW lead to an increase of soil
pH by 20% compared to that of the relatively acidic control soil. The pH change was
related to the high alkalinity of the applied OMWW, (due to liming practice). The electrical
conductivity increased in the amended soil (340% increase) and this was consistent with
the scientific literature. Although, calcium concentration of OMWW is not as high as that
of potassium, calcium availability showed even higher increase (154 %). The increase of
calcium availability could be attributed to calcium oversaturation.
After 5 years of OMWW application, organic carbon appeared lower in treated soil
compared to the control soil (29% decrease). This was attributed to intense cultivation of
the field for more than 10 years. Moreover, the OMWW application has not enriched the
soil in organic carbon. This in accordance with the results presented by others who
showed decrease of organic carbon and return to initial values after the OMWW
application dose of 100 m3/ha and incubation time of 28 and/or 42 days. Moreover the
same researcher showed that dehydrogenase activity was recovered to initial values after
28 days. Dehydrogenase activity was also estimated to be statistically the same between
the cultivated and control soil. The fact that soil sampling took place in November, 2
months after the end of irrigation period with pre-treated OMWW, allowed the
assumption to be drawn that decomposition bacteria probably had favourable conditions
(OMWW had low COD and low phenolic content compared to untreated OMWW -Table
5.5.2) and enough time to act. In adittion, Mekki et al. (2006) presented increase in the
colony forming units (CFU) for fungi populations, actinomycetes and spore forming
bacteria (organic matter break down bacteria) and that was probably our case
considering also the enhanced effect of maize root system in developing fungi
populations and thus eased organic matter decomposition (e.g. mycorrhizal) (Tisdale et
al., 1993). Consequently, decomposition of organic matter proceeded in satisfactory rate
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approximately 2 months after the end of OMWW application and no residual organic
matter observed in soil after 5 years of practise.
We expected high N concentration in soil after the application of OMWW due to
mineralization of organic N. Our case revealed slightly higher N in soil and lower PMN
which
was
probably
related
with
the
decomposition
of
organic
nitrogen
and
transformation to leachable and absorbable mineral. In our case probably nitrification
and/or denitrification processes were started after the end of irrigation with OMWW. The
presence of maize had also contributed to the mineralization and nitrification of organic N
with the development of bacteria in the vicinity of plant root. In addition, tillage after the
crop period probably enhanced mineralization and nitrification processes. C/N ratio in
treated soil was in average 3.1 whereas in control soil was 6.2 which exhibited
satisfactory decomposition for treated soil. Furthermore, C/N for treated OMWW was 21
which meant that mineralization and nitrification processes were near to starting
boundary value (<20). The supply of nitrates was attenuated probably by maize NO 3uptake and/or by denitrifying bacteria with concomitant release in the atmosphere. This
was in accordance with the low values of nitrates observed through out the groundwater
sampling campaign. Potential mineralizable nitrogen (PMN) had relevant concentration to
all surface samples whereas PMN decreased for core samples as the depth increased and
this was probably due to accumulation of organic matter deeper in soil which was more
resistant in decomposition. This was also confirmed by the high PMN distribution
coefficient of observed for Cd sample. Distribution coefficients for mineral N and DON for
treated soil exhibited identical values which meant that organic matter decomposition
proceeded and no residual effects observed.
The content of nutrients in the upper 50 cm of N soil and treated soil (T1-T4) were also
presented. The upper 50 cm of soil was considered for calculation of total nutrient load in
soil since the majority of nutrients remained in this depth taking into account the
hypothesis that nutrients infiltration rate was identical to water infiltration (0.012
cm/min, maximum ~50 cm-for 3 days constant irrigation). This hypothesis was true for
the last year, since samples were taken November (high rainfall after December) and no
significant rain could leach nutrients deeper in soil. In addition, return of most nutrients
concentration into normal values (compared to N) for Cd sample (30-50 cm) enhanced
this hypothesis. Comparison of nutrients increase in T1-T4 (Nutrient(T1-T4)-Nutrient(N))
with the OMWW nutrients input yielded the attenuation of nutrients which ranged from
55 to 100% according to the total input of nutrients in five years. Moreover, comparison
with the last year nutrient input (2007) revealed the attenuation that occurred without
the leaching effect of rain since the samples were obtained before the rain period in
Greece as already mentioned (December-March). The last year attenuation in nutrient
load was due to maize uptake. Potassium and calcium exhibited an increase of 55% and
175% respectively for treated soil (T1-T4) and attenuation of 82% and 40% for the last
year load, respectively. Moreover, 97% and 92% was the attenuation for potassium and
calcium respectively, after 5 years of OMWW application which showed that with
increased application time we have increase in attenuation which was probably related
with leached into deeper horizons and/or into groundwater (increased groundwater
electrical conductivity). Magnesium deficiency was observed for the treated soil and
probably that was related to ion exchange with potassium and leached deeper into soil.
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Significant amounts of potassium have been uptaken by maize (at least 45% from the
last year nutrient input) due to high potassium requirements of the specific crop.
Phosphates and phenols exhibited high attenuation in soil which was solely due to plant
uptake and soil decomposition capacity. TKN showed 82% attenuation considering the
five year of TKN input and increased load of +100% considering 1 year input. Thus
treated soil contained residual organic matter with strongly bound nitrogen which yielded
23% increase for T1-T4. Leaching effect has not been observed since groundwater
analysis exhibited no changes in nitrates and ammonium (decomposition products in
anaerobic conditions of groundwater). Thus, there was an accumulation of organic matter
which has higher content of nitrogen in treated soil and probably was decayed in very
slow rate. Consequently, organic load (e.g. phenols) and nitrogen chemical species
(nitrates and ammonium) have been effectively attenuated without impacting the
groundwater,
Irrigation with lime pre-treated and OMWW of a maize field for five years showed that
the main soil effects included increase of electrical conductivity, correlated with increase
of potassium and calcium availability in soil solution. Both pretreatment of OMWW
and maize crop showed that enhanced the attenuation processes of organic
load, phenols content, nitrates, and ammonium in soil. However, salinity was still
far below threshold of salinization problem and probably application of limed OMWW in
rotation with periods of non OMWW application could be an environmental convenient
method of OMWW management in areas with water shortage or high irrigation demand
and low organic matter and nutrient soil content (like phosphates). Groundwater quality
remained untouched except electrical conductivity and this was correlated with both deep
water level, slow infiltration rate and cultivation practises (cultivation of maize for
potassium uptake, decomposition of organic load).
5.5.2. OMW subsurface disposal and phytoremediation
Phytoremediation as a restoration technology is based on the use of vegetation for in situ
treatment of contaminated soils, sediments, and water. It is applicable at sites containing
organic contaminants, nutrients, or metal pollutants that can be accessed by the roots of
plants and sequestered, degraded, immobilized, or metabolized in situ. As far as the
subsurface disposal of OMW is it concerned, there are two technological approaches that
can be followed:
a) One is to have a confined soil disposal area with a protective membrane placed at
least 5 m below the surface so that no wastewater leaks during the winter months to
the groundwater. In addition through a series of perforated pipes and pumps, the
―stored OMW‖ disposed during the winter months is recycled vertically (during the
spring/summer months) in order to enhance the phytoremediation action of poplar
trees. In this process one can further enhance the remediation efficiency by adding
isolated bacterial degraders (of OMW) from the rhizosphere of irrigated plants (for
extended periods) with OMW (Oleico process/ recent Italian patent/LIFE Environment
Project, http://www.lifeoleico.it).
b) A second approach is to dispose the OMW in between densely planted poplar trees
taking into account the soil properties so that the groundwater is not contaminated
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with disposed OMW and the cost is significantly reduced compared to the approach in
(a) above (as no excavation and no continuous pumping is involved).
Within
EnviFriendly,
we
concentrate
on
the
second
approach.
In
general,
the
configuration of the plants in the chosen phytoremediation area is determined by a
combination of factors like wastewater irrigation system and weed control methods, OMW
disposal system etc. The site where this technology is implemented is the KOKKOLIS
Olive Mill in Vassilaki, Laconia. In this case, the poplars were planted in rows with a
spacing of about 1.2 to 1.5m betweens the plants and a spacing of about 3.2m between
the rows. The two-year old poplars were planted in late November of 2006 and
subsurface disposal was initiated in December of 2007.
The OMW delivery system
includes pumps and PVC pipes needed to transfer the OMW from the olive mill facility to
the distribution system at the poplar site. The OMW is distributed in subsurface
perforated pipes placed between the poplar rows. The distribution pipe is located
approximately 40 cm below the surface and it is placed in an excavated channel with a
cross-sectional area of 50 cm X 50 cm. The channel is filled with medium size gravel. The
maximum quantity of OMW that can be disposed on a particular site should be less than
the Specific Retention of the soil in the area. Specific Retention is the measure of the
water retained in the soil against gravity by capillary and hydroscopic forces when the
water table of an unconfined aquifer drops. In our case, it is actually the maximum
volume of water and OMW that can be retained against gravity in a unit area of the
investigated site. Therefore, for a plant with a root system that reaches 5 m deep, the
objective is not to allow the OMW plume to go beyond this limit. This corresponds to a
maximum volume of OMW retained in a volume V (m3) equal to 5m
 Area (m2).
Based on our calculations, and the average rainfall in the area, the production of OMW by
the KOKKOLIS olive mill which is about 1000 m3, can be accommodated by the area. The
capacity of the poplar trees planted in the Phytoremediation area is quite high.
Nonetheless, there is an additional area that it could be planted with poplar trees should
the production of OMW by the plant increases substantially over the next few years.
Six sampling wells constructed in the field. Three level loggers were placed in different
depths (3, 4, and 5 m). Sampling campaigns were done to monitor the temporal 3dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of ground water, 6 multi-level (3, 4
and 5 m) wells were installed. Groundwater sampling was conducted in different periods
prior and after the underground waste release. The field campaign dates were at 1/2007,
3/2007, 5/2007, 7/2007, 11/2007, 3/2008, 2/2009. The time period from 1/2007 to
11/2007 was prior the underground waste release, whereas field campaigns from 3/2008
to 2/2009 were done after the underground waste release.
Ground water monitoring: The multilevel wells were sampled, with a peristaltic pump
with low flow (< 1 L/min), so as turbidity was maintained in minimum levels, and the
physicochemical parameters pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (D.O.),
and, redox potential (Eh) were stable. The samples were filtered through a 0.45 µm
Nylon filter, stored in low temperature and sent to laboratory. Water samples were
analysed for the same parameters as in the previous applications
Soil sampling: Core samples were collected in 2/2009, one year after the underground
irrigation with waste water. Water samples were also collected in the same period.
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Sampling included 4 core samples in different depths below the irrigation pipe (0-20, 2040, 40-60, 60-80 cm).
Figure 5.5.2 presents the mean values and standard deviation from 6 wells in the 4 m
depth probe. After the underground disposal of OMWW, there was a decrease in the
concentrations of nitrite, ammonia, TKN and phosphate while the nitrate and phenol
concentration were statistical similar. The pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and redox potential
remained constant after the OMWW application, the electrical conductivity decreased.
Soil samples were taken up to 80 cm below the irrigation pipe. In general, no changes
were observed in pH and total organic carbon compared to the control soil (surface
sample) apart from sample KE4 which showed decline in pH and increase in organic
carbon content. Increase was also observed in the concentration of phenols. At 20-40 cm
depth a great decrease was observed in phenol content whereas organic carbon was high
for sample KE4 (Fig. 5.5.3 and 5.5.4).
P-PO4
N-NO2
0.25
0.20
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
N-NO2
mg/L
mg/L
0.035
0.030
P-PO4
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
March 07
March 07
March 08
N-NO3
Total phenols
2.00
5.00
4.00
N-NO3
mg/L
mg/L
1.50
1.00
0.50
Total phenols
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
March 07
0.00
March 08
March 07
N-NΗ3
March 08
TKN
1.00
5.00
0.80
4.00
N-NΗ3
0.60
mg/L
mg/L
March 08
0.40
0.20
TKN
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
March 07
March 08
March 07
March 08
Figure 5.5.2. Nutrients concentration in wells of 4 m in two different time periods.
The subsurface application of OMWW showed no adverse effect to groundwater
quality. Stabilization of nutrient concentration after the planting the poplar
trees, showed that biological action of the plants decreased the variability in
nutrient content. The groundwater water level in the field was on average 2.5 m
(winter) to 3 m (summer) below the surface. Soil coring showed no transfer of waste in
deeper horizons (below 60-80 cm) thus there are no adverse effects in groundwater from
waste application. Phenols showed no variability in concentration after the subsurface
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application of waste water which was probably related with adsorption in soil and
concomitant degradation of phenols. The rhizosphere of the poplar trees was a crucial
factor for the degradation of phenols. Low pH and high organic load in core KE4 showed
high spillage of the wastewater in that place. The phenol content was high in depth 0-20
cm whereas it decreases in deeper horizons which had similar phenol content to
undisturbed soils (36 mg/Kg, Tsinakos field). The control soil also exhibited similar values
to
Tsinakos
field.
The
subsurface
application
of
OMWW
in
conjunction
with
phytoremediation was shown to be an effective low cost technology.
Irrigation pipe
wastewater
Depth cm
0-20
20-40
40-60
60-80
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
Total phenols (mg/Kg)
Figure 5.5.3. Total phenols in different depths in sample ΘΔ4.
Figure 5.5.4. Total phenols in different depths for samples ΘΔ4 and ΘΔ3 and the control soil.
5.5.3. Electrolytic treatment of OMW.
One of the alternative methods for OMW partial treatment is the use of advanced
oxidation processes for the complete oxidation of the phytotoxic polyphenols present in
the OMW as well as for the simulataneous reduction of COD through oxidation and the
removal of coagulated particles of high COD. The advanced oxidation process used in this
application is electrolysis. OMW is often disposed in Evrotas riven without any prior pretreatment to remove at least the content of polyphenols. Electrolytic treatment of OMW
for a short period is expected to reduce substantially the polyphenols concentration and
at the same time achieve a noticeable reduction in the COD of the OMW prior to disposal.
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As part of the LIFE EnviFriendly program, an electrolytic treatment unit was installed at
the ―Ν & Α TOUTOULIS‖ Olive Mill in Platana (Laconia) with the following characteristics:
(5)
Electrolytic Cell (Anode: Ti/Pt/Ir with a total surface area of 160 cm 2, Cathode:
stainless steel 316 (tubo) with an internal diameter of 70 cm; The complete
electrolytic unit was manufactured by WATERSAFE S.A., Greece).
(6)
DC Power supply (WATERSAFE S.A., rated at 700 A @ 20 Vdc).
(7)
Recirculation pump (Lowara, stainless steel 316, with a flow of 30 m 3/h @
4m).
(8)
Stirring vessels (PVC with a volume of 0.5, 0.5 and 1 m3).
Following one season of unsuccessful operation due to complete unwillingness of the
olive mill owner to follow the operating instructions, it was decided to change the location
of the electrolytic unit to another place in Laconia, where the wastewater is from the
production of table olives (EUROAMERICANA S.A.).
The electrolytic system was also tested in parallel in our laboratories in order to ensure
that the best operating conditions have been chosen for the particular application. OMW,
diluted 1 to 20 with water and following addition of 4% (w/v) NaCl (4 g/cm 3),
was
subjected to electrolytic treatment employing three different voltages: 5 V, 7V and 9V.
The recirculation flow through the electrolytic cell was 0,62 L/s. The temperature was
kept within the range 27-35 oC. The temperature and pH increase was the highest during
the electrolysis with 9V. The gradual increase of pH can be explained by the fact that
throughout the electrolysis more OH- ions are generated than H+, with the results the
gradual move towards more alkaline conditions. The value of pH does not affect the
production of Cl2 and the overall efficiency of the process (for an initial pH in the range 4
to 10) and hance no pH control was implemented.
The drop of COD as a function of time is given in the diagram below (Fig. 5.5.5). It is
obvious that the rate of COD reduction is higher as the voltage increases. We observe an
initial increase of COD for 5 and 7 V before the continuous reduction of COD with time
commences. This is probably due to production of intermediates (chlorinated compounds
or polymerized compounfd). The production of polymerized compounds is fovoured at a
low pH and temperature leading to an increase in COD. The reduction of COD after 2
hours of treatment was 35,5 % at 9V, 24% at 7 V and just 3,4% at 5V. The COD
reduction is directly linked to the current density which was: 7.77 A/dm2 at 5 V, 19.26
A/dm2 at 7 V and 31.54 A/dm2 at 9 V. The average COD reduction is 188 mg O2/Ah at 9
V, 200 mg O2/Ah at 7 V and 80 mg O2/Ah at 5 V. The the same amount of applied
charge, the COD reduction is higher at higher voltages. The phenolic compounds are
degraded totally within 15 min at 9V, 20 min at 7V and 40 min at 5V. The results of the
electrolytic treatment are shown together for polypohenols and COD reduction in the
following diagram. At an operating voltage of 9V, when the polyphenols are totally
removed, the corresponding COD reduction is 14% (Fig. 5.5.6).
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Dilution 1:20, 4% NaCl
2700
2400
COD (mg/L)
2100
1800
1500
1200
0
50
5V
100
Time (min)
7V
150
9V
Figure 5.5.5. Changes in COD versus time for different operating voltages.
2400
Dilution 1:20, 4% NaCl
2,0
Polyphenols (g caffeic/
L)
Dilution 1:20, 4% NaCl
2700
1,6
COD (mg/L)
2100
1,2
1800
0,8
1500
0,4
1200
0,0
0,00
1,00
2,00per 3,00
4,00 (Ah/L)
5,00
Charge
unit volume
5V
7V
9V
0
20
5V
40
Time (min)
7V
60
9V
Figure 5.5.6. COD reduction as a function of the applied charge and times at different operating
voltages.
All the prevous experiments have been conducted with filtered OMW where all suspended
solids have been removed. In order to examine the effectiveness of the unit in a real
situation where the Olive Mill Owner neglects to remove the solids, two sets of
experiments were conducted one with filtered OMW and the other without any filtering
prior to the electrolytic treatment. As expected the initial COD is much higher compared
to the filtered one. After 2 hours of electrolysis, the COD of the non-filtered OMW was
reduced from 6545 mg/L to 5080 mg/L and for the filtered OMW, COD was reduced from
2310 mg/L to 1490 mg/L. For the filtered OMW, the polyphenols (1.52 g/L) are removed
within 30 min. During the same period, the polyphenols drop from 2.85 g/L to 0.82 g/L.
The presence of solids does not affect the phenol reduction rate as the two curves are
practically parallel. The decolourization of the OMW corresponds to the degradation of
high molecular weight compounds with mineralization of the low molecular weight
aromatic compounds. The polymerized aromatic compounds are responsible for the dark
colour. Complete decolorization coincides with the removal of the polyphenols. The colour
is removed faster at higher operating voltages and higher NaCl concentrations.The time
for decolorization varies from 10 min to 1 hour depending on the conditions. As seen in
Fig. 5.5.7, the effect of solids is very strong on decolorization. Their presence results in a
temporary increase in colour. We observe an increase in the rate of decolorization with
increasing voltage and NaCl concentration. At higher OMW concentration we observe an
initial increase in colour due to temporary polymerization of the polyphenols.
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Based
on
the
above
experiments
we
can
readilty
conclude
that
OMW
pretreatment for the removal of the suspended solids is essential for a succeful
and efficient decolorization and ployphenol removal.
From the previous experiments we arrive at two important conclusions:

Decolorization and removal of polyphenols takes place in a very short period of
time if we have removed all suspended solids from the OMW.

The effectiveness and efficiency of the electrolytic system increases substantially
as the concentration of NaCl increases.
The above findings coupled with the unwillingness of the TOUTOULIS Olive Mill ownwers
to do any pretreatment whatsoever, lead us to the decision to transfer the electrolytic
unit from their premises to another location in Laconia. It was decided to move the unit
to the industrial unit for the production and packaging of table olives, EUROAMERICANA
S.A., for the treatment of their wastewater. This choice was made since the wastewater
of table olives is already rich in NaCl and the unit is expected to work much better.
Indeed, in May 2009 the unit was put in operation at EUROAMERICANA S.A., and the first
results were very encouraging. Table olive processing occurs through a series of steps,
namely initial olive cleaning, debittering, washing, fermentation and packing. Table olives
wastewater is similar to olive mill wastewater, however, it is not as strong in terms of
COD and suspended solids and it has in addition sodium chloride, calcium chloride and
lactic acid. As a result this wastewater has a high conductivity (about 100 mS/cm) and a
pH of about 4.5. Since the amount of salt added for processing is quite high (about 10 kg
salt per 120 kg of kalamata olives) EUROAMERICANA S.A. has instituted a brine recycle
scheme to reduce the cost of salt usage and to reduce the amount of wastewater.
EUROAMERICANA S.A. has final disposal vessels (septic tanks) to keep their effluents
prior to final disposal. The electrolytic unit was installed prior to the disposal tanks
whereby the effluents are pumped from a small flow equilibration tank to the electrolytic
cell vessel where they are oxidized and overflow into the final disposal tanks. The
overflowing stream is where the electrolytically-treated effluents can be sampled to test
the efficacy of the installed unit. During the month of May (2009) the facility was mostly
packing the olives and hence, the generated wastewater was not very strong in terms of
COD. Nonetheless, the installed electrolytic unit was able to fully remove the dark color
from the effluents. A couple of samples were tested for COD removal which was of the
order of 50%, however, the initial COD load was quite low (of the order of 1.5 g/L). The
unit is expected to work satisfactorily as we have conducted independent experiments in
the Technical University of Crete where it was shown that electrolytic treatment of table
olives wastewater can achieve complete decolorization, remove more that 50% of initial
COD (a load of about 5 g/L) and essentially achieve complete removal (98%) of
polyphenols.
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Figure 5.5.7. Change of color with time after treatment.
5.5.4. Prototype unit for treatment of Orange Juice wastewater
The Lakonia Orange Juice Plant produces large amounts of orange juice and although it
has a complete biological wastewater treatment facility already in place, significant
problem in the effluents are observed particularly during the period of peak production.
We investigated possible improvements in the treatment and arrived at a few changes in
the current operation of the facility. We installed an electrolytic pretreatment unit. The
unit is placed in the outlet of the dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit and prior to the
biological treatment. The location of the unit is expected to aid by partially oxidizing the
wastewater and making more easily degraded by the microorganisms. Excluding the
mixing vessel, the rest of the equipment is placed on four wheels to make it easily
transportable to another location in the plant. The installed electrolytic unit was
evaluated for its capability to aid the overall operation (lower COD in the effluent stream)
and decolourization of the final effluents.
Existing situation - As a first step the overall wastewater treatment facility was
examined and our findings were communicated to the Director of the plant. The general
observation is that the system does not work satisfactorily during periods of peak
production. By examing the existing units, we were able to pinpoint the problem. The
wastewater reached first the flow equalization vessel and then proceeds to the Dissolved
Air Flotation (DAF) unit where the solids (i.e., the natural fibers of the orange fruit) are
removed. The efficiency of this unit is very important as ceculose is difficult to
biodegrade. In the figure 5.5.8 the fibers are shown in the equillization vessel.
Subsequently the wastewater is pumped to the DAF where the fibers are removed with
the addition of coagulants.
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Figure 5.5.8. Typical setup of the facility.
The DAF works satisfactorily as the effluent does not contain at least visible fibers. The
flocculated natural fibers are then taken to the dewatering unit where most of them are
removed from the system; however, a large amount of smaller fibers is returned to the
pumping station and directed to the biological treatment units (Fig. 5.5.9). The presence
of the fibers is evident form the yellow color of the feed taken from the pumping station
to the biological treatment unit.
Given the above findings it was decided to follow two alternatives taking into
consideration the fact that the plant was not in a position to change the dewater unit.
1st Alternative: Electrolytic Pretreatment of the wastewater - We proceeded with
the installation of an electrolytic unit with the primary goal to oxidize in part the
returning solids in the pumping station prior to their transfer to the biological treatment
unit. The effectiveness of this approach was very difficult to evaluate on the site because
of the variations in the federate and the long residence time of the wastewater in the
biological treatment unit. As a result, we examined the efficiency of the unit with
independent experiments in our laboratory using the same wastewater.
2nd Alternative: Decolorixation of final effluent - The goal here was to evaluate the
electrolytic decolourization of the final effluent regardless of the overall treatment
efficiency of the existing facility. This was done with independent experiments in our lab
and in the field. Based on our findings a complete unit was designed for the
decolorizationof the effluent at all times and was given to the plant Director.
From
D.A.F.
(without
fibers)
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unit (fibers are
present)
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Figure 5.5.9. Pumping station (flow from DAF and dewatering unit).
The graduate student involved in this project carried out a complete experimental design
where many operating variables were examined. It is noted that the COD of the inlet
wastewater to the biological treatment unit was higher than 10.000 mg/L whereas the
final effluent was always less than 1.000 mg/L. In both cases the yellow colour was
always there.
Three different operating voltages were examined: 10, 20 και 40A. The salinity was 4%
NaCl and the temperature was kept contsnat at about 25 0C.. A small yet consident
increase of the pH was observed in all experiments. The COD measurements have been
adjusted for apparent increase due to the presence of salt. Decolourization is achieved
within the first 5 min of electrolytic treatment. The colour measurement at 440nm is the
most representative.Whereas we have seen a COD reduction of about 50% after 120
min, no reduction in TOC is observed. This means that we have addition of oxygen atoms
in the organic compound but no mineralization The wastewater was treated at four
different salinities: NaCl – 0.5, 1, 2 and 4%. The changes in the pH are minimal. The
highest reduction is observed for the experiments at 2 & 1% NaCl. Decolourization takes
place within 5 min for the experiments with 2 and 4% NaCl whereas 15 min are required
for the experiments at 0,5 and 1% NaCl. The samples with 2 and 4% NaCl were
decolourized by 96%, whereas the experiments with 0,5 and 1% NaCl were only 30 and
56% decolorized (as measured at 440 nm).
Based on the results the following recommendations were made
1. Change of the Dewatering Unit - The best solution, yet not the most
economical, is the substitution of the existing dewatering unit with a new decanter
of high effiency. This is the best solution for the long run.
2. Changing the existing piping – return from dewatering unit - The simplest
approach is to change the location where the returned liwuids from the
dewatering unit are returned. Instead of the pumping station, these should go to
the flow equalization vessel and pass again from the DAF. As a result only the
effluents from the DAF will be pumped to the biological unit. The only concerne is
whether the quality of the separation in the DAF will fall if the flow is operated at
a higher level.
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3. Electrolytic Pretreatment - The electrolytic pretreatment resulted in a reduction
of the overall COD however, no reduction was observed in the TOC. This suggests
that oxygen atoms are insered in the organic compounds which makes them more
easily biodegradable; however, no minerilzation of the wastewater was observed.
4. Decolourization - The electrolytic unit can be used independently for the
decolourization of the final effluent. With residence times of the order of 5 min
only, a satisfactory decolourization is achieved (>96%) where no yellow colour is
visible.
Recommendations 2 and 4 are readily implementable and the Director of the plant has
accepted them.
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5.6 TASK 5 - Integration of socio-economic aspects
5.6.1 Results of the fieldwork research
Public Participation and Information
The tasks of the NCSR research team within the framework of the LIFE project, included:

the study of the social implications of the project interventions and the attainment
of social consent and acceptance.

The planning and implementation of a dissemination campaign to inform the public
about the objectives and the results of the project.
The NCSR research team elaborated a series of studies and fieldwork activities seeking to
reveal and register the local peculiarities and problems (floods, fires), as well as the local
dimension of specific environmental management issues (recycling). During the interim
report, the NCSR team also implemented a series of information and sensitization actions
(production and dissemination of printed and electronic material, organization of
workshops and public events), mostly meetings and contacts with local stakeholders.
Overall, the whole of the aforementioned activities set the basis for a long-term
constructive public consultation process that evolved throughout the various research
project phases (goal setting, opinion-registering, information about the project‘s actions
and the foreseen implications, new meetings and new information events based on the
latest data collected etc.).
Thus, the NCSR team established a solid network of co-operation with the local
stakeholders which resulted in spectacular partnerships (e.g. the creation of Open Farms
with New Farmers Union, the Mapping Trails with the Sparta Hacking Association etc.).
The co-operation with local stakeholders, such as the municipal authorities around
Evrotas, the local agencies for land reclamation (TOEB) of these municipalities and the
environmental education institutions of the wider area, was continuous.
The overall objective of the aforementioned co-operation was the viability of the Network
of Co-operation of Local Stake-Holders following the completion of the project. This
Network will be based on the Observatory for Sustainable Development. Its operation will
be the responsibility of the Prefecture of Laconia and its tasks will include the collection of
information
material
regarding
local
development
perspectives,
the
provision
of
information to and the collection of feedback from all stakeholders and citizens, the
overall coordination of the development actions and the participation to the resolution of
the emerging development problems. Brief summaries of these surveys and studies are
presented below, offering a synopsis of the views and observations of the responsible (in
each case) local actors and of a sample of the local population.
Professionals - Residents
Comparative presentation of the results of two surveys
Following the completion of two surveys (initial and repetitive) the individual results have
been correlated by the NCSR researchers. An overview of the comparison of these results
is given below:
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1. According to the initial survey, the Evrotas River is perceived primarily as a
significant agricultural asset (55.00%) and secondarily as a source of natural
wealth (31.00%). Only 14.00% of the respondents consider Evrotas as a historic
and local cultural asset.Respectively, according to the repetitive survey, the
Evrotas River is primarily perceived as a considerable agricultural asset (60.7%)
and secondarily as a source of natural wealth (19.7%). Only 12.1% of the
respondents perceive Evrotas as a historic and local cultural element. By
comparison, the findings are similar and indicate a marked increase in the
proportion of responses that positively value the contribution of Evrotas in the
rural development especially as a supplier of water resources (44.4%).
2. Regarding the problems that Evrotas presents, respondents in the initial survey
emphasized primarily the problem of pollution (total of relevant answers 65,00%)
and secondarily the fact that most of the river‘s development potential remains
unexploited (23.00%). A 12.00% percentage of the population referred to the
problem of floods and draught. In the repetitive survey, 38.9% of the respondents
stress the population problem while there is a marked increase in the percentage
of respondents who consider draught and floods to be the primary problem
generated by the Evrotas River (36.2%). This marked increase is attributed both
to the damage caused by the relatively recent floods and particularly by the
prolonged
drought.
The
percentage
of
respondents
that
emphasized
the
unexploited development potential of the river (the irrational use of water
resources) was about the same (22.2%).
3. With reference to the expectations generated by Evrotas, according to the results
of the initial multiple-choice survey, the majority of respondents stressed the
river‘s value as a clean and abundant source of water (72.2%) and a wetland of
valuable flora and fauna (62.1%). Secondly, in the opinion of respondents, Evrotas
could be used as a recreational area (22.7%) and serve as an incentive to attract
tourists (19.5%). The findings of the repetitive survey are similar. Considering the
future contribution of the Evrotas River in local development, 70.9% of
respondents identified Evrotas‘ significance as a high-quality water resource
(which contributes to the increase of agricultural production and the enhancement
of quality of life), 16.2% of respondents referred to the rivers‘ use as a tourist
attraction incentive, while 12.2% mentioned the use of Evrotas as a means to
raise funding from Community and national resources.
4. According to the initial survey, respondents considered that the contribution of the
LIFE / EnviFriendly project to the resolution of the Evrotas‘ management problems
should primarily focus on the reduction of pollution (39.6%) and the elaboration of
water resources and riparian land management plans (36.6%); and secondarily,
on the best exploitation of the river (13.4%) and the management of seasonal
floods (10.4%). According to the repetitive study, from the whole of the
respondents who were familiar with the implementation of the LIFE / EnviFriendly
project, 47.7% considered the project‘s main contribution to be the monitoring of
pollution and of the pollution sources, while 15.4% most highly valued the
quantitative and qualitative management of the water resources. Adding to the
above percentages the percentage of respondents who emphasized the antiFinal Report (Technical issue) – LIFE05 ENV/GR/000245
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pollution measures adopted for the Evrotas River (relevant categories) it is clear
that the two major inputs of the projects consisted of the reduction of pollution
and the wise water resources management.
The above findings lead to the conclusion that both the initial content and
objectives of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project and the implemented actions
(elaboration of management proposals, dissemination – sensitization activities,
local events and workshops etc.) evolved in accordance with the priorities and
the expectations of the local professionals and residents. Subsequently, the NCSR
research team argues that the goal of social acceptance of the proposed interventions has
been largely achieved. Moreover, it is indicative that 16.9% of respondents have
positively valued the contribution of the project to the mobilization of the relevant
communication mechanisms and the provision of information to the local population
regarding the prospects of sustainable local development.
The basic conclusion of both the initial and (especially) the repetitive surveys is
the promotion of the urgency of the Evrotas pollution problems and of the need
for wise water resources management, and the realization by the vast majority
of the local community of the fact that the aforementioned problems cannot be
resolved without the adoption of relevant planning measures.
This conclusion has been verified be the respondents‘ demand for the prioritization of
pollution reduction and specialized water resources management plans in any future
programming.
Elected Officials – Representatives of the Municipalities around Evrotas
Overview of the findings of the initial survey
One of the most important, if not the most important, research findings is the fact that
elected officials positively view their participation in practices that promote sustainable
development (95%), particularly through institutional and communicative means.
Moreover, a significant percentage (62.4%) of elected officials is familiar with the
«integrated forms of agricultural production» and vastly supports the dissemination of
information about them (76.5%).
The aforementioned findings are indicative of the existence of a particularly fertile
framework for the long-term exploitation of the project‘s results. The long-term
implementation of the project foresees the establishment and operation of the Local
Development Observatory. The positive inclination and the high degree of awareness of
the elected officials will positively contribute to the success of the Observatory given that
it will be housed in the prefecture and will be staffed by employees of the local
authorities.
As already mentioned, elected authorities have a primary role to play in the dissemination
of information since they are themselves communication channels between the citizens
and the project administrators. The dissemination of the relevant information can be
realized through three different ways:
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a) First, through the information sources elaborated by the project: information
workshops, website, environmental education, printed material, posters etc.
b)
Second,
through
the
active
participation
of
the
elected
authorities
in
the
implementation of the project and the constant co-operation with the project managers;
this is necessary for the two-way dissemination of information. The project seeks to
produce a know-how totally adapted to the peculiarities and the needs of the local
community.
c) Finally, the elected local authorities can function as opinion leaders and disseminate
information about the project, generate discussion over the achievement of the project‘s
objectives and communicate expectations, ideas and solutions regarding the development
perspectives of the region.
One more remarkable finding is the fact that the majority of respondents perceive Evrotas
as primarily contributing to the irrigation of the region and local agricultural development
(39.8%). Simultaneously, respondents blame industrial, agricultural and house wastes
(35.8%) and the irrational water resources management (29.9%) as the main sources of
the pollution of the Evrotas River. Subsequently, elected authorities argue that the LIFE /
EnviFriendly project should directly focus on the monitoring of the pollution and the
pollution sources and the quantitative and qualitative management of the water resources
(81% and 77% respectively). Within this framework one has to find practical and feasible
solutions to combat pollution and achieve wise water management. For example, the local
community should recognize the fact that the different types of waste are not the only
source of pollution and that the irrational use of pesticides constitutes a similarly
significant pollution source.
These findings are very important since they reflect the needs and problems of the local
community. Furthermore, they highlight particularly interesting issues such as the local
authorities‘ utilitarian perception of the Evrotas River as a water source and their
weakness up-to-date to fully explore the river‘s cultural, historical and environmental
development potential. The rich and long-term history of the region, if properly explored,
could contribute both to the economic development of the area, e.g. as a tourist
attraction, and to the enhancement of the quality of life of the residents. However, it
seems that today the agricultural qualities of the river have prevailed over its cultural,
environmental and tourism qualities.
Finally, elected officials have expressed their belief that the LIFE / EnviFriendly project
would lead the way for the implementation of similar projects by local stake-holders
(91.9%). The project also seeks the elaboration of a set of feasible solutions fully adapted
to the local needs, the improvement of the current conditions and the dissemination of
local ―best-practice‖ examples.
The implementation tools of the project can be grouped in three broader categories:
a) demonstration of environmental friendly technologies addressing such issues as the
monitoring of natural restoration and water management, the management of drainage
channels and of riparian regions, and the management of agricultural waste,
b) elaboration of management plans for the catchment,
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c) evaluation of social acceptance and dissemination of results.
The overall objective of the project is to make the region more attractive in order to
enhance the quality of life of the residents and contribute the region‘s long-term
development.
Summary conclusions of the repetitive survey
Following the completion of the survey and the analysis of the data, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
a) Overall, the vast majority of elected officials is substantially informed about the
progress of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project and the project‘s implementation guidelines.
Moreover, many elected officials had been directly participated in the information
meetings that concerned the local peculiarities and needs, as well as to the various
dissemination activities throughout the implementation of the project.
b) Elected officials have demonstrated only limited awareness of the Observatory for
Local Development. This could be due to the organizational difficulties that have hindered
the smooth operation of the Observatory and the only partial clarification of the
Observatory‘s tasks. The NCSR researchers estimate that in the long-run and following
the full operation of the Observatory elected officials will comprehend its significant
contribution in the development of the region mostly as a co-ordination and information
mechanism.
c) Regarding the familiarity of local officials with the ―integrated forms of agricultural
production‖ there are significant differentiations depending on the orientation of each
municipality (i.e. whether the municipality is oriented towards the primary or the tertiary
sector). However, it is indicative that the elected officials who have a relevant
professional activity are fully aware of the ―integrated forms of agricultural production‖
and could subsequently disseminate the relevant information to the residents of their
locality.
d) The whole of the officials have a positive opinion as regards the content and objectives
of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project and its successful implementation. Moreover, they fully
agree with the project‘s prioritization of the local development problems, as well as with
the project‘s proposals regarding the required managerial measures.
e) Finally, nearly the whole of the respondents consider the implementation of the LIFE /
EnviFriendly project to have provided the local community with considerable know-how
regarding the implementation of European projects in the field of local development and
to have opened the way for participation in future European projects. Considering the fact
that elected officials have agreed with the importance attributed by the LIFE /
EnviFriendly project to the exploration and wise management of the water resources of
the Evrotas River, it would be reasonable for any future European projects to follow the
thematic lines of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project.
The above findings allow a lot of optimism regarding the future participation of local
officials in the management of forecoming projects and the achievement of the necessary
social acceptance by the whole of the community.
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5.6.2 Report on socio-economic impacts (Integral Planning for Sustainable Development)
This study is about the demographic, economic and social characteristics of the Prefecture
of Lakonia (PL), focusing on the Evrotas Riverside Area (ERA) (detailed issues are
presented in the deliverable 5D.3). A brief analysis of the local development perspectives
is presented here, together with the investigation of the development guidelines that
appear to be of crucial importance for planning the development in the area concerned.
In brief, the findings of the study are summarized in the following sections.
Development Perspectives in the Prefecture of Lakonia
The hierarchical context for the development perspectives of the area was elaborated
through the analysis of the existing demographic, economic and social conditions, also
exploiting information obtained in contacts and meetings with representatives of local
agencies and by the surveys on the opinions of a) residents and professionals and b) local
representatives in the municipal councils. The contribution of personal contacts with
residents and stakeholders during the dissemination process was of great importance.
Existing natural and human resources as well as the intentions and objectives of local
agencies were investigated. The integration of economic development objectives with
environmental protection and maintenance goals was attempted on this basis. Thus the
following framework of investment proposals was concluded.
Primary Sector
Agricultural production in the PL is concentrated in specific products (olives, olive oil,
oranges) that are characterized by increased demand and an organized distribution
system. However, future development is connected with the production of organic
products. In the context of the Single European Market there is strong competition
regarding the traditional agricultural products. Moreover, the Common Agricultural Policy
(CAP) is already directed to the elimination of subsidies concerning these products.
Consequently, a general reorientation of the productive priorities is needed.
Organic Products
According to the record of cultivators of organic products as kept by one relevant
certification agency (DEO, ΔΗΩ), the PL counts 310 cultivators. Registries started in 1992
and, although the annual variation was important, the general trend was one of increase.
The biggest increase was observed during last years. There were 62 new entries in one
single year (2006), while more than 50% of the cultivators entered the market after
2004.
Same trends are recorded at the national level, reflecting international shifts. The
demand for organic products is increasing, as a bigger proportion of the consumers is
involved, although reservation concerning the increase prices still exist.
The traditional products of Lakonia (olives, olive oil, oranges) already belong to the group
of the most demanded organic products, while being exported to other countries.
Advanced package, standardization and marketing activities are needed.
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Protected Destination of Origin (Pdo) Products
The Protected Destination of Origin as well as the Protection of Geographical Indication
(PGI) were institutionalised by the European Union in the Regulation 2081/92. The
Regulation 2082/92 established the certification of traditional specialty guaranteed
agricultural products. These two Regulations were replaced by Regulations 510/06 and
509/06 respectively, without altering the scope of implementation.
According to this legal framework and in the CAP context cultivators have the possibility
to exploit opportunities for integrated rural development, through the differentiation of
agricultural production. Cultivators (especially those in remote areas) are able to place
specialized products in the market, thus achieving better prices. Consumers on the other
hand can purchase quality products of guaranteed geographic origin.
In more detail, the basic categories of certified agricultural products are:
a) Destination of Origin
―Destination of Origin‖ is the name of a territory, a specific place or in some cases of a
country used for the description of an agricultural product or foodstuff originating from
this territory, when the quality or the characteristics of this product are exclusively or
mainly attributed to the geographic environment, including natural and human conditions,
of the territory. The production, manufacture and processing of the product have to take
place in the same area.
b) Geographical Indication
―Geographical Indication‖ is the name of a territory, a specific place or in some cases of a
country used for the description of an agricultural product or foodstuff originating from
this territory, when the quality, the reputation or a specific characteristic of this product
may attributed to this geographic origin. The production and/or the manufacture and/or
the processing of the product have to take place in the same area.
c) Traditional Specialty Guaranteed Agricultural Product
A ―Traditional Specialty Guaranteed Agricultural Product‖ is an agricultural product or
foodstuff with intrinsic characteristics that differentiate it from other similar products and
which has been present in the common market for a period that proves intergenerational
transmission. Intrinsic characteristics may concern physical, chemical, biological or
organoleptic features or the production methods and conditions. The traditional character
may concern the raw materials, the ingredients, the method of production or
manufacture. The name has also to be peculiar or to express the peculiar character of the
product.
Since 1.6.2006 the Organization for Certification and Surveillance of Agricultural Products,
under the distinctive title AGROCERT is responsible for the approval of relevant
applications by enterprises concerned, the monitoring of production processes in
collaboration with the Agricultural Directorates of the Prefectures, the observance of the
prescriptions, the certification of products and the record of PDO and PGI holders.
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Other Development Possibilities in Primary Sector
Non-stabling stockbreeding. There is a possibility to establish larger units (stockbreeding
parks) of integral and organic character. During the Project process a specific study on
the potential establishment of stockbreeding parks in Lakonia was elaborated, using the
existing stockbreeding park in Grevena (Prefecture of Pella, Northern Greece) as an
example.
Other investment opportunities include the exploitation of wind energy and the energy
production capacity of oil-factory waste.
The possibility to exploit the existing lead deposit in the Municipality of Molaoi has to be
investigated. Lead and silver mines operated in the area in the past (even during the
‗90s) but today their efficiency is contested.
Secondary Sector
Branches with development capacities:
Olive processing, focusing on edible olives standardization, seed-oil exploitation for
electricity production and other contiguous activities such as environmental protection
(biological cleaning) and quality certification. Possibilities for the establishment of wind
energy parks in Mt. Parnon
Tertiary Sector
Branches with development capacities:
As the PL lacks hotel units, especially those of high standards, there still is enough space
for further tourist development. Concerning high quality tourist services as well as
ecotourist activities on Mt. Parnon and Taygetos.
Existing tourist facilities in the ERA include:

Four hostels in the Municipality of Faris: One in Toriza (MD of Xerokampi) with
a restaurant, tavern and café; one in Paleopanagia (MD of Paleopnagia) in a
200,000 m2 plot with walnut and chestnut trees, near the Byzantine
monastery of Gola; one in Rahivi (MD of Vassiliki); and one in the MD of Arna.

Seven on the Mt. Taygetos: one municipal hostel in Georgitsi, the oldest in the
area; one in Kastori, near a medieval castle characterized as archaeological
site; one in Karyes; one in Polydroso (Tzitzina); two in Anavryti, one of which
remains closed as an investor is requested‘ and one in Mystras - a traditional
mansion that is going to be uses as a Vernacular Art Museum.
Additionally there are several mountain shelters in Parnon and Taygetos that are used for
the excursions organized by the Greek Mountaineering Club. Ecotourist activities and
mountaineering offer the opportunity to extend the tourist season beyond summer
months and to increase tourist services demand in remote areas of the PL.
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Evaluation of the life\envifriendly project in the development perspective
LIFE\Envifriendly objectives
According to the initial planning and schedule of the Projects, its objectives included:
1. To select, plan and implement environmentally friendly technologies in order to
reduce pollution caused in the ERA by agricultural activities, industrial and urban
waste.
2. To develop and demonstrate tools of technological restoration of water quality and
to propose methods to incorporate these tools in the Evrotas basin and coastline
Master Plans.
3. To provide the context for the integration of these technologies and tools in the
socio-economic activities of the area and to promote the social acceptance of the
proposed measures.
4. The sensitisation of the local population against sustainable development and
environmental protection through dissemination of adequate information.
Evaluation of the Achievements
a) During the materialization of the Project the specific conditions of the area were
investigated, the main sources of pollution were detected and alternative solutions for
cleaning were planned and proposed. In collaboration with agencies responsible for water
resources management a comprehensive plan for pollution and the problems caused by
natural factors (floods, water shortage etc.) was elaborated. The comprehensive model
was presented in several information meetings and scientific conferences. The acceptance
of the proposals by the specialists of local agencies and by wider parts of the local
population was encouraging and thus provided the ground for the next step, that is for
the elaboration of the integrated plan for water resources management in the ERA.
b) The adoption and demonstration of technical solutions based on environmental friendly
technologies has been presented in detail, focusing on the advantages and disadvantages
of each alternative proposal and method. Certain manufacture units in the area have
implemented antilitter technologies, exhibiting satisfactory results. They also participated
in demonstration events. The overall process of the final management plans included
repeated contacts and meetings with representatives of local agencies (especially the
Local Organizations for Land Improvement, ΤΟΕΒ). This constant process of public
consultation was remarkably fruitful, giving the floor to express local views of all actors
involved and to incorporate local specificities. This was crucial in order to widen social
acceptance and consensus, as the local agencies participate in the formation of local
views. On the other hand, the problem of personal responsibility remains, due to
insufficient information and the social cost of effectively taking proactive and suppressive
measures at the individual level. In any case the Project methods and practices provided
all local participants with new ideas and stronger arguments.
c) The establishment of adequate conditions for the incorporation of the Project
interventions in the overall local socio-economic process has been attempted through:
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
The conduction of two repeated surveys in the resident population and
professionals of the ERA and in the focus group of the representatives in
Municipal Councils.

Ad hoc studies about specific local problems and conditions including the
consequences of natural phenomena (fire disasters, floods, water shortage),
suggested
measures
(stockbreeding
parks)
and
other
intervention
for
environmental improvement (recycling).

Regular meetings with representatives of the participant Municipalities and
with other agents about specific issues.

The
organization
of
public
informative
and
scientific
events
and
the
participation n events organized by other local agents. More generally through
the establishment of permanent public dialogue process.
The surveys‘ results, the findings of the studies and the relevant feedback obtained by
local agents exhibit the achievement of the above goals. More precisely, the overall
picture shows that the local society has adopted the proposed interventions, agrees with
the hierarchical classification of priorities and thinks that the Project demonstrates future
directions and the preconditions for the successful materialization of other development
projects. Furthermore, these projects should embrace the Projects‘ objectives, which are
considered important for the development perspective of the area.
d) The sensitization of the local population against sustainable development and
environmental production has been incorporated in the Project through several activities.
More precisely:

The production of printed and digital informative material either presenting
the immediate objectives and methods or other contiguous subjects of
environmental management. The material was regularly distributed.

The distribution of material from the above mentioned studies and relevant
presentations in several occasions.

The collaboration with the local EE agencies, together with the exploitation of
the long-standing involvement of the NCSR in the central planning of EE at the
national level. Several local events and conferences were organized.
The evaluation of the results in these fields is very positive, especially in the field of EE.
That is because EE has already established adequate structures of information and
because activities in schools of every level have multiple effects in the, as the
sensitization of students disseminates in other groups of the local society.
Concerning the local population as a total, evaluation of the results is also positive,
although certain gaps of information have been recorded. The absence of relevant policies
and information in the past has been important at this point. However the Project as well
as other interventions have made a contribution towards this direction. Nonetheless, a
more comprehensive national strategy seems to be of relevance, in order to integrate the
objectives of single projects.
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Demonstrative and Transferable „GOOD PRACTICES‟ of LIFE/ENVIFRIENDLY
Project
The implementation process of the Project indicated the need to adopt interventions and
practices that could be used as experimental ‗good practices‘, also suitable to contribute
to development objectives in other areas, Prefectures and Regions of the country.
The main issues around which these interventions and practices were undertaken are as
follows:

The Water Resources Management Plans, aiming at the adaptation of the
existing legal framework and of actual management practices in the field to EU
Directive. The implementation of the Directive is obligatory for all memberstates and a precondition for rational water use.
The Integrated Water Resources Management Plan was elaborated and completed after
taking into account the analysis of local conditions. Accordingly, more than being a tool
for local development in the ERA, it can be used as a model application in order to
support similar plans in other water basins. Thus, it can be used as a Development Guide,
after adequate revisions and adaptations to specific local conditions.

The public consultation process was implemented in the ERA according to local
social specificities. Similar specificities emerge at the most agricultural areas
of Greece.
The acceptance and the effectiveness of the public consultation process were found to
depend on the ability to exploit local social networks. Thus, instead of a simple guidance
by the Project team that would merely follow the guidelines of the central Dissemination
Plan, more decentralized methods were adopted, in order both to exhibit local conditions
and to correspond to the local potential at the micro-scale.
Based on this ground, the informal meetings with representatives of a wide range of local
institutions and agencies and the dissemination of the Projects achievements and
progress in local social life spaces and events (the coffee bars [kafeneia], celebrations
and annual festivals) proved to be of major importance for the mobilization and the
participation of parts of the local society.
The Observatory for Local Development will act as a field for the coordination of the Local
Organizations for Land Improvement, where the synthesis of the above mentioned
‗inputs‘ (the Water Resources Management Plans and the consultation process) will be
materialized.
Moreover, the operation of the Observatory in the auspices of the Prefecture of Lakonia
facilitates the cooperation with the Land Improvement Agency (LIA) and consequently the
common planning of the Water Resources Management Plan. The LIA is in permanent
contact with the Municipalities of the ERA and the respective TOEBs, having encharged
the latter with the management of water resources at the local level. However the LIA
also retains the capacity for central intervention when water resources management fails
and management problems occur. Periodic and ad hoc meetings (on specific managerial
problems) under the responsibility of the Observatory are proposed.
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This scheme guarantees the connection between the implementation of the management
system and the broader development in the ERA. At the same time it gives the
opportunity for sustainable public participation, since the Observatory will have become
the basic dissemination mechanism in the local society.
In brief, the Observatory will be responsible for the practical organization of the
continuous public consultation process, thus providing the ground for the expression of
the views of different social groups and their integration into an overall development
strategy.
These ‗Good Practices‘ can be used as paradigmatic cases for development plans and the
respective necessary procedures in other areas.
Future Planning on the basis of Project Objectives
One of the aims of the project has been to extend its objectives beyond the period of
materialization. Accordingly, certain preconditions for future exploitation of its results
should be constructed. It is in this context that the creation of the Observatory for Local
Development has been planned. It is expected to be an information center for local
agencies and residents and a node for the coordination of investments, contributing to
the investigation and planning of development activities. Up to now the overall operation
of the Observatory is positive, despite functional problems and delays that occurred.
However, the Observatory should be staffed with permanent employees, as this would
reassure its sustainability after the end of the Project. The Prefecture of Lakonia and
other involved agencies should maintain its activities.
Another development perspective of the Project has been that of organic agricultural
products, in the context of Codes of Equitable Agricultural Practice. Present conditions
seem to be promising, if one judges from the experience of existing organic agricultural
units and their efficacy. International and national trends provide an environment where
profitable exports of quality products can be achieved. Organic agricultural production can
be combined with eco- and agrotourist activities, thus providing one of the most
directions for sustainable development.
The developmental role of antilitter technologies should be stressed too. Antilitter
activities in the industries of the area would contribute significantly to the amelioration of
local environmental conditions. Furthermore they can be exploited as an added value in
the promotion of local products and contribute to the increase and amelioration of tourist
activities.
Finally, such investments attract high national and supranational subsidies, while the socalled ‗green products‘ are expected to dominate in the near future, thus linking the
sustainability of localities with the establishment of green economic units.
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5.7 TASK 6 - Development of integrated watershed management plans
The fundamental challenge in the development and management of environmental
policies is the sustainability of the objectives of these policies. The objectives for
sustainable development require decisions that satisfy the needs for this generation and
they provide a chance to future generation to satisfy their needs as well.
The strategic objective is the integrated management of water resources of
Evrotas River Basin that will contribute to the
–
improvement of the environment,
–
social cohesion,
–
value added to the local economy, and
–
improvement of the quality of life.
The objective is to create the conditions for sustainable rural development while the
chemical and ecological quality of surface and ground waters is improved according to
the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC. Evrotas can be the comparative advantage
that would lead the Prefecture of Lakonia to the 21st Century.
The Strategic Plan was developed around the following six axes:
1. Agricultural development
2. Drinking water
3. Irrigation
4. Reduction of point and non-point source pollution
5. Unified response to floods and drought
6. Protection of biodiversity and restoration of river ecosystems.
5.7.1. Agricultural Development
The fundamental problems of agricultural production in Greece today should be fully
understood before conditions for sustainable rural development can be established.
Industrialized agriculture includes intensive grown mono-cultures, inorganic synthetic
fertilizers, intensive use of herbicides and insecticides (that affect adversely the soil fungi
and bacteria that catalyze the fertility of the soil), tilling (including deep tilling that
destroys the soil structure, making it fine and subject to erosion) and irrigation (reduces
the reserves of water resources). Agricultural production in Greece depends among other
things on the price of fertilizers, the seed market, the international financial speculation
on agricultural products and problems of social consensus.

Fertilizer prices have increased dramatically that past two years. This price hike
was not due to increases in oil prices, but due to increases in the price of
phosphorous ore (from 50 to 350 dollars in 16 months). The price hike has been
attributed to decreasing reserves (PEAK Phosphorous), in a similar way as with oil
reserves (PEAK OIL). It is speculated that phosphorous reserves will decrease
dramatically between 2025 and 2040. The problem is that we consume 22,5 kg of
P-rock/person/yr while the daily recommended dose is 1,2 g/person/d or 0,438 kg
P-rock/yr. We use 50 times more P than we need. The wasted P ends up in the
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wastewater treatment plants, the lakes and rivers and causes eutrophication. The
price of the fertilizers will continue to increase because of the decreasing
quantities of P-rock production causing increasing demand. How are we going to
handle the situation when the reserves are depleted? The situation leads to a
deadlock unless alternative means of fertilizing the land is found.

The farmers also depend on the seed market (hybrid or genetically modified)
created by the international food industries. Using biotechnology, the food
industries have developed patented hybrid seeds. There is the notion among
farmers that only hybrid seeds can bring good production the time that many
ecologists recommend local varieties as the most appropriate since they could
withstand local conditions in time.

The international financial speculation on agricultural products (cereal, rice
etc) creates uncertainty in the food prices causing a series of world-wide
problems. In a similar fashion, farmer‘s speculation (i.e. production of corn for
biodiesel and not for animal feed) provides temporal improvement in income
without solving permanent agricultural problems. The international markets
should have limits as the current financial crisis taught us. A few things in life
should be outside the limits of international speculation and gambling.

Finally, there are significant problem with social consensus that impedes the
creation of successful farmers association that would develop market strategies
for their products and eliminating the price gap between the field and the super
market.
There alternative ways to rural development.
First we need to understand that
agriculture, tourism, local culture and the environment are communicating vessels. The
connecting link of these communicating vessels is the soil. Greece has forgotten to take
care of its soils as it has behaved before since the ancient times.
Plato in ―Kritias‖
described the Attica land as ―bones without flesh‖. The combination of erosion and bad
land practices creates a defincit in carbon and other micro-nutrients necessary for soil
fertility and health. Soil measurements in Greece show carbon content well below 2%
and in many times below 1% (pre-desertification stage). In addition, we have observed
significant deficiency in micro-nutrients like selenium that many connect such deficiency
to wide-spread diseases such as the ―bird flu‖ in China and AIDS in Africa. The bottom
line is that the Greek soils are eroded, have lost their fertility and this has consequences
in the quality of the produce and our health. We should regenerate soil fertility by
returning carbon, nutrients and micro-nutrients. There are examples all around the world
showing that we can have agricultural development, sufficient food production to cover
the global needs and at the same time to maintain ecological quality.

An example from Amazon – The native Indian 2500 till 500 B.C. realized that
once they cut the trees in the forest, the soil became infertile in 2-3 years. They
had to find ways to regenerate soil fertility. They developed the soils named Terra
Preta de Indio (Amazonian Dark Earths or Indian Black Earth). The soil was
enhanced with Biochar (char made up of plant material, food waste such as bones
from fish that has plenty of calcium). This material was composted before it was
incorporated in the soil. This soil is fertile today.
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
Collaboration between agriculture and livestock raising – An example of
such a collaboration is Polyface farm in the State of Virginia, U.S.A. The farm is
raising 5 types of animals (cows, chicken, pigs, turkeys and rabbits) eating grass
without any animal feed. The owners make sure that there is plenty of available
grass in the farm by creating new soil as follows. First the put cows in an area
fenced by electric fences for several days. The cows eat the grass while they leave
plenty of manure. The owners move the cows to another location, let the worms
grow for 4 days and then they move the chickens in. The chickens eat the worms
that are rich in proteins and they leave manure rich in ammonia. The soil is
regenerated, grows new grass and the ecosystem is balanced. The result is that
using
the ecological
services
of the different
animals, the owners
earn
$700.000/year (10 people) while they maintain the ecological integrity of the
ecosystem.

Combination agricultural practices – Monoculture is a recent agricultural
practice.
Farmer in Greece used to practice good agricultural practices by
alternating what they grow in the field choosing between the set aside practice
and growing legumes or alfa-alfa in an olive grove. Such combination agricultural
practices replenish the soil with nutrient (without the use of fertilizers) while
keeping down the production cost.

Management of solid waste – Todate, landfilling has been the most wide
spread practice of solid waste management in Greece. In a few areas recycling
has been initiated as well. Since the current capacity of landfills is close to
completion and new landfills are difficult to site due to local opposition,
government officials have started looking into other options such as combustion
and recycling and composting. Given the state of fertility the Greek soils are, the
only logical and sustainable solution is separation at the source, recycling,
composting the organic fraction and landfilling the remaining wastes. In the
creation of the compost material other organic byproducts can be used such as
the biosolids and sludges from the waste water treatment plants and braches from
pumming of the plants. The compost can then be used to improve the quality and
fertility of the soils and allow the farmers to be independent from the energy
crisis. Such a system already is in operation at the Prefecture of Chanaia and is
the only logical and sustainable alternative in solving the problem.

Collaboration between tourism and agriculture – It is very important to
understand that ―quality‖ tourism is related to local culture and agricultural
activities. Local touristic establishments should support the local produce because
they are part of the uniqueness of the region. For instance, all the hotels and
restaurants of Lakonia should offer freshly squized orange juice in low prices to
promote one of the main agricultural product of the region. The same could be
followed for the other products. If every tourist was given a small bottle of olive
oil upon arrival to the region, use the same olive oil in every restaurant he/she
would go, this would become part of the trip experience and a value added for the
products of the region. It would be the reason to return to the area in the future
creating in this way the conditions for sustainable development.
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5.7.2. Drinking Water Supply
Drinking water supply for the towns and villages in Evrotas river basin is vulnerable to
accidents in the pumps, water lines and natural disasters. Every village and town has its
own water infrastructure and in case of system failure there is interruption in the service.
In addition, the municipalities cannot afford to hire personnel to ensure the quality of the
water and the service provided due to their small size (with the exception of the
municipality of Sparta. To overcome these problems and establish quality in the water
supply system the following are proposed:

Every village should have alternative sources of water that can be activated in
case of accidents and other system failures. In its simplest case, this can be
drilling an additional well and instrumenting it as a back up.

Develop an interconnected drinking water infrastructure that connects towns,
villages and small settlements that can be used to optimize water use and
improve the management of water resources of the region.

Creation of public water companies that would serve many municipalities that can
be staffed with scientist personnel and ensure the quality of the service.

Pricing the water use at the appropriate level in order for the water company to
be financially independent and be able to provide the quality of the service that is
appropriate of the 21st century.
5.7.3. Irrigation
There are approximately 150 public wells and 7,000 private wells in operation in the
Prefecture of Lakonia (Table 5.7.1). Approximately 3,550 private wells are located within
the basin and unknown is the number of the illigal private wells. Irrigation water annual
demand was estimated at 174 Mm3 based on typical plant water needs. Hydrologic
modeling suggested that the farmers are using 3 times more water. The overexploitation
of water resources threatens important natural habitats and affects negatively the
aquatic flora and fauna.
Table 5.7.1. Private irrigation wells in Evrotas basin.
Mn. Inountos
65
Mn.Therapnes
250
Mn. Geronthres
200
Mn. Skala
550
Mn. Elos
1100
Mn. Spartas
300
Mn. Mystras
350
Mn. Faridos
120
Mn. Pelanas
10
Mn. Niata
350
Mn. Krokees
250
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The proposed program of measures for irrigation is the following:
1. Change irrigation methods - It is very difficult under current conditions to
estimate the real consumption of water. In many private wells, there are not any
records concerning well yield, well depth and any operational parameters.
Estimation of the real irrigation needs is necessary to persuade the farmers that it
is unnecessary to overexploit the water resources and switch to iirigation systems
such as drip irrigation that consumes less water.
2. Appropriate pricing of water use – Agricultural water use is based on areal
extent of the farm rather than the actual quantity of water used. This should be
changed and progressive pricing of water use should be established.
3. Water re-use (municipal and industrial treated wastewater) - Water from
the domestic wastewater treatment plant and the agro-industrial facilities isn‘t
reused. Water re-use especially during the dry months for irrigation could help in
the vital problem of water scarcity. Practical example for water re-use is the
practices of ―Tzinakos olive mill‖ where the wastewater is stored in evaporation
ponds and is used during the summer for the irrigation of a corn field.
4. Ecological flow of the river – There water abstraction from the main stem of
Evrotas river at several location. In certain periods of the year, the water is
abstracted completely, leaving the river downstream dry.
Maintaining an
ecological flow through out the year is essential for the survival of the fish and
other aquatic life.
The Prefecture of Lakonia has already initiated the planning of the enforcement of the
above measures. Several public irrigation projects operate in the basin with the help of
the local land reclamation office. Several of them have drip irrigation systems while
others (Trinasou, Zacharias and Magoulas) operate with open channels. It is planned that
these open channel irrigation systems will be converted to drip irrigation in the next few
years. In addition, the prefecture is planning to reverse the seawater intrusion problem
of the Glikovrisi and Molaon-Asopou aquifer with water diverted from Skalas springs and
construct a dam in Kelefina.
5.7.4. Pollution Control
Α. Pollution reduction of non-point sources
Non-point source pollution is derived mostly by agricultural and livestock activities.
Almost 38% of river basin area is covered by agriculture land (olive and orange trees,
vineyards) and it is estimated that 21933 tones of Nitrogen and 9428 tones of
Phosphorous are the annual loads in the basin. The livestock according to mucipalities
records are approximately 130540 sheeps and goats, 58070 kitchen, 1729 cows and 100
pigs. The program of measures recommended for the reduction of non-point source
pollution is the following.
1. Use of Fertiliser recommended rates - Fertilizers can be used in quantities
that are necessary for plant nutrition and development. Overuse of fertilizers
increases the cost of farming and creates environmental pollution. It is important
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that the state creates an agricultural service that would recommend appropriate
fertilizer application rates based on the needs of the plant and the condition of the
soil.
2. Organised livestock farms - It is proposed the creation of organized livestock
farms in pre-selected areas and the adoption for their operation of the
environmental standards. These farms have the advantage of offering better
protection to natural resources (water / soil), and contaminants and dioxins aren‘t
transferred to food chain and their solid wastes and wastewater can be reused
after treatment.
3. Rotation plant crops – Crop rotation is very important to maintain the structure
and integrity of the soil as well as enhance it with nitrogen improving in this way
its productivity.
4. Biological farming - The main difference in biofarming comparing to traditional
is that the agricultural practices don‘t include chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
chemical pesticides or synthetic hormones of all kinds.
5. Erosion control – Erosion control measure such as no-till, crop rotation etc are
recommended for adaption.
6. Integrated farming systems - Integrated Farming (IF) offers a whole farm
policy and whole systems approach to farm management. It seeks to provide
efficient
and
profitable
production
which
is
economically
viable
and
environmentally responsible and delivers safe, wholesome and high quality food
through the efficient management of livestock, forage, fresh produce and arable
crops whilst conserving and enhancing the environment. It goes beyond simple
compliance with current farming regulations, reinforces the positive impact of
farming practices on the environment and reduces their negative effects, without
losing sight of the profitability for the farm. It is geared towards the optimal and
sustainable use of all farm resources such as farm, livestock, soil, water, air,
machinery, landscape and wildlife. This is achieved through the integration of
natural regulatory processes, on-farm alternatives and management skills, to
make the maximum replacement of off-farm inputs, maintain species and
landscape diversity, minimise losses and pollution, provide a safe and wholesome
food supply and sustain income (EISA, 2006).
7. Retain and create terraces - Terracing reduces the length of slope on a hill
side, which can help to reduce erosion and prevent gully formation.
8. Riparian zone restoration and phytoremediation – Riparian strips and
buffers promote bank stability, prevent bank erosion and act as a filter for
agricultural pollution.
9. Monitored natural attenuation technology – As it is shown in this project,
MNA should be the starting point before any other measures are established.
10. Drainage canals management - The reeds (Phragmites australis) and in
general the vegetation growing in drainage ditches if managed appropriately can
reduce pollution from agricultural fields.
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B. Point Sources
Point sources of pollution are the effluents of olive mills, the orange juice factories and
domestic wastewater that are disposed untreated or partially treated into Evrotas river
and its tributaries. In the framework of LIFE-EnviFriendly project five (5) alternative
methods for OMWW treatment for single mills and five (5) for central units were
proposed (Table 5.7.2). Two orange juice press factories are operating in the basin
(Laconia and Papadimitracopoulos), where one of them «Laconia» has wastewater
treatment unit and consequently a large part of the organic load and solids to be
removed. In the framework of LIFE-EnviFriendly project an electrolytic unit was installed
in ―Laconia press‖ regarding the improvement of treatement process.
Table 5.7.2. Alternative solutions for the treatment of OMW.
Single olive oil mill
Central unit
[1]
Evaporation ponds
Phytoremediation
[2]
Storage and irrigation during the
summer
Evaporation pond with odour
control unit
[3]
Irrigation of olive trees
Filtration with sawdust and resins
[4]
Subsurface disposal and
phytoremediation without GW
monitoring
Anaerobic digestion
[5]
Subsurface disposal and
phytoremediation with GW monitoring
Deodorization and electrolytic
process
Finally there are villages such as Kastori which has no treatment plant, and dispose the
raw wastewater directly into Evrotas. Also villages (i.e. Xirokampi, which has 1,500
residents) are served with septic tanks. These settlements could make use of small
decentralized natural treatment systems for their wastewater. In general the point
sources pose severe problems in chemistry and ecology of the river and a solution has to
be found. There are alternatives and should be choosed the appropriate for each case.
7.5.5. Coordinated response to floods and droughts
Significant flood and drought events have occurred historically in the Laconia. The
Prefecture of Laconia has prepared a Management Plan (Master Plan) for the flood
protection of the area. The plan has delineated and prioritized the flood prone areas and
suggested a number of measures that take under consideration mitigation measures for
droughts.
7.5.6. Biodiversity protection and restoration of river ecosystems
Greece is characterized by high and unique biodiversity. This is particularly the case for
the basin of the Evrotas which is a hot spot for endemic species. For example, the fish
fauna of Evrotas includes species not found anywhere else. All these species can be
considered particularly at risk because of environmental deterioration of river. The
highest risk is the prolonged droughts. The fish in order to survive in difficult conditions,
during the dry period, are hosted in sections of the river that flow is maintained, and can
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be used as shelters until the end of the drought. The sections that retain water should be
protected from the intense water abstraction if we want to preserve a priceless biological
heritage. The most effective way of protecting endemic species and biodiversity in
general is to protect natural habitats. In this context, the protection and restoration of
ecosystems of the river should be high priority and includes the following steps.

Protection of riparian forests

Protection of the active bed of the river

Spatial measures for springs protection

Restoration / Conservation flood areas

Restoring connectivity to enhance fish movement -

Maintain ecological flow

Pressures on the coastal zone-

Extension of protected area to preserve biodiversity cores-
The region has a special aesthetic interest and keeps well (especially the upper part near
Palaiomonastiro) a wild and natural character (high rocks, gullys, and absence of human
made constructions. It is proposed, four areas (1. Kolliniotikou ravine junction, 2. Vivari
springs, 3. Skoura – Lefkochoma and 4. Vrontama gorge) to be included in Natura 2000
network and to be protected in the framework of the EU Habitats Directive 92/43 of a
point on the expansion of existing protected area network of Natura 2000 in Delta (Figure
5.7.1). This proposal ensures the special management of these small cores, but obviously
does not exclude human activities and sustainable develpoment (agriculture, livestock,
etc. on private land).
Program of Measures
A model for rural development has been applied in the river basin. The preliminary
management plans were created according to the following six axes:
1. Agricultural Production, 2. Drinking Water Supply, 3. Irrigation, 4. Pollution Control, 5.
Joint actions for flooding and drought protection, 6. Protection of the natural habitats
biodiversity and restoration of the riverine ecosystem.
The environmental measures were developed as follows. A database was created for each
water body on pressures and impacts on the ecological status, and on the measures for
the protection and restoration of water bodies. The corresponding municipalities were
informed concerning the status of their water bodies and the respective measures. The
main proposed measures are presented in Table 5.7.3. For each axis a detailed
description of the measures have been done in order to achieve gut water quality. Some
of the proposed measures have been implemented in Evrotas basin such as for example
the biological farming system. During the Envifriendly project, several technologies for
the minimization of point and non-point sources were demonstrated. In Table 5.7.4 the
effectiveness of each demonstrated technology is presented.
Some of the proposed measures have been implemented in Evrotas basin such as for
example the biological farming system. During the Envifriendly project, several
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technologies for the minimization of point and non-point sources were demonstrated. In
particular: (1) in ―Tzinakos olive mill‖ the wastewater is stored in evaporation ponds and
is used during the summer for the irrigation of a corn field and for compost production,
(2)
in
―Kokkolis
olive
mill
the
underground
disposal
of
olive
mill
waste
and
phytoremediation with poplar trees, (3) in an orange juice factory, an electrocoagulation
unit was installed for the improvement of the wastewater effluent, (4) the management
of drainage canals as a low cost agro-environmental measure was also demonstrated.
Drainage canals are areas of accumulation of organic debris due to erosion and growth of
plants such as Phragmites australis. The appropriate timing of cutting reeds maximize
the removal of pollutants by plant uptake, (5) river bank management by the creating a
riparian forest of poplar trees, (6) monitored natural attenuation of nutrients at the basin
scale. It was proved that Evrotas basin has high capacity to attenuate pollutants such as
nitrate and phosphorous.
1
2
3
4
Figure 5.7.1. Areas of biodiversity cores
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Axis 1
Axis 2
Axis 3
Axis 4
Axis 5
Axis 6
Table 5.7.3. Main environmental measures proposed in Evrotas River basin.
MEASURES
Modify Farming
System
Alternative
Inter-municipalities companies of drinking water supply3,
choices for
Wise Cost estimate3.
water supply
Drip Irrigation
Estimation of the real irrigation needs, Switching irrigation methods,
and Drainage
Change Charges for water abstraction3, Water re-use (municipal and
system
industrial treated wastewater)3
Phytoremediation1, Drainage canals management1.
Fertilizer Control
Vegetation Management on river banks3
& Reduction
Use of Fertiliser recommendation system2
Estimation zones Riparian zone stabilazation1, Measures for fire disaster prevantion2,
vulnerable to
Natural hazards procasting2, Management plans for drought and flood
flooding
protection2.
River bed protection, Remediation /Protection of flooded areas1,
Riparian forest
Ecological effective discharge quantification (during dry period) 3,
protection
Extension of protection areas to ensure the integrity of biodiversity
cores3
1
active
has studied and actions are on the way
3
under discussion
2
Residents believe that the most important function of Evrotas is to satisfy irrigation
needs for agriculture. Secondarily, Evrotas is perceived to be a source of natural wealth.
Its historic, ecological and cultural role is almost neglected. The over-exploitation of
Evrotas River water resources and the pollution originated from agro-indurstry have
created ecological implications that must be taken under consideration when designing
environmental measures. The integrated water resources management is a difficult and
multidisciplinary process. This study identified the dominant pressures and assessed the
impacts and the chemical and ecological status of the river. Based on these studies,
preliminary management plans were proposed and were specified for each municipality.
The proposed measures faced fully public acceptance. The effectiveness of measures, i.e.
the impact on the ecological status of Evrotas River, will be evaluated in the near future.
However, preliminary results concerning the proposed measures have shown positive
results.
Concluding, designing an appropriate management plan for the Evrotas basin demands
the participation of a wide range of scientists from additional fields (e.g. local
agronomists, sociologists and economists). Moreover, the success of the management
plan requires participation and acceptance of all the interested stakeholder groups. The
public dialogue has been the cornerstone in the development of the existing management
plans in the basin and it will continue in the future during the implementation of the
research project MIRAGE (Mediterranean Intermittent River ManAGEment) that has
been funded by FP7.
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Table 5.7.4. Evaluation of technologies demonstrated in the Envifriendly project.
Pollution
Olive Mill Waste
Water
Treatment
Technologies
Location
Effectiveness
Tzinakos (Surface
Irrigation of a Corn
Field)
The study has shown that there is no adverse effect in the
soil and groundwater from the application of diluted olive
mill waste for the irrigation of the corn field. The corn
production has increased since the OMW application and
additional benefits arise also from the extra reserve of
water supply during the dry period (May-August).
The study has shown that during the two years of
Kokolis (Subsurface
demonstration that there is no impact of OMW to the
Disposal and
groundwater or toxicity issues to the poplar trees.
Phytoremediation
Monitoring of the effectiveness of the technology will be
with Poplar Trees)
continued in the future.
Lakonia (Electrocoagulation)
An electrocoagualtion unit was installed at the end of the
wastewater treatment plant of the orange juice factory to
reduce the color in the treated water. Specific alteration
in the existing treatment scheme was suggested to
improve the appearance and turbidity of the wastewater.
Monitoring of the effectiveness of the technology will be
continued in the future.
Drainage
Canals
Management
Skala
(Phytoremediation
with Reeds)
The analysis of monthly samples of reeds suggested that a
significant accumulation of N and P was achieved of the
order of 20 and 3 g/Kg respectively. The reeds have a
maximum accumulation of N and P during spring. The
drainage canal sediments have also a significant reductive
capacity reducing by 88% the concentration of nitrate
from groundwater. The study showed that proper
management of the drainage canals can reduce fluxes to
surface waters by over 90%.
River Bank
Management
Sparta (Riparian
Zone Restoration
and
Phytoremediation by
a Poplar Forest)
Restoration of the riparian zone by the creation of a
riparian forest was shown to be an effective technology for
the combined reduction of non-point source pollution
fluxes and bank erosion protection. In the first two year of
the study, significant reductions in nutrient concentrations
were observed. Monitoring of the effectiveness of the
technology will be continued in the future.
Basin
Natural attenuation of nutrients in the basin was shown to
be a very effective technology. Monitoring and modeling
studies estimated that nitrogen and phosphorous were
reduced in the basin by 86% and 92% respectively.
Orange Juice
Waste Water
Monitored
Natural
Attenuation
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5.8 TASK 7 - Evaluation of social acceptance and dissemination of results
5.8.1. Dissemination Strategy Plan
The initial planning of dissemination activities for the Project was elaborated on the basis
of four fundamental axes: a) thematic distribution of the activities, b) time schedule, c)
definition of target-groups, d) methods of dissemination.
A. Concerning the thematic distribution of the dissemination activities content, specific
issues addressed were defined as follows:

Overall local development perspectives.

Modern methods and practices of integrated agricultural production.

Alternative tourist activities (agro-tourism, eco-tourism).

Water resources management (modes and techniques for water consumption
reduction and anti-pollution technologies).

Environmental information and sensitization of the public.
B. The time schedule of the dissemination activities comprised:

An initial stage, where the goal was to inform the local population about the
Project objectives and thus to promote participation of several local agents and to
achieve social acceptance of the Project methods and priorities.

An intermediate stage, where the goal was to provide continuous information
about the ongoing progress of the Project, together with enhancing local agents'
participation in order to identify local specificities and development perspectives.

A final stage, where a twofold goal had been put: to propose the final form of
proposed measures and to disseminate the final results and the estimated benefits
of these measures, through an adequate consultation process. This stage also
aimed at the increasing the capacity for future development.
C. For methodological purposes the target groups were categorized as follows:

Local agencies/Project Participants (staff of the Prefecture of Lakonia, the ERA
Municipalities and the Local Organizations for Land Improvement (ΤΟΕΒ).

Representatives of professional and entrepreneurial associations (Commercial and
Manufacture Association, Trade Union, Hotel Owners Association).

Agricultural and Stock-breeding Co-partnerships.

Environmental Education Agencies.

Non
Governmental
Organizations
(Environmental
Organizations,
Citizens'
Associations)

Local media.
D. Means and methods of dissemination comprised activities at different scales, such as:

Regular contacts and meetings with local agents and Projects participants
(planning and organization of the Project activities, meetings on specific issues,
organization and materialization of public events, participation in public events
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organized by third parts, public consultation processes and formation of the
content of final measures).

Public events (scientific and informative conferences, participation in conferences
ans festivals organized by third parts), addressed to the above mentioned target
groups.

Elaboration, production and distribution of imprint and digital informative material
(flyers, leaflets, posters, banners, CD, DVD etc.).
Evaluation of Social Acceptance/Public Consultation
Τhe comparison of the results of the two socio-economic studies (initial and repetitive)
conducted throughout the project implementation (interviews with local electives and
residents/professionals) demonstrate the fact that to a considerable extent society in the
ERB has adopted the philosophy of the EnviFriendly project, accepted the need to
implement the suggested actions in the field of water resources management and
prioritized in similar ways the necessary changes. Local society is now aware of the
alternative development perspectives of Evrotas and considers the implementation of
EnviFriendly to have set the framework for the sustainable agricultural development of
the region and to have paved the road for the implementation of new development
projects in the region.
Public participation is essential throughout the preparation, review and updating of the
ERB management plans. Different types of participation refer to different levels of
involvement of stakeholders and the public. The implementation of the WFD requires the
following forms of participation: a) information supply, b) consultation and c) active
involvement. It should be stressed that approaches to public participation should be
context
specific
and
adapted
to
the
specific
institutional,
socio-economic
and
environmental context of the River Basin within which they are pursued. The EnviFriendly
project organized the public participation process in full consideration of the centralized
and hierarchical nature of the Greek state, the limited experience of public and private
stakeholders in co-operation and the inexperience of the general public in participatory
processes. Thus the project team
closely cooperated with the local
authorities
(prefectures, municipalities and central state departments) in the preparation of the ERB
management plan and approached local stakeholders and the public through the
authorities.
The analysis of the environmental problems of the ERB indicated the urgency of such
problems as the olive mills wastes and drought. These two points were thoroughly
addressed by all the participation mechanisms used towards the elaboration of the ERB
management plan:
1) Information provision and awareness rising: information was provided to all
the stakeholders (local and regional) in the ERB in order to raise the awareness of
stakeholders and the population in general and give them the necessary know-how
to participate in the consultation process at a second stage. More specifically, a)
printed and electronic material was widely distributed on a regular basis, b) the
results of the socio-economic studies conducted in the region were widely
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distributed and presented in public thematic events, c) environmental education
was pursued with the collaboration of local educational institutions, d) information
events and workshops were realized in different municipalities and e) information
material was distributed and local stakeholders contacted during local celebrations
organized for different reasons in at least six municipalities. With reference to oil
mils wastes a handbook of 10 alternative scenarios for the treatment of wastes
was
prepared
and
a
series
of
information
and
educational
events
were
implemented with the vast participation of olive oil producers. Similar actions were
addressed to farmers on draught and the role of wise agricultural practices.
2) Consultation: in May 2008 a series of meetings were organized locally in five
municipalities in which local authorities (municipal council), large olive oil
producers and farmers and their unions, and representatives of the TOEB reviewed
and discussed the environmental and socio-economic analyses‘ results and the
development prospects of their localities. The feedback was then incorporated in
the drafting of the preliminary ERB management plan which was presented for
open consultation in November (21st) 2008 in Sparta, the capital city of the
Laconia Prefecture. The outcome of the consultation process and the written
contributions were incorporated in the second draft of the ERB management plan
which was presented for open consultation in February (26 th) 2009. Both
consultation events were organized in a similar way. Participants were invited by
the prefectural authorities who issued a press release in the local and prefectural
press and the local radio stations – personal e-mails were also sent. Participants
included representatives of the local and prefectural authorities and regional
administration, representatives of the TOEB, large olive oil producers and farmers
and
representatives
of
their
professional
unions,
scientists
(agronomists,
geologists, hydrologists etc.), civil society, NGO representatives and citizens.
Written contributions-responses were then considered in the preparation of the
final management plan which focused on the Integrated Water Resources
Management of the ERB towards environmental enhancement, social cohesion,
economic development and improvement of life quality. The goal of the
management plan is the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices and
the improvement of the chemical and ecological status of the surface and ground
waters of the ERB.
Environmental Education (E.E.)
According to the initial (and also to the transformated) Dissemination Strategy Plan the
role of environmental education (E.E.) activities is very important and crucial. NCSR‘s
Environmental Team has longterm collaboration with the Headships of E.E. all over
Greece. Especially, for the aims of the project, the collaboration with the Local E.E.
agents was continious and included many types of activities (meetings, public
conferences, information of E.E. teachers, educational material for the students etc). A
guide of E.E activities and analytic methods of E.E. projects produced and distibuted to
the E.E agents. In purpose to obtain the optimum motivation of local society, the role of
E.E. agents provides special banefits. The teachers and the students are represented an
important part of local population and their participation (estimated together their
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families and relatives over 70%) in dissemination campaign has multiple consequences to
the motivation of local society. Additional material was produced and distributed for
further information regarding Environmental Education activities. During the project the
participation of young and new teachers increased continuously. As many of these
teachers (independently from their specialization) were not familiarized with the basic
principles and the methodology of the E.E. activities, the production of a book/guide was
required. Therefore the Environmental Team of NCSR with the collaboration of Mr.
Kousoulas, one of the Environmental Education‘s pioneers in Greece, produced a
book/guide about EE activities and practices entitled ―An approach on Environmental
Education‖. This book/guide was distributed to all teachers and a digital version is
available in the project‘s webpage for the post-Project period. The NCSR Environmental
Team believes that the production of the afore mentioned book/guide was required and
constituted the first step for better dissemination of the project results during
environmental education process.
Issues of Dissemination Strategy
1. Project web site (http://www.envifriendly.tuc.gr)
The construction of a web site for the Project had been planned at the initial stage of its
implementation. The main objectives of the web page have been to include the research
findings and to provide additional ground for dissemination, especially concerning local
stakeholders.
The web site is regularly updated and enriched with new emerging material. It contains
pages both in Greek and in English.
Its contents include the following thematic units:
-
The region
-
Local agents
-
The Project
-
Observatory for Local Development
-
Fire effects management
-
Environmental education
-
News and Events
-
Funding resources
Thematic units contain informative material and links with relevant web sites of
Ministries, public services and private agents whose activities concern water resources
management, agricultural development, ecotourism etc.
During the implementation of the Project the web site proved to be effective for the
communication and information exchange among the partners. After the end of the
implementation period the web site will continue to evolve under the responsibility of the
Observatory, thus consisting an important tool for the constant realization of the
objectives of the latter.
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The Technical University of Crete will continue the operation of the site.
2. Publications list of the EnviFriendly project in the Greek Press
Part of the press publications regarding the EnviFriendly have attached as printed
material with the 2nd Progress Report. At the table below are presented all press
publications regarding the EnviFriendly.
Local Press
News paper
Date of publication
Lakonikos Typos
13.06.2006
Lakonikos Typos
08.12.2006
Lakonikos Typos
13.01.2007
Lakonikos Typos
16.01.2007
Lakoniki Epikairotita
01.04.2007
Peloponissos
07.04.2007
Thessalia
18.05.2007
Lakonikos Typos
05.06.2007
Eleftheria
17.06.2007
Lakonikos Typos
22.06.2007
Paratiritis
26.09.2007
Eleftheria
15.10.2007
Eleftheria
22.10.2007
Eleftheria
04.11.2007
Paratiritis
02.02.2008
Paratiritis
04.04.2008
Eleftheria
20.07.2008
Eleftheria
20.10.2008
Eleftheria
17.11.2008
Briza
26.11.2008
Eleftheria
30.11.2008
Eleftheria
23.02.2009
Eleftheria
02.03.2009
Eleftheria
09.03.2009
National Press
Apogevmatini
22.09.2007
Kerdos
02.10.2007
Apogevmatini
30.11.2007
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5.8.2 Observatory for Local Development
The Observatory for Local Development was established and operates as part of the
Prefecture
of
Lakonia
administrative
structure.
The
function
of
Observatory
institutionalized ordinary by the Peloponnesus region (number 725/16-04-09). Today
hand it is primarily a mechanism for collection and dissemination of information on
investment and development potential. In the future it is planned to obtain crucial role in
the implementation of the Water Resources Management Plan. It is going to coordinate
the continuous public consultation process, thus being able to accommodate views from
different stakeholders and social groups and to direct them towards a common
development perspective.
5.8.3 Open Farms and Mapping Trails
The list of the Open Farms has been elaborated with the assistance of the Union of New
Farmers and other Farmers‘ Cooperative Organizations, on the basis of specific criteria
that seek to attract as many visitors and organized school / educational excursions as
possible.
The response and representativeness criteria that the project team used consisted of the
following:
a) The distribution of the farms had to represent the largest and most important part
of the local agricultural production. Accordingly olive and orange groves and
horticultural farms (as well as a cattle farm) had been selected (traditional local
products).
b) The production way should address the whole of the necessary production
procedures. Thus, the Open Farms list included organic farms, traditional seasonal
farms and greenhouses.
c) The geographic distribution of the farms should cover the whole of the Evrotas
River Basin. Accordingly, the list included farms in the Municipalities of Elos,
Inounta, Krokees, Asopos, Molaoi, Skala and Pellana.
d) The farms should be easily accessible. Thus, the list included farms that can be
easily accessed by schools, tourists and other visitors through the highway or the
main regional road network.
Open Farms are selected in purpose to:
-
can be the ground for educational and informative activities for students who can
get familiarized with the local production process. The current school year has
been defined as the ‗Year for Agricultural Production and Wholesome Nutrition‘ and
several relevant activities are being materialized.
-
Can contribute to the linkage between the Project objectives and results and the
everyday agricultural practice, especially in what concerns the adoption of the
Code for Good Agricultural Practice the cultivation of organic products and the use
of new technologies for rural development.
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Moreover, the mapping of river and mountain trails in the ERA was proposed in the
context of increasing possibilities for ecotourist development. Based on the study of the
University of Ioannina and in collaboration with the local branch of the Greek
Mountaineering Club maps of seven riverside and three mountainous forest zones were
produced. Some of the routes of the mountainous area (Eastern Taygetos) are parts of
the E4 international trail. Together with a relevant photographic presentation, this
material is available at the Project web page.
Evaluation of Dissemination Results
Upon the completion of the project the following results indicate the effectiveness of the
public participation tools towards a more active involvement in decision and policymaking:
1) The institutionalization of networking with the establishment of the Observatory
for
Sustainable
Development.
The
amendment
of
the
regulation
of
the
organization and operation of the Prefectural Authorities of Laconia was published
in the Official Journal of the Government in April 2009 (number 725/16.04.2009)
establishing the Observatory for Sustainable Development. The Observatory will
become operational under the jurisdiction of the Prefectural Authorities and its
tasks will include the collection of all information material for the exploitation of
the ERB development potential and the collection of feedback from all local
stakeholders and citizens, the overall coordination of the development actions and
the participation to the resolution of the emerging environmental and broader
development problems.
2) Following the meetings with the local olive oil producers it became clear that the
majority of them were willing to implement the suggested by the ENVIFRIENDLY
group waste treatment measures on the condition that they would receive financial
support and guidance by the State. Within this framework, the procedures have
started for the release of a Local Health Provision with a detailed description of the
obligations of the olive oil manufacturers in the ERB.
The implementation of the participation procedures planned by the EnviFriendly project
group has verified the assumption that for public participation approaches to be
successful (i.e. produce technical knowledge or social capital) they should be tailoredmade to the specific institutional, socio-economic and environmental context within which
they are pursued:
1) Considering the centralized and hierarchical nature of the Greek state it is no
wonder that the Prefecture of Laconia had to operate as a ‗leader‘ in bringing
together local stakeholders and the public at large. The inexperience of public and
private actors in Greece in participatory procedures necessitated the assumption of
a ‗leading‘ role by an authoritative public institution. Furthermore, in view of the
financial considerations of farmers and olive-oil manufacturers, the most extensive
participation of local authorities considerably diminished the reluctance of local
stakeholders and society at large to proceed with the required alterations of wellestablished but not sustainable practices.
2) Local stakeholders and the public have no experience in participatory procedures
and often ignore basic environmental facts. Within this framework, before planning
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and implementing the consultation procedures it is necessary to spend some time
to environmentally educate stakeholders and the public and create the required
participatory know-how.
3) While implementing the project the environmental conditions underwent dramatic
changes with the extreme 2006 draught and the catastrophic 2007 fires. These
changes had to be extensively studied by the project team and the results of the
relevant studies were introduced in the strategic management plan. The provision
of relevant advice to the stakeholders created trust between the project team and
the local population and facilitated the participation process in the elaboration of
the ERB management plan.
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5.9 TASK 8 – Project Management
This task deals with the management, coordination actions and reporting to the European
Commission.
5.9.1. Steering Committee and Advisory Board meetings
The table below summarizes the meetings among the partners during December 2005 May 2009.
Action
Participants
Date
Location
Kick-off meeting
Beneficiary/Partners
19.12.2005
Athens
AB Partners
19.12.2005
Athens
SC Partners/ Beneficiary
12.01.2006
Sparta
AB Partners
26.06.2006
Sparta
SC Partners
26.06.2006
Sparta
AB Partners
06.02.2007
Sparta
SC Partners
06.02.2007
Sparta
AB Partners
21.06.2007
Sparta
SC Partners
21.06.2007
Sparta
Beneficiary/Partners/ASTRALE
27/28.11.2007
Sparta
AB Partners
01.04.2008
Sparta
SC Partners
01.04.2008
Sparta
AB Partners
01.10.2008
Sparta
EC/SC Partners/ASTRALE
02.10.2008
Sparta
AB Partners
25.02.2009
Sparta
SC Partners
26.02.2009
Sparta
Beneficiary/Partners/ASTRALE
26.05.2009
Sparta
1st Advisory Board
(AB) meeting
1st Steering Committee
(SC) meeting
2nd Advisory Board
(AB) meeting
2nd Steering
Committee (SC)
meeting
3rd Advisory Board
(AB) meeting
3rd Steering Committee
(SC) meeting
4th
Advisory Board (AB)
meeting
4th Steering Committee
(SC) meeting
Mid LIFE review
meeting
5th Advisory Board
(AB) meeting
5th Steering Committee
(SC) meeting
6th Advisory Board
(AB) meeting
6th Steering Committee
(SC) meeting
7th Advisory Board
(AB) meeting
7th Steering Committee
(SC) meeting
Final review meeting
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Kick-off meeting – 1st Advisory Board meeting
According to the project timetable, the Technical University of Crete has organized a
kick-off meeting the 19th December 2005 in Athens. During this kick-off meeting has
taken place also the Advisory Board meeting. The participants were 22 people. The kickoff meeting has focused on the following issues:

Presentations by each task Leader the ENVI-Friendly project.

Presentation and discussion of other general points relative to the management of
the project:
The minutes are available in Greek language and were submitted to E.C. with the Interim
Report.
1st Steering Committee meeting
According to the project timetable organized the first Steering Committee meeting in
12.01.2006 in Sparta. The SC meeting has focused on the following issues:

Presentation from the scientific responsible the ENVI-Friendly project.

Presentations by each task Leader.

Presentation of Development Corporation of the Prefecture of Laconia for
project organization and management according to the local Municipalities.

Presentation of the ENVI-Friendly project to the public.
The minutes of the first SC meeting are available in Greek language and were submitted
to E.C. with the Interim Report.
2nd Steering Committee and Advisory Board meetings
According to the project timetable organized the second Steering Committee and
Advisory Board meeting in 26.06.2006 in Sparta. The SC meeting has focused on the
following issues:

Presentations of the actions from the task Leaders from the first phase of the
ENVI-Frindly project.

Financial briefing from the Alpha MENTOR representative to the local
authorities members in the frame of the first Progress Report submission.
The AB meeting has focused on the following issues:

Actions evaluation of the first phase of the project,

Discussion on the installation of monitoring station along the Evrotas river.
The minutes of the second SC and AB meetings are available in Greek language and were
submitted to E.C. with the Interim Report.
3rd Steering Committee meeting and Advisory Board meetings
The third Steering Committee and Advisory Board meetings were organized in
06.02.2007 in Sparta. The SC meeting has focused on the following issue:
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
the progress of the activities and the results until December 2006 by each
Task Leader,

preparation for the next progress report.
The AB meeting has focused on the following issues:

Data evaluation.

Sustainable Development Observatory.
The minutes of the third SC and AB meetings are available in Greek language and were
submitted to E.C. with the Interim Report.
4th Steering Committee meeting and Advisory Board meetings
The fourth Steering Committee and Advisory Board meetings were organized in
21.06.2007 in Sparta. The main point of the discussions during afore mentioned
meetings were the weakness of the public administration concerning implementation of
the project results. The partners discussed particularly about the type of the organized
structure and the methodology that will have to be proposed to the local bodies for better
application of the project results. The minutes of the fourth SC and AB meetings are
available in Greek language and were submitted to E.C. with the 2nd Progress Report.
Mid LIFE review meeting
The 27th and 28th November 2007 a project visit has been organized at Sparta. Attended
to this meeting was Ms. C. Marouli, responsible of the Greek external Life monitoring
team (ASTRALE), representatives of all Task leaders and local stakeholders of the
EnviFriendly project. Field visit in five areas where experimental demonstration
technologies were developed has been organized during the first day of the meeting
(November, 27th). The same day, Ms. Marouli in the presence of N. Nikolaidis (Scientific
responsible of the project), Alpha MENTOR team (responsible of the project management
including the financial management) and NCSR team, according to the letter ENV.E.4LIFE 18921/22-10-2007 from European Committee to the Beneficiary (Prefecture of
Laconia), check up the financial archive of the project (for each partner). During the
discussions, Ms. Marouli emphasizes the following:
-
All invoices and every other voucher should have the stamp of the project and
in cases of apportionment with another project this should be stated on the
invoice.
-
Category ―PERSONNEL‖: Payment slips or signed private contracts should be
submitted for every person that works for the project and is in the declared
Work Team. Changes or additions in Work Teams should be stated as soon as
possible and in formal letter.
-
Category ―TRAVELS‖: Expenses charging should be stated in clear and written
commitment of every partner. The recording on the expenses base table
should coincide with the standing regulations and changes should be stated.
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-
Category ―CONSUMABLES‖: Expenses recording should be very detailed in
quality and quantity with detailed explanation wherever is required (e.g. ΔΘΘΔ
for the training package "tool-kit" for teachers and students).
-
Category ―OVERHEADS‖: No data is obligatory to be submitted. It is calculated
as 7% of the total budget.
The second day of the meeting (November, 28 th) the Task Leaders presented the results
of the project in connection with the fire episodes in the area last summer. The
discussion among project partners and Ms. Marouli focused on the following issues:
-
The function of the local Development Observatory.
-
The role and the results of the local network establishment.
-
The time schedule of dissemination strategy plan.
-
The progress and the results of good practices plan.
-
The results of the meetings and seminars with local stakeholders and school
teachers (Environmental education).
-
The progress of Evrotas river water quality evaluation according to the water
directive.
The minutes of the Mid LIFE review meetings are available in Greek language and were
submitted to E.C. with the 2nd Progress Report.
5th Steering Committee meeting and Advisory Board meetings
The fifth Steering Committee and Advisory Board meetings were organized in 01.04.2008
in Sparta. The partners, exchanged views about the discussions and the meetings that
have to be made with the local public authorities and the service representatives of the
central administration of the country, so that the methodology and administrative
designs, that are applied within the framework of the current project for Evrotas River, to
be a standard or a pattern to similar systems in other regions of Greece. The minutes of
the fifth SC and AB meetings are available in Greek language and were submitted to E.C.
with the 2nd Progress Report.
6th Steering Committee meeting and Advisory Board meetings
The sixth Advisory Board and Steering Committee meetings were organized in
01.10.2008 and 02.10.2008, respectively in Sparta. Attended to the SC meeting were
representatives of all Task leaders and local stakeholders of the EnviFriendly project, Mr.
A. Tsalas, Desk Officer of LIFE programme of European Commission and Ms. C. Marouli,
responsible of the Greek external Life monitoring team (ASTRALE). The main point of the
discussions during the afore mentioned meeting were the actions in the final phase of the
project regarding the:
1. Open meetings on management plans.
2. Modeling of Watershed and Coastal Zone and scenarios developing.
3. Function of the local Development Observatory.
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The minutes of the sixth SC and AB meetings are available in Greek language and were
submitted to E.C. with the 3rd Progress Report.
7th Steering Committee meeting and Advisory Board meetings
The seventh Advisory Board and Steering Committee meetings were organized in
25.02.2009 and 26.02.2009, respectively in Sparta. Main objectives of the meetings
were:
-
The public consultation procedure.
-
The preparation of the international conference during May 2009.
-
The preparation of the final report.
The minutes of the seventh SC and AB meetings are available in Greek language and it‘s
attached to the current (final) Report as separate issue.
Final review meeting
The final review meeting was organized in 26.05.2009 in Sparta. Attended to this
meeting were representatives of all Task leaders and local stakeholders of the
EnviFriendly project and Ms. C. Marouli, responsible of the Greek external Life monitoring
team (ASTRALE). The main point of the discussions during the afore mentioned meeting
were the preparation of the final report.
5.9.2. Reporting to EC
The table below summarizes the submitted reports to European Commission during
December 2005 - May 2009.
Report
Date of submission
1st Progress Report
03.08.2006
Interim Report
28.05.2007
2nd Progress Report
27.05.2008
3rd Progress Report
05.12.2008
Final Report
25.08.2009
1st Progress Report
According to the project schedule the first Progress Report was submitted to the
European Commission in August 2006 covering the project activities from 01.12.2005 to
31.07.2006.
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Interim Report
Dealing with the reporting to the European Commission the Beneficiary has submitted
the Interim Report, covering the project activities between 01.08.2006 and 30.04.2007
and summarized the activities from the beginning (December 2005) until July 2006. The
interim report included a financial report, as separate issue. After the evaluation from
E.C. a revised financial report was submitted on 30.11.2007 and additional financial
information was sent on 17.01.2008.
2nd Progress Report
The second progress report was submitted to the European Commission during May 2008
covering the project activities between 01.05.2007 and 30.04.2008.
3nd Progress Report
The third progress report was submitted to the European Commission during December
2008 covering the project activities between 01.05.2008 and 31.10.2008.
Final Report
The Final Report (the present report) sums up all global activities carried in the frame of
the project from the beginning (December 2005) to the end (May 2009). The financial
report is attached as separate issue.
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6. DISSEMINATION ACTIVITIES & DELIVERABLES
6.1. Dissemination activities
Details regarding dissemination activities you can see in chapter 5.8.1. and Annex 2.
6.2 Deliverables (last phase)
According to the project schedule, the deliverables which have been produced (and are
attached as separate issues) during the period 01.11.2008 and 31.05.2009 concerns the:
-
-
TASK 2:
o
Report on hydrologic and biogeochemical monitoring (2D1) – In Greek
language.
o
Report on MNA demonstration results (2D2) - In Greek language.
o
Report on risk assessment of water management (2D3) - In Greek
language.
TASK 3:
o
Drainage canal management techniques (3D2) - In Greek language.
o Impact of phytoremediation and bank erosion control in the minimization
of nitrate loads to the river (3D4) - In Greek language.
-
TASK 4:
o Report on second evaluation of the demonstrated waste management
technologies (4D3) - In Greek language.
-
TASK 5:
o
Results of the fieldwork research – Part A and Part B (5D1) - In Greek
language.
o
Integral Planning for Sustainable Development (5D2) - In Greek language.
o Executive Summary and Conclusions of the local society‘s attitude (5D3) –
In English language.
-
-
TASK 6:
o
Integrated management plans (6D1) - In Greek language.
o
Minutes from open meetings on management plans (6D2) - In Greek
language.
TASK 7:
o
Final Report with the results of evaluation (7D1) - In Greek language.
o
Executive Summary and Conclusions (7D2) - In English language.
o
Final – International Conference material (7D5).
o
Creation of Local Network (7D10) - In Greek language with tables in
English.
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-
TASK 8:
o
The current report (Final Report).
o
Layman‘s Report - In Greek and English language.
o
The 7th Advisory Board and Steering Committee meetings minutes (8D13)
- In Greek language.
6.3 List of project deliverables and milestones
According to the project schedule, it‘s attached to the current (final) report a deliverables
table, as separate issue, summarizes the deliverables and milestones which have been
produced since the start of the project.
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7. EVALUATION & CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive assessment of the project performance follows. The project for the
most part was ahead of schedule and very successful. In a few areas we experienced
delays; however these tasks were completed successfully at the end. The major objective
was the collection of data for the demonstration of the efficiency of the proposed
environmental friendly technologies.
The project has been extremely successful by Greek standards. The secret of the success
was the involvement of local stakeholders, the attitude of the local people, the
circumstances (such as the droughts of 2007 and 2008 which have put a pressure to
discuss openly water demand issues; the global financial crises that has put pressure on
the farmers and their dependence on fertilizers to reduce the actual usage; etc) and the
low profile we have kept in the media where one hand we promoted the work at the local
level without telling people that this is a magic bullet and they do not need to do
anything. This project was evaluated on the following four components:
1. Development of Watershed Management Plans – The development of the
integrated
water
resources
management
plans
progressed
very
well.
The
stakeholder/public participation process was very successful and was implemented for
the first time in Greece with respect to the development of management plans that follow
the implementation of the Water Framework Directive. We integrated water quality,
ecological quality and agricultural practices in the development of the management
plans. The public participation process started in April 2008 and lasted for 14 months
until the end of the project. During April and May, 2008 we had meeting with
stakeholders at the various municipalities and at the Prefecture level. The two main
issues were drought measures and dealing with the olive mill contamination. On the 14th
of May, 2008 had a public meeting in Sparta to show the interested parties 10
alternatives and low cost ways to treat olive mill wastes. These meetings were very
successful because we were able to reach almost every signle olive mill owner and
disseminate treatment information. For the first time in Greece it was shown that it
possible to treat OMW with low cost methods. Our collaboration with the Central
Water Agency made Evrotas the representative basin of Greece in the PRB-Agriculture.
This part exceeded even our own expectations. The PRB-Agri group had one of its
meetings in Sparta (Oct. 2008). The group plans to publish several ―books‖ on
application of environmental measures, public participation, public acceptance and
management plans and the LIFE project will be represented in these publications. These
achievements are quite unique for Greece and facilitated the participation of the partners
and the site in the FP7 proposal called ―MIRAGE‖ which was funded and started on Jan
2009.
Under the auspices of the Prefecture and the CWA, EnviFriendly organized a
conference and field trip in Sparta (June 21-22, 2007) to present the project and special
water management issues to all stakeholders, water companies from Greece, regional
governmental offices, representatives from the Ministry of Environment, Agriculture, and
Development. This project has become a show case and we hope to set the agenda for
water resources management in Greece and other Mediterranean countries.
2. Demonstration of Technology Efficiency – The demonstration of the technologies
has been very successful. The results have been quite impressive. It has been shown
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that major environmental benefits can be obtained with low cost technologies. The
demonstrated technologies were:
1. Monitored Natural Attenuation - This study documented evidence that
mechanisms of natural attenuation operate at the Evrotas River Basin.
The attenuation of nitrogen and phosphorous were quantified using an emission
based model, MONERIS. 95.5% of the nitrogen and 98% of phosphorous
were attenuated with the watershed. The results indicated that MNA is a
viable remedial measure for the watershed.
2. Drainage canal management - This field and laboratory study revealed that the
riparian zone of the agricultural drainage canal, natural attenuation mechanisms,
as well as phytoremediation could remove significant amounts of N and P. 76.5
% of the nitrate nitrogen and all the phosphorus entering the drainage
canal were removed by plants.
3. Riparian zone management - Phytoremediation in conjunction with river bank
erosion controls is suggested as a combined efficient remediation tool, low cost –
high gain, for non-point source pollution of nutrients. The reduction of nitrates
during the first period (until the July ‟07) was 60%, while the second
period was 80%, coinciding with the further growth of the poplar trees
and their root system.
4. OMW-Tzinakos - Irrigation of crops with OMWW in areas with water shortage
and low organic matter and nutrient soil content was demonstrated to be a viable
environmental friendly management technology. Irrigation of OMWW did not
affect the groundwater quality while the adverse effects on the soil were
minimal (small increases of electrical conductivity, correlated with increases of
potassium and calcium availability in soil solution). Soil salinity was still far below
the threshold of soil salinization.
5. OMW – Kokkolis - The subsurface application of OMWW showed no adverse
effect to groundwater quality. Stabilization of nutrient concentration after the
planting the poplar trees, showed that the biological action of the plants
decreased the variability in nutrient content. Soil coring showed no transfer
of waste in deeper horizons (below 60-80 cm) thus there are no adverse effects in
groundwater from waste application. The subsurface application of OMWW in
conjunction with phytoremediation was shown to be an effective low cost
technology.
6. Electrolytic OMWW - OMWW pretreatment for the removal of the suspended
solids was shown to be essential for a succeful and efficient decolorization and
polyphenol removal. Decolorization and removal of polyphenols took place in a
very short period of time after the removal of the suspended solids. The efficiency
of the electrolytic system increased substantially as the concentration of NaCl
increases. Testing of the unit for the treatment of the wastewater from a table
olives packaging facility, EUROAMERICANA S.A., provided incouraging preliminary
results (50% of COD reduction).
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7. Electrolytic – Orange Juice factory - Electrolytic post treatment of Orange
Juice Wastewater was shown to be an efficient technology for refining the effluent
of the treatment plant. The results showed that a 50% reduction in COD can be
achieved after 120 min treatment while the effluent was decolourized by 96%
with 2 and 4% NaCl.
These pilots were more than we originally proposed. We have collected data from all the
pilots and evaluated/demonstrated the efficiency of the treatment technologies. Minor
delays were experienced in pilots 6 and 7 that were completed on time.
These technologies can be transferred not only in other parts of Greece, but also
in other parts of the world. The participation in the PRB-AGRI group showed us
that such technologies can really help EU countries reduce pollution to water
bodies and achieve their management objectives. We were also invited to
participate in a COST Action meeting in Wageningen (May 2009) and present the LIFE
project. The feedback from the organizers was that ―the Greek presentation was the only
comprehensive approach to integrated management and program of measures‖.
3. Social Acceptance (as epitomized by the Creation of the Sustainable
Development Observatory) – This issue is hard to provide ―proof‖ for. The project has
been ―accepted both by the elected officials and by the people‖. The acceptance can be
seen by their participation and the contacts we have during our campaigns. It is a
common belief that Evrotas River can be the value added to the regional development.
The social acceptance is epitomized by the strides we have made in the development of
the SDO. The long term sustainability of the SDO depends on the following six factors:

Experienced staff with appropriate educational background

Recognized official status with enforcement responsibilities

Financial support

Scientific support

Social acceptability

Stakeholder (―people‖) participation.
Here we have to be very clear that our team can not perform miracles. We have
institutional obstacles that do not allow proper implementation of such structures neither
do we have the authority to assign enforcement responsibilities to manage the river
basin. Having said that, we believe that we have made strides of unforeseen magnitude
that will ensure the sustainability of the SDO. Here is the evidence that suggests that
the SDO will be successful.

Experienced staff - We have been very lucky to find the five representatives
from the Prefecture staff as well as other supporting personnel that have been
helping us in every step of the way as well as taking on significant
responsibility of the research and monitoring activities. Without them and their
knowledge of the area the work we have done in such a short period would not
be possible.

Recognized official status with enforcement responsibilities – Here we have
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problems and the only thing we can do is to raise awareness at the higher
government levels.
The Head of the Prefecture, Mr. K. Fourkas officially
reassigned the above individuals into a unit that can deal with the
management of the river basin and staffing the SDO (number 725/16-042009). However, the Greek law has not assigned clear responsibilities. Many
ministry and local authorise are involved having partial responsibilities. The
Prefecture, together with EnviFriendly organized two Conferences on June 2122, 2007 and May 2009 under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment. In
the Conference participated all involved Ministry and Local governmental
structures as well as local stakeholders. During the months of April and May of
2008, we arranged a public meeting to address the issue of the upcoming
DROUGHT of 2008, local meeting at 5 municipalities during April and 3 during
May, and an open meeting to state engineers and olive mill owners on the 10
low cost ways to treat OMW. Two open meeting reagarding the public
consultation on the management plans took place on Nov. 2008 and Feb 2009.

Financial support – The Land Resources Survey Unit has been receiving
funding from the Ministry of Agriculture for monitoring. This funding will
continue. In addition, the Head of the Prefecture has been encouraging its
staff to participate in proposals. The Prefecture is participating as a partner in
the proposal called ―MIRAGE‖ that was funded. The funding issues have not
been solved; however we feel we are at the right direction.

Scientific support – SDO will rely on the scientific support from the
EnviFriendly partners.

Social acceptability – The staff of SDO have the social acceptability from the
local people due to their previous regulatory function. For instance, many
towns have located ground water sources for drinking and irrigation purposes
with the help of Mr. V. Papadoulakis the Prefecture‘s geologists.

Stakeholder (―people‖) participation – Here we can only provide evidence from
our continuous contact with the local people in our sampling campaigns. Large
teams from many institutions have been carrying out week long campaigns
coming in touch with the local people. Their enthusiasm and help suggests
high participation.
Overall, we believe we are at the right place, the right time to make a difference.
4. Project Management – The management of the project is progressing very well.
There is sufficient flow of information among partners on scientific issues as well as on
financial issues. Project meetings were conducted on a regular basis to ensure smooth
running of the project. This project has organized and positioned the local, regional and
central government to implement the water framework directive for the first time in
Greece. In fact, Evrotas River Basin is highly likely to achieve its environmental
objectives by 2015. The environmental benefits of the project are significant for the
area and for the Mediterranean region. We have quantified the reductions in emissions
for 7 environmental friendly technologies that farmers can afford to implement by
themselves without the financial help from the government. We targeted water usage
and pollution problems and formulated rigorous program of measures that when
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implemented the water quality and ecological status of all water bodies in the basin will
achieve the ―good‖ status. Such problems are common in Greece, the Mediterranean
countries as well as the central and northern EU countries to some extent.
The EnviFriendly proposed and demonstrated environmental measures have a long-term
sustainability aspect that makes them more attractive in selecting them as alternatives to
water resources management. For instance, if all 168 olive mills in Lakonia implement one of
the treatment technologies proposed by the project, the environmental benefit and ecological
benefit will be great. Pollution will be substantially reduced and the ecology of the river will be
greatly improved. This will have indirect economic benefits to the olive mill owners because it
will ensure the long-term sustainability of their operation. The cost to implement such
technologies will not overwhelm the olive mill owners and will initiate a new social code
between the owners and the people since the owners ―solve a social tension‖ issue (odors) by
themselves. We have developed the first Integrated Water Resources Management
Plan for Greece that will be used extensively as an example in developing
Management Plans for other watersheds. The fact that the Central Water Agency and the
Regions has shown a sincere interest in the project demonstrates the feasibility in transferring
the technologies and methods of this project to other areas of Greece.
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8. AFTER-LIFE COMMUNICATION PLAN
An Integrated Water Resources Management Plan is an active document that should be
updated on a regular basis as new data and information are emerging from its
implementation. In the EnviFriendly Project we operated on the assumpltion that a
Management Plan would successfully be implemented only if the local authorities actively
contribute in preparing it and ―adapt it‖ and the ―technical partners‖ provide continuous
technical support where needed.
We are proud to say that we have achieved this
objective. The Prefecture actively participated through out this project in every aspect of
the demonstrations as well as in the development and dissemination of the management
plan. The Prefecture was re-organized (Common Minestirial Decision 16-4-2009) and a
water resources management unit was created. The Unit was charged with the collection
of data and actions necessary for the integrated management of water resources and
natural disasters.
The After-Life Communication Plan is based on a two prong approach:
1. Continue the collaboration with the Central Water Agency to promote the
EnviFriendly Project Results – The Central Water Agency of the Hellenic
Ministry of Environment recognized the significance of the results of this project
and included the Evrotas River Basin in the Pilot River Basins for Agricultural
Measures (PRB-AGRI).
The second PRB-AGRI meeting was hosted in Sparta in
October 2008 by the Central Water Agency and the Prefecture where the results
of the LIFE Project were presented. The project partners in coordination with the
Central Water Agency activily participated in the 3 rd meeting in Wesser and will
participate in the future PRB-AGRI meetings.
The Agency recognizes that the
EnviFriendly project developed the first Integrated Water Resources Managemnt
Plan for Greece based on the WFD guidelines and uses the Plan as a prototype for
the implementation of the WFD for all Greece.
2. Submit proposals to secure the necessary finances for the continuous
presence of the technical partners - In order to ensure the financial cost
necessary for the continuous presence of the technical partners in the future
dissemination of the results of the LIFE-EnviFriendly project, we submitted a
successful FP7 proposal that was funded and its implementation started on
January 2009.
The FP7 Project MIRAGE has as objectives “(1) provide an
applicable and transferable set of reference conditions for temporary streams,
specifically linking terrestrial and aquatic ecology; (2) determine effects of dry
periods
on
accumulation
and
transformation
of
nutrients,
sediments
and
hazardous substances on land and in river channels, at selected sites with test
catchments. (3) specify and test measures to support achieving good ecological
and water quality status including the integration of up- and downstream
management. This will be done initially for the two mirror basins Candelaro (Italy)
and Evrotas (Greece) in close cooperation with local water management
organisations; (4) support the implementation of the WFD and the development of
strategies for integrated water resources management for Mediterranean river
basins, generalising from the Mirror Basins on the basis of modern ecohydrology
concepts, in the context of characterising runoff regimes and flood responses on a
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regional basis. Five other Mediterranean catchments, including one in Morocco,
will be used as the primary focus for this work; The transfer of experience and the
establishment of common guidelines is then seen as a significant support for WFD
implementation across the region.”
In other words, the MIRAGE project was
designed to provide answers to scientific questions that are important for the
implementation of WFD to temporary rivers.
Four of the EnviFriendly partners
(TUC, HCMR, Lakonia Prefecture and NCSR) are participating in the project
ensuring the further dissemination of the results until 2012.
Both objectives have already been achieved. The results of the EnviFriendly project will
be disseminated in the future and they will provide a lasting impact (as guidelines) for
the implementation of WFD in Greece. However, the challenge still remains in terms of
ensuring that the farmers and in general the local people will make the necessary life
changes and truly adapt and implement the recommendations. The jury is still out.
The Evrotas River Basin can achieve the ―good‖ ecological status on all water bodies by
2015 if the following issues are addressed:
1. Reduce irrigation water use –
2. Implement OMW and OJW treatment –
3. Eliminate municipal Wastewater disposal –
4. Implement riparian zone restoration –
The Prefecture of Lakonia in coordination with the Municipalities and other local
stakeholders has already initiated actions for each of the issues identified above.
For
instance, closed irrigations systems are in the stage of planning and implementation at
two locations (Tirnassou and Magoulitsas) and will replace open water irrigation that
―wastes‖ a lot of water. Regarding the OMW issue, the Prefecture has announced that
will issue a Prefect‘s Order on Olive Mill waste Disposal.
Given that the EnviFriendly
project identified 10 waste management alternatives that are cost effective, the
Prefecture will give Olive Mill owners two years to comply with the new order.
Steps
have also been taken to control illegal dumping of wastewater in the river and plans have
been made for riparian zone restoration and the prefecture is seeking finances for their
implementation.
The project has empowered the local authorities to take actions, ensuring in this way
the sustainability of the outcomes. The Prefecture of Lakonia has become a protype
prefecture for water management in Greece. The Central Water Agency considers that
the Management Plan developed is the first comprehensive management plan for water
resources in Greece. The results of this project are readily transferable in other regions
of Greece and other Mediterranean countries. Our participation in the Pilot River Basins
(PRB-AGRI) consortium ensures the dissemination of knowledge derived in the LIFE
project to other EU Countries.
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ANNEX
Annex 1: List of Partner‘s Data
Annex 2: Detailed Description of EnviFriendly Project Results
Annex 3: References
Annex 4: Project tablets
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Annex 1: List of Partner‟s Data
Beneficiary
Prefecture of Laconia (PL)
2nd km National Road Sparta - Gythio,
GR-23100 Sparta, GREECE
Contact persons: Mr. P. Koulogeorgiou
Mr. V. Papadoulakis
Tel.: +30 27310 93859
Fax: +30 27310 93805
E-mail: grafeio.symvoulou@lakonia.gr
papkal1@otenet.gr
Web: www.lakonia.gr
Scientific Responsible
Technical University of Crete (TUC)
Department of Environmental Engineering,
GR-37132 Chania, GREECE
Contact person: Prof. Nikolaos Nikolaidis
Tel.: +30 28210 37785
Fax: +30 28210 37846
E-mail: nikolaos.nikolaidis@enveng.tuc.gr
Web:http://www.enveng.tuc.gr/
http://www.herslab.tuc.gr/
http://www.Koiliaris.tuc.gr/
http://www.EnviFriendly.tuc.gr/
http://www.aquatrain.eu/
http://www.mirage-project.eu/
Partners
Development Corporation of the Prefecture of Laconia, Ltd
2nd km National Road Sparta - Gythio,
GR-23100 Sparta
Contact person: Mr. A. Dimitrakakis
Tel.: +30 27310 93800
Fax: +30 27310 26810
E-mail: anelae@otenet.gr
No logo
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR)
P.O.Box 712, GR-19013 Anavissos
Attika, GREECE
Contact person: Mr. N. Skoulikidis
Tel.: +30 22910 76394
Fax: +30 22910 76323
E-mail: nskoul@hcmr.gr
Web: http://www.hcmr.gr
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National Centre for Social Research (NCSR)
Institute of Urban And Rural Sociology
Mesogeion 14-18, GR-11527 Athens, GREECE
Contact person: Mr. K. Tsakiris
Tel.: +30 210 7491715-16
Fax: +30 210 7489143
E-mail: ktsaki@NCSR.gr
Web: http://www.NCSR.gr
Alpha MENTOR Ltd (AM)
M. Alexandrou 28, GR-55535 Pylaia,
Thessaloniki, GREECE
Contact persons: Mrs. A. Chatzinikolaou
Mr. K. Koukaras
Tel.: +30 2310 322498
Fax: +30 2310 309768
E-mail: info@alphamentor.gr
Web: http://www.alphamentor.gr
Municipality of ELOS
GR-23055 Vlachioti, Laconia, GREECE
Contact person: Mrs. A. Stratakou
Tel.: +30 27350 42210
Fax: +30 27350 42233
E-mail: d.elous@kep.gov.gr
No logo
Municipality of SKALA
GR-23051 Skala, Laconia, GREECE
Contact person: Mrs. G. Karachaliou
Tel.: +30 27350 24035
Fax: +30 27350 24032
E-mail: gkarahaliou@1499.syzefxis.gov.gr
No logo
Municipality of PELLANA
GR-23059 Kastorio, Laconia, GREECE
Contact person: Mrs. G. Machaira
Tel.: +30 27310 57220
Fax: +30 27310 57828
E-mail: otapella@otenet.gr
No logo
Municipality of MYSTRA
GR-23100 Magoula, Laconia, GREECE
Contact person: Mrs. V. Kontogeorgakou
Tel.: +30 27310 22226, +30 27310 61111
Fax: +30 27310 82201, +30 27310 61115
E-mail:
birginia.kontogeorgakoy@1439.syzefxis.gov.gr
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Municipality of OINOUNTOS
GR-23100 Sellasia, Lakonia, GREECE
Contact person: Mr. T. Tsintolas
Tel.: +30 27310 94123 / +30 27310 94124
Fax: +30 27310 94245 / +30 27310 60720
E-mail: doinount@otenet.gr
No logo
Municipality of FARIDOS
GR-23054 Xyrokampi, Laconia, GREECE
Contact person: Mr. I. Vrinios
Tel.: +30 27310 35388
Fax: +30 27310 36545
E-mail: d.faridos@kep.gov.gr
No logo
Municipality of KROKEON
GR-23057 Krokees, Laconia, GREECE
Contact person: Mrs. A. Maglara
Tel.: +30 27350 71195
Fax: +30 27350 71195
E-mail: d.krokeon@kep.gov.gr
No logo
Municipality of THERAPNON
GR-23100 Goritsa, Lakonia, GREECE
Contact person: Mr. S. Nikoletos
Tel.: +30 27310 74400
Fax: +30 27310 74111
E-mail: dimthera@otenet.gr
Web: http://www.therapnai.gr
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Annex 2: Detailed Description of EnviFriendly Project Results (Task 1 – Task 7)
TASK 1 – Development of preliminary management plans and design of selected
demonstration technologies
The first action taken by the teams was the collection of the existing data and studies of
the
watershed
and
the
coastal
zone.
We
collected
the
available
hydrologic,
hydrogeologic, meteorologic, and water quality data from all known public and private
institutions.
In many cases, these data were not in electronic format, so we entered
them in data bases. Similarly, we obtained available GIS databases such as CORRINE
land use database from the JRC-ISPRA, the digital elevation model, geology, population,
river network etc. In cases, portions of the GIS theme map was missing (such as in the
case of geology), we digitized it. Finally, the reports from various studies were scanned
in order to develop an electronic data base of all available studies. At the end, two CDs
were produced, one with the GIS information for the basin and another for the existing
studies. We worked very closely with two scientists from the Prefecture of Laconia, the
hydrogeologist,
Mr
Papadoulaki
and
the
health
inspector,
Mr.
Kouvatso.
This
collaboration was necessary for us in order on one hand to acquire their scientific
knowledge of the area and assessment of the problem and on the other hand to initiate
their training in managing the watershed. The main pollution point sources are urban
waste water, olive oil mills, and orange juice factories while the diffuse sources are
agricultural activities and livestock pollution. Figure 5.2.1 presents the spatial variability
of the pollution point and non-point sources of the watershed.
Figure 5.2.1. Point and non-point sources of pollution in Evrotas River Watershed.
Based on the distributed information on the point and non-point sources for the
watershed of Evrotas River, the nutrient (N and P) loads were estimated. The total input
nitrogen load was estimated to be 46471 tn/yr and the P-load 19323 tn/yr. Agricultural
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activities contributed 43865 tn/yr of nitrogen (94.4%) and 18855 tn /yr of phosphorous
(97.6%). Livestock, atmospheric deposition, urban waste water, olive oil mills and
orange juice factories contributed the remaining of the load. Approximately 50% of the
N and P fertilizer loads is contained in the produce and does not enter the system.
Therefore, the net loads of N in the watershed were estimated to be 24539 tn/yr and of P
9896 tn/yr. Agricultural activities contributed 21933 tn/yr of N (89,4%) and 9896 tn/yr
of P (95,3%). In this phase of the project we did not estimate the other pollutant loads
like the organic loads from livestocks, urban waste waters, olive oil mills and the orange
juice factory as well as the loads of phenols from the olive oil mills or the pesticide loads
from agriculture. We attempted to conduct a complete integrated study on nutrients due
to more available data and limited time (7 months) for the development of the
Preliminary Management Plan.
A preliminary environmental assessment has been based on the identification of pollution
sources, estimation of pollution loads, assessment of hydro-morphological alterations and
on the vulnerability of the basins‘ water resources. In addition, field investigations and a
preliminary biological quality assessment, based on the results of the first sampling
campaign, have been considered.
In the framework of ENVI-Friendly, environmental assessment incorporates the principles
of ecological quality assessment, as defined by the WFD (2000/60/EC). Ecological quality
assessment will include the entire river basin (main stem and tributaries) and will be
based on abiotic and biotic elements. Abiotic elements refer to aquatic quality (physicochemical and chemical characteristics, incl. priority substances, etc.) and hydromorphological features. Biotic elements include benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. The
riparian vegetation will be additionally considered.
Design of a representative sampling network
Based on the available information and a field visit to the entire catchment (512.04.2006), a representative sampling network has been designed, according to
hydrological aspects and human impacts.

Hydrological issues. Sites have been selected in permanent and periodically
flowing waters. Sites have been selected in as many as possible river tributaries
(only very small streams with very low flow have been excluded).

Human impacts. Ecological quality assessment and classification systems are
based on the differences between expected faunal assemblages (those found in
undisturbed or minimally disturbed, i.e. reference sites) and those observed.
Hence, according to the analysis of pressures and related field investigations,
emphasis has been given to select as many as possible potentially reference sites.
In total, 42 stations for macroinvertebrate sampling and 27 preliminary stations
(additional stations will be considered during the next field campaigns) for fish sampling
have been selected. Fig. 5.2.2 presents the sampling network.
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Figure 5.2.2. Sampling network designed for ecological assessment purposes.
Development of a typological classification methodology
According to the WFD, ecological quality assessment should be type-specific. In absence
of a national typological framework for running waters, a methodology for the typological
characterization of water bodies within Evrotas basin has been established. According to
previous research, a set of abiotic variables has been selected on which an initial biotic
typology (System B) for Greek running waters could be based (Skoulikidis et al.,
submitted). These variables include: catchment area, altitude, slope and geology. By
combining GIS-layers of geology, altitude and slope on Evrotas basin, it results that 95%
of the catchment area is covered by 11 theoretical types (Fig. 5.2.3), while the sampling
network belongs to 7 distinct types.
The predominant types found in Evrotas basin are:
 Mid altitude clastic deposits with low slopes (sl1 - al2 - g1) (18 sampling sites)
 Low altitude clastic deposits with low slopes (sl1 - al1 -g1) (5 sites)
 Mid altitude silicate basement with medium slopes (sl2 - al2 - g3) (5 sites)
 High altitude silicate basement with medium slopes (sl2 - al3 -g3) (5 sites)
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Figure 5.2.3. Typological classification of Evrotas basin.
Legend: slope, altitude and geology classes, codes and coefficients
slope (ο)
altitude (m)
geology
code
class
coefficient
code
class
coefficient
code
class
coefficient
sl1
>10
2
al1
>150
3
geo1
clastic
100
sl2
10- 30
4
al2
150-600
5
geo2
carbonate
1000
sl3
<30
6
al3
>600
7
geo3
silicate
10000
Field studies
During the first field campaign (5-12.04.2006), the following actions have been carried
out:

Estimation of the geographical coordinates of each site.
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
At each sampling reach photos and videos have been taken. In addition, photos
and videos of four fish species have been taken (in situ, ex-situ).

In-situ
measurements
conductivity,
pH,
Eh,
of
physico-chemical
dissolved
oxygen,
variables
current
velocity
(temperature,
with
portable
instruments) and estimation of the wetted cross section.

Water sampling. Samples were collected in plastic vials from mid depths from
the center of the river bed, and a few drops of saturated solution of HgCl 2 were
added. A sub-sample has been kept separately, for the analysis of chloride ions.
Samples were transferred in portable refrigerators in the laboratory as quick as
possible and filtered through 0.45 μm membrane filters for the analysis of
hydrochemical variables (total hardness, Ca 2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3-, CO32-, Cl-,
SO42-, SiO2) and conventional pollutants (nitrate, ammonia, nitrite, total nitrogen,
orthophosphate and total phosphorous).

Sediment sampling. In selected stations sediment samples have been collected
for the estimation of mineralogical and chemical variables.

Registration of river bed, river bank and riparian zone characteristics. For
this purpose the AQEM/STAR protocol has been applied, that aims to give an
impression of river and floodplain morphology, hydrology, hydrochemistry and
vegetation composition. The collection of these data was conducted at a distance
of 500 m upstream and downstream of each sampling site.

Hydro-morphological analysis was performed with the use of the river Habitat
survey (RHS) method. RHS assesses the physical character of a sampling site at a
500 m length and involves the collection of numeous features recorded at a 10
spot-checks in 50 m intervals. The habitat quality of each site (stream channel
and riparian habitat) was evaluated with the use of the Habitat quality
Assessment score (HQA) and Habitat Modification Score (HMS). HQA assesses the
habitat diversity, while HMS represents habitat modification.

Sampling
of
benthic
invertebrates.
The
AQEM/STAR
macroinvertebrate
sampling methodology has been applied. It is based on a multi-habitat scheme
designed for sampling major habitats proportionally according to their presence
within a sampling reach of 20-25 m length. Each sample consisted of 20
―replicates‖ taken from all microhabitat types at the sampling site with a share of
at least 5% coverage, which must be distributed according to the share of
microhabitats. Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected with a rectangular hand
net of 0.25 m x 0.25 m with a mesh size of 500-μm nytex screen. Thus, a total
area of 1.25 m2 was sampled for each sampling site. Sampling started at the
downstream end of the reach and proceeded upstream. Samples were preserved
in ca. 70% ethanol and the species were collected with soft tweezers and
transferred to the laboratory in order to be identified with state of the art
determination literature.

Fish sampling. Field investigations on the presence of fish species and a
preliminary sampling have been carried out with the use of electrofishing, nets,
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etc. Additional sites have been selected for a systematic fish sampling during the
next stages of the ecological assessment.
Environmental impact assessment has been based on literature review, interviews from
administrators, agro-technicians, local citizens and field investigations. In the following,
the environmental impacts on hydro-morphology, aquatic quality of surface and
groundwaters, ecosystems and ecogical status of surface waters are summarized:
Impacts on hydro-morphology
As a result of the combined actions of water infiltration within the alluvial deposits and
the karstic basement, surface water abstractions and groundwater pumping, parts of
Evrotas main
stem
(headwaters, near Vrodamas-bridge, within Vrodamas-gorge,
upstream of Skala village) dry out during the dry season. Especially downstream Karavas
area, numerous surface water pumping stations and drillings affect river flow. It is worth
noting however, that even along stretches where Evrotas falls dry (e.g. in Vrodamas
plain and gorge), there is water remaining in small ponds, thus partly preserving aquatic
fauna and flora. River channel modifications along the Evrotas main stem mainly appear
at the river‘s midway and downstream portions. In the past, below Skala, Evrotas was
flooding extended areas. Today, the lower part of the river is embanked and straightened
to control flooding. Farmers extended orchard cultivations up to the embankment. Other
morphological alterations along Evrotas main-stem concern bank reinforcement for flood
control, ford construction at Skoura, and an underwater weir construction, eighty meters
upstream of the river‘s mouth, in order to prevent sea water intrusion and littering. The
whole basin lacks in cadastre and there is no public property along the whole river course
from both sides (Public Land Service, personal communication).
The vast majority of Evrotas tributaries, dry out in summer. In general, downstream of
water abstraction facilities tributaries fall dry. Oinus, the main Evrotas tributary,
episodically becomes temporal due to water use for irrigation. Similarly, the downstream
portions of Gerakaris, Kakaris, Rasina, Xerias, Lagada (Magoulitsa) and other smaller
tributaries have become temporal. Morphological modifications are apparent mainly at
Vrisiotiko, Kastaniotis, Perdikari, Lagada (downstream), Skatias, Paroritis (downstream),
Riviotisa, Ag. Kyriaki, Oinus (at Kelefina-bridge). The main impacts concern river bank
modifications for flood control (resection or reinforcement), construction of by-pass
channels for water abstraction and littering.
Aquatic quality
Groundwater
Evrotas basin is characterized by two types of groundwater reservoirs: a karstic and a
sedimentary. Karstic aquifers generally recharge the sedimentary aquifers. According to
previous studies (Andonakos, 1998; Mariolakos et al., 2003 and 2005; Karalemas,
2006), the Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment of the University of Athens,
distinguished Evrotas basin into 14 hydrogeological water bodies (Fig. 5.2.4).
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Figure 5.2.4. The fourteen hydrogeological water bodies of Evrotas basin (Faculty of Geology
and Geoenvironment - University of Athens).
Due to groundwater over-pumping for irrigation, the water table in some aquifers
diminished dramatically. Today, a number of drillings, as in the case of the
Municipality of Faridos, are not operating, while others, as in the case of the delta
area (Skala and Elos), became unsuitable for irrigation due to sea water intrusion.
According to Andonakos and Lambrakis (2000), the shallow unconfined aquifer of the
broad Sparti area was substantially enriched with nitrates (average 62.6 mg/l). In
fact, 65% of nitrate concentrations in groundwater exceeded the legislative threshold
for drinking water (50 mg/l), while nitrates contributed with 12% to the sum of
equivalent anion concentrations. The elevated nitrate and sulphate concentration in
groundwater has been attributed to the use of [(NH4NO3)(CaCO3)] and [(NHA)2SO4]
fertilizers. Fig. 5.2.5 illustrates the problem of groundwater pollution at the broader
Sparti area.
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Figure 5.2.5. Contours of equal nitrate concentration in groundwater (Andonakos and Lambrakis,
2000).
Surface water
According to MEDSPA (1993) program fifteen years ago, the water quality of Evrotas was
already deteriorated. The high organic load of the river was attributed to organic
pollution, originating from direct municipal waste water discharges, prior to the
construction of the WWTP, and orange juice manufacturing. For example, in summer
1992 at Sparti-bridge, BOD reached 95 mg/l and COD 210 mg/l. The WWTP operation
(August 1992), resulted in lowering of COD, BOD, SS and total Ν concentrations
(MEDSPA, 1993). However, recent extreme BOD and COD concentrations (maximum 315
and 630 mg/l respectively) (Mariolakos et al., 2005) point out that the river is still
occasionally subject to organic pollution impact. Nitrate concentrations between Sparti
and Skala for the year 1992 ranged between ~9 mg/l for Platana site and ~4 for Skala,
with an average concentration of about 5 mg/l (MEDSPA, 1993). According to recent data
(Land Reclamation Service, Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food, 2001-2005)
average nitrate concentration (for sites Vordonia, Vrodamas, Skala) has doubled (10
mg/l). This nitrate level terms the river, according to a nutrient classification system
(Skoulikidis et al., 2006), as a ―bad" quality water body (threshold 7.8 mg/l). Moreover,
by applying a Ministry of Environment (1994) classification, based on eutrophication
criteria, the river can be classified as a threatened water body (threshold 5 mg/l). In fact,
Evrotas belongs to the Greek rivers that are highly loaded with nitrates. A downstream
(from Vordonia to Skala) raise in nitrate, chloride and sodium concentrations and a
decrease in oxygen saturation (data: Land Reclamation Service, Ministry of Agricultural
Development and Food, 2001-2005) are attributed to respective increasing human
impact (agriculture, food processing, municipal wastes). Riviotisa tributary is highly
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degraded, due to discharges of orange juice processing wastes. This stream revealed
very high suspended solid and nitrate (22.7 mg/l) concentrations, acid waters and low
oxygen
saturation
(5.8%),
indicating
anoxic
conditions
(according
to
a
few
measurements from the Land Reclamation Service, Ministry of Agricultural Development
and Food, 2002). Nevertheless, according to MEDSPA (1993), self-purification processes
are active along the river course (e.g. nutrient fixation by reeds). Mariolakos et al.
(2005) reported that river water infiltration within the karstic system of Vrodamas gorge
contributes to its quality improvement downstream Skala. The relative low average
nitrate concentration in Omega ditch (12.9 mg/l, according to data of the Land
Reclamation Service, Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food, 2004-2005), which
receives karstic inflows and agricultural return flows, indicates the dilution capacity of
Skala karstic springs and the efficiency of self-purification processes.
Monthly variation of major ion concentrations, points toward dilution processes during
high water level. During the dry season, increased baseflow contribution to river flow,
enhances solute concentrations. Regarding nitrate, the main enrichment mechanism,
excluding occasional pollution incidents, is arable land flushing that takes place in the
fall, during water level increase (Fig. 5.2.6). The MEDSPA (1993) study came also to the
same conclusion for the extended orchard cultivations at Platana, Skoura and Skala. With
increasing discharge, in winter, dilution processes drop nitrate concentrations (Fig.
5.2.7).
According to the physico-chemical variables measured at the different stations during the
first sampling campaign, it can be figured out that river water mineralization was
enhanced by karstic spring inputs and by point source pollution (WWTP, orange juice
manufacturing wastes). Dissolved oxygen concentration was controlled by karstic inputs
(low
oxygen
content), the WWTP
outflow
(high
oxygen
concentrations due to
photosynthesis) and the inputs of Riviotisa tributary (low oxygen concentrations).
Figure 5.2.6. Nitrate concentration in various major Greek rivers (data: Ministry of Agricultural
Development and Food).
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Figure 5.2.7. Monthly variation of discharge and nitrate concentration of Evrotas at Vordonia
(data: Land Reclamation Service, Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food).
Ecological status
According to information, in the past, Evrotas River was characterized by rich riparian
forest vegetation. Today, relicts of the former riparian forests are present at the upper
portion of the river, were Platanus orientalis dominates. At the river‘s midway, relicts of
mixed forests with Platanus orientalis, Salix spp., Salix alba are found. The river‘s delta is
dominated by extended bush lands with Tamarix spp. Along temporal tributaries Nerium
oleander and Vitex agnus-castus tufts dominate. Vrodamas gorge is of high aesthetic
value and amazing natural beauty, with Platanus, salix and oleander.
Evrotas presents a significantly rich riparian (hydrophilous) vegetation, which includes a
great number of aquatic (Potamogeton sp. etc.) and helophyte (Nasturdium officinale,
Lycopus europaeus, Mentha aquatica, Typha domingensis, Phragmites australis etc.)
plants.
According to previous studies (Economidis, 1991; Zalidis and Mantzavelas, 1994; EKBY,
1994; HCMR, 1999), the following fish species are found in Evrotas R.: Leuciscus
keadicus, Tropidophoxinellus spartiaticus, Pseudophoxinus laconimus, Salaria fluviatilis
και Anguila anguila. From these species, the most threatened one is Leuciscus keadicus,
which is found exclusively in Evrotas. The endemic fish Tropidophoxinelus spartiaticus
is also distributed in Vasilopotamos and other rivers of Peloponnisos. In the past, several
species of fish were found at least in five tributaries, as well as in many springs of
Lakonia valley. However, due to the drying out of these tributaries during summer in the
last twenty years, springs became seasonal and the distribution of fish species was
limited in the main river. Sampling during 1994-1998 in Evrotas tributaries (Paroritis,
Mesiano, Kelefina etc.) and independent springs (St. Ioannis Kefalari), where fish species
were found in the past, was fruitless. In the area of Skala, Gambusia affinis, Atherina
boyeri and several Mugilidae of sea origins species can be found
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Regarding benthic invertebrates, the Evrotas basin has not been studied at all.
According to the preliminary biological assessment based on macroinvertabrates (Table
3) and fish (Table 4), the following results could be drawn out:
Regarding macroinvertebrates, 10 stations were pre-classified as reference, 3 as highgood, 1 as good, 9 as good-moderate, 1 as moderate, 5 as moderate-poor,10 as poorbad and 3 as bad quality (Fig. 5.2.8). If this is so after the final classification and if sites
belonging to good-moderate status are equally distributed within these quality classes,
65% of the examined sites would be of lower than good quality, thus they will require
remediation.
Number of sites
12
10
8
6
4
2
bad
poor-bad
moderatepoor
moderate
goodmoderate
good
high-good
high
0
Figure 5.2.8. Pre-classification of sites based on macroinvertebrates.
Regarding fish, 2 sites were pre-classified as high-good, 12 as moderate-poor and 12 as
poor-bad (Fig. 5.2.9). Again if this is the case after the final classification and if sites
belonging to good-moderate status are equally distributed within these quality classes,
92% of the examined sites would be of lower than good quality, thus they will also
require remedy actions.
14
Number of sites
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
high-good
moderate-poor
poor-bad
Figure 5.2.9. Pre-classification of sites based on fish.
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When comparing common sites, differences in the classification results of the biological
assessment methods are apparent (Fig. 5.2.10). These differences are due to the fact
that macroinvertebrates are more suitable in detecting pollution, while fishes are more
appropriate in detecting hydro-morphological pressures. Common sites found in Evrotas
tributaries present higher quality according to macroinvertebrate assessment methods
than (regarding) fish assessment methods. This is due to the fact that these tributaries
are generally not heavily polluted, while their hydrological regime is heavily altered.
Water abstractions drive these tributaries dry and fish communities either disappear or
survive in small ponds. On the contrary, along Evrotas main stem (at Achuria and Skala),
where water is permanently flowing throughout the year, macroinvertebrate assessment
methods presented the same or worse quality compared to fish assessment methods.
This is attributed to the fact that Evrotas main stem is polluted, but hydrologically better
preserved.
macroivertebrates
Pre-classification
5
fish
4
3
2
1
Evrotas (Skala bridge)
Evrotas (Pellana-Sellasia
bridge))
Evrotas (Achuria)
Oinus (Kelefina bridge)
Paroritis trib.
Lagada trib. At Trypi
Perdikaris trib.
Roman aquaduct trib..
Voutikiotis trib.
Kollines trib.
0
Figure 5.2.10. Biological quality pre-classification of sites according to macroinvertebrates and
fish
Development of preliminary management plans;
The water resources problems of Evrotas River Basin can be summarized as follows:

Quantity problems – These are problems caused due to flooding and include the
weathering of soils and the river banks, as well as flooding of low elevation areas
and destruction of properties.

Quality problems – degradation of surface and ground water quality due to point
and non-point source pollution.

Ecological problems – Fish populations can not be established in many parts of the
river because it dries out due to over-pumping of ground water.
In order to manage the watershed and its coastal zone, one needs to use mathematical
models.
Modeling of Evrotas River Basin and its coastal zone, Laconikos Gulf will be
modelled in two phases. For the preliminary management plans, an emission based
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model, MONERIS was used to model the nutrient emissions from the watershed to the
coastal zone.
In addition, Laconikos Gulf was modelled with a simple mass balance
model, CABARET, following the LOICZ methodology. In the final management plans,
detailed models such as HSPF for the watershed and WASP for the coastal zone will be
used.
However, preliminary simulations of the hydrology of the watershed were
performed with HSPF in order to evaluate the quality of the hydrologic data.
Watershed Modeling: MONERIS has been used widely to model nutrient emissions in
Europe as part of the EUROCAT, DANUBE and other projects. We have used MONERIS to
model several watersheds in Greece such as Axios River Basin, Acheloos River Basin and
Krathis River Basin. Figure 5.2.11 presents a comparison between modeled and
measured nitrogen loads for the watershed. The total nitrogen emissions were estimated
to be 1940 t/y (Table 5.2.1). 58,7% of the emissions entered the river through ground
water, 10,8% from urban waste water, 4,5% from point sources, 9,2% from erosion of
soils, 5,5% from surface runoff and 0,4% from the atmosphere (directly to the river).
Finally, in-stream loads contributed 10,8%. The total phosphorous emissions were
estimated to be 208 t/y.
11,3% of the emissions entered the river through ground
water, 2,9% from urban waste water, 29,6% from point sources, 44,1% from erosion of
soils, 11,4% from surface runoff and 0,7% from the atmosphere (directly to the river).
The results indicate that there is evidence of natural attenuation of nutrients in the
watershed. The net annual nitrogen loads to the basin were reduced from 24539 tn/yr to
1940 tn/yr that entered the coastal zone (92% reduction). The net annual phosphorous
loads to the basin were reduced from 9896 tn/yr to 208 tn/yr that entered the coastal
zone (98% reduction).
100000
100000
Nitrogen emissions-load
10000
DIN-load [t/a]
TN-load [t/a]
10000
1000
100
100
Nitrogen (hydraulic load)
1000
100
1000
10000
Calculated TN-load [t/a]
100000
100
1000
10000
calculated DIN-load [t/a]
100000
Figure 5.2.11: Modeling results of Evrotas river basin – Comparison between modeled and
field total nitrogen (TN) and Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN).
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Table 5.2.1: Modeling results of Evrotas river basin – Nutrient emissions estimated by
MONERIS (2000 -2004)
Total Emissions and Contribution of Different Pathways
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
[t/a]
[%]
Atmospheric
deposition
8,3
0,4
1,4
0,7
Tile drainage
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
Ground water
1139,5
58,7
23,5
11,3
Surface runoff
105,9
5,5
23,6
11,4
Soil erosion
178,0
9,2
91,4
44,1
87,9
4,5
61,4
29,6
In-stream loads
210,2
10,8
Urban wastes
209,9
10,8
5,9
2,9
1939,8
100,0
207,3
100,0
Point sources
Total Emissions
Coastal Zone Modeling:
[t/a]
[%]
The coastal zone of Laconikos Gulf was modeled using the
LOICZ methodology and the CABARET model. The 1992 data of NCMR were used to
model the system that was extended to the 500 m depth (Figure 5.2.12). CABARET
conducted mass balance calculations for water, salinity, dissolved inorganic and total
nitrogen and phosphorous.
It was estimated from the nutrient balance that ΓDIN=-377E+3 moles/day and ΓDIP=12,7E+3 moles/day. Therefore the coastal zone is operating as a consumer of DIN and
DΟΡ.
The
difference
mmoles/m2/day.
between
photosynthesis
and
respiration
(p-r)
was
19
A positive difference (p-r) indicates that the system is a net organic
matter producer. The difference between nitrogen fixation and denitrification (Nfix-denit)
was
-2,5
mmoles/m2/day.
denitrification.
The
negative
difference
(Nfix-denit)
indicates
net
The fact that the system was oligotrophic in 1992, and consumed
nutrients suggests that it is not saturated. It is not expected to have a nutrient status
change if the nutrient loads to the system do not change significantly.
Finally, 3 scenarios were simulated using MONERIS in order to evaluate the impact of the
demonstrated technologies in reducing the nutrient loads to the coastal zone.
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Figure 5.2.12. Laconikos Gulf bathymetry (―system box‖).
TASK 2 – Monitored natural attenuation and water management
1. Monitored Natural Attenuation in Evrotas River Basin
Monitored
Natural
Attenuation
(MNA)
is
a
remediation
technology
based
on
understanding and quantitatively documenting naturally occurring processes that
―destroy‖ or immobilise contaminants at a contaminated site in order to protect human
and ecological receptors from unacceptable risks of exposure to hazardous contaminants.
MNA is a ―knowledge-based‖ remedy where scientific and engineering knowledge is used
to understand and document naturally occurring processes, instead of imposing active
controls with engineering remedies (USEPA, 1998; USEPA, 1999 a and b; Hellerich et al.,
2003, 2005 a and b, and 2007; ITRC, 1999; AFCEE, 1995 and 1999; ASTM, 1997;
Palmer and Puls, 1994). In order to apply MNA at a basin scale, field (collection of
samples that would indicate that pollutants are being reduced as they follow their path to
the river and eventually to the sea) and laboratory evidence (lab studies of the processes
that attenuate pollutants and quantification of the kinetic rates of reactions) as well as
modeling studies (modeling of the site that would illustrate how the pollutant behaves in
nature and that the attenuation will continue to occur over geologic times) are required
(Figure 5.3.1).
First step: Field evidence
Historic water quality data of Evrotas River were collected from the Ministry of
Agriculture, the MEDSPA90 project (MedSPA, 1993) and a study conducted by the
University of Patras (Antonakos et al., 1997), to establish the first evidence for the
reduction of contaminants in the study area. Pollutant concentrations (such as COD, Total
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N and Total P derived from diffuse pollution (agriculture, livestock etc.) and point sources
(olive mills, juice producing factories, towns)) were decreasing along the river indicating
active attenuation processes operating within the watershed. To augment the historic
data, a sampling network was designed and intensive field campaigns were carried out to
introduce new field evidence and account for all major ecotopes in the basin aiming at
tracking the foot print of contamination (tracking contaminants from pollution sources to
ground and surface water). The pollutants studied were nutrients, organic load and total
phenols (a component of olive mill waste).
Evrotas river basin has a complex hydrogeology and hydrographic network. It was
necessary to develop a sampling network based on the hydrology of the region, the
geology, the relief, slopes and land uses. Evrotas river basin was separated into seven
sub-basins presented in Figure 5.3.2. The selection of the position of each sampling point
was based on the typology of the basin (relief, slopes, geology, land use and point source
maps - Figure 5.2.3) created using GIS.
A brief description of the main characteristics of the sub-basins is following.
Sub-basins‟ Description
1. Sub-basin 1 is at the north side of the basin and covers a portion of Parnonas
Mountain. Main characteristics of the area include: i) existence of calcareous
formations, ii) high altitude and iii) steep slopes 10–30%. The area is covered
with natural vegetation, low agricultural activities and population density.
2. Sub-basin 2 covers the northwest part of the basin. At the west side of the region
calcareous formations exist which recharge Evrotas springs. Main characteristics
of the area include: i) medium altitudes (except in the west) and ii) medium to
mild slopes. Nine settlements exist in the area. Main activities of the population
include agriculture and livestock. The upper part of Evrotas exist dries during the
summer.
3. Sub-basin 3, Inoundas is the largest sub-basin of Evrotas. This sub-basin is
mainly covered by karst. Main environmental pressures come from livestock and
from the few settlements. Some parts of Inoundas have permanent flow
throughout the year.
4. Sub-basin 4 includes the largest portion of Taigetos Mountain. The area is
characterised of high altitudes and steep slopes. The geology is mainly karst
(intensively karstified). Karst formations are the most important aquifers of the
region and are responsible for the creation of many springs. The springs of Tripi,
Sotiros and Katagianni recharge important tributaries such as Magoulitsa and
Kakari.
5. Sub-basin 5 is characterised of low altitudes and gentle slopes while alluvials are
the main formations. Many tributaries exist in the area: Magoulitsa, Kakari,
Gerakaris etc. The municipality of Sparta is included in this sub-busin. The
environmental pressures are significant due to the existence of large towns, small
industries and significant agricultural activities in the area.
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6. Sub-basin 6 is the southeast part of Parnonas Mountain. Karstic formations are
found in high altitude while in lower altitudes other types of geology exist.
Environmental pressures on this area are not significant. The main stream is
Mariorema.
7. Sub-busin 7 includes the regions of Skala, Elos and Githio as well as the Evrotas
river estuaries. The sub-basin is under high environmental pressure due to
intensive agricultural activities. In addition, a large number of olive mills exist in
the region.
The selection of the sampling points (SPs) was based on the understanding of the
hydrology and hydrogeology of the region. Surface water sampling points were chosen
throughout the length of the river. The majority of the ground water sampling points
were selected to be in sub-basins 5 and 7 (Sparta and Skala regions), since many point
sources of pollution exist and agricultural activities are extensive. Additionally, sub-basin
5 has many and important tributaries of Evrotas river. Finally, important groundwater
aquifers are found in the region and the ground water is used for irrigation and water
supply. Based on the above considerations the sampling network consisted of 64
sampling points: 32 for surface water (Map 5.3.1) and 32 for underground water (10
Springs, 10 Shallow Well, 12 Deep Wells- Map 5.3.2).
Six sampling campaigns were conducted on: (1st) 9-12 of May 2006, (2nd) 8-12 of
September 2006, (3rd) 12-17 of January 2007, (4th) 26 of May – 1 of June 2007, (5th) 26
September - 12 December 2007, (6th) 3-5 of March 2008. During those field campaigns
psychochemical parameters of the samples were measured in situ while water samples
were taken to the laboratory for chemical analysis. The water samples were analyzed
using a Hack phasmatophotometer for Nitrate Nitrogen (NO3-N) (Cadmium Reduction
Method, 8039), Nitrite Nitrogen (NO2-N) (Diazotization {Chromotropic Acid} Method,
8507), Ammonia (NH4-N) (Salicylicate Method, 10023), Dissolved Inorganic Phophorous
(DIP) (PhosVer3 Method, 8048, Total Organic Carbon (TOC) (Direct Method, Low Range,
10129), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (Low Range, 8048), phenols (Folin Ciocalteu
method), selected heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb and Ni) (Anodic Stripping Voltammetry
(ASV) -Trace Detect Nanoband Explorer) and pesticides. The physicochemical parameters
pH, Eh, Dissolved Oxygen and conductivity were measured in situ using the following
electrodes: Orion 9107 pH meter, Orion 081010 D.O. meter, and Orion 011050
Conductivity meter.
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PRIMARY LINE:
DOCUMENTED LOSS OF CONTAMINANTS
SECONDARY LINE:
DOCUMENTED NA PROCESS
THIRD LINE:
DOCUMENTED MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
Preliminaray
Historical data
Data by soil
sampling
Modeling
Data from water
sampling
1st Line of Evidence
ETD and
MONERIS
Model
2nd Line of Evidence
3rd Line of Evidence
Sampling Network
Organisation of Sampling
Campaigns
Laboratory analysis
Figure 5.3.1. Steps of MNA application in Evrotas river basin – Lines of evidence
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Figure 5.3.2. Sub-basins of Evrotas River Basin.
Map 5.3.1. Sampling points of surface water.
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Figure 5.3.3. Main point pollution sources
(Towns, olive mill and orange factories).
Map 5.3.2. Sampling points of groundwater.
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Evidences of Natural Attenuation in surface water
Evrotas River samples were analyzed in order to evaluate the existence of natural
attenuation. The sampling points along the river were: Pardali (8), Karavas (52), Sparta
Bridge (53), Sparta Biological treatment (54), Skoura (22), Vrodamas Bidge (34),
Palaiomonastiro (55) and Evrotas Estuaries (56). Figures 5.3.4 and 5.3.5 present the
average concentrations of COD, phenols and nutrients along the river.
The following observations can be made:
The highest average COD concentration was
found at Skoura (14 mg/L) and there was a significant attenuation after the peak. The
COD value at the Estuary of Evrotas was below detection limit. The COD concentration
decreased significantly due to in-stream attenuation processes and dilution from
unpolluted tributaries.
Figure 5.3.4. Average Concentration of COD along Evrotas River.
The same trend existed for the other pollutants as well. The highest concentrations of
NO2-N, NO3-N and Total phenols were also measured at Skoura with a significant
attenuation observed downstream. Phosphates peaked close to the wastewater treatment
plant of Sparta. This peak was due to the outflow of the treatment plant.
Figure 5.3.5. Average values of the main pollutants along Evrotas River (mean value of six field
campaigns).
Tables 5.3.2 and 5.3.3 present the average values of physicochemical parameters and
concentrations for the main pollutants namely COD, Ν-ΝΟ3-, Ρ-ΡΟ4-3 and total phenols for
surface and ground waters of Evrotas River.
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Table 5.3.2. Mean Physicochemical Parameters Values and Concentration of Pollutants in Surface and Groundwater Samples.
Deep
Wells
Shallow
Wells
Spring
Surface Water
s
T
(oC)
pH
DO
(mg/L)
Cond
(μS/cm)
Eh
(mV)
COD
(mg/L)
NO2-N
(mg/L)
NO3-N
(mg/L)
NH3-N
(mg/L)
PO4-P
(mg/L)
T.phenols
(mg/L)
Mean value
17.0
8.0
6.8
606.7
233.6
6.243
0.031
1.408
0.055
0.058
0.907
Standard
Deviation
3.6
0.4
2.0
342.5
52.0
3.368
0.035
1.236
0.032
0.029
0.398
Mean value
16.7
7.3
6.4
624.9
240.3
3.998
0.004
2.776
0.043
0.087
0.842
Standard
Deviation
2.9
0.4
2.8
285.4
75.0
0.517
0.001
4.258
0.022
0.079
0.446
Mean value
18.6
7.3
4.7
706.9
382.2
4.097
0.013
9.083
0.063
0.055
1.128
Standard
Deviation
2.8
0.2
1.3
135.1
154.8
0.525
0.014
3.624
0.050
0.023
0.226
Mean value
18.5
7.3
5.1
583.1
283.7
3.943
0.005
5.980
0.042
0.163
0.433
Standard
Deviation
3.3
0.3
1.1
456.9
252.2
0.365
0.002
11.872
0.019
0.093
0.285
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Table 5.3.3. Average Values of the main pollutants along Evrotas River.
52
Karavas
54
WWTP Sparta
22
Skoura
34
Vrontamas
55
Paleo/ro
56
Estuary
mean value
0.988
0.302
1.991
1.492
0.851
0.357
st. dev.
0.204
0.349
0.718
0.642
0.193
0.168
mean value
0.006
0.036
0.128
0.020
0.029
0.020
st. dev.
0.002
0.007
0.097
0.111
0.164
0.060
mean value
0.031
0.099
0.058
0.043
0.042
0.031
st. dev.
0.007
0.039
0.096
0.684
0.532
0.022
mean value
0.024
0.082
0.081
0.044
0.109
0.047
st. dev.
0.019
0.055
0.062
0.047
0.068
0.039
mean value
0.675
0.979
1.804
0.994
1.257
0.913
st. dev.
0.385
0.662
0.878
1.890
0.641
0.256
mean value
st. dev.
9.203
3.750
15.130
7.439
bdl
bdl
3.087
0.482
17.522
2.257
Station ID, Name
NO3-N
N-NO2
N-NΗ3
P-PO4
Tphenols
COD
Evidence of Natural Attenuation in Ground Water
The main ground water aquifer is found in the plain of Sparta. Ten shallow ground water
wells and twelve deep ground water wells have been sampled. Figure 5.3.6 presents the
sampling points and the arrows illustrate the ground water movement.
Sparta
Platana
Kefalas
Figure 5.3.6. Shallow and Deep Wells at Sparta Plain.
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The following observations can be made:

The average nitrate concentrations of the shallow wells 41 and 38 was reduced from
14.5 mg/L to 9 mg/L. In addition following ground water direction for shallow wells 46 to
37, a similar reduction for nitrates was taking place (13.1 mg/L to 12.6 mg/L). Nitrates
reduction was also observed from the spring of Peristeri, 13.7 mg/L to shallow well 37,
12.6 mg/L. The results indicated that high nitrate concentrations were found in the
Sparta aquifer and they were being attenuated as the water moved towards the area of
Vrodamas.

Total phenols concentration of shallow well 41 was 1.5 mg/L and the concentration of
well 38 decreased to 1.2 mg/L. Similar reductions were observed for shallow wells 46
and 37.

The COD and nitrate nitrogen concentrations of ground water deep wells indicated that
the pollution load was attenuated along the ground water flow. The concentrations of
COD and nitrate nitrogen of groundwater deep wells of SPs 12, 13, 14, 18 and 20-b were
higher than those of SPs 16 και 17 despite the fact that there were many villages and
significant agricultural activities taking place in the region.
These results provide evidence of natural attenuation in groundwater.
Analysis for Heavy Metals - Five heavy metals were analyzed (Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb and Ni) for
12 surface and ground water samples to examine potential pollution. The analyses were
conducted using Anodic Striping Voltametry at the Technical University of Crete with a
Detection Limit of 5 ppb for all metals. Table 5.3.4 presents the results that were detected in
the samples. The concentrations were Below Detection Limit (BDL) for Cu, Cd, and Ni for all
samples. Only two samples had detectable Pb concentrations which were below the
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) as proposed by EPA for drinking water. Finally, all
samples had Zn concentrations above the detection limit, but below the National Secondary
Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary standards) as proposed by EPA for
drinking water. In general, the results suggest that either there is little heavy metal pollution
(the metals measured only) or the metals are being retained well in the environment and do
not appear in the aquatic phase.
Table 5.3.4. Average concentration of heavy metals in surface water, springs, shallow and deep well
groundwater (BDL= 5 ppb).
Pb (ppb)
MCL(1) = 15 ppb
Zn (ppb)
NSDWRs(2) = 5.000 ppb
Mean
SD
n
Mean
SD
n
Surface Water
BDL
-
6
19
19
6
Springs
BDL
-
1
8
-
1
Shallow groundwater
6
-
1
27
12
3
Deep groundwater
9
-
1
21
23
2
(1) EPA, 2006: Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL): The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking
water. MCLs are enforceable standards.
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(2) EPA, 2006: National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs) or secondary standards are nonenforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth
discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking water. EPA recommends secondary
standards to water systems but does not require systems to comply. However, they can be adopted as enforceable
standards.
Analysis for Pesticides - Analysis for pesticides was conducted by the Laboratory of
Aquatic Chemistry, Department of Environmental Engineering at the Technical University of
Crete. Samples were taken at the (1st) 9-12 of May 2006 and (4th) 26 of May – 1 of June
2007, sampling campaigns in order to determine pesticides residues in water samples.
Target compounds included: 1.Azinphos-ethyl, 2.Diazinon, 3.Dicofol, 4. Propargite, 5.
Captan, 6. Amitrol, 7. Alachlor, 8.Malathion
Parathion methyl
Endosulfan,
15.
(pestanal), 9. Fenthion (pestanal), 10.
(pestanal), 11.Chloropyriphos, 12. Simazin, 13.B-Endosulfan, 14. A–
Atrazin
and
16.PAHs.
Solid
phase
microextraction
(Solid
Phase
Microextraction SPME) was used as a selective and sensitive tool for preconcentrating
hydrophobic organic pollutants. For SPME, a 5 ml aqueous sample, withdrawn from the
reaction vessel, was added in a 7 ml clear glass vial (Supelco), fitted with aluminium foil and
screw caps with hole (Supelco). Extraction was performed at room temperature and under
intensive magnetic stirring (1250 rpm) using a glass-coated mini-impeller (8 mm x 3 mm).
The 100-μm polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) SPME fibre type and SPME fibre holder assembly
(all purchased from Supelco) were used for extraction. Before the first usage, the fibre was
conditioned according to the manufacturer‘s recommendations. Three blank runs were run to
verify the absence of impurities and phthalate peaks on the SPME fibre. Each day and prior
to extracting any samples, the fibre was immersed for few minutes in a stirred acetonitrile
solution, and a blank analysis was then run as to ensure that the fibre was free of
contaminants. For extraction, the SPME fibre holder assembly was clamped and allowed to
sit on top of the 7-ml glass vials containing the 5-ml samples. The SPME fibre was exposed
to the aqueous phase and after sampling for 45 min at room temperature, the fibre was
retracted and transferred to the heated injection port of the GC-MS for desorption, where it
remained for 5 min.
The analysis in a Gas Chromatographer coupled of with a Mass
Spectrometer gives the possibility to use an organic substances‘ identification library
(internationally acknowledged). Consequently, it is possible to determine the organic
substances that are in solution.
GC-MS analysis was effectuated using a Shimadzu GC-17A QP-5050A gas chromatographmass spectrometer system. The split/splitless injector operated at 260C with the split
closed for 5 min. Helium (> 99.999% pure) was used as the carrier gas at a flow-rate of 1.2
ml min-1. The instrument was equipped with a 30 m  0.25 mm, 0.25 μm HP-5MS capillary
column (Agilent Technologies). The column oven was programmed as follows: 70C for 2
min and then to 180C at a rate of 10C min-1, and finally to 300C at a rate of 5C where it
was held for 5 min. The interface temperature was set at 310C and the detector voltage at
1.40 kV. The ionization mode was electron impact (70 eV). Data was acquired in the fullscan detection mode from 50 to 465 amu at rate of 0.5 scan sec -1. Standard solutions of the
aforementioned compounds were analysed in order to verify the presence of these pollutants
based on their mass spectra as well as retention times. A similarity index > 90 % was used
for identifying the presence of a compound. The presence of hydrophobic organic
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compounds could not be confirmed nor detected under the present experimental conditions
for the samples analyzed.
Overall, significant attenuation of pollutants was observed in the Evrotas river basin both for
surface and ground water. Organic pollution was originated mostly from point sources and
impacted the surface water (6.2 mg/L COD) as opposed the ground water (springs about 4
mg/L COD). Nitrates-N pollution impacted more the ground water (9 mg/L in shallow wells)
and it was attenuated to 1.4 mg/L by the time it reached the surface water. Nitrates have
impacted significantly the deep wells with average concentration of approximately 6 mg/L
and a standard deviation of 12 mg/L.
Phosphate-P was highest at the deep wells (0.163
mg/L) and it decreased to 0.087 mg/L at the springs and 0.055 mg/L at the shallow wells
and surface water.
The results suggest intense agricultural activities have impacted historically the deep ground
water wells while recent practices have improved the water quality (lower concentration in
shallow wells).
Second step: Modeling evidence
Evrotas river basin modelling – MNA evaluation
Evrotas River is a complicated hydrologic system that drains an area of 2420 km2, 50% of
which is covered by limestone-karstic formations. The mountains of Taygetos and Parnonas,
reaching an elevation of 2404m, affect drastically its hydrologic patterns. Modeling of the
hydrology and nutrient emissions of the watershed was accomplished using the WMP-Med
(Watershed Modeling Platform –Mediterranean) which is comprised of the Karstic Model and
the ETD (Enhanced Trickle Down) Model (Nikolaidis et al., 1988, 1989, 1991, 1993 and
1994) and the model MONERIS (Behrendt, 1999).
To simulate the hydrology of the watershed, it was subdivided into 6 subcatchments (NE
Taygetos, NW Parnonas, NW Parnonas, Central Taygetos, Skalas and Gytheiou) presented in
Figure 5.3.7. The simulation period was 2000-2007 (8 years long). The hydrologic simulation
results for the Vivari station (NE Taygetos subcatchment), the Kelefina station (NW
parnonas) and Vrontamas station (Central Taygetos) are presented in Figure 5.3.8. The
WMP-Med model was able to capture the seasonal and inteannual variability of the flow very
well. The correlation coefficient between the simulated and field data was between 0.92 and
0.84 and the Nash Sutcliffe efficiency was between 0.61 and 0.68. The mean error in the
annual flows was less than 10%.
The annual average hydrologic balance of Evrotas River was as follows:
3
the precipitation
3
was 1048 Mm , the karstic discharge 330 Mm , the evaporation was 727 Mm3, stream
discharge was 133 Mm3, stream withdrawals were 16 Mm3, and the change of storage in the
watershed was 38 Mm3.
The annual irrigation needs of the watershed were estimated at
174 Mm3 based on typical irrigation plant requirements for the region. These irrigation needs
were used in the model simulations. However, the real irrigation use was not known since
there are more than 3500 public and private wells in the watershed, none of which water
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consumption has been monitored.
The model estimated that irrigation was underestimated
by 337 Mm3. The modeling results suggest that on the average irrigation used 3
times more water than the recommended values.
The results from the hydrologic simulation were used as inputs in the MONERIS model. The
model, Modelling Nutrient Emissions into River Systems, MONERIS (Behrendt et al., 1999)
was developed to simulate nutrient inputs into river basins of Germany by various points
and diffuse sources. The model uses river flow and water quality data in a geographical
information system (GIS) framework to develop the equations that estimate nutrient export
loads in the river. Six diffuse pathways and point source emissions are modelled. The diffuse
pathways modelled are: atmospheric deposition, erosion, surface runoff, groundwater, tile
drainage, and paved urban areas. Point source emissions are from wastewater treatment
plants and direct industrial discharges. Point emissions are directly discharged into the
rivers. Diffuse emissions into surface waters are the sum of different pathways.
Transformation and retention processes necessary to quantify and predict nutrient emissions
are included in the model in relation to their sources. MONERIS equations of the various
pathways are developed especially for the modelling of medium to large-scale watersheds.
The model incorporates the following seven subroutines.
1. A GIS framework for regional estimation of diffuse and point emissions for large river
basins (larger than 500 km2).
2. A submodel for regionally differentiated estimation of nutrient discharges from
wastewater treatment plants.
3. A submodel that calculates input of nutrients and suspended solids by erosion (based
on a modified uniform soil loss equation).
4. A submodel for the estimation of groundwater nitrogen concentrations in agricultural
areas. The model has a retention function that depends on hydrogeological
conditions, the rate of groundwater recharge and nitrogen surplus.
5. A GIS-submodel for nutrient emissions from agricultural areas modified by tile
drainage.
6. A submodel for nutrient emissions from urban areas. The model considers regional
differences in sewer systems and development of storage volume for combined sewer
systems.
7. Finally, there is a submodel for nutrient retention and losses in surface waters (based
on nutrient retention, the hydraulic load or the specific runoff in the river system).
The MONERIS model was used for the simulation of nutrient emissions from Evrotas river
basin. The model calibration was achieved by changing parameters such as phosphorous
atmospheric deposition (0.99 kg/ha-yr) and inhabitant specific Phosphorous output factor
(1.8 g/inhabitant-day). The dissolved inorganic nitrogen loads used for the calibration were
97 tn-N/yr in Selasia, 133 tn-N/yr in Sparta, 375 tn-N/yr in Vrontama and 413 tn-N/yr in
Tafros Omega. Figure 5.3.7 presents a comparison between measured and modeled nitrogen
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emission loads. The highest fluxes of nitrogen originated from the delta area (47.8%),
followed by groundwater (24.7%), urban areas (13.9%) and point sources (8.6%). On the
other hand, the highest fluxes of phosphorous originated from point sources (72.3%),
followed by erosion (10.1%) and the delta area (7.8%). The total nitrogen emissions were
estimated to be 1092 t/y which corresponded to 4.5% of the total Nitrogen input (24539
tn/yr) and the total phosphorous emission loads were 179.2 t/yr which corresponded to and
2% of the total Phosphorous input (9896 tn/yr) (Table 5.3.5).
The modeling exercise
quantified the reduction of nutrient loads in Evrotas watershed by natural attaenuation
mechanisms.
Figure 5.3.7. Sub-catchements of Evrotas river basin.
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Figure 5.3.8. Evrotas river hydrologic simulation results using the WMP-Med model for the period of
2000-2007.
Figure 5.3.9. Results of Evrotas modeling Comparison Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen model and field.
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Table 5.3.5. Nutrients emissions estimated by MONERIS model for Evrotas basin
Total emissions and proportion of the different pathways
nitrogen
phosophorus
[t/a]
[%]
[t/a]
[%]
atmospheric deposition
5,2
0,5
1,0
0,5
Delta drainage
522,5
47,8
14,0
7,8
groundwater
269,4
24,7
6,8
3,8
overland flow
7,1
0,6
0,8
0,4
erosion
38,2
3,5
18,2
10,1
WWTP(Point Sources)
94,1
8,6
129,6
72,3
In-stream Secondary Sources
3,8
0,3
urban systems (total)
152,1
13,9
8,8
4,9
total emissions
1092,3
100,0
179,2
100,0
Third step: Laboratory evidence
The main objective of this phase was the quantification of the biogeochemical processes
operating at the watershed. The processes were studied using mesocosm and microcosm
laboratory experiments in order to quantify the kinetic rates of the processes that take place
and result in the attenuation of pollutants by the soils. A soil sampling network was designed
to cover most of the soil types found in Evrotas river basin. In Evrotas river basin 11 soil
types are found according to the Greece soil map (1:1.000.000, 1967), 6 of those cover
94% of the watershed area. The location of the soil sampling was near the riparian zone of
the Evrotas river. Riparian zone are areas where ground water interacts with surface water
and active attenuation processes take place. Sampling took place in November 2007. Nine
surface sediment samples (0-10 cm) and ten cores (50 cm depth) from 11 different
locations were obtained. Figure 5.3.10 presents the locations of the soil sampling network.
Figure 5.3.11 presents photos taken during the sampling campaign.
Soils and sediment samples were analysed for their physicochemical charactaristics (pH,
water content, porosity, dry bulk density, grain size distribution) (Method ISO 11277:1998 +
Corr. 1:2002 (without destruction of carbonates)), metal determination (XRF), Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen (Nessler Method, 8075) and Total Organic Carbon (Walkley Black Method). Release
kinetic experiment was conducted in the laboratory in order to study the rate of release of
nutrients and phenols from the sediment. The experiment was carried out in 100 ml bottles
using 2.5g of sediment samples (< 2 mm fraction), 2.5g sand (fraction 0.5-2 mm) and
adding 100 ml synthetic river water as release solution. The release solution composition
had similar geochemistry to Evrotas river water in Skoura (without nutrients): KCl 0.056
mM, MgSO4*7H20 0.893 mM, Na(HCO3) 2.522 mM, CaF2 2.545, HCl 2.5 mM. The pH of the
solution was regulated 7.7 (by adding HCl 1.2 mM) and the ionic strength 1.2 mM. All
samples were placed on a shaking table at 20oC. The samples were analyzed in duplicate at
12 hours, one day and one sample every day for 22 days. The supernatant was filtered
through a 0.45 μm Nylon filter and analyzed using a Hack spectrophotometer 2010 for TOC
(Direct Method Patent Pending, 10129), COD (COD Reactor Digestion Method), NH3-N
(Salicylicate
Method,
10023),
NO3-N
(Cadmium
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(Diazotization Method, 8507), Total Nitrogen (TNT Persulfate Digestion Method, 10071) and
phenols (Folin Ciocalteu). Similarly sorption experiments were conducted in order to study
the kinetics of phosphate sorption in the sediment in relation to the temperature variation.
For the experiments 5g of soil were added in 100 ml flasks that were then filled up to 100 ml
synthetic river water as release solution; the initial aqueous phosphate-P concentration was
1.0 mg/L P. The experiments were conducted at 20 oC at pH value 8.0. The samples were
analyzed in triplicate at 1, 2, 3, 4 days. The supernatant was filtered through a 0.45 µm
Nylon filter and analyzed using a Hack spectrophotometer for Dissolved Inorganic
Phosphorous (DIP) (PhosVer3 Method, 8048).
Figure 5.3.12 presents the chemical characteristics of selected Evrotas soils. The total
Nitrogen content ranged from 0.63 up to 1.99 g/kg and organic matter from 0.46 up to
2.36%. The soil pH ranges from 7.87 up to 8.41 and Electrical Conductivity from 587 up to
1075 μS/cm.
Two soils (9A and 9B) were used to study the long term release of nitrogen species from the
sediments (Figure 5.3.13). A release of organic N, ammonium N and nitrate N was observed
in both soils. The released concentrations of organic N ranged between 4 to 9 mg/L, for
ammonium N ranged between 0.4 to no detect and nitrate N ranged between 0.2 to 1.4
mg/L for soil 9A.
The respective concentration ranges for soil 9B were 10-25 mg/L for
organic N, 2 to no detect for ammonium N and no detect to 8 mg/L for nitrate N. Ammonium
N was converted to nitrate N within a few days. The results between the two soils exhibited
high variability due to variation in their oxidation-reduction capacity. DON reached a
constant partitioning with the sediment bound organic nitrogen within 5 days. The DON
concentrations at equilibrium were 8 and 11 mg/L for the two sediments respectively.
Ammonia N was lost within 6 days and nitrate N followed a release and dissapperance cycle
that lasted between 12 and 14 days. It is hypothesized that organic N is mineralized to
ammonia and nitrate. Nitrate reached a maximum dissolved concentration after 6-10 days
since the commencement of the experiment and then it dissappeared presumably due to
denitrification. Nitrogen removal was most intense in sample 9B compared to 9A due to
higher reduction capacity.
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Figure 5.3.10. Soil Sampling Network in Evrotas river basin.
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Vathirema
Vivari
Vrontamas bridge
Vivari
Karavas
Sparta
Paleomonastiro
Figure 5.3.11. Images from the soil sampling campaign of November 2007.
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Figure 5.3.12. Total Nitrogen, pH, Electrical Conductivity and Organic Matter content of Evrotas
soils.
To better understand the nitrate loss due to denitrification, an experiment was performed
using sediment sample 5 by spiking the solution with 5 mg/L of nitrate N. Figure 5.3.14
presents the evolution of the concentrations of Nitrate-N and Ammonia-N in time. Only 3
out of the 5 mg/L nitrate N were measured in solution at steady state while ammonia N
concentrations were not different between the spiked and the non spiked samples. The
results suggest that the denitrification process is active and that it reaches steady state
within 4 days.
Figure 5.3.15 presents the phosphate sorption kinetic rates for samples 9A and 9B. The
phosphate sorption kinetic rates were estimated to be 0.19/d and 0.11/d respectively.
Soil 9A is behaving as phosphate sink, since its EPC0 is less than 0.1 mg/L. In contrary
Soil 9B is behaving as phosphate source (EPC0>0.1 mg/L).
Similar phosphate sorption kinetics were found in 7 other sediment samples. The results
are presented graphically in Figure 5.3.16 and in tabular form in Table 5.3.6. The
phosphate sorption kinetic rates ranged between 0.16/d and 0.32/d. Table 5.3.6 presents
the half life of the reaction and the time to reach 95% of steady state. The half life of
phospahte sorption ranged between 2 and 4 days and the time to reach 95% steady
state ranged between 9 and 19 days. Soils with high organic matter content had higher
phosphate sorption capacity.
The vertical variability of soil characteristics were examined using soil cores. The cores
(50 cm length) were split into two parts (2/3 and 1/3 from the top) and were analyzed
for electrical conductivity, pH, organic carbon and total nitrogen. The results are
presented in Table 5.3.7.
The electrical conductivity ranged between 253 and 1047
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μS/cm, the pH between 7.66 and 7.99, the organic carbon between 0.5 and 5.7% and
total nitrogen between 0.12 and 0.37%.
Figure 5.3.17 presents the results of the
phosphate kinetic sorption experiment. The estimated sorption rates are presented in
Table 5.3.7. The rates ranged between 0.23 and 0.55/d. In general, the results showed
lower concentrations of organic carbon, TN and sorption rate with depth.
Figure 5.3.13. Nutrient release (Nitrate-N and Dissolved Organic Nitrogen and Ammonia-N) from
soils 9A and 9B (Paleomonastiro).
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Figure 5.3.14. Release of Nitrate and ammonia with and without the addition of 5 mg/L Nitrate-N
(sample 5).
Figure 5.3.15. Phosphate sorption kinetic experiments for soils 9A and 9B.
Figure 5.3.14. Phosphate sorption kinetic experiments of Evrotas riparian soils.
Table 5.3.6. Phosphate sorption rates.
1
5
t50%
(days)
4.0
3.14
t95%
(days)
18.16
13.56
-K
(1/d)
0.17
0.22
6
4.44
19.20
0.16
8
2.19
9.49
0.32
10
2.88
12.44
0.24
11
2.67
11.55
0.26
12
3.49
15.10
0.20
Soil
Table 5.3.7. Physicochemical and chemical characteristics of soil samples in different depths.
Soil
Electrical
Conductivity
(μS/cm)
pH
C/N
Organic
Carbon
(%)
TN
(%)
Sorption rate
constant (-k)
2Α1+2
676
7.99
4.658
0.961
0.120
0.2814
2Α3
898
7.77
6.091
1.509
0.144
0.5069
31+2
586
7.70
5.273
1.475
0.162
0.2408
354
7.89
2.389
0.549
0.133
0.227
253
7.66
8.839
5.660
0.371
0.539
1047
7.87
4.556
1.818
0.231
0.4471
3
3
41+2
4
3
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7Α1+2
397
7.91
6.241
2.161
0.201
0.343
7Α3
449
7.93
4.236
1.132
0.155
0.3802
Figure 5.3.17. Phosphate sorption kinetic experiments of Evrotas riparian soils in different depths.
Table 5.3.8 presents the organic nitrogen mineralization potential and partitioning of 7
Evrotas soils. The mineralization potential was estimated as the difference in ammonia
concentration in solution in one week minus the ammonia concentration of the leachate
in one hour. The PMN ranged from 0.13 to 3.29 mg/Kg and the partitioning coefficient
from 664 to 13433 ml/g. Organic nitrogen was tightly adhering to the soil and the
retardation factor (ratio of the velocity of the water to the velocity of the chemical) was
between 2500 and 50000.
Table 5.3.8. Mineralization rates of Evrotas soils.
Soil
Nitrogen Mineralization
Potential -PMN (mg/kg)
Kd (ml/g)
1
3.17
664
5
2.36
1078
6
0.13
13433
8
3.29
751
10
0.29
6518
11
0.54
4069
12
0.47
4266
In general, soils in Evrotas appear to have significant mineralization, nitrification and
phosphate sorption capacities to attenuate nutrients originating from agricultural
activities.
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Conclusion
The three steps of MNA implementation have been completed providing sufficient and
documented evidence that mechanisms of natural attenuation operate at the
Evrotas River Basin. The attenuation of nitrogen and phosphorous were quantified
using an emission based model, MONERIS. 95.5% of the nitrogen and 98% of
phosphorous were attenuated with the watershed. The nitrogen and phosphorous
emissions to the coastal zone were 1092 tn/yr and 179 tn/yr, respectively.
Organic nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, denitrification and phosphate sorption were
studied in the laboratory using soil samples. Kinetic rates of the processes that control
nitrogen and phosphorous attenuation were quantified in order to be guaranteed that
these processes will operate long term. The results indicated that significant
attenuation of nitrogen and phosphorous exist in the watershed and that MNA is
a viable remedial measure for the watershed.
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2. Water Management in Evrotas River Basin
Introduction
The water management in Evrotas river basin focuses on a) the assessment of the
spatiotemporal hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical regime of Evrotas River in order to
estimate the impacts of water management and pollution, b) the establishment of type
specific reference conditions and the classification of running waters using chemical and
biological components (according to the demands of the Water Framework Directive
2000/60/EC, WFD) in order to assist sustainable management plans and c) the drafting
of conservation schemes for the endangered fish species of the Evrotas River based on
assessments of their ecological requirements. In addition, the hydromorphological
features and the riparian vegetation of the river courses (not included in the project‘s
proposal) were evaluated, since Evrotas is subjected to several hydromorphological
pressures. Based on historical data assembled, the river used to be famous for its
lowland riparian forests, which are now rare, extremely threatened and barely studied in
the Balkan region. Hence, this effort aimed in identifying the dominant pressures and
assessing the impacts on the hydrological and hydrochemical regime and on the
ecological status of the Evrotas basin, using hydromorphological, chemical and biological
(fish and macroinvertebrates) quality elements, and finally in identifying the status of
riparian vegetation, thus providing more details on morphological alterations.
Historically, the vast majority of the Evrotas hydrological network retained water
throughout the year. Nowadays, as a result of intense hydromorphological modifications
mainly for agricultural purposes, most of the main course of Evrotas River and its
tributaries dessicate during the dry period (see 2.D3 deliverable). The WFD does not
particularly
addresses
temporary
rivers,
although
they
are
dominant
in
the
Mediterranean area for reasons related to both climatic and anthropogenic factors.
Temporary rivers are barely monitored and little is known regarding their hydrology,
ecology and biogeochemical behaviour (Jacobson et al., 2004). Prior to EnviFriendly,
Evrotas was marginally monitored for hydrological and hydrochemical features and only
barely surveyed regarding ecological aspects. In view of the temporal character of the
river and scarcely existing hydrological, physicochemical and ecological data, our task
was particularly ambitious. In order to improve the assessment of ecological status, fishbased metrics were developed and applied for respective classifications. This effort
significantly assisted the assessment of hydromorphological impacts on the biological
status of the river.
Methodology
For the study of the hydrological regime of Evrotas main course, seven automatic water
level recording stations were installed. Data from these stations together with the wetted
cross section were used for the calculation of daily water discharge. The characterisation
of river types, the establishment of reference conditions and the classification of the
ecological status of Evrotas River Basin was based on hydromorphological, physicochemical and biological (macroinvertebrates and fish) quality elements. Phytoplankton is
not abundant in small rivers like Evrotas, whereas aquatic macrophytes are restricted
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only along the main course of the river. Hence, these quality elements were not included
in the assessment system.
A sampling network of 43 stations was established along the Evrotas main course and
many of its tributaries for monitoring hydromorphological, physico-chemical and
biological (macroinvertebrates) quality elements. For the ichtyological investigation 66
stations were selected mainly along the Evrotas main stem and along the Oinous
tributary. The differentiation of the two sampling networks was established for the
following reasons: a) fish communities are absent or significantly restricted in the vast
majority of Evrotas tributaries, as a result of frequent desiccation due to water
abstractions, b) for the development of fish-based metrics for status classification
purposes, the most appropriate sampling season is summer, when extended river
reaches get dry, and c) macroinvertebrate communities are more suitable for assessing
pollution impacts, while fish communities are better indicators of hydro-morphological
alterations.
Monitoring of hydromorphological quality elements took place in summer 2006.
Hydrochemical and macroinvertebrate sampling was performed at three seasonal periods
(May 2006, September 2006, March 2007). In addition, six stations were monitored in a
monthly base in the period February 2007 – March 2008 for hydrochemical parameters.
For the ichtyological investigations, six sampling campaigns at high and low flow periods
(spring and summer) were conducted during the years 2006-2008. At each station,
physico-chemical variables (temperature, conductivity, pH, Eh, dissolved oxygen, current
velocity and estimation of the wetted cross section) were measured in-situ with portable
instruments. Water samples were analysed for hydrochemical variables (total hardness,
Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3-, CO32-, Cl-, SO42-and SiO2) and conventional pollutants (nitrate,
ammonia, nitrite, total nitrogen, orthophosphate and total phosphorous). Sediment
samples were analysed for major elements, heavy metals, organic carbon, total carbon,
total nitrogen, organic and inorganic phosphorous. In selected sites, pesticide residues
were determined in water and sediments. Finally, acute toxicity tests were performed to
evaluate the toxicity of olive mill and fruit juice processing wastewaters. The
classification of the physico-chemical status (within the frame of the ecological status)
was carried out, using water and sediment criteria, according to the guidelines of
ECOSTAT and Skoulikidis (2008) and by averaging the results of the seasonal samplings.
Two groups of chemical quality parameters, related to particular types of pressures, were
identified: a) dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, that point to ―organic pollution‖ and b)
nitrate, phosphate, heavy metals and pesticides (when available), that indicate ―chemical
pollution‖. The quality scores of individual chemical quality parameters (e.g. dissolved
oxygen, nutrients, etc.) were achieved by comparing their levels with existing
classification systems or appropriate modified quality standards. The status of each group
of parameters was carried out by averaging the quality scores of the individual
parameters. Finally, the chemical status of each site was derived by the results of the
group of parameters that indicated the greater impact.
The morphological, hydrological, hydrochemical and vegetational characteristics of the
river bed and river banks were rapidly assessed at a distance of 500 m upstream and
downstream of each sampling site with the use of the AQEM/STAR protocol (AQEM
Consortium, 2002). Hydro-morphological analysis was performed at a 500 m length of
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each site with the use of the River Habitat Survey (RHS) method (Raven et al., 1997).
The RHS method assesses the natural character and quality of river habitats based on
two metric systems, the Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA) and the degree of habitat
modification (Habitat Modification Sore, HMS). The HQA assesses the quality of habitat in
terms of its diversity. The HMS assesses the degree of river degradation. For the HMS
classification, the six initial HMS categories were merged into five (Skoulikidis, 2008).
For the collection of benthic macroinvertebrates, the STAR-AQEM (AQEM Consortium,
2002) sampling methodology was applied. To assess and classify the biological status of
Evrotas River Basin using macroinvertebrates, the following procedure was performed: a)
typological classification according to the Intercalibration Exercise (EC, 2007), b)
definition and establishment of type specific reference conditions (AQEM Consortium,
2002; REFCOND, 2003) and c) assessment and classification of biological status using
the STAR ICMi multimetric index (Buffagni et al., 2007). The final classification of benthic
invertebrate status was performed by averaging the results of the seasonal samplings.
The ichthyological investigation had a three-fold objective: a) to determine the fish
species composition and abundance in the river basin, b) to assess the structure and
quality of fish habitats in relation to the ecological requirements of fish (with special
focus on endangered endemic species) and c) to develop/apply a fish-based method for
biological quality assessment and classification. Ichthyological sampling was conducted
by electrofishing using standardised methods as developed in the EU FAME project
(2005). For the assessment and classification of the biological status of the river using
fish fauna, the following key stages were carried out:
a) development of a biotic (bottom-up) typological approach with the aim to (i)
establish biotic river types defining areas of ichthyological homogeneity, using
statistical clustering techniques, and (ii) describe the abiotic conditions which are
responsible for the structuring of the fish assemblages in each type.
b) Establishment of type-specific reference conditions, which were mainly based on
the expert judgment technique (data from ‗near reference‘ sites and previous
ichthyological research in this area were combined with data on the biology and
habitat requirements of the local species and historical information concerning the
distribution of the species in the basin).
c) Selection of appropriate metrics for each biotic type using expert judgment,
having as main criteria the capacity of the potential metrics to express structural
and functional characteristics of the fish assemblages, and their ability to describe
the environmental degradation resulting from human activities (responsiveness to
impacts).
d) Calibration of the metrics to a five class scale and their combination in a multiparametric index. The class boundaries were set following instructions given in
Annex IV of the WFD.
For the classification of the ecological status, the guidelines of ECOSTAT were considered.
Thus, hydromorphological quality elements were taken into account when assigning
water bodies to high ecological status, physico-chemical quality elements were
considered when assigning water bodies to high and good status and biological quality
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elements when assigning water bodies to any of the ecological status classes. For
common sites, the ecological status was assessed with the whole set of quality elements
(including fish).
Results and Discussion
Natural and anthropogenic characteristics of Evrotas River Basin
Evrotas River is well known from the ancient history and mythology of Greece, mainly
from the mighty city of Sparta, which is located near the banks of the river. It is located
in south-eastern Peloponnesus in the Prefectures of Laconia and Arcadia covering an area
of 2,418 km2, and discharges into the Laconic Gulf after crossing 90 km of semimountainous areas and floodplains. The Evrotas River Basin expands between the
mountain complexes of Taygetos and Parnon, where numerous permanent, ephemeral
and intermittent streams discharge into the main course, such as the Oinous (its main
tributary), Magoulitsa, Vrysiotiko, Kastaniotiko, Vathyrema, Yerakaris and Mariorema.
The mountainous area of the basin is formed by Mesozoic-Palaeogene limestones (42%
of the basin) and impermeable rocks, such as flysch and schists (29% of the basin),
while the lower parts are covered by Pliocene and Quaternary sediments. The basin of
Evrotas has a typical Mediterranean climate with mild and cold winters and prolonged hot
and dry summers with an average annual temperature of 16 oC. The majority of rainfall
occurs during the months of October through March; highest rainfall precipitation being
on December and the driest on June. The mountainous region is characterised by heavy
winters, large temperature fluctuations between the hot and cold period and also
between the day and night. The Evrotas River has a flashy hydrological regime and
presents nowadays temporary flow characteristics.
From an ecological point of view, the Evrotas basin is a unique conservation hotspot in
Greece, with a high biodiversity, including many local endemic plants and vertebrates.
This high proportion of endemicity is attributed to the complex geological and climatic
history of the area which, combined with geographical isolation and environmental
diversification, have provided conditions conducive to speciation. Some of the natural
aquatic environments and riparian formations occurring in the basin are indeed rare in
the thermo-bioclimatic zone of southern Greece. These relatively rare environments
include large karstic sources, riparian forests, riparian swaps, inaccessible canyons and
ravines, deltaic systems and estuaries. The river accommodates five native freshwater
fish species plus two that have been introduced. Three of the native species are rangerestricted endemics of high conservation value: Squalius keadicus (Stephanidis, 1971)
and Pelasgus laconicus (Kottelat & Barbieri, 2004), which are confined exclusively to this
river, and Tropidophoxinelus Spartaaticus (Schmidt-Ries, 1943), which also occurs in
some rivers of southern Peloponnese. The native fish fauna also includes the species
Anguilla anguilla (eel), which is widely distributed in Europe, and the perimediterranean
Salaria
fluviatilis.
In
addition,
Evrotas
basin
accomodates
several
unique
macroinvertabrate species such as the gastropod Melanopsis praemorsa which was
recorded for the first time in the Greek mainland (Gritzalis, 2009).
The vast majority of the river basin is covered by natural and semi-natural areas
accounting for 61% of the total river basin, followed by agricultural areas that account
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for 38% (919 km2), while urban areas account for 1%. The main cultivations are olive
groves and orange trees, which cover ~90% of the agricultural land, and make Laconia
one of the main and largest producers of olive oil and orange juice in Greece. To increase
and protect their crops, farmers apply high quantities of fertilizers and pesticides, which
are significant diffuse pollution sources. Solid and liquid wastes from municipalities and
from agro-industrial units comprise the most important point pollution sources in the
basin. Only one Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) operates (occasionally not
sufficiently) in the basin, for the municipality of Sparta, while the rest of the area is
served by cesspools (permeable and impermeable) thus threatening water bodies. Many
small illegal and uncontrolled landfills are located in steep slopes, canyons and even
inside forests. These sites are sources of atmospheric and aquatic pollution, but also may
cause fires during high temperatures. In August 2007, a series of draught waves caused
wild fires that burned 216 Km2, mainly at Parnon Mt.
Olive oil mills (79 in total) operate seasonally (November-March) and discharge their
effluents usually untreated in small streams or directly into the Evrotas River thus
causing severe adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem. Their wastewaters have very
high organic load, significant concentrations of solids, nitrogen and phosphorus and low
pH and contain high concentrations of phenols that are toxic to many organisms. Two
orange juice processing units, located a few kilometres south of Sparta, operate
seasonally (November-May). They discharge a complex effluent, composed by high
concentrations of organics (due to high levels of cellulose), unsaturated hydrocarbons,
proteins and fibre, high limonene, nitrate and sodium, which thus decreases their
effective treatment.
Expansion of farming towards the river banks, flood control works and other construction
activities (e.g. for roads, bridges) including removal of riparian vegetation, straightening
and embankment of river courses and significant extraction of inert materials from the
river bed (also illegal for construction purposes), have caused significant morphological
modifications in Evrotas River and its tributaries. These alterations degrade natural
habitats, modify river and riparian natural processes and deteriorate the ecological status
of the river system (see 2.D2).
Hydro(geo)logical and hydrochemical features
The long-term variation of precipitation and of the river‘s hydrology, the daily
hydrological regime during the implementation of the project and the water abstractions
contributing to the desiccation of the river are described in 2.D2 deliverable.
The presence of extensive masses of carbonate and Plio-Quaternary rocks in Evrotas
River Basin facilitated the formation of extended karstic and alluvial aquifers. The karstic
aquifers occupy approx. 570 km 2 in Taygeros and Parnon Mts. In the lowlands, two main
alluvial aquifer systems are placed at the upstream portion of the river (220 km 2) and at
the
downstream
portion
of
Evrotas-Vasilopotamos
aquatic
system
(275
km2),
respectively. At the upper and mid portions of the basin, a number of karstic springs of
Taygetos Mt. significantly contribute to the flow of Evrotas River (e.g. the Skortsinou,
Zoros and Vivari springs) and to Taygetos streams. The Parnon Mt. does not contribute
significant karstic discharges since the impermeable basis of the particular aquifers is
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encountered at high depths. The northern part of Parnon Mt. feeds the upper Evrotas and
Oinus, while karstic waters of the central part either discharge in the Vasilopotamos
springs (at the area of Skala) or are lost in the sea. (Zouridakis et al., 2008). The
lowland aquifers are water fed by the river. In the lower elevation part of the catchment,
close to the coastal zone, the Evrotas passes trough the Vrodamas gorge, structured by
karstified calcareous rocks. In that gorge the river partly disappears and in summer only
some ponds maintain water. Downstream, at the area of Skala, the river reappears again
as a result of significant karstic inputs of the Vasilopotamos springs. The density of the
catchment‘s hydrographic network is relatively low due to the significant coverage of high
permeability rock formations (60%) while the average slope of Evrotas river bed is
approximately 15‰ (Zouridakis et al., 2008). Just upstream of Vrodamas gorge, the
average discharge of the river during the period 1974-2008 was estimated at 3.3 m3/s
(see 2.D2 deliverable), while near the outflow, in the area of Skala, the discharge ranges
between 3 and 4.6 m3/s, approximately. Nevertheless, there is a significant long-term
decrease in river flow (see 2D.2 deliverable).
The Evrotas basin presents a common and homogenous hydrochemical regime, since the
main course of the river and the vast majority of its tributaries belong to the most
representative hydrochemical type found in Greece (Ca > Mg > Na > K – HCO3 > SO4 >
Cl; Skoulikidis et al., 2006), resulting from the dissolution of carbonate rocks. Maximum
solute concentration was observed during the dry period as a result of the lower
dissolution capacity of waters and increased evapotranspiration. Along the Evrotas main
stem, higher hydrogen carbonate concentrations were found upstream and near the
outflow, due to increased karstic spring inputs. Sodium revealed a downstream increase
as a result of soil salinisation processes (due to irrigation), impact of olive oil production
wastes, salinisation of coastal aquifers and transport of sea salt aerosol. In a catchment
scale, the mean nutrient concentrations are considered low, especially for phosphorus.
Low phosphorus concentrations have been reported also for other Greek carbonate
basins probably due to adsorption mechanisms on carbonate material (Skoulikidis,
2009). However, the Evrotas main course reveals higher nutrient levels than larger
Balkan rivers with greater population density (i.e. Neretva, Acheloos, Aoos and Alfeios)
(Fig. 5.3.18). In addition, mean nitrate concentration in the sites examined correlates
positively with agricultural land in the respective subbasins (Fig. 5.3.19), suggesting
impact of nitrogen fertilizers. Moreover, point sources of organic pollution (municipal
wastes, the WWTP, agro-industrial units) enhance nutrient concentrations (e.g. Fig.
5.3.20). As a result, eutrophication is a common phenomenon in summer especially
around Sparta (Fig. 5.3.21). In the vast majority of the examined stations, the N/P molar
ratio is by far more than 16, thus indicating phosphorus limited photosynthesis. Hence,
to control eutrophication, management plans should initially focus on the reduction of
point sources of phosphorus pollution. Finally, herbicides (Metolachlor and Alachlor),
fungicides (Triadimenol and Penconazole) and insecticides (Dimethoate, Monocrotophos,
Malathion, Fenthion and Carbofenothion) were detected in 50% of the waters and
sediments examined. In most of them, concentrations exceeded the acceptable limit for
potable water (0.1 μg/L), while stream sediments revealed significant levels.
The effects of olive mill and fruit juice processing wastewaters on the biological status of
Evrotas
river
streams
were
assessed
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by
the
use
of
macroinvertebrate
fauna.
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Macroinvertebrate fauna was collected few meters upstream and downstream from the
outlets of the industrial units (olive mill and juice processing units) from November 2006
to May 2008. In addition 24-hour LC50 acute toxicity tests were performed to evaluate
the toxicity of the two agro-industrial effluents. Two macroinvertebrate species were
used (Gammarus pulex and Hydropsyche peristerica). The results showed that during the
period of wastewater discharges, the biotic fauna downstream the industrial units were
eliminated (Fig. 5.3.22). Only highly pollution tolerant species were present (e.g.
Chironomidae, Anthomyiidae) with very low numbers while after the end of the olive oil
production period, the biotic community recovered (Fig. 5.3.22). The same was not
observed for streams receiving fruit juice wastewaters where the biotic community was
severely impacted throughout the year (Fig. 5.3.22). This was attritubed to the
intermittent character of the streams, significant hydromorphological degradation and to
the prolonged period of wastewater discharge (Karaouzas et al., in preparation). The 24
hrs LC50s values of olive mill wastewater ranged from 2 % to 4% for G. pulex and H.
peristerica, while the LC50s of orange juice processing wastewater ranged from 17% to
25% for G. pulex and H. peristerica (Karaouzas et al, submitted). Based on a 5-class
hazard classification system established for wastewaters discharged into the aquatic
environment (Persoone et al., 2003), olive mill wastewater and orange juice processing
wastewater were classified as highly toxic and toxic, respectively.
8
N-NH4*10
7
TP*10
6
5
DIN
4
3
2
1
0
Aoos
Neretva
Acheloos
Alfeios
Sperchios
Arachthos
Evrotas
Aliakmon
Vjose
Nestos
Strymon
Pinios
Drin
Axios
Evros
Kamchia
Figure 5.3.18. Mean nutrient concentrations (mg/l) in major Balkan rivers (Skoulikidis et al.,
2009).
16
y = 0,0957x + 0,6504
R2 = 0,3863
ΝΟ3 (mg/l)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
% of cropland in subcatchments
Figure 5.3.19. Correlation between nitrate concentration in the sites examined and the
percentage of arable land in the respective subcatchments.
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May 06
0,25
Sept 06
March 07
WWTP
NH4 (mg/l)
0,2
Olive oil mill, aquaculture
0,15
0,1
Boundary between good/moderate status
Evrotas
(River mouth)
Evrotas
(Skala)
Evrotas
(Skoura)
Lagkada
(Trypi)
Evrotas
(SpartiKastori)
Evrotas
(upstream
WWTP)
Evrotas
(downstream
WWTP)
Gerakaris
(upstream)
Oinous
Evrotas
Springs
Vresiotiko
Kastaniotiko
0
Oinous
(middle
reach)
Oinous
(Karyes)
0,05
Figure 5.3.20. Ammonia concentration in Evrotas River Basin from upstream to downstream sites
and boundary between good and moderate ammonia status.
Figure 5.3.21. Eutrophic conditions in
Evrotas near Sparta.
1
2
Figure 5.3.22. 1) Biological status variation upstream and downstream from an olive mill unit. The
dark arrows on axis x indicate the wastewater discharge period. 2) Biological status variation
upstream and downstream from a fruit juice processing unit. The wastewater discharge period
usually lasts from November to May.
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Ecological quality assessment and classification
Hydromorphological status
Table 1 (Appendix) presents the results of HMS and HQA and the classification of
sampling sites according to the HMS. Regarding the results of HMS, the values ranged
from 0 to 89. This indicates that the Evrotas River system presents great range
regarding modifications and in several cases is significantly modified. In specific
parts of the river, especially downstream Sparta, some of these interventions are even
from the age of ancient Sparta. Lower values appear in sites of medium and high
altitude, as well as in distant areas of the river. Only eleven (11) stations that are
distributed mainly in mountainous tributaries scored high. Ten (10) stations, two (2) of
which at the upstream portion of Evrotas main stem, had a good status, while the rest of
the stations (22) scored below good status. Particularly affected is the Evrotas main
course from the area upstream Sparta up to the river mouth. The values of HQA
presented good results in undisturbed and slightly modified parts and even in
significantly modified parts of the Evrotas River. In significantly modified parts the
relatively high values were due to the presence of vegetation in the riparian area and in
the river bed, as a result of low slopes and eutrophication. These small slopes however,
presented limited number of flow types compared to the mountainous and semi
mountainous parts, where there were several flow types and increased discharge.
Physico-chemical status
According to Table 2 (Annex), the physico-chemical status of Evrotas River Basin ranges
between high and moderate, whereas the vast majority of the examined stations (84%)
score good and high. Three (3) sites of Evrotas main course downstream Sparta and four
(4) tributaries score moderate due to high organic and chemical impact, resulting from
point and disperse pollution sources, such as the WWTP outflow, fruit juice factories,
olive oil mills, slaughterhouses, agrochemicals, etc. The applied physico-chemical
assessment and classification system provides the following advantages: a) through the
differentiation of pollution parameters into groups (following the guidelines of ECOSTAT)
results a more representative classification of the physico-chemical status (the ―one out
all out‖ principle may lead to an underestimation of the physico-chemical status, whereas
averaging the whole set of parameters may lead to an overestimation of the physicochemical status), b) it includes sediment quality elements, which is recommended by
other authors and European networks (e.g. Quevauviller, 2006; SedNet, 2004), since
sediments better response to past pollution incidents than water, and c) it integrates
toxic substances (heavy metals, and, partly, pesticides) although respective point
sources were missing. This was prescribed by the presence of extensive diffuse sources
of pollution. The inclusion of pesticides in the assessment system may result to the
decrease of the physico-chemical status. For example, after the inclusion of pesticides,
station 17 shifted from high to moderate status. A weakness of the applied system is that
certain parameters, such as ΒΟD5, phenols and pesticides (in the majority of the
sampling network), have not been examined. If these parameters were integrated in the
assessment system, possibly the quality of this group, and hence the final physicochemical status, would have been termed worse.
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Biological status (macroinvertebrate fauna)
In the majority of the examined stations (60%), the biological status based on
macroinvertebrates scored between high and good (Table 3, Appendix). A total of twelve
(12) stations was classified as high status (reference sites), which were mostly confined
to the mountainous regions of Parnon and Taygetos. Nineteen (19) sites were classified
as good, including mountainous, semi-mountainous and even lowland stations (e.g.
Evrotas River mouth, as a result of karstic spring inputs). Seven (7) stations were
classified as moderate. Here belongs the stream Skortsinos (station 4) which joins the
homonymous springs at the upper part of the basin. According to local citizens, the
comunal chesspool is from time to time emptied into the stream. A similar situation faces
the Kolliniotiko stream (station 31), which drains the settlement of Aj. Varvara. At the
banks of Kastaniotiko stream (station 2) lies an olive oil mill and an aquaculture unit. The
later may affect the stream with organic matter, antibiotics and heavy metals. Four (4)
stations were classified as poor and one (1) as bad status. Mylopotamos (station 20) and
Tyflo (19) tributaries receiving fruit juice processing effluents and pesticides, score poor
and bad, respectively. Stations situated along the Evrotas main course downstream
Sparta (stations: 38, 39, 48 and 50) were of moderate or poor quality, as a result of a
multitude of point and non point pressures.
It should be mentioned, that stations which were dry in summer 2007 were not classified
bad (as in the case of fish), since macroinvertebrate communities seem to recover after
the next rainy season. In spite of missing historical data, this statement needs
justification.
Biological status (ichthyofauna)
In the past, all fish species were widely distributed along the entire river and its
tributaries. Due to human interventions (mainly severe water abstraction), fish
populations are constantly declining. Nowadays, the majority of Evrotas tributaries are
either fishless or contain heavily disturbed fish assemblages. Regarding the ichthyological
index, three main ichthyological types where identified where there is a significant
ichthyological homogeneity. The three types were given conventional names related to
their geographic location (Upper Evrotas, Middle Evrotas and the Estuaries). The
ichthyological reference conditions for each type are described in Table 4 (Annex). A
multi-parametric ichthyological index was formulated which includes 3-5 metrics per
biotic river type. Table 5 (Annex) presents the metrics finally selected for each type and
gives the ranges of values (class boundaries) for each ecological quality class.
The index was applied to the ichthyological data to assess the ecological status of the
sampled regions. According to the results, more than half of the sites sampled in 2007
and 2008 (52% and 54%, respectively) were classified as bad (Fig. 9 & 10, Appendix).
This situation was largely the consequence of an unusual prolonged drought event, which
occurred in summer 2007 and, combined with overexploitation of the water resources,
resulted to the complete drying of almost all Evrotas tributaries and about 80% of the
main river course. In the remaining part of the river, where summer flow was
maintained, the biological status of fish fauna ranged between high and moderate. It is
remarkable that the biological status was not improved in the year 2008, which had
highest rainfall precipitation than 2007, though the fish fauna showed signs of recovery
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(beginning of recolonization of dried river segments). The persistence of the generally
poor biological status in 2008 is attributed to the slow rate of re-establishment of fish
communities in hydrologically disturbed areas, given that fish a) are wholly waterdependent organisms that require ‗‗water bridges‘‘ for their migration, and b) have longer
life-spans and later age at maturity than most other aquatic organisms. Effectively, fishbased ecological assessments can reveal remaining effects of past hydromorpological
disturbances and can be successfully implemented to trace long-term human impacts on
the ecosystems.
Ecological requirements of fish
Various methods for assessing the ecological quality of rivers use a combination of
metrics (measurable characteristics of the biotic communities that express structural or
functional aspects of the ecosystem) in order to assess the degree of ecological
degradation. The basic assumption of these methods is that if an anthropogenic
alteration on hydrological, morphological and chemical parameters of a sampling site or a
river section will occur, it will affect the abundance or biological attributes of at least
some species that present a limited range of tolerance to changes in these parameters,
and thus it will alter the values of the respective metrics in this site or section relative to
the values before the alteration. The quantification of these alterations can give a
measure of the degree of the ecological degradation in this site or river section. Within
the project, we undertook an investigation targeting to the identification of biological and
ecological elements that are likely to be affected by anthropogenic disturbances.

Squalius keadicus
Squalius keadicus is rheophilic species, requiring permanently flowing waters, an aquatic habitat
type which is being severely impacted by water abstraction. It is a very energetic fish that can
resist fast flow. It is characterized as a coldwater species and is intolerant to low concentrations of
oxygen. In normal conditions it is found in deep fast flowing areas (deep runs) on the main course
of Evrotas, avoiding areas with stagnant water (however, during the early life stages it may occur
in protected areas where the flow is low or minimal). It prefers areas with coarse substrate and
hides in large submerged tree roots, but can be found in near aquatic vegetation. Reproduction
takes place in the second half of April and the beginning of May. In the summer, when the river
recedes, S. keadicus is forced to occupy unfavourable habitats with little or zero flow. Indeed, we
often observed this species to be stranded in remaining pools where it existed under suboptimum
conditions. In shallow pools, where surface water temperature follows ambient air temperatures
closely and oxygen concentration is low, dead or dying fish were frequently observed, because they
were already living near the threshold of oxygen and temperature tolerance. When there was some
flow of water between pools, fish tended to concentrate in the shallow water corridor connecting
the pools presumably for respiratory reasons. S. keadicus, as a rheophilic species, can be
considered as a good indicator of hydrological disturbance. Reducing the amount or rate of water
flow results to a decrease in the abundance or even to total mortality, which effects particularly the
larger size or age classes, which are more intolerant to reduced flow. Therefore, the biological
effects of changing flow characteristics can be estimated by measuring the change in the
abundance and percentage contribution of species in the assemblage, and the percentage
participation of large groups of size or age populations.
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
Tropidophoxinellus Spartaaticus
Tropidophoxinellus Spartaaticus is a less rheophilic species that shows preference for waters with
slow flow. It is a strongly phytophilic species that depends on vegetation for reproduction, foraging
and protection from natural enemies. It is often found in backwaters hidden among aquatic plants.
It breeds in April and May and feeds on insect larvae, invertebrates, mollusks and algae. It was
caught exclusively in the middle and lower portion of the Evrotas R. were aquatic vegetation is
abundant. Interestingly, its abundance in the middle portion was much lower than expected on the
basis of results of previous investigations conducted in the late 1990s (Economou et al., 1999). We
speculate that repeated drying episodes have generated adverse ecological conditions for this
species, perhaps because of the reduction of aquatic vegetation. T. Spartaaticus was never caught
in the upper portion of the Evrotas R. where aquatic vegetation is lacking or sparse. However, the
species appears to be dominant in the lower part of Evrotas as this section contains the appropriate
vegetated habitats.

P. laconicus
P. laconicus is a helophytic species showing little mobility and lives in protected sites with stagnant
waters or sluggish flow. The presence of aquatic vegetation is an important habitat requirement for
this species. During the reproductive period it lays down adhesive eggs on aquatic plants. Its food
consists of algae and a great variety of small organisms. This species has wide environmental
tolerances. Its capacity to tolerate a wide range of thermal regimes and to live in poorly
oxygenated waters confers a survival advantage under stressful conditions. However, it is
vulnerable to wide flow regime fluctuations that cause damage of the aquatic vegetation and/or
destruction of protected embayments and pools utilized as habitats.

S. fluviatilis
S. fluviatilis is cryptobenthic, spending most of its time in crevices, under stones or among plants.
Its food consists of young stages of fish and amphibians, insects and other small animals. It grows
to a maximum size of 10 cm. The female lays down small elliptical eggs in holes or under stones.
The eggs are guarded by the male until they hatch. The tiny larvae are planktonic and require for
their survival limnetic conditions where rotifers and other microplanktonic organisms utilized as
food abound. This species was found only in the lower portion of the Evrotas R. where lentic
conditions enabling the survival of the early life-stages can still be found. In the past, S. fluviatilis
had a wider distribution in the Evrotas basin. However, human interventions, particularly hydromorphological alterations, have caused the destruction of the specialized habitats needed for the
survival of its larvae, causing the disappearance of this species from the middle and upper parts of
the basin.

A. anguilla
A. anguilla (European eel) presents perhaps the most mysterious life strategies. It is a
catadromous species, which just before the reproduction maturity begins a downstream migration
from the European inland waters and travels thousands of kilometres in order to arrive to the
Sargasso Sea, at the western Atlantic Ocean, which consist the only reproduction area for this
species. It reproduces only once in a lifetime and then dies. After the spawn, the larvae
(Leptocephalus) migrate through the Gulf Stream towards to Europe in a three-year-long
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migration. As glass eels they reach the coasts of Europe and enter estuaries. Before entering fresh
water, the glass eels metamorphose into elvers. Eels are critically endangered species. Since the
1970s, the numbers of eels reaching Europe is thought to have declined by around 90% (possibly
even 98%). In the past, in Evrotas river, eels were abundant almost throughout the entire river
network. Nowadays, the abundance of eel has dramatically decreased as a result of frequent
summer drying episodes and illegal fishing.
Ecological
status
(hydromorphological,
physico-chemical,
macroinvertebrate
fauna,
ichtyofauna)
Table 6 and Figure 11 (Appendix) present the ecological status of the examined sites in
Evrotas River Basin, according to hydromorphological, physico-chemical and biological
(macroinvertebrates) quality elements. To meet the guidelines of the WFD and related
Guidance Documents, the lower scores for the considered quality elements were used.
Table 6 additionally presents the potential pressures causing a degradation of the
ecological status. The following results may be highlight: a) none of the stations
presented a high ecological status, b) only one station (Langada at Vatopouleika, station
16) revealed reference conditions simultaneously for the physico-chemical and the
biological quality elements (however, this station is hydromorphologically modified and
thus scores good), c) twelve (12) stations that showed high biological status were
termed ecologically good, since the physico-chemical status was good, d) eleven (11)
stations presented good physico-chemical and biological status and hence a good
ecological status, and d) in eleven (11) stations biological status was moderate or worse,
while physico-chemical quality elements scored a better status.
The correlation coefficient between the scores of the biological and physico-chemical
status (Fig. 5.3.23) is satisfactory (r2 = 0.46), thus providing evidence a) that the
applied classification systems for the physico-chemical and biological status are
adequate, b) for the dependence of biological assemblages on river quality (reported also
for other Greek rivers; Skoulikidis et al., 2004), c) that averaging seasonal quality scores
better represents the annual average conditions (if one applies the ―one out all out‖
principle by selecting the worse season as most representative for the physico-chemical
and biological status, there is no satisfactory correlation between these two quality
elements).
Physico-chemical quality elements and mavroinvertebrates can be safely used for
assessing pollution impacts on riverine ecosystems. In Evrotas basin there are significant
point and disperse pollution sources that, locally and temporarily, adversely affect the
ecological status. In fact, downstream of fruit juice factories, certain olive oil mills, and
even the WWTP, the ecological status ranges between moderate and bad quality. It
should be mentioned that for a number of stations affected by olive oil processing
wastewaters, the resulting ecological status seems to be overestimated (i.e. good
status), since the winter sampling did not coinsided with the operation of olive oil mills,
as initially designed. This is attributed to the fact that in 2007 olive oil units stopped
operating earlier than usually due to the low harvest of this particular year. As a result,
riverine ecosystems have partially recovered before our sampling efforts. Hence, a
number of streams, such as Magoulitsa (station 22), Nikova (station 24), Kotitsanis
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(station 34) and Gerakaris (station 47) that are subject to olive mill wastewaters
presented a good ecological status, thus indicating fast recovery processes, in spite of
the high toxicity properties of these wastewaters, even in high dilution.
1.4
y = 0.3145x - 0.3002
R2 = 0.4633
1.3
1.2
Biological status
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
Physico-chemical status
High
Good
Moderate
Poor:
Bad:
Figure 5.3.23. Correlation between the biological status based on macroinvertebrates and the
physico-chemical status for the stations examined in Evrotas River Basin.
Table 7 (Appendix) presents the results of the overall ecological status including all the
examined quality elements. Ichtyofauna is a safe quality element for assessing
hydromorphological alterations. In the main course of Evrotas and in Oinus (where fish
communities were examined) the ecological status is determined by fish, which in all
cases present a worse status than any other quality element. The vast majority of
Evrotas tributaries dry out artificially and fish communities are either missing or strongly
disturbed. If fish have been included in the assessment system of these tributaries, their
ecological status would be termed, according to expert judgment, poor or bad. It
becomes apparent that the main environmental problem that the Evrotas River Basin
faces, is the immence and uncontrolled water abstraction. The latter, in combination with
the unusual draught in 2007-08, resulted in the desiccation of the vast majority of the
river network, which caused massive fish deths in isolated reaches that maintained water
(i.e. in remaining pools). If the current water uses remain unchanging, it is most
probable that unique endangered species will extinct.
Despite any of the aforementioned weeknesses of the applied ecological quality
assessment, it appears that it responses satisfactory to pollution and hydromorphological
pressures that affect the basin. The inclusion of sediment quality characteristics and the
separation physico-chemical quality elements into groups makes the system more
robust, while the biological metrics show satisfactory response to pollution. Moreover, the
ichthyofauna responded well to the intense hydro-morphological alterations.
Conclusions
High loadings of organic matter and nutrients cause eutrophication of the main course of
Evrotas River below Sparta. Management of phospohrous sources of pollution is of first
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priority to control eutrophication. The use of fertilizers and pesticides is widespred and
their effects on humans, water quality and biota is well documented. It is essential to
apply best agricultural practices aiming in drastic reduction of agrochemicals in
the basin. Olive oil and fruit juice processing wastes are toxic and receiving
water bodies score a bad ecological status, especially during operation time.
Through effective waste treatment these water bodies may achieve good ecological
status. Land management practices for agriculture, flood control and construction
activities modify riparian areas and river courses and adversely affect river habitats. It is
essential to striktly forbeed any extention of agricultural land towards the river courses
and to apply integrated flood control measures (see 2D.2 deliverable) in order to
minimise river bed scouring. However, the most challenging environmental
problem that deteriorates the ecological status of the basin is the current water
management
practices.
Massive
and
uncontrolled
water
abstractions
exhaust
groundwater aquifers and surface water cources fall dry during summer. Hence,
Integrated River Basin Management Plans should special focus to pollution abatement,
sustainable water use and protection and remediation of river courses and adjacent
zones (see 2D.2 deliverable).
The implementation of Task 2 within the EnviFriendly project revealed specific pressures
acting in Evrotas River Basin and assessed the impacts on river hydrology, river and
riparian morphology, aquatic quality and biota. For that purpose, an ecological status
assessment system has been developed and applied. The results of this effort may assist
specific measures to be implemented within Integrated River Basin Management Plans in
order to improve environmental conditions and achieve a good ecological status for the
whole basin. It should be mentioned however that the assessment of the status of an
ecosystem is a continous and dynamic procedure. This is particularly true for the
Mediterranean area, where historical data are missing, particularly for biota, and is
marked by vast inter-annual and intra-annual climatic and hydrologic variability, with
respective effects on aquatic quality and biotic assemblages.
3. Risk assessment of water management
Introduction
Water management practices in the Evrotas River Basin include intensive water
abstractions from the river channel network and from the groundwater aquifers for
irrigation, while severe morphological modifications of river channels, river banks and
riparian vegetation, result from irrigation, land reclamation, flood protection and
construction activities. These practices result to an artificial desiccation of the river
network during summer and significant morphological degradation of the river system,
thus limiting water and habitat availability and severely affecting aquatic and riparian
biota. Naturally drawn dryness, as a result of climatic variability (including global climatechange) occurs more or less gradually. Thus, organisms of temporary rivers historically
adapt to environmental stress (decreasing flow regime, remaining pools, complete
dryness in particular reaches, with respective changes in aquatic and sediment quality)
and develop suitable survival mechanisms. This is the ―natural‖ condition. On the
contrary, when a river dries out as a result of intense water abstractions the
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environmental risk increases substantially. Environmental changes occur abruptly causing
deterioration of habitats, and organisms may face conditions to which they are
evolutionary inexperienced, thus leading to migration of certain species (if possible) or
massive deaths which may result to the extinction of some species. Particularly severe
are the effects on fish species, which are water-dependent organisms throughout their
life. Other aquatic organisms (e.g. macroinvertebrates), by contrast, have aerial,
terrestrial or diapause phases and can quickly recolonise the dried areas when humid
conditions are re-established. Moreover, the reduction of the water volume causes
―concentration‖ of salts and pollutants, thus increasing eutrophication and depleting
oxygen, and thereby generating harsh environmental conditions that negatively affect
aquatic biota. Overall, water scarcity and pollution act cumulatively and cause
deterioration of the chemical and biological status of the river.
In the sense of the Water Framework Directive, the difference between a ―naturally‖ and
an ―artificially‖ drying stream, as far as it concerns aquatic organisms, is significant. If a
river or a reach dries out from anthropogenic causes then its biological status based on
fish-based assessment will score bad. In contrast, if a reach dries out due to natural
causes (i.e. long drought) then its biological quality based on fish fauna will be assessed
with biological reference criteria and not with hydrological ones. Hence, one of the most
important questions addressed when assessing the ecological status of an intermittent
river is to identify whether desiccation is due to natural or anthropogenic causes.
However, the distinction of the causes of desiccation is very complicated. It is usually
carried out indirectly, and the results may have a certain amount of error associated with
them, since climatic and human processes are highly dynamic and interact in an often
unpredictable manner.
Methodology
To assess the risk of water management in Evrotas Basin, it is essential to recognise the
causes of water deficiencies in the river network during the summer period. For that
purpose, the following steps were implemented:
1. Assessment of the geographical extent of desiccation.
To assess the extent of the phenomenon, the current hydrological conditions
(presence/ absence of water, running/ standing waters) were recorded and mapped
during successive wet and dry periods in 2007 and 2008 (April-May 2007, June-July
2007, September-October 2007 and September 2008) in order to illustrate the
seasonal flow pattern and to designate the areas that retain water or dry out.
2. Identification of natural versus anthropogenic causes of desiccation.
To assess the impact of man made desiccation it is essential to reconstruct the Evrotas
Basin ―Leitbild‖, i.e. to provide an image of the basin prior to intense man-made
interventions which can provide useful information on the environmental status and
thus contribute to the definition of hydromorphological and biological reference
conditions. For that purpose a) numerous field surveys were carried out to investigate
particular hydromorphological pressures related to water management in the basin
(e.g. water abstraction sites, flood control measures, land use changes, etc.), b)
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historical information was collected from the general literature and local libraries and
authorities (books, reports, newspapers) and analysed - also, local citizens were
interviewed (elders that know well the area), c) historical and present hydrological data
(irrigated
land
area,
monthly
rainfall,
air
temperature,
water
discharge
and
groundwater depth time series, and continuous flow measurements from the automatic
gauging stations that have been installed for the purposes of the project) were
collected and analysed and d) the current water balance model of the basin was
compared to the theoretical one prior to agricultural intensification.
3. Assessment of the impacts of water management on the river‘s ecosystem.
To examine the environmental impacts of water management on river habitats, a
hydromorphological study was carried out using the River Habitat Survey (RHS)
methodology (Raven et al., 1997). The habitat quality of each site (stream channel and
riparian habitat) was assessed with the use of the Habitat Quality Assessment Score
(HQA) and the Habitat Modification Score (HMS). To assess the impact of drought on
water quality, water mineralisation and pollution indices were used. To assess the
impacts on biota, fish and riparian vegetation were used as indicators of ecosystem
health. Concerning fish, the effects of drought on fish populations, particularly with
respect to impacts on distribution, survival, percentage species composition and habitat
use patterns, were carried out. The impacts were assessed through electrofishing
surveys covering the main river course and few tributaries during wet and dry periods.
To assess the impacts of hydromorphological modifications on the riparian forests, the
riparian forest vegetation along the Evrotas River course was recorded (literature
research, field investigations, analysis of aerial photographs and GIS-mapping) and its
condition was evaluated and classified by applying an appropriate protocol developed
for that purpose of describing the status of riparian vegetation through the use of the
QBR-index (Dimopoulos et al., 2007).
Results
Historical Analysis
The historical references collected during this survey can be roughly divided in two
periods. The first period includes general information for the environmental and
hydrologic physiognomy of Evrotas R. from the ancient Greek Era and the Era of the
Roman Empire. However the biological and hydrological data from these sources are very
scarce. The second one includes data from the beginning of the 19 th century until the
present time, and is focused mainly on the agricultural development of Laconia and the
man
made
interventions
in
the
riverine
ecosystem.
The
gap
between
these
aforementioned periods derives from the lack of historical references concerning the
study area.
Ancient times
The name Evrotas derives from the ancient Greek words ―εύρως‖ (evros) and ―ώτος‖
(otos) which means mould, humidity resulting to decay and deterioration. In Greek
mythology, according to Pausanias, the Laconia valley was covered by a lake. To prevent
flooding, Evrotas, the legendary king of Lacedaemon was said to have created a canal
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through of Vrodamas conducting the water towards the Laconia Gulf. Thus, an artificial
river outflow was developed, and in order to honor the king, the river was named after
him. Even if this story belongs to the sphere of the myth, evidence from research
boreholes in the area has proved the existence of a Pliocene lake that covered the
greater part of the Spartan valley (Piper et al. 1982). Evidence that further supports the
presence of a lake in the Laconia valley is that the suburbs of Sparta were almost always
covered by standing waters and that is why they were called ―The Lakes‖.
The majority of the historical writers (Euripides, Theogenis, Polivios, Vergilios, Aineias
and Statios) describe the Spartan valley as a very fertile land, however not extensively
cultivated due to frequent flooding of the valley when the river overflowed. They also
provide information concerning the flora of the area which included wetlands species
such as reeds, laurels, myrtles and additionally olive trees near the river banks. The
greatest source of references for the Evrotas catchment area are the writings of
Pausanias
who
provided
several
information
concerning
mainly
the
hydrological
conditions of the river. Specifically he mentioned the periodic increase of the water level;
which was later affirmed by Cicerones as well. In addition, Pausanias and other ancient
authors, both Greek and Roman, mentioned that the Evrotas R. and Alpheios R. had
common springs1 in the Assea of Megalopolis. They described that both rivers shared a
common drainage for approximately twenty stadiums2 and separated after entering into
a land gap. Evrotas would appear again in the area of Veleminatida from the springs of
Pellanitida and Lageia. Finally, Pausanias refers to some hydraulic projects that were
conducted in the area. The aim of these projects was the agricultural development of the
greater part of the fertile Laconia land and the protection of the communities. Vivid
examples were the irrigation of the Velemina area, the drainage of the Trinasos swamp,
which overflowed again not being well maintained, and the construction of the Sparta
aqueduct which pumped water from the Vivari springs.
Modern times
During 19th century the references of Greek and foreigner authors are similar to the
previous ones, but they also provide information about the development of the area. As
agricultural activities are concerned, Mansolas (1875) describes that there was an
increase in agricultural production not only for self consumption but also for trade
purposes. During the second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century the
basic agricultural products of Laconia were olive oil and olives, mulberry leaves, acorns
and figs. That same period, an expansion in the variety of cultivations occurred. Mansolas
mentions the intense land reclamation which took place. The majority of the new land
created was used for the cultivation of wheat, cereals, small cultivations of tobacco and
vineyards. Finally, during that period citrus cultivations started to expand. By the end of
the century these cultivations had increased in such degree that the citrus were
considered as the basic agricultural products of Laconia.
From 1900 and for several decades the river had maintained its natural characteristic. In
the beginning of this century the first flood events are officially recorded. Specifically, in
October 1902, its precipitous waters drifted the Kopanos bridge, which was built in 1749
1
2
See Travels in the Morea with maps and plans. By William Martin Leake, Vol III p. 37
1 stadium is 185 meters
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(Anonymous, 1922). In the 1930‘s and 1940‘s the Evrotas River overflowed during the
intense autumn and winter rainfalls and drifted everything in his pass (even humans). At
that time extensive riparian forests existed which minimized the impacts of floodings. In
addition, in order to prevent the river water to move into their cultivations, the farmers
had planted trees and bushes in the river banks which served as natural ―green‖ barriers.
As time went by, dense scrubs were created near the river, which became known as the
‗‗Evrotas Scrub‘‘. Many hydrophilous trees were growing there, converting it into an
impermeable jungle during spring. The scrub sheltered a large number of animals: small
mammals, amphibians, reptiles and mainly birds both endemic and emigrating species
(Anonymous, 1922). According to Grigoris (2000), the major tributary of Evrotas, Oinous
(or Kelefina) also presented in some periods of the year extreme floods and as so the
farmers used the same techniques described above (building green barriers) to prevent
the flooding of their cultivations. Similarly to ancient years, Evrotas exhibited permanent
flow along its whole length and throughout the year. Evidence of the above constitutes
the natural or artificial swimming pools which were formed, and which accommodated
many swimmers during summer, as for instance the natural swimming pool at Stefani
near Sparta. Pools that were found in hollows of the river were had great depths. Another
evidence of Evrotas permanent flow was the existence of fish both in the main river and
its tributaries. The inhabitants of the area used to fish fishes and eels using several
techniques.
During 1950‘s, several studies and projects were carried out in the area in order to
reduce the floods, increase the cultivated and irrigated land and limit the danger of
malaria coming from the swamps. In the 1960‘s, large scale hydrological, irrigation, land
reclamation and drainage projects were meterialised, including swamp drainage, control
of stream flow in the Evrotas tributaries, alignment of the lower part of river, drillings for
groundwater abstraction and construction of aqueducts for the water supply of Laconia.
At the end of 1970 and beginning of 1980, a project for the drainage of Trinasos swamp
at the river estuaries was carried out for agricultural development. Finally, in the 1990s,
construction projects were conducted near the estuary, in order to lift and support the
river banks as a flood control measure.
As it concerns the water level of Evrotas River, the Great Geography - Atlas of Greece,
informs us for the decade 1950 that the river had a lot of water in winter but in summer
the water level was so low that in some parts the river was passable by foot. Also, other
reference sources (Anonymous, 1922) state that the shrink of the river and its flushy
character resulted from deforestation and exploitation of water resources. Drepanias
(1981) states that: «In past years Evrotas R. retained water during the year. In recent
years, however, the decrease of precipitation combined with water abstractions resulted
to the desiccation of a large section between the villages of Skoura and Pyri». In
addition, Grigoris (2000) states that: «...This is not the wide Evrotas that we knew but a
miserable dry stream. In the great drought in the early „90s, the once „„haughty body‟‟ of
Evrotas was pierced by numerous drillings ... ». He also stated for Oinous tributary that:
«...Kelefina seems now powerless and pathetic like a dry stream and is not any more
permanently flowing as previously used to be».
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The extent of desiccation during the project
Information was collected during field expeditions and from personal communications
with the Direction of Land Reclamation, Laconia Prefecture (DLR) (V. Papadoulakis) the
Geotechnical Office of Skala (V. Lerikos) and various locals. All evidence suggests that
there are numerous water abstraction points for irrigational uses scattered over the
entire basin (Fig. 5.3.24). There are many permanents weirs which divert water to the
agricultural fields, while during late spring and summer many more weirs are being
temporarily installed for irrigational
purposes. Pump
stations, both
private and
communal, and drillings have been established throughout the length of Evrotas and
particularly at the area of Karavas and immediately downstream. Irrigation from surface
and groundwater is prohibited from Pellana - Sellasia Bridge (near Pellana village) to
Skala at a distance of 300m from the river‘s banks. However, there are many private
pump stations which are not being regulated or controlled by local authorities.
Many reaches of the Evrotas River main course dry out during the summer for many
kilometres, even in normal hydrological years. In addition, most streams that discharge
into the Evrotas River dry out at the mid and lower reaches, and few only retain water at
their upstream reaches near the springs. In the past, the Oinous, the most important
tributary of Evrotas, used to retain water throughout the year; nowadays it retains water
only at its upper reaches and in few spring areas midway. The three important streams
at south-western Taygetos (Gerakaris, Rasina and Kakaris) retain during the summer
period water only at their upper reaches, and occasionally in some middle portions, again
due to water abstraction. The same occurs in the three important streams of northwestern Taygetos (Vrysiotiko, Kastaniotiko, Kardaris). Magoulitsa is a stream small in
length but with significant water volume, supplied by the springs of Trypi. Again, due to
irrigation and abstraction for the water supply of Sparta, this stream does not reach the
Evrotas R. during the summer.
Figure 5.3.25 illustrates the hydrological pattern of Evrotas River from the wet period
(April) until the end of the dry period (September-October) in the year 2007. It is evident
that most reaches along the main course of Evrotas desiccate completely by the end of
the summer. In the hydrologically adverse year 2007, few only parts of Evrotas retained
flow: a segment near the estuaries, a small gorge located about 5 km downstream of the
Evrotas springs, and another small segment about 3 km long downstream of Vivari
karstic springs. Furthermore, most tributaries of Evrotas River have dried out, while
some maintained water only at their upper reaches. In several parts of the Evrotas and
its tributaries, however, small pools with stagnant water were formed. Despite absence
of flow, these pools with remaining water are critically important for the maintenance of
aquatic life, especially fish, and serve as sources of migrants and recruits for the recolonisation of the river once flow is re-established. For example, within the Vrodamas
Gorge there are several pools ranging from 5 to 10 m in diameter which sometimes
reach a depth of 3m. Water is reserved in these pools throughout the year or at least
most of the year. Many large pools were also formed downstream from Vivari springs for
about 400-600m, 500m upstream Sparta Bridge and at the area of Skoura-Leukochoma.
As aforementioned, 2007 was a particularly dry year. However, despite precipitation
increase in 2008, the hydrological picture in September 2008 did not change
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significantly. As for the year 2009, there are not yet signs of substantial hydrological
recovery, despite heavy winter precipitations. This evidence may suggest that dramatic
groundwater level lowering in the basin has prevented the establishment of normal flow
conditions.
Figure 5.3.24. Water abstractions (left) and diversions (right) in many locations in the main
course of Evrotas River and its tributaries.
Natural versus anthropogenic causes of desiccation
Hydrological Analysis
Within the last 35 years a long-term decrease of both rainfall and discharge in Evrotas
basin is evident (Fig. 5.3.26 & 5.3.27). According to data of six rain gauges in the
Evrotas basin, a severe draught affects the area every 7-8 years. The driest period (that
affected whole Europe) was 1989-94. Other severe draughts took place in 1977, in the
period 1983-86, in 2004, and finally during 2006-08. 2007 was very poor in rainfall and
the snow cover was very limited. In addition, three heat waves affected the area in
summer 2007 and created the conditions for catastrophic wild fires.
The mean annual discharge of Evrotas at Vrondamas (upstream the homonymous gorge)
was calculated at 3.302 m3/sec (74.4 mm/yr or 1.01 km 3/yr). Gaps in measurements
were filled by interpolation using a formula proposed by Skoulikidis (2002).
A comparison of the average rainfall of the initial decade of the time-series (1974-83) for
three gauging stations with the average rainfall of the last decade (1999-2008) of the
same stations reveals that the average rainfall diminished by 13% within the last decade.
A similar comparison of the discharge at Vrodamas (average discharge of initial decade:
5.214 m3/sec – average discharge of last decade: 2.400 m3/sec) shows that discharge
decreased by 53.2%. This fact provides evident for an ―artificial‖ discharge diminishing
the water supply in the Evrotas basin.
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Figure 5.3.25. Hydrological mapping of the Evrotas River Basin from spring (left figure) to end of summer (right figure) of 2007. The green
colour in the left figure represents the reaches with water. The orange colour in the right figure (October 2007) represents the reaches that
retained pools with water. The red marks illustrate the weirs established throughout the watershed. Blue lines represent the ideal hydrologic
network of the river basin.
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Sellasia
2500
2000
y = -0.0942x + 5.0296
8
R2 = 0.2297
7
Discharge (m3/s)
Rainfall (mm)
9
Kastori
Vassaras
1500
1000
500
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
1978
1976
1974
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
1978
1976
1974
Fig. 5.3.26 35-year rainfall variation at
the stations Sellasia, Kastori and Vassaras.
0
Fig 5.3.27. 35-year discharge variation at
Vrondamas and 5-year moving averages.
Data: Direction for Land Reclamation, Laconia Prefecture
Hydrograph analysis
Daily discharge was calculated from water level data obtained from seven automatic gauging
stations and wet cross section measurements. High values of discharge were observed in
less than 3% of the year. On an annual base, the Evrotas at Sparta Bridge requires less than
20% of the year to drain 50% of its water quantity. These figures underline the flashy
character of the river. The results also show that in summer 2007 water discharge in Evrotas
and its main tributary Oinus reached the zero point abruptly indicating the impact of intense
water abstractions during periods of low rainfall. On the contrary, the Evrotas at Vivari
desiccated more gradually due to the inputs of karstic springs.
Hydrological balance
To quantify the effects of agricultural water uses on Evrotas discharge, the water balance of
the river basin was estimated a) according to the current water uses and b) according to the
current water uses by abstracting the water used for irrigation of olive groves. This approach
was dictated by the fact that irrigation of olive trees has been recently introduced in the
basin. For that purpose, the components of the water balance were estimated for the period
1998-2000. The annual water balance of the basin was estimated by the classical equation
(Ward, 1975). The annual precipitation and the potential evapotranspitration (according to
Hamon‘s method) were 727 mm and 1586 mm, respectively. The real evapotranspitration
(according to Hillel‘s method, 1980) was 566 mm. Finally, 162 mm represented surface
runoff and infiltration. The annual water supply needs were 0.091 km 3 (250 lit/inh./day,
OECD, 2000). The irrigation water uses were estimated from the area and the water needs
of each cultivation (Papazafeiriou, 1999) at 0.287 km3 annually. Domestic consumption is
only 2% of the annual (surface and ground) water storages, while irrigation reaches 73%
and the remaining 24% covers the environmental demands (approx. 95x106 m3 annually).
The monthly water balance in the study basin was estimated with the Hilllel method (1980,
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soil moisture deficiency) for the period 1998-2000. For this process, the software ISBH
water balance (www.intersoft.tk) was used. The temporal distribution for the irrigation water
abstractions was based on the experience from other agricultural Greek catchments
(Zacharias et al., 2003), while 2/3 of the olive trees are irrigated according to DLR. The
cumulative water abstractions and storages were estimated from the monthly water budget.
The results of the monthly water budget analysis indicated that in the end of the hydrologic
period the remaining water resources in the catchment is less than 38mm (2.9 m3/s), while
the maximum water storages are estimated in February with 160 mm of water (12.3 m3/s).
77% of Evrotas basin agricultural land is covered by olive groves. The total irrigation needs
prior the irrigation of olive groves was estimated at 0.084 km3/year, i.e. 30% less than the
current uses. According to this scenario, the discharge at the river outflow during the dry
period was 9.4 m3/s, which is 70% higher than the recent one. Considering that 50 years
ago agricultural land was less extended than today it is realistic to assume that during that
time the summer discharge of the river was double, which is assumed to be enough to
maintain water flow throughout the year.
Assessment of the impacts of water management
Morphological impacts
Besides the severe impact of irrigation on the basin‘s water balance and the river‘s
hydrography, major impacts imposed by water and land management activities concern
morphological alterations that become detrimental to river habitats and biota. Within the last
decades, cultivations have been extended towards natural and semi-natural land. Nowadays,
many semi-mountainous areas are covered by olive groves. In many parts of the Evrotas
course, crops end where the river water starts. In order to protect the agricultural fields that
lie besides the river, and also in order to fascilitate the distribution of water into the
agricultural land, the riparian zone of Evrotas has been shrunk, straightened, embanked,
reinforced with grit or large stones or even with construction waste, while its natural
vegetation has been removed. Riparian forests known from the recent history of the area for
their role in flood control, were reduced dramatically (Dimopoulos et al., 2007).
Over the last decades, as a result of deforestation in mountainous and semi-mountainous
areas and climate change, the frequency of flood events has increased. For example, during
the period 1999-2006, five extreme events occurred (Nikolaidis et al., 2006). To protect
crops from flooding, the Laconia Prefecture regularly deepens river stretches by removing
river bed material in an inappropriate and often catastrophic manner for river habitats. The
recent (2007) wildfires raised concern over probable winter floods and led to the decision to
intensify flood-control interventions in the river bed and banks (removal of aquatic
vegetation, construction of flank levees using material extracted from the river bed). These
flood-control measures have adverse effects on the riverine habitats and ecosystems, in
addition to having a high economic cost associated with them. Moreover, their usefulness
against flooding events is doubtful, because the material deposited on the river banks will be
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flashed out and return to the river during the first severe flood event. We therefore question
the effectiveness and utility of such measures which also have negative impacts on the
biota. In addition, illegal extraction of river bed material for construction activities takes
place (e.g. huge amounts of gravel were removed from the river bed at Skoura to construct
a new bridge). Sand and gravel/pebble extraction occur particularly northern from Vivari
springs, around and downstream Sparta, at Skoura and Skala (Fig. 5.3.28). The intense
sand extraction north and south of Sparta has vanished any kind of sand and gravel from
the area and destroyed the natural habitats of the river.
A few decades ago (Special Protection Zone - NATURA 2000), the Evrotas at its downstream
(southern of Skala) was meandering and was marked by extensive floodplains and marshes.
This river section was straighten and embanked and the floodplain and the marshes turned
to agricultural land. The agricultural fields now extend up to the river banks, while
groundwater overpumping caused salinisation of coastal aquifers. Moreover, illegal housing
and extension of croplands up to the coastline caused the reduction of sand dunes area.
Morphological degradation results to habitat degradation or destruction, which results to
decreases in species diversity and to the formation of a relatively homogeneous
macroinvertebrate communities dominated by tolerant and generalist species with significant
abundances (Karaouzas & Gritzalis 2002; Karaouzas et al. 2007). River channel and riparian
habitat degradation may also be detrimental for macroinvertebrate species and their eggs
and through limiting nutrient and food availability, or preventing effective reproduction. Fish
species are also vulnerable to morphological degradation, in its various forms. Population of
habitat-specialist species, like Tropidophoxinelus Spartiaticus and Squalius keadicus are in
severe recession, mainly as a result of bed levelling or pebble abstraction, which has led to
loss of the specialised habitats these two species are utilising.
Figure 5.3.28. Construction waste at Evrotas banks few meters downstream Sparta‘s wastewater
treatment plant (left). Clearing and straightening of the Evrotas bed in the Skala region as a flood
control measure (right).
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The Evrotas river system in recorded HMS intersections presents great range regarding
modifications and in several cases is strongly modified. Better conditions appear in sites
of medium and high altitude, as well as in distant areas of the river. According to the
HMS, several reaches along the Evrotas main stem (at the area of Sparta, at Skoura and
downstream Skala) show severe modifications. Similarly, a number of tributaries are
significantly (e.g. the downstreams of Gerakaris and Kardaris, Kastaniotiko, Oinus at
Kelefina, Skatias and Ag. Kyriaki) or severely modified (e.g. the confluence of Gerakaris
and Rasina).
Impacts on water quality
Soil and water salinisation
Water management, and particularly intense irrigation, causes soil salinisation. Salts that
accumulate in the soils are then transferred into surface and groundwater and can raise
water salinity. At high concentrations, salt can adversely affect aquatic species, while
droughts additionally enhance this phenomenon (Skoulikidis, 2008). The positive
correlation between electrical conductivity and alkali ions of the examined stations with
the percentage of agricultural areas in the respective subcatchments of these stations
indicates a probable impact of agricultural practices (mainly irrigation) on the salt
balance of a number of water courses. However, this correlation is not strong as
observed elsewhere (Skoulikidis, 2008). Moreover, only two stations illustrated a
conductivity > 750 μS/cm, whereas all stations examined presented a SAR far below 3
(average 0.32) indicating an overall good irrigation water quality. Nevertheless, an
increase of sodium along the river‘s main course, points out to the existence of soil
salinisation processes, salinisation of downstream aquifers and sea salt aerosol
transportation.
Aquatic quality
Discharge strongly controls the dilution capacity of a water body and hence pollutant
concentrations. Low flow or standing waters enhance the development of aquatic
vegetation and the expression of eutrophication conditions (Fig. 5.3.29). The later may
lead to anoxic state. River water in summer showed increased nitrate and, especially,
ammonia levels (Fig. 5.3.30), compared to the wet periods as a result of discharge
reduction.
Figure 5.3.29. Typical explosive
development of algae during
summer 2007 in Evrotas at Sparta.
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May 06
0,25
Sept 06
March 07
NH4 (mg/l)
0,2
0,15
0,1
Evrotas
(River mouth)
Evrotas
(Skala)
Evrotas
(Skoura)
Evrotas
(SpartiKastori)
Evrotas
(upstream
WWTP)
Evrotas
(downstream
WWTP)
Gerakaris
(upstream)
Lagkada
(Trypi)
Oinous
Oinous
(middle
reach)
Oinous
(Karyes)
Vresiotiko
Kastaniotiko
0
Evrotas
Springs
0,05
Figure 5.3.30. Seasonal variation of ammonium concentration in Evrotas Basin.
In contrast, the oxygen concentration in summer does not show any statistical
differences compared to the wet periods, although water flow in a number of cases was
minimal, most probably due to strong photosynthetic activity during the time of
sampling.
Concluding, the summer flow reduction of Evrotas system, which is enhanced by
intense water abstraction, causes an increase in nutrient concentrations that in
turn foster eutrophication.
Impacts on biota (ichthyofauna)
Benthic invertebrates were excluded from the assessment of the impacts of desiccation
for the following reasons: most macroinvertebrate species are relatively resistant to
drought, they have the ability to recolonise former dry areas and it is difficult to
distinguish the effects of pollution from those of drought on their communities. In the
framework of the present project an ichthyological investigation was undertaken (see
2D.1 delivelable). The year 2007 was a particularly dry year and it was followed by a
generally wet year. These conditions offered a unique opportunity to study the effects of
drought on fish population. However, faced with an extreme in severity drought event
(that may become a normal feature for the Evrotas in the future due to the combined
effects of climate change and
escalating water abstraction), we undertook an
investigation aiming:

To examine how desiccation and the altered flow regimes modified the distribution
of fish species and affected fish abundance, species richness and fish community
structure.

To consider the role of water refugia (reaches retaining some flow and pools with
remaining water) on fish population dynamics during drought.
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
To study the re-colonisation processes from drought refugia and the rate of
reestablishment
of
the
depleted
populations
after
a
severe
hydrological
disturbance.
This study took place during 2007 and 2008 and was executed in parallel with the study
of ecological status classification through the use of an ichthyological multi-parametric
index. Eventually, common methodologies and and the same sampling network were
used in both studies (see 2D.2 deliverable). Briefly, the design of the sampling scheme in
the year 2007 took mainly into account the need to estimate the drought effects in the
fish assemblages. So as to meet the needs of the present study, additional sites were
added in areas where the phenomenon of drought was particularly intense. Special effort
was devoted to include sites in hydrologically adverse segments of the river (i.e.
suffering substantial reduction of flow and water level) in order to examine the effects of
drought on fish populations. In 2008, ichthyological surveys focused in the evaluation of
the post drought effects of the 2007 drought on populations. The capacity of the biota to
recover, the rate of recovery and the re-colonization routes from drought refugia (e.g.
upstream migration of adults or downstream transport of larvae) were examined through
monitoring changes of fish densities and size distribution in a number of stations.
Drought effects
The surveys conducted in 2007 clearly demonstrated adverse drought effects on fish
communities. In the drying areas fish either died or assemble at residual pools where
hyperthermia, anoxia and increased predation from birds and otters led to significant
mortality. An interesting comparison indicating drought effects was between samples
taken around the Sparta Bridge (Fig. 5.3.31, see section G) in different time periods,
namely spring and summer. In April 2007 this area had substantial flow and maintained
connections with upstream and downstream segments of the Evrotas. At sites, the
wetted river width exceeded 40m (e.g. downstream of the Sparta bridge). Flow reduction
through the season resulted to the decrease of the wetted width and the overall surface
area. In July the river channel downstream of the Sparta Bridge was less than 3m wide.
Thereafter this riverine section continued to shrink and in August almost all sites
downstream of the Sparta Bridge were completely dry. At the same time, hydrological
connectivity was disrupted because most upstream and downstream river segments were
dry. In the beginning of September the remaining wetted area was an isolated narrow
channel about 1km long. This area became a refuge for fish (and other aquatic
organisms) during the dry season. Fish previously dispersed over a wider wetted area
retreated and survived during the drought event in this narrow channel, albeit at
suboptimum conditions. We observed very high abundances of fishes in this channel,
which were previously dispersed over a much wider and longer area. However, fish
abundances and the composition of the community were very different than in the
previous spring. On the one hand, we observed that population densities of all species
area increased during the dry season, which was apparently the result of fish aggregating
in greatly reduced areas/volumes of water as the river dried up. Therefore, inferences of
the effects of drought events on fish population dynamics based on population densities
may be misleading, because concentration of fish in reduced space (e.g. narrow channels
or few remaining pools) leads to increases in ―apparent‖ fish densities, even though the
overall population size in the broader area has declined severely. On the other hand, the
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fish community structure in the Sparta bridge area changed through the dry season, with
S. keadicus dominating downstream of the Sparta bridge in April but becoming the
dominant species upstream of the Sparta bridge in July and August. Our interpretation of
this changing distribution pattern is that S. keadicus, being a cold-water and strongly
rheophilic species with high oxygen demands, tended to migrate to the upstream limits of
the wetted area, where there was some influx of groundwater, in order to reduce the risk
of death from hypoxia and hyperthermia.
The survey design, the time and means available did not allowed to assess the
magnitude of fish population losses due to the drought event. However, considering that
about 80% of the main river course and almost all of its tributaries dried up during the
2007 desiccation, we assert that fish mortalities were enormous. Indeed, large sections
of the river were left for 40 to 120 days without flow in late spring – autumn 2007.
Effectively, all or nearly all fish in these areas died. Although freshwater fish are
generally mobile, able to escape harsh conditions by migrating upstream or downstream
to find more favourable areas, fish movements were prevented by progressive habitat
isolation. Shallow areas were the first to dry with the reduction of flow. Surface flow
sometimes ceased across riffles, setting barriers to dispersal. Fish were thus trapped in
deeper sites, which progressively shrank, and finally dried out.
Low flow 2007
inds/1000m2
1000
800
DRY
600
DRY
DRY
DRY
400
200
0
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
F
G
H
inds/1000m2
High flow 2008
1000
800
600
N/S
400
200
0
B
C
D
E
inds/1000m2
Low flow 2008
P. laconicus
T. spartiaticus
S. keadicus
1000
800
DRY
600
400
200
0
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
River sections of the main channel of Evrotas River
Figure 5.3.31. Total abundance of the three endemics fish species and comparisons between low
and high periods.
Refugia during the drought event
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The sections which remained wet during the dry season provided refugia from harsh
physical conditions and were also a source of fish for recolonization after flows reestablished in the rainy season. Dry-season refugia were of different types (small or
longer reaches maintaining flowing waters, shallow or deeper pools) and varied in
suitability and functional importance for different fish species and life stages. Deep run
and pool refugia seem to play a key role in the maintenance of the Evrotas fish species,
first because they usually show a higher probability of persisting through the dry season
and second because large water bodies are less affected by ambient air temperatures
and other physical extremes than smaller water bodies. Moreover, crowding of fish in
reduced space strengthened biotic interactions, leading to reduced food availability and
increased vulnerability to aquatic and terrestrial predators. Generally, large bodied S.
keadicus individuals appeared to be more sensitive to hyperthermia and oxygen
deprivation than smaller-bodied ones and individuals of other species. Most probably,
large-bodied S. keadicus is also highly vulnerable to predation by otter, which was the
main fish predator in the study area (other fish predators such as eel, trout and aquatic
snakes did not occur at densities high enough to justify a significant predatory impact).
Otter activity was most heavily concentrated in deep pools, as indicated by the high
incidence of occurrence of otter feces containing fish scales and bones around pools.
Post drought effects and recolonization
The surveys initiated in April 2008 were designed to answer whether, to which extent
and how quickly a fish community will recover from the perturbation induced by extreme
drought in summer 2007:
1. Our data show great declines in population abundance in spring 2008 in
comparison to spring 2007. Such declines were evident mainly in sites which
experienced the effects of drought. However, much reduced population abundance
was also observed in some sites that did not dry. For example, we caught very
few fish in sites around the bridge of Sparta (sites K_Sparta and Us Gef Spartas)
where, in the period from April to August 2007, enormous fish concentrations
were recorded. To some extent, this low fish density in April 2008 may be the
result of poor electrofishing sampling efficiency due to wide and deep habitats at
this site. However, we are confident that the main reason of poor catches was low
fish density, as considerable effort was devoted to sample different stretches and
a variety of habitats. Moreover, we noticed that reproductive activity in this site
was extremely low. In fact, we detected only one small shoal of P. laconicus
larvae, whereas in the equivalent period of 2007 this same area was found to be
swarming with larvae and fry. Therefore, poor catches seems to be a true
reflection of scarcity of fish in this area in 2008.
2. Fish populations had already started to re-colonise, albeit slowly, the areas
affected by the drought. Our evidence suggests that re-colonisation occurred
mainly through passive downstream dispersion of young of the year or small sized
individuals (Fig. 5.3.32) from drought refugia. Figure 5.3.32 presents the
recolonization of the dry areas where the majority of the colonizers are young of
the year individuals. Undoubtedly, such refugia play a critical role in promoting
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population re-establishment processes and thereby the persistence of native fish
populations. In normal years, the Evrotas river fish populations appear resilient to
the occurrence of droughts, and they tend to recover shortly after the cessation of
the dry period. The 2007 drought, however, was very severe, and the rate of recolonisation was extremely slow. In 2008, the fish communities in the affected
areas did not show signs of significant recovery. The rate of recovery can vary
from area to area and is a function of various factors, such as: number and
quality of the drought refugia that will provide the colonists, number of remaining
fish in the refugia, distance of the affected area from the refugia, features
affecting longitudinal connectivity, current habitat conditions, and availability of
suitable microniches in the affected areas. Various human constructions in the
Evrotas, such as the high pedal of the Pelana Bridge and many small irrigation
dams along the river‘s route, bare fish reinvasions from downstream refugia.
Finally, recovery rates may differ among species, depending on migratory
patterns, habitat preferences and life-history traits such as body size, timing and
duration of the breeding season, reproductive age and reproductive effort.
Low flow 2007
100%
80%
60%
DRY
40%
DRY
DRY
20%
0%
Low flow 2008
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
B
C
E
F
G
H
River sections of the main channel of Evrotas river
S.keadicus >5cm
T.spartiaticus >5cm
S.keadicus <5cm
T.spartiaticus <5cm
Figure 5.3.32. Size comparisons of S. keadicus and T. Spartaaticus in low flow periods of 2007
and 2008. In 2007, G section dried after sampling.
According to our data, T. Spartaaticus was the species which was mostly adversely
affected by the drought. Indeed, the extremely small number of individuals of this
species sampled in 2008 indicates that the populations are near to the limits of collapse.
This fact, coupled with evidence of poor reproductive success of T. Spartaaticus, in 2008
(at least in the northern and middle part of Evrotas), may suggest that the re-
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establishment of the populations may be very slow. However, we did not sample the
lower portion of the Evrotas, e.g. the area downstream of the bridge of Skala, which
seems to be a stronghold for this species. A significant factor that may slow down the
rate of recovery of this species is that the flood defence engineering works caused a
substantial damage to backwaters, pools and vegetated habitats that are mostly used by
this species. On the contrary, P. laconicus appeared to be less sensitive to the drought
effects, as significant concentrations of this species were recorded at places with suitable
habitat conditions. This species possesses life-history traits such as small body size, early
maturation and protracted spawning season, which reflects resistance to low water levels
and rapid colonisation efficiency. Furthermore, spawning activity (presence of larvae and
fry) of P. laconicus was observed in various places. For the above reasons, it may take
long, perhaps years, for the fish communities to recover fully. We speculate that a
sequence of harsh events such as a series of hydrologically adverse summers or flash
flooding events in winter may delay recovery and/or result in significant modifications to
community structure. Local extinctions during years of severe drought are not unlikely.
This has already happened in several streams which were once perennial and historically
harboured fish, and now have temporary flow characteristics. The anticipated climate
change may act additively to the already elevated water abstraction, turning the Evrotas
to an intermittent river that may not be able to support fish.
Synthesis – Assessment of drought effects on fish communities
Summer droughts, arising from a combination of natural causes and water abstraction,
are becoming an increasingly more frequent phenomenon in the Evrotas. Droughts
generate major impacts on the survival of fish, and also influence growth and
reproductive activities; thereby, they affect densities and size or age structure of
populations. The effects of droughts on the Evrotas fish populations are of two kinds:
direct and indirect. Direct effects include death from hypoxia or hyperthermia, habitat
contraction or deterioration, loss of connectivity among river segments and poor
reproductive success. Indirect effects include changes in food web structure that may
result to food limitation, competition due to confinement in small living space, elevated
predation, increased parasite load, evolutionary changes in life-history traits and changes
in gene frequency because of ‗bottleneck‘ effects. The impacts of human-induced
droughts (through water abstraction) exacerbate the stresses already experienced by fish
populations by other causes, such as flood control engineering, introduction of exotic
species and deterioration of water quality due to organic pollution. It is not easy to
determine the specific mechanisms underlying population declines or the exact reason of
death of individuals, because several stressful agents can have interactive effects on
individuals or populations (for example, individuals stressed by food limitation or oxygen
depletion are more vulnerable to predation by otter and birds). However, we can see the
overall effect of droughts on fish populations through estimations of mortality rates and
assessments of re-colonisation and recovery rates. A specially designed study should be
launched to address these issues in a quantitative way. It might be argued that the
Evrotas fishes are adapted to harsh and highly variable ecological conditions, because
they have been subject to consistent selective pressure for droughts during the course of
their evolutionary history. However, our historical hydrological data indicate that, at least
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until the 1950s, drought events were rare and locally restricted. It may therefore happen
that the Evrotas fishes have not evolved specific adaptive strategies to face drought. In
extreme years as during the prolonged drought during the years 1988-1992, fish nearly
reached the edge of their tolerance limits to drought effects. Therefore, they may be
evolutionarily unprepared to tolerate further stressors in a future period of prolonged and
extreme drought. This again reiterates the need for studies examining (a) the status of
native fishes especially during and after drought periods, (b) the species‘ resistance
mechanisms for drought, and (c) the resilience of the fish communities to drought,
especially with regard to reproductive efficiency and dispersal abilities after droughts.
Risk assessment - Management considerations
The hydrological data presented in this report reveal general trends towards reduced
precipitation and increased inter-annual variability, which is likely the consequence of
ongoing climate change. In the future, the magnitude and frequency of summer droughts
is likely to increase due to the combined effect of climate change and growing demands
for water by agricultural. The ichthyological surveys yielded results demonstrating
that the summer 2007 drought has caused substantial mortality that may
produce long-term effects on fish assemblages. More severe droughts expected
under altered future climates and elevated water consumption may result in severe
declines or extinctions of sensitive species. Concurrently, floods during the wet season
are becoming more common, partly as a result of (a) loss of the floodplains that were
important for buffering extreme water fluctuations in river flow during flooding episodes,
and (b) the clearing of riparian forests, which provided protection against bank erosion.
The occurrence of such floods generates further stress to fish populations, exacerbating
the stresses already experienced due to the drought events. Changing drought and flood
regimes thus need to be duly considered in the development of conservation strategies
for the Evrotas fish species. Better management of the Evrotas during and following
droughts and floods is of critical importance for the protection and persistence of the
native fish community. Reducing unnecessary water consumption is probably the most
viable conservation strategy for protecting the water resource and the water-dependent
organisms. Some additional actions in the direction of alleviating the adverse impacts of
human induced disturbances are considered below.

Both the survival of fish during droughts and the rate of recovery following
droughts depend strongly on the existence of suitable microhabitats and deep pool
refugia, as well as on the existence of sufficient connectivity among habitat
patches. Gravel abstraction and engineering works associated with flood control
operations (e.g. river straightening, levelling and flanking) generate substantial
damage to fish habitats and they also reduce the availability of drought refugia.
Therefore, it is important to include the issue of fish habitats and fish refugia (e.g.
deep pools) in future water management projects. Morphological disturbances
affecting
fish
habitats
(gravel
abstraction,
embankment)
or
fragmenting
populations through impeding fish movements (dams and bridges preventing fish
passage) should be minimised to the degree possible. Environmental impacts
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assessments
through
the
cooperation
of
competent
scientists
should
be
undertaken when river regulation or agricultural projects are implemented.

Water abstraction represents the greatest threat to the Evrotas fish and other
elements of the biota. Maintenance of ecological flows until the end of the dry
season, in at least some reaches, is a critical issue. It is suggested that some
spring-fed reaches should be set aside and protected from overpumping. Possible
areas to be included in the protection scheme are spring-fed sections of the
Evrotas at Vivari and at confluence of the river with the Kollyniatiko stream.
Another possible refugial area is at a middle portion of the Oinous stream, where a
thriving S. keadicus population still persists. To support human activities which
depend on water and are socially advantageous, alternative sources of water
should be considered where possible.

Due to isolated large pools play an important role in fish survival and the recovery
process, some areas known to maintain large pools should be included in the
protection scheme. In this context, care should be taken for the maintenance of
pool water throughout the dry period (e.g. these pools should not be pumped in
particularly dry years). Because of the hydraulic connection between surface water
and groundwater, restrictive measures for groundwater pumping in the designated
protected areas should also be considered.

Native fishes should be watched closely, especially following periods of drought.
Long-term monitoring of the water resources (water quantity and quality) and the
fish living in the Evrotas should be established with the two-fold objective to
constantly assess the conservation status of fish populations and to evaluate the
influence of anthropogenic disturbances on the ecosystem.
Impacts on riparian vegetation
Until recently, riparian zone assessments are usually not included in evaluations of
environmental assessments, although riparian forests constitute significant ecological
pathways and refuges for terrestrial
and aquatic biodiversity, predominately in
landscapes marked by intense anthropogenic modifications and seasonally extreme arid
conditions, such as in the case of Evrotas river.
The preliminary assessment undertaken within this project has shown that
along the main course of Evrotas, only six outstanding riparian woodland stands
remain today. Along most river segments, the riparian woodland is either eliminated or
severely degraded. The examined stands showed a variety of riparian woodland
resources in various states of ecological status. A large proportion of the examined
stands were in moderate condition, and although vegetation quality and channel
condition scored relatively high within the QBR sub-scores, total vegetation cover and
vegetation cover structure sub-scores were low in more than half of all surveyed sites.
Conclusions and Recommendations
From the analysis presented above it becomes apparent that intense water abstractions
for irrigation during the last decades substantially affected the hydrological regime of the
Evrotas river network which has thus become intermittent. The following facts and
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evidence support this: a) historical analysis of information, which reveals that in the past
the Evrotas was a perennial river, b) the existence of fish in the majority of its tributaries
in the recent past, c) the dramatic diminishing in river runoff, which is the highest
compared with 10 major Balkan rivers (Skoulikidis et al., 2009; Skoulikidis, 2009), d) the
abrupt interruption of river flow at Sparta and Kelefina bridges in summer (contrary to
Vivari area, where supporting karstic springs lead to a more gradual decrease of river
flow) and e) the estimation that the water balance without olive groves irrigation would
ensure a substantial increase of summer flow.
Climatic models predict a reduction in precipitation in the Mediterranean, with an
increased frequency and severity of droughts and a reduction of summer and autumn
river runoff. At the same time, agriculture will require more water especially in the hotter
drier regions. An increase in water temperatures and lower river flows in the south will
also affect water quality (EEA, 2009). In the case of Evrotas river, surface runoff has
dramatically diminished and groundwater levels have severely dropped. Hence, climate
change will further deteriorate aquatic quantity and quality. The ichtyological research
illustrated how the 2007 draught caused significant fish deaths that may affect the
community composition in the long term. The fish communities may take years to
recover, and only if hydrological disturbances will not occur in the meanwhile. However,
the frequency of summer desiccation appears to rise diachronically due to the increase of
water abstractions. A series of dry summers or extreme flood events may slow down the
recovery process of the communities and/or significantly affect their structure. To control
floods and for construction purposes, massive exractions of inert material from the river
bed takes place thus causing the disappearance of several habitat types and summer
refuges (deep water pools) with dramatic consequences mainly on the fish fauna. It
should be noted that if the ecological status of tributaries would be based on
ichthyofauna, the vast majority of them would be termed (with expert judgment) poor or
bad. Hence, a better management approach of Evrotas basin is urgently needed.
In the following, a number of actions are proposed to be applied in the framework of the
Evrotas River Basin Management Plan to reduce adverse effects in the river system:
Reduction of water abstractions
A scenario focusing on reducing the irrigation water use by 40% is proposed.
The implementation of that measure will improve the hydrological balance of the basin
(Fig. 5.3.33). The surface and subsurface runoff in summer will increase from 2.9 to 6.5
m3/s (increase by 2.25 times). This would have positive effects on the conservation of
aquatic and riparian ecosystems and would diminish river bank erosion. The proposed
scenario is feasible through the improvement of the irrigation systems (installation of
closed pipes) and the implementation of best agricultural practices (drip irrigation,
development of irrigation systems according to the water needs of plants and the soil
moisture), restructuring of agriculture, etc.
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Figure 5.3.33. Monthly surface and subsurface runoff according to the current hydrological
balance and according to a 40% irrigation water reduction scenario.
Minimisation of morphological modifications
The survival of aquatic biota and especially of fish during summer draught directly
depends on the existence of deep remaining ponds that act as refuges, and over and
above on the connectivity between aquatic habitats. Hence, morphological alterations,
such as leveling and extraction of river bed material should be minimised. It is worth
noting that the effectiveness of the currently applied flood control works (levee
construction using inert material taken from the river bed) is doubtful, since gravels and
pebbles tend to be transported again to the river bed during the next flood event. Finally,
it is recommended Environmental Impact Assessment Studies concerning river corridor
arrangement or land reclamation works should take into account the opinion of experts.
In addition, it is of first priority to protect and restore riparian vegetation. Riparian
vegetation plays an important role not only for flood control but also in improving instream aquatic quality and ecological conditions. Thus, there are important opportunities
for conservation and restoration riparian woodlands within the frame of Evrotas River
Basin Management Plan.
Up-to-date flood control measures
Current flood control measures are implemented in the plain areas with doubtful results,
as previously mentioned. Such measures are large scale interventions, bearing high
economical cost and having dramatic effects on aquatic and riparian habitats. The
implementation of flood control measures on the mountainous and semi-mountainous
part of the basin, with afforestations, construction of small reservoirs and inhibitory
weirs,
artificial
groundwater
recharge
and
conservation/remediation
of
riparian
vegetation in the riparian zones, should be the first priority (Mariolakos et al., 2007;
Dimitriou, 2007). This will inhibit flood generation processes. Flood control measures
should be mild and combinational in order to conserve landscapes and disturb water
balance. The uncontrollable development on floodplains significantly affects the extend
and spatial display of floods. It is hence recommended to designate flood
protection zones, where specific activities will be prohibited and may hinder
floods to proceed downstream.
Protection and conservation of fish fauna
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In the first instance, it is proposed that a perennial flow regime will be maintained, at
least in certain areas which are of vital importance for fish conservation and
management. We identified four areas of conservation priority, all of which
include reaches fed by important springs: the Vivari and the Skoura areas, the
Evrotas segment upstream the confluence of Kolliniotiko stream, and the Oinous midway.
We recommend that these areas should be included in a management plan and be
protected from surface water abstraction, while groundwater abstraction should be
carefully regulated and should be designated as core areas for fish conservation. Bearing
in mind that the fish fauna of the Evrotas contains unique range-restricted endemics, it is
proposed that the local fish communities should be monitored on a regular basis to
ensure that any impacts from human activities or water management measures are
detected as early as possible. Special consideration must be given to the evaluation of
the population status and trends during drought periods, when the frequency of sampling
should increase. A monitoring programme designed to provide assessment of the
chemical and ecological status of the Evrotas river is to be established, in accordance
with the demands of the Water Framework Directive. With slight modifications and
expansions, this programme can well accommodate the needs of fish conservation so
that to provide on a routine basis information on the status of fish populations and
assessments of the human impacts on the ecosystem. Finally, it is important that a study
will be undertaken to examine the minimum flow requirements in the area of the
scheduled construction of in the Oinous R. dam, and this study will take into account the
results of the present study.
The implementation of the proposed actions will be only possible in the framework of an
Integrated Management Plan of Evrotas River Basin. The development and continuous
update of such a Plan will serve as the basis for water resources management, protection
and conservation of the ecosystem both during ―normal‖ hydrological years as well as
when extreme climatic events occur.
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Appendix:
Detailed Water Quality and Ecological Quality Results
Table 1. Habitat Modification Score (HMS) and Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA) of the examined
Evrotas Basin stations related to specific pressures.
Canalisation
Halting-crossings
Algae
Aquatic plants in river channel
1
78
~
~
~
~
~
~
***
**
2
Kastaniotiko
17
66
*
*
*
*
*
*
***
**
3
Vresiotiko
1
81
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
*
4
Evrotas Springs (Scortchinou)
7
88
~
*
*
~
*
*
***
***
5
Evrotas (Palaiochora)
0
92
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
**
6
Kotitsanis (downstream)
1
87
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
***
7
Oinous (mid-reach)
1
69
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
**
9
Oinous (Karyes)
2
86
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
***
10
Oinous (Kelefina Bridge)
17
51
*
**
**
*
*
~
*
*
11
Oinous (upstream Kelefina B.)
2
79
~
~
~
~
*
~
**
*
12
Oinous Tributary (Sofroni)
1
82
~
~
~
~
*
~
**
**
14
Lagkada (upstream)
0
92
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
*
15
Lagkada (Trypi)
1
94
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
**
16
Lagkada (Vatopouleika)
18
79
*
~
~
*
*
~
**
***
17
Skatias (Palaiologio)
11
66
**
**
*
~
**
~
*
*
18
Paroritis (Paroreio)
4
76
*
~
~
~
~
~
**
**
19
Tyflo (Riviotissa)
6
68
*
*
~
~
**
~
**
*
20
Mylopotamos (Ag.Kyriaki)
25
44
*
**
*
*
*
~
*
*
21
Skatias (Nikolareika)
17
49
*
*
*
~
*
~
**
**
22
Magoulitsa (downstream)
27
38
*
*
***
*
*
~
**
*
23
Perdikaris
18
42
*
*
*
*
*
~
**
*
24
Nikova (Roman Aquaduct)
4
79
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
**
25
Xerilas
2
85
~
~
~
~
**
~
***
***
26
Evrotas (Pellana-Sellasia Bridge)
4
74
~
~
~
~
*
~
**
**
27
Kardaris (downstream)
23
64
**
*
~
*
*
~
*
**
Site Number
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Hydrologic Types
Chaneel & Bank Modification
Kardaris (upstream)
Riparian Vegetation
Water Abstraction
1
HQA
Stream Name
HMS
General pressures and their characteristics
Halting-crossings
Algae
Aquatic plants in river channel
~
~
~
*
*
**
**
11
70
~
**
~
~
~
*
*
***
Kolliniotiko (Kollines)
8
81
~
~
~
~
*
~
***
**
34
Kotitsanis (Logkanikos)
5
67
~
*
~
~
~
~
**
**
37
Evrotas (Sparta-Kastori)
29
77
*
*
*
*
**
**
**
**
38
Evrotas (upstream WTTP)
45
57
*
***
*
*
*
**
**
**
39
Evrotas (downstream WTTP)
37
44
*
***
*
*
*
**
**
**
42
Kakaris (Dipotama)
4
82
~
~
~
~
*
*
***
**
44
Fteroti (Hellenistic Bridge)
14
77
*
*
~
*
*
~
***
***
46
Gerakaris (upstream)
8
76
*
~
~
~
~
~
**
**
47
Gerakaris (downstream)
22
68
*
*
~
*
*
~
**
*
48
Evrotas (Skoura)
26
70
*
*
~
~
**
**
***
*
49
Gerakaris-Rasina Confluence
27
61
*
*
*
*
**
~
*
**
50
Evrotas (Leukochoma)
14
69
*
*
~
~
**
*
**
**
51
Vasilopotamos
52
58
*
~
**
~
***
***
*
*
52
Evrotas (Skala)
88
58
*
***
***
*
***
**
*
**
53
Evrotas (estuary)
89
61
*
***
***
*
***
**
*
**
Site Number
Voutikiotis
30
Evrotas (Achouria)
31
~: no effect, *: slight effect, **: moderate effect, ***: significant effect
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Hydrologic Types
Canalisation
~
29
Riparian Vegetation
Chaneel & Bank Modification
80
HQA
6
Stream Name
HMS
Water Abstraction
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Table 2. Classification of the physico-chemical status of Evrotas basin sampling sites for the
hydrological year 2006-07. The mean of all seasons was considered as the final physico-chemical
status. Numbers represent scores, where high: >4-5, good: >3-4, moderate:>2-3, poor: >1-2 and
bad <1.
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
29
30
31
34
37
38
39
42
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Station name
Kardaris (upstream)
Kastaniotiko
Vresiotiko
Evrotas Springs (Scortchinou stream)
Evrotas
(Scortchinou)
(Palaiochora)
Kotitsanis (downstream)
Oinous (mid-reach)
Oinous (Karyes)
Oinous (Kelefina Bridge)
Oinous (upstream Kelefina B.)
Oinous Tributary (Sofroni)
Lagkada (upstream)
Lagkada (Trypi)
Lagkada (Vatopouleika)
Skatias (Palaiologio)
Paroritis (Paroreio)
Tyflo (Riviotissa)
Mylopotamos (Ag.Kyriaki)
Skatias (Nikolareika)
Magoulitsa (downstream)
Perdikaris
Nikova (Roman Aquaduct)
Xerilas
Evrotas (Pellana-Sellasia Bridge)
Kardaris (downstream)
Voutikiotis
Evrotas (Achouria)
Kolliniotiko (Kollines)
Kotitsanis (Logkanikos)
Evrotas (Sparta-Kastori)
Evrotas (upstream WTTP)
Evrotas (downstream WTTP)
Kakaris (Dipotama)
Fteroti (Hellenistic Bridge)
Gerakaris (upstream)
Gerakaris (downstream)
Evrotas (Skoura)
Gerakaris-Rasina Confluence
Evrotas (Leukochoma)
Vasilopotamos
Evrotas (Skala)
Evrotas (estuary)
Evrotas (Dafni)
Physico-Chemical Status
Spring Summer Winter Average
3,9
4,4
4,1
3,2
2,9
2,6
2,9
3,9
3,6
4,4
3,96
3,6
3,1
3,9
3,5
3,4
3,9
3,7
3,6
3,9
3,7
3,6
3,6
4,4
3,8
4,2
3,2
4,4
3,9
3,8
4,3
4,1
3,6
3,6
4,4
3,8
3,9
3,9
4,2
4,4
4,3
3,9
3,6
4,2
3,9
4,2
4,2
4,2
2,9
2,9*
3,6
4,4
3,95
2,5
2,0
2,3*
2,4
2,4
2,4*
3,1
3,3
3,2
3,9
4,2
4,02
3,1
3,1
3,6
4,1
3,8
3,6
4,1
3,8
3,6
3,6
3,6
4,3
3,9
3,6
3,6
3,6
3,6
3,9
3,7
2,8
3,8
3,3
3,9
3,6
4,2
3,9
3,6
3,9
3,6
3,7
3,2
3,9
3,9
3,6
3,2
2,6
4,1
3,3
3,6
4,3
3,9
3,6
4,1
3,8
3,6
4,0
4,0
3,8
3,2
4,3
3,7
2,6
3,2
2,6
2,8
3,2
4,0
3,6
2,5
3,6
3,04
3,6
3,7
3,6
2,9
3,2
2,6
2,9
3,9
3,6
3,7
3,6
3,6
*: pesticides have been included in the assessment system
Physico-chemical status (2006-07)/ Number of stations (%):
High: 5 (11.6%)
Good: 31 (72.1%)
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Moderate: 7 (16.3%)
Poor: 0
Bad: 0
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Table 3. Classification of the biological status of Evrotas Basin sampling sites for the hydrological
year 2006-07 based on macroinvertebrate fauna for all three seasons. The mean of all seasons was
considered as the final biological status. Numbers represent scores, where high: >0.94, good:
>0.72-0.94, moderate: >0.47-0.72, poor: >0.24-0.47 and bad <0.24.
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
29
30
31
34
37
38
39
42
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Station Name
Kardaris (upstream)
Kastaniotiko
Vresiotiko
Evrotas Springs (Scortchinou stream)
Evrotas (Palaiochora)
Kotitsanis (downstream)
Oinous (mid-reach)
Oinous (Karyes)
Oinous (Kelefina Bridge)
Oinous (upstream Kelefina B.)
Oinous Tributary (Sofroni)
Lagkada (upstream)
Lagkada (Trypi)
Lagkada (Vatopouleika)
Skatias (Palaiologio)
Paroritis (Paroreio)
Tyflo (Riviotissa)
Mylopotamos (Ag.Kyriaki)
Skatias (Nikolareika)
Magoulitsa (downstream)
Perdikaris
Nikova (Roman Aquaduct)
Xerilas
Evrotas (Pellana-Sellasia Bridge)
Kardaris (downstream)
Voutikiotis
Evrotas (Achouria)
Kolliniotiko (Kollines)
Kotitsanis (Logkanikos)
Evrotas (Sparta-Kastori)
Evrotas (upstream WTTP)
Evrotas (downstream WTTP)
Kakaris (Dipotama)
Fteroti (Hellenistic Bridge)
Gerakaris (upstream)
Gerakaris (downstream)
Evrotas (Skoura)
Gerakaris-Rasina Confluence
Evrotas (Leukochoma)
Vasilopotamos
Evrotas (Skala)
Evrotas (estuary)
Evrotas (Dafni)
Biological status (macroinvertebrates)
Spring
Summer Winter Average
0.785
0.536
0.660
0.505
0.724
0.775
0.668
0.914
1.165
0.968
1.016
0.77
0.519
0.644
1.153
1.001
1.077
0.979
0.910
0.944
1.329
1.000
1.082
1.137
1.198
1.187
1.193
0.783
0.783
1.045
0.955
1.184
1.061
1.263
1.263
0.631
0.990
0.810
0.677
1.012
1.215
0.968
1.112
1.014
1.063
0.917
0.630
0.769
0.690
0.636
0.663
0.221
0.218
0.219
0.462
0.331
0.396
0.676
0.575
0.620
0.992
0.718
0.855
0.710
0.710
0.934
0.986
0.960
0.997
0.984
0.986
0.838
0.838
1.01
0.731
0.868
0.91
0.983
0.947
0.973
0.844
0.908
0.544
0.544
0.959
0.767
0.782
0.836
0.968
1.053
1.074
1.032
0.667
0.597
0.771
0.678
0.707
0.681
0.694
0.949
0.485
1.195
0.876
1.034
0.715
0.874
1.050
1.072
1.007
1.043
0.819
0.819
0.391
0.784
0.278
0.484
0.299
0.299
0.501
0.394
0.448
0.756
0.780
0.768
0.801
0.907
0.854
0.760
0.823
0.792
0.390
0.390
Biological status (2006-07)/ Number of stations (%):
High: 14 (32.6%)
Good: 12 (27.9%)
Moderate: 8 (18.6%)
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Poor: 3 (7%)
Bad:1 (2.3%)
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Table 4. The ichthyological reference conditions for each biotic type.
Biotic
Type
Upper
Evrotas
Middle
Evrotas
Richness and Abundance
2 to 3 species
- S. keadicus>50 % of total abundance
Abundance varies in relation with
microhabitats and other parameters but
should be >300 individuals
4 to 5 (S. keadicus, P. laconicus, Τ.
Spartaaticus, A. anguilla and S. fluviatilis)
- Abundance should be >500 individuals
-Percentage of S. keadicus and
Conditions of Reproduction
Type specific species
In good habitat conditions
reproduction of the species S.
keadicus is observed.
S. keadicus
P. laconicus
High abundance of Τ. Spartaaticus
when appropriate habitats exist.
S. keadicus
P. laconicus,
Τ. Spartaaticus
Reproduction of S. fluviatilis
S. keadicus
P. laconicus,
Τ. Spartaaticus
A. anguilla
S. fluviatilis
Τ. Spartaaticus individuals should be >80%
Estuarie
s
-5 species (S. keadicus, P. laconicus,
Τ. Spartaaticus, A. anguilla and S. fluviatilis),
-High abundance >2000 individuals
- The dominant species is Τ. Spartaaticus
(>80%)
- Absence of invasive species
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Size classes
- S. keadicus: at least four
age classes, presence of
individuals > 15 cm.
Percentage of S. keadicus
individuals >10 cm should be
>60%
-S. keadicus at least three age
/size classes
- Τ. Spartaaticus (2 to 3 size
classes)
- Percentage of S. keadicus
individuals >10 cm should be
>60%
- Percentage of Τ.
Spartaaticus individuals >5cm
should be >70%
Percentage of Τ. Spartaaticus
individuals >5cm should be
>70%
Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
Table 5. The ichthyological multiparametric index. List of metrics that where selected for the
spatial based method and the values of metrics which correspond in the categories of ecological
quality. The values concern the data set for the index development.
Biological status
METRICS
High
Good
Moderate
Poor
Bad
Upper
Evrotas
3
2
1
1
0
Middle
Evrotas
4-5
3
2
1
0
Estuaries
5
4
3
2
0-1
Upper
Evrotas
>300
100300
50-100
5-50
<5
Middle
Evrotas
>500
300500
100-300
10-100
<10
Estuaries
>2000
10002000
200-1000
30-1000
<30
Estuaries
100%
90100%
70-90%
50-70%
<50%
Percentage of S. keadicus
Upper
Evrotas
>50%
4050%
20-40%
5-20%
<5%
Proportion of S. keadicus >10cm
Upper
Evrotas,
Middle
Evrotas
>60%
4060%
25-40%
5-25%
<5%
Proportion of (S. keadicus+T.
Spartaaticus)
Middle
Evrotas
>80%
6080%
40-60%
10-40%
<10%
Percentage of T. Spartaaticus
Estuaries
>80%
6580%
50-65%
10-50%
<10%
Proportion T. Spartaaticus >5cm
Middle
Evrotas,
Estuaries
>70%
5070%
30-50%
15-30%
<15%
Species‟ richness
Species‟ Abundance
Percentage of native species
Type
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Figures 9 & 10. The biological quality based on fish fauna for the years 2007 and 2008 (with ▲ are symbolized sites where the index did not
responded to the existing pressures).
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Table 6. Classification of the ecological status (ECO) of Evrotas Basin sampling sites for the
hydrological year 2006-07 based on hydromorphological (H-M), physico-chemical (P-C) quality
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
29
30
31
34
37
38
39
42
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Kardaris (upstream)
Kastaniotiko
Vrysiotiko
Evrotas Springs (Scortchinou stream)
Evrotas (Palaiochora)
Kotitsanis (downstream)
Oinous (mid-reach)
Oinous (Karyes)
Oinous (Kelefina Bridge)
Oinous (upstream Kelefina B.)
Oinous Tributary (Sofroni)
Lagkada (upstream)
Lagkada (Trypi)
Lagkada (Vatopouleika)
Skatias (Palaiologio)
Paroritis (Paroreio)
Tyflo (Riviotissa)
Mylopotamos (Ag.Kyriaki)
Skatias (Nikolareika)
Magoulitsa (downstream)
Perdikaris
Nikova (Roman Aquaduct)
Xerilas
Evrotas (Pellana-Sellasia Bridge)
Kardaris (downstream)
Voutikiotis
Evrotas (Achouria)
Kolliniotiko (Kollines)
Kotitsanis (Logkanikos)
Evrotas (Sparta-Kastori)
Evrotas (upstream WTTP)
Evrotas (downstream WTTP)
Kakaris (Dipotama)
Fteroti (Hellenistic Bridge)
Gerakaris (upstream)
Gerakaris (downstream)
Evrotas (Skoura)
Gerakaris-Rasina Confluence
Evrotas (Leukochoma)
Vasilopotamos
Evrotas (Skala)
Evrotas (estuary)
Evrotas (Dafni)
1
17
1
7
0
1
1
2
17
2
1
0
1
18
11
4
6
25
17
27
18
4
2
4
23
6
11
8
5
29
45
37
4
14
8
22
26
27
14
52
88
89
Final Report (Technical issue) – LIFE05 ENV/GR/00024
4.1
2.9
3.96
3.5
3.7
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.3
3.9
4.2
2.9
3.95
2.3
2.4
3.2
4.02
3.1
3.8
3.8
3.6
3.9
3.6
3.7
3.3
3.9
3.7
3.6
3.3
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
2.8
3.6
3.04
3.6
2.9
3.7
3.6
0.660
0.67
1.02
0.64
1.08
0.94
1.14
1.19
0.78
1.06
1.26
0.81
0.97
1.06
0.77
0.66
0.22
0.39
0.62
0.85
0.71
0.96
0.99
0.84
0.87
0.95
0.91
0.54
0.84
1.03
0.68
0.69
0.88
0.87
1.04
0.82
0.484
0.299
0.448
0.768
0.854
0.792
0.390
Municipal WW
Difuse
pollution
Fruit juice
Olive mills
Significant
abstractions
ECO
Β
P-C
Station Name
H-M
Station ID
elements and macroinvertebrate fauna (B) for all three seasons (WW: wastewater)
Χ
Χ
?
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
?
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
?
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
?
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
Χ
199/313
Χ
Χ
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Figure 11. Ecological status based on hydromorphological, physico-chemical quality elements
and the macroinvertebrate fauna for all three seasons
High: 0 (0%)
Good: 30 (69.8%)
Moderate: 8 (18.6%)
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Poor: 4 (9.3%)
Bad:1 (2.3%)
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26
Evrotas (Palaiochora)
Oinous (Kelefina Bridge)
Oinous (upstream Kelefina B.)
Evrotas (Pellana-Sellasia Bridge)
30
37
48
52
Evrotas
Evrotas
Evrotas
Evrotas
5
10
11
Ecological
status
2008
Β (F)
2006-7
2006-7
(Achouria)
(Sparta-Kastori)
(Skoura)
(Skala)
Β (F)
2008
Β(M)
2007
PC
2006-7
Station Name
H-M
2006-7
Station
Table 7. Classification of the overall ecological status (ECO) of Evrotas Basin sampling sites for
the hydrological year 2006-07 based on hydromorphological (H-M), physico-chemical (P-C) quality
elements, macroinvertebrate fauna (B) and ichtyofauna (F) for common sites (between fish and
macroinvertebrates).
E.J.
E.J.
2006-07: May 06 September 06, March 07
2007: September
2008: September
E.J.: expert judgement
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TASK 3 - Drainage canal and river bank management
1. Management of Drainage Canals
Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) inputs are essential for increasing agricultural
production and maintaining the economic viability of farming systems worldwide.
Increases in worldwide use of N fertilizers combined with average N use efficiencies of
50% have contributed to increase of N concentration of surface waters. Fertilized
farmland is frequently the main non-point source of nitrogen and phosphorus excess
input to surface and groundwater ecosystems (European Environment Agency, 1999). A
number of approaches have been identified to reduce nutrient (nitrate) losses to surface
waters including controlled drainage, diverting or directing drainage discharge through
natural or constructed wetlands, bioreactors-zones that surround or border the drain
pipes and in stream denitrification (Madramootoo et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007;
Burchell et al., 2005; Evans et al, 1995; Fausey et al., 2004; Skaggs et al., 2005; Herzon
and Helenius, 2008).
Agricultural drainage canals have been used in poorly drained agricultural landscapes for
regulating water retention to allow for crop production and for mitigating pollution
(nutrients, pesticides and herbicides) as well as for erosion prevention. Drainage canals
provide habitat to both aquatic and terrestrial biota and operate as nutrient pool due to
decomposition of OM (lacking otherwise in dry and intensively managed agricultural
areas). Drainage canals, usually situated in river deltas, which are areas of accumulation
of organic debris (sediment deposition) and growth of macrophytes, such as Phragmites
australis (common reeds) and Arundo donax (giant reeds). Such areas provide the
suitable anaerobic conditions and electron donors for denitrification (Hiscock and
Grischek, 2002). In addition, plants (like reeds) can also promote phosphorus absorption
onto the sand and prevent ammonia accumulation by the release of oxygen from the
roots. The removal of N in riparian wetlands, zones, strips and drainage canals is mainly
attributed to denitrification. Therefore, drainage canals are likely to act both as narrow
buffers in filtering runoff waters and phosphorus pools during the dormant stage.
Although, ditch performance has been shown to be highly variable, no holistic studies are
available on the functioning of small field drains, with or without permanent water
(Legacherie et al., 2006).
Plant N and P uptake is often considered less important compared to mitigation of
nutrients in riparian buffers due to denitification and phosphate adsorption in sediments.
Most of the nutrients uptaken by vegetation are released back into the water once the
vegetation dies and decomposes (Verchot et al., 1997; Schade et al., 1991). On the
other hand, a pan-European study demonstrated that annual N retention in vegetation
and litter accounts for 13-99% of the total mitigation (Hefting et al., 2005). Although
higher N uptake and retention is found in forested buffers, periodic harvesting of
herbaceous biomass contributes considerably to the N retention. It has been shown that
plants like reeds uptake nutrients during the growing period and release them back in
aquatic environment and their roots after the foliar period (Graneli et al., 1988).
Consequently, cutting the reeds the proper time, results in the overall reduction of
nutrients in the receiving surface water bodies (Nikolaidis et al., 1996).
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The chemistry of such systems is very complex with dissolve, colloidal and particulate
materials
biogeochemically
interacting
within
soils,
sediments,
and
organisms.
Elucidating the functioning of drainage canals in removal of chemicals will assist in the
design and implementation of water quality protection technologies (Needeman et al.,
2007), based on natural attenuation mechanisms. In Greece, 39000 hectares of such
canals exist in the delta plains of Evrotas, Achelloos, Aksios and other Rivers
(www.minagric.gr). The objective of this task was to assess the efficiency of natural
attenuation of nutrients in a drainage canal of the Evrotas River Delta and demonstrate
its efficacy as a remedial technology.
Methodology - The drainage canal under study was located in Evrotas River delta in
Greece and drained fields of orange groves (totally 4500 m2). The length of the canal was
180m and the width of the vegetated zone was approximately 1.5m. The average density
growth of both Phragmites australis and Arundo donax was 15 clones per m2. Plants
covered two distinct areas of 160 and 20m length for Phragmites australis and Arundo
donax, respectively.
To monitor the temporal 3-dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of surface
and ground water in the drainage canal, eleven multi-level (3, 4 and 5m) wells were
installed (Fig. 5.4.1). Field sampling (groundwater and surface water sampling) was
conducted in order to assess the fate and transport of nutrients as they move from the
groundwater to the drainage canal. In addition, laboratory studies were used to assess
the biogeochemical processes that control the Nitrogen and Phosphorous cycles and
evaluate the efficiency of the sediments to attenuate pollutants. Finally, the nutrient
(nitrogen and phosphorus) uptake fluxes by Phragmites australis and Arundo donax were
measured on a monthly basis in order to determine the timing of harvesting reeds that
will maximize the removal of nutrients by plant uptake but also keep the N/P ratio high
enough to avoid toxic algal blooms (Nikolaidis et al., 2005).
Multi-level probe clusters
Drainage
Canal
A1
A3
A2
Multi-level well clusters
A9
A4
Drainage
Canal
A7
A6
A5
A10
A11
A8
Figure 5.4.1. Multi-level probe design in relation to drainage canal.
Field hydrologic studies - The water depth of the wells was monitored on a monthly
basis. The hydraulic characteristics of the subsurface were determined by conducting
single well pumping tests and the infiltration capacity of the fields was estimated by
conducting in situ infiltration experiments. Horton‘s equation was used to obtain the
 kt 
infiltration rate ( f  f c   f co  f c   e
where fco and fc were the initial and final
infiltration rates and k was an empirical constant. The surface runoff (overland flow) to
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the drainage canal was estimated by converting the measured daily precipitation (Elos
station, at 4 m altitude) to hourly (WDMUtil version 2.2, Basin) and then subtracting the
infiltration rate. Potential water deficit was also estimated by subtracting daily potential
evapotranspiration (PET) (Hamon‘s equation) from precipitation.
Surface and ground water chemistry monitoring - The multilevel wells and the
drainage canal water were sampled every 2 months (11/06, 1/07, 3/07, 5/07, 7/07,
11/07, 3/08, 5/08), with a peristaltic pump with low flow (< 1 L/min), so as turbidity was
maintained in minimum levels, and the physicochemical parameters pH, temperature,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen (D.O.), and, redox potential (Eh) were measured in situ
using the following electrodes: Orion 9107 pH meter, Orion 081010 D.O. meter, and
Orion 011050 Conductivity meter. The samples were filtered through a 0.45 µm Nylon
filter and analyzed using a Hack 2010 spectrophotometer for nitrates (NO3-N, Cadmium
Reduction Method, 8039), nitrites (NO2-N, Diazotization Method, 8507), ammonia (NH3N, Salicylicate Method, 10023), phosphates (PO4-P, phosVer3 Method, 8048), total
phenols (T.phenols, Folin Ciocalteu method), dissolved organic carbon (Direct Method
Patent Pending, 10129) or by a TOC analyzer (Shimadzu 5050), after the removal of
inorganic carbon by air sparging for 10 min), chemical oxygen demand (COD, Reactor
Digestion Method, 8000), and total nitrogen (TN, TNT Persulfate Digestion Method,
10071) or Kheldalh nitrogen (TKN, by the Kjeldahl digestion technique with a Hach
digestahl digestion apparatus, Nessler method, 8075). Dissolved organic nitrogen was
derived by the abstraction of ammonia from the TKN.
Laboratory process studies
Sediment physico-chemical characterization - Sediments were analyzed for the
following physico-chemical parameters, using standard methodologies (Nikolaidis et al.,
1999): porosity, dry bulk density (Bowles, 1986), pH and conductivity (measured in a
1:2.5 soil to water ratio), and particle size distribution (wet sieving, 2-0.063 mm). When
the soil sample was fine (less than 63 μm), Laser Diffraction Size Analysis was
conducted. Soil organic C was determined by the Walkley-Black (WB) acid dichromate
digestion technique (Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, 2004) and Total Kjeldahl N
and Total Phosphorus by the Kjeldahl digestion technique. All sediment analysis was run
in triplicates.
Nitrate release kinetic experiment - The experiment was carried out at 100 mL flasks
using 10 g of sediment samples (< 2 mm fraction) and adding 100 mL synthetic water as
release solution. The samples were placed on a shaking table (200 rpm) under 20 0C, for
21 days. The release solution composition had similar geochemistry with drainage canals
at Skala (without nutrients): Ca2+ 2.0 mM, Mg2+ 0.6 mM, SO42- N0.6 mM, Na 4.99 mM,
HCO3- C4.99 mM, and Cl- 0.752 mM. The ionic strength of the solution was 1.1 mM and
the pH was regulated at 7.8. The samples were analyzed in triplicates on 1st, 3rd, 7th,
10th, and 21st day). The supernatant was filtered through a 0.45 nylon filter and analyzed
using a Hack 2010 spectrophotometer for nitrates, ammonia, total Kjeldahl nitrogen and
dissolved organic nitrogen with the aforementioned standard methods.
Potential mineralizable nitrogen - The methodology suggested from Stamati et al.,
(2009) was also applied to assess the exchangeable mineral nitrogen (EMN), the
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potential mineralizable nitrogen (PMN), potential total soluble nitrogen (PTSN). The
aromaticity (DOC and DON aromaticity indices, ArI) of the soluble OM was also calculated
and the origin of ―exogenous‖ SOM (the higher the ArI the more the plant derived SOM)
was assessed.
Sediment redox potential - Redox potential of the sediments, as an indication of the
potential for denitrification, was estimated by a batch kinetic study. Thus, 25 g of
sediment and 250 mL D.I. water were added in a beaker of 500 mL. The suspension was
stirred continuously with a magnetic stirrer and constant flow of nitrogen gas (N 2) was
added in the system in order to remove the oxygen (O2). The beaker was sealed and Eh,
DO and temperature were monitored with time until the system was stabilized.
Release and adsorption of dissolved inorganic phosphorus - To study the sorption
of phosphate in sediment the adsorption isotherm at 20 0C and pH 7.8 was conducted by
filling the 100 ml flasks with 5 g of sediment and 100 mL of synthetic drainage canal
water solution with concentrations of phosphate-phosphorus 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 0.8, 1, 3, and
5 mg/l. The release of DIP was studied under the same conditions without the addition of
phosphorous. The samples were placed on a shaking table for 4 days (200 rpm). After
the end of the experiment the dissolved phase of the supernatants was analyzed for PO 4P.
Phragmites australis and Arundo donax nutrient uptake - Above and below-ground
plant (reed) biomass was sampled from three randomly selected plots (1m x 1m) on a
monthly basis, from October 2006 to August 2008, to determine the plant uptake rates
of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Four plants were harvested from the first plot
(S1) corresponded to Arundo donax (Giant reeds) and ten from each of the other two
plots (S2 and S3) corresponded to Phragmites australis (common reeds). Below-ground
biomass (roots and rhizomes) was sampled only from the S1 plot. The above ground
biomass was separated in situ into three parts from the top to the base of the shoot.
Upper part was mostly consisted of leaves, middle part of leaves and stems and lower
part of stems. All harvested biomass portion samples were gently washed by hand, to get
rid of soil and adhering particles, dried (90 oC, 48 h), weighed, ground into fine powder
by a micro-hammer mill, and subsamples were ground sieved at 0.5 mm and stored
before nutrient analysis. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentration of the collected plant
samples were determined by the Kjeldahl digestion technique (Nessler method, 8075 for
nitrogen and phosVer3 Method, 8048 for phosphorus).
Results
Hydrologic Balance - Based on hydraulic conductivity (0.691 m/day for groundwater,
and 0.587 m/day for Drainage canal recharge) and hydraulic gradients established by the
piezometric heads of the water table, the velocity of ground water was determined to be
0.062 m/day (travel time, 16 d/m) and close to drainage canal-where the gradient is
steeper-was 0.354 m/day (travel time, 3 d/m). The infiltration rate under steady state of
moisture was estimated using Horton‘s equation to be 0.0135 cm/min and the constant K
was 0.125±0.003 cm/min. Average potential evapotranspiration was 899±547 mm, and
precipitation was 543±199 for the hydrologic years 2000-01 to 2006-07. Precipitation
during 2006-2007 was 425 mm, while for 2007-2008 (until 31/05/2008) was 492 mm,
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indicating dry conditions. The estimated average potential water deficit for the studied
region is presented in Figure 5.4.2 and was estimated to last from April to October. The
corresponding variation in the piezometric heads of groundwater is presented in Figure
5.4.3. Surface runoff to the drainage canal was estimated to take place only during
precipitation events higher than 25 mm/day.
Surface and ground water chemistry monitoring - Total and seasonal averages
results of the eight sampling sessions of ground and surface water are presented in table
5.4.2 and figure 5.4.4 (Seasonal averages are presented in Tables 5.4.6 and 5.4.7 at the
end of this section). Groundwater of the orange grove field was anoxic with high COD,
phenols, DOC and DON and ammonia and seasonally with nitrates. The high organic load
is due to the type of soil which is tyrf. The drainage canal had significantly lower
concentrations of ammonia, COD, and DOC. Nitrate concentrations in drainage canal
were less than in ground water with the exception when there was significant
contribution from surface runoff. There was generally a consistent decrease of pollutants
between ground water and drainage canal suggesting natural attenuation mechanisms in
action. Organic N was ranging on average (sampling sessions) from 34% to 84% of total
N for ground water. The average ratio of DOC to DON in ground water was relatively low
ranging from 3.6 to 33.8 with a total average of 15, suggesting abundance of organic N.
The molar DIN/DIP ratio for ground water was highly variable ranging on average
(sampling sessions) from 10 to 288, with an average of 58 whereas for drainage canal
ranged from 6 to 849 suggesting P limitation to eutrophication. The drainage canal
phosphate concentrations were also highly variable, ranging from 9 μg/L to 399 μg/L,
and exceeded the eutrophication criteria for lakes (20 μg/L). Drainage canal was
oligotrophic due to reeds P uptake and once the reeds were cut (December 2006) it
became successively mesotrophic to eutrophic.
Sediment physicochemical characteristics - The results of the physicochemical
characterization of the sediment are presented in table 5.4.3. pH of the sediment was
slightly basic (7.64), while conductivity was not high (218 mS/cm). Dry bulk density was
estimated to be 1125 kg/m3. The texture of the sediment was silty. Total organic carbon
content was 11434 mg/kg whereas total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) was 1886 mg/kg and
the total phosphorous is 3124 mg/kg. Therefore, the organic matter was enriched in
nitrogen and phosphorus and the C/N ratio was 6. The chemical analysis indicated that
sediments contained mostly aluminium (15.5 %) and silicon (54.8 %) oxides, while the
high percentage of loss of ignition implied high content of organic matter.
The sediment samples contained significant amounts of exchangeable nitrogen content,
4.65±0.36
mg
NH3-N/kg
sediment,
17.79±8.39
mg
NO3-N
/kg
sediment,
and
56.53±7.18 mg DON/kg sediment. Short term PMN and PTSN was also significant, 15.21
and 73.73 mg N/kg sediment, respectively. Anaerobic conditions prevented nitrification
during the experiment. Mineralization rate, estimated by the leaching kinetic experiment,
was found to be 0.21 mg N/L d, and therefore total capacity (adjusted for 7 days) was 10
mg N/Kg sediment, verifying the short term PMN values. Partitioning coefficient (kd),
mL/g, for EMN, and PMN, was 400 and 600 mL/g, correspondingly, while for DON was
much lower 200 mL/g, indicating the trend of the sediment to release DON. The sediment
released 80 mg DON/Kg sediment (Figure 5.4.5). The aromaticity estimated in the
leachate of the PMN test (ArI-DOC, 1.169±0.052 L/mg C m, ArI DON, 280, 3.076±0.431
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L/mg N m) compared with aromaticity observed in a range of Greek agricultural soils
(Stamati et al., 2008b) could be considered to be of the low-medium class explaining the
enhanced mineralization response of the sediment. NO3-N concentration decline,
observed in the kinetic experiment, could be attributed in denitrification since dissolved
oxygen was negligible and redox potential was below 100 mV. Finally, the redox potential
(Eh) of the sediment reached values lower than -50 mV in 200 h, (Figure 5.4.6)
suggesting potential for denitrification under anaerobic conditions and available electron
donors.
The sediment also released small quantities of phosphates (0.465±0.265 mg/kg PO4-P)
as it was indicated from the leaching experiment (Figure 5.4.7). On the other hand, it
had a large capacity to absorb phosphorous and no plateau was reached in the sorption
experiment. This suggested that during the experiment (4 days) the equilibrium probably
was not reached, but it was also an indication for possible surface precipitation. Therefore
the experimental data couldn‘t be modelled by Freundlich, Langmuir or BET isotherm and
the linear trend was obtained. The partitioning coefficient (Kd) was estimated to be 300
mL/g and the retardation factor 1092 or 1774 if instead of the estimated dry bulk density
the typical value 2.65 g/cm3 was used. Equilibrium P concentration (EPC0) was estimated
to be 0.08 mg/L in compliance with the value obtained from the empirical equation of
Potential Water Deficit, mm
Smith et. al. (2005).
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
Sep Oct Nov Dec
Water Deficit -71
-11
72
69
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
62
31
11
-14
-59
Jul
Aug
-127 -151 -127
Figure 5.4.2. Average potential water deficit in the study region for the hydrologic years 2001-02
to 2006-07.
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5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
F-08
D-07
N-07
O-07
S-07
A-07
J-07
J-07
M-07
A-07
M-07
F-07
2.5
J-08
A 1.4
A 3.4
A 2.4
3.0
J-07
Piezometric head from the
same datum, m
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Date
Figure 5.4.3. Temporal variation of piezometric heads (from the same datum) from three
piezometers of four m depth and distance from the drainage canal 1.5 m (A2.4), 3.2 m(A3.4), and
4.7 m (A1.4).
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
100
NO3-N
200
300
400
Time, h
NH3-N
DON
500
Conc., mgDOC/L
Concentration, mgN/L
Figure 5.4.4. Seasonal averages from eight sampling sessions of physicochemical parameters of
surface water and ground water underneath Drainage Canal at Skala.
600
DOC
Figure 5.4.5. Kinetic release of dissolved nitrogen forms and dissolved organic carbon.
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200
Eh, mV
150
100
50
0
-50
0
50
-100
100
150
200
250
Time (min)
Figure 5.4.6. Sediment redox potential evolution under stirring and anoxic conditions.
Adsorped phospates (qe),
mg PO4-P/Kg sediment
120
Experimental data
100
80
Linear
(Experimental data)
y = 300.35x
2
60
R = 0.822
40
20
0
0.0
EPCo
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Equilibrium Concentration (Ce), mg/L
Figure 5.3.7. Phosphate sorption isotherm at drainage canals‘ sediments (pH 7.8 and temperature
20 οC).
Phragmites australis and Arundo donax temporal nutrient content - Nutrient (TKN
and total P) concentration of Phrgmites australis (averages for plots S2 and S3) and
Arundo donax (plot S1) for the three parts (upper, middle, lower) of the above ground
biomass and the below ground biomass (roots and rhizomes) for plot S1 are presented in
Figure 5.4.8 (growing periods of 2007 and 2008). The concentration evolution patterns
observed in the two growing periods are described in the following paragraph.
Nutrient concentration patterns were very similar for both growing periods. Maximum N
concentration was observed in March/ April for Phragmites australis (S2-S3 plots, approx.
30-31, 12-18, 6-8 g/kg for upper, middle, and lower biomass respectively for the two
growing seasons), while for Arundo donax the exact time was not distinct but seemed to
be in April/May (S1 plots, approx. 26-39, 17-19, 10-17 g/kg for upper, middle, and lower
biomass, respectively). On the other hand, maximum P concentration for upper and
middle part was in May for S1 plot, and March/April for S2-S3 plots (approx. S1: 4.5-5
and 3.2-4 g/kg, S2-S3: 4-5.6, and 3-4.8 g/kg for upper, and middle biomass
respectively). In subsequent months, there was a gradual decrease in P concentration of
these two parts and an increase in that of lower part and below ground biomass. This
pattern can be attributed to P translocation to the roots. Nitrogen concentration
decreased for the three parts of the above ground plants biomass.
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A portion of the decrease of nutrient concentration could be attributed to the dilution with
an increasing biomass, as maximum biomass is usually observed after maximum nutrient
concentration. Moreover, there is possibility that P had returned to roots as it has been
also observed in other studies (Lippert et al., 1999).
The increase of phosphorus concentration in roots at the summer period has been also
reported by others (Lippert, et al., 1999) who mentioned phosphorus translocation from
stems and leaves (25-50% of P) to roots for fertilization of next growth period (Graneli et
al., 1988).
Figure 5.4.8. Temporal variation of shoot content in N and P of a) A.donax (S1) and b) P.australis
(S2-S3) from May to September.
On the whole, during the monitoring period nutrient concentrations were higher in upper
part and lower in lower part of above ground biomass, apart from certain periods of low
concentrations, where concentration values among the three parts were relatively
identical (15/2/2008 and 1/8/2008). Upper part (leaves) had higher N (and not P)
content and N/P molar ratio compared to middle and lower part indicating the need of
leave for N for chlorophyll formation. On the other hand, during growth periods where
there was great need of P for the formation of new tissues the N/P ratio was decreased in
the above ground biomass, and then remained relatively constant.
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During the growing season in 2008, the biomass was maximum soon after the maximum
concentrations in June for P. australis (47 g/reed clone, 705 g/m2) and in late July for A.
donax (204 g/reed clone, 3.1 kg/m2) (Figure 5-3-9) in accordance with other studies
which also showed maximum reed biomass in early summer (J. García-Pintado et al.,
2007). Above ground biomass has been found to range from 97 g/m 2 (Pure nutrient
substrate, translocation ecotype, Lippert et al., 1999) to 1500 g/m2 (Rich nutrient
substrate, assimilation ecotype., Kuhl et al., 1997) in August for P.australis.
Phragnites Australis
Arundo donax
g of biomass/shoot
g of biomass/shoot
250
200
150
100
50
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
May
June
Month
July
May
September
June
July
September
Month
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.4.9. Temporal variation of biomass of a) A.donax and b) P.australis from May to
September.
On the other hand, peak standing stock of nutrients was attained in June for both plants
(A.donax: 432 mg P/shoot and 2023-2132 in July- mg N/shoot, P.australis: 151 mg
P/shoot, 586 mg N/shoot) (Figure 5.4.10). Converting these contents to mg/g DW (Dry
Weight), then P.australis exhibited 12.4 mg N/g DW and 3.2 mg P/g DW, while A.donax
exhibited 18.4 mg N/g DW and 3.74 mg P/g DW. In literature, nutrient contents of
P.australis observed during summer are 17.5-24.3 mg N/g DW and 1.3-3.14 mg P/g DW.
Accounting for the reed density the square meter nutrient content is 8.78 g N/m2 and
2.26 g P/m2 regarding P.australis and 30.34 g N/m2 and 6.48 g P/m2 regarding
A.donax, while in the literature the following ranges 17.8-35 g N/m2 and 0.96-3 g P/m2
have been observed (Lippert et al., 1997).
Discussion
Nitrogen buffering processes - Drainage canals are areas of accumulation of organic
matter (source of nutrients for microrganisms) due to erosion and growth of plants such
as Phragmites australis and Arundo donax, that is important for nitrogen microbial
processes (mineralization, nitrification, denitrification). In the drainage canal under study
the substrate was tyrf and enriched in organic nitrogen. Groundwater exhibited high
levels of DOC (approx. 14 mg/L) and DON (approx. 2.5 mg/L). Mineralization of organic
nitrogen (15 mg/kg PMN, 0.21 mg/L d) was enhanced due to low aromaticity of DON
which was released from the sediments. The reduction of groundwater DON flux passing
through the riparian zone was an estimation of mineralized nitrogen for the study period
and it was estimated to be on average 37.6 mg N/m2 (13.72 g/m2 year).
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Figure 5.4.10. Temporal variation of standing stock of nutrients of a) A.donax
(S1) and b) P.australis (S2-S3) from May to September.
Nitrification is an important aerobic process for the prevention of toxic ammonia
accumulation. The process due the anaerobic substrate is strongly guaranteed on the
oxygen release from the roots. The reduction of groundwater ammonia flux passing
through the riparian zone indicated that the amount of nitrified nitrogen during the study
period was on average 26.6 mg N/m2 day (9.72 g N/m2 year). Denitrification is the main
processes responsible for the buffering capacity of drainage canals against diffuse nitrate
pollution as described also by others (Hiscock and Grischek, 2002). Denitrifers require,
apart from electron donors, anaerobic and reductive conditions and such conditions
observed in our case, since groundwater exhibited both low dissolved oxygen (mean
value 1.6 mg/L) and redox potential (mean value 111mV, range: -182.5 mV έως +340.8
mV). Moreover, sediment redox potential under anoxic conditions was also low -50 mV.
Hence, accounting that the microporosity environment would be even more anoxic, there
was strong potential for dentitrification. The reduction of groundwater NO3-N flux passing
through the riparian zone gave evidence that on average 56.1 mg N / m2 day (20.48 g
N/m2 year) was denitrified. This nitrogen amount was removed from the system before
entering the surface water. These fluxes are similar to other studies (Fustec et al.,
1991;Trudell et al., 1986).
Phosphates buffering processes - Sediments showed a large capacity to absorb
phosphorous. DIP concentration in groundwater was higher than the equilibrium
concentration (EPC0 = 0.08 mg/L), therefore groundwater phosphate load was retained in
sediments and the load entering the drainage canal was minimized. On the other hand,
the levels of phosphorous in the drainage canal were seasonally below the EPC 0 making
the process inactive. Thereafter, drainage canal buffering capacity concerning phosphates
was not spent and higher phosphate loads could be absorbed. Root oxygen release was
also important for adsorption as it enhances the oxidation of the soluble Fe +2 to the Fe+3
form that can be precipitated oxyhydroxides that bind phosphate. Caryl et al. (2001)
suggested that low soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations occurred in
groundwater with DO concentrations > 3 mg L-1 and low Fe+2 and on the contrary high
SRP concentrations of > 0.05 mg/L were associated with low DO and high Fe +2
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concentrations in areas of buried channel sediments near the river bank. In this study
PO4-P ranged from 0.009 (Method Detection Limit) to 0.437 mg/L, with DO from 0.45 to
5.00 mg/L and ORP from 140 to -215 (outlier -382). When the DO was higher than 3
mg/L the PO4-P ranged from 0.058 to 0.183 mg/L. However, there was no correlation of
PO4-P concentrations higher than EPC0 with DO and ORP. Thus, we could assume that the
redox potential enhances denitrification and not iron (Fe+3) reduction.
Management issues of reed biomass - Harvesting of above ground biomass in June,
when peak nutrient content of reeds was observed and N/P ratio of surface water was
high enough to avoid toxic algal blooms, would remove 0.74 Kg P (2.73 g P/m 2) and 3.02
Kg N (11.2 g N/m2). Totally, 76.5 % of nitrate nitrogen (14.64 g N/m2 year) and
phosphorus (1.39 g P/m2 year) entered the drainage canal would removed by plant
uptake. However, determination of the time of the management should take into account
the effect of harvesting to re-growth and to ecological functioning of the habitat.
Moreover, O2 supply to rhizomes depends on the redox potential of substrate and the
water depth, and should be considered in the management plans. Harvesting either
during the winter or the growing season has not been found to seriously affect re-growth
of reeds (Valkama et al., 2008) and no clear differences have been found in total
biomass production per unit area (Bjorndahl, 1984; Valkama et al., 2008). For the
protection of next year reed (P. australis) performance, Graneli et al., 1992 suggested
the harvesting of above-ground biomass, when rhizome energy reserves (carbohydrates)
have already been replenished; Translocation starts immediately after the foliar structure
has been established (during June in south Sweden) and it has been finished until
August. In this study root replenishment in phosphorus seemed to take place from May
to June.
Time of harvesting and ecological factors - Although, in general reed management
has been found to have a significant negative impact on invertebrate community, a short
term management (1-2 years) had no effect on invertebrates (Valkama et al., 2008). On
the other hand, reed harvesting and burning has been found to reduce abundance of
passerine birds by about 60%, but this was probably associated with flood limitation as
the numbers of butterflies, beetles and some spiders were reduced (Valkama et al.,
2008). Therefore, the optimal reed management regime to preserve number of birds and
invertebrates in reedbeds could be indeed a rotation of short term management (1-2
years) (Valkama et al., 2008). Finally, the Hellenic Ornithological Society suggested that
in alluvial Evrotas River plain reed harvesting is permitted from the 15 th of June to the
30th of September (official communication with Hellenic Ornithological Society), excluding
in this way the winter harvesting.
Oxygen transport - The below ground parts of emergent macrophytes are dependent
on oxygen transported from the shoots, since O 2 is usually absent in the substrate.
Oxygen is needed in these parts primarily for respiration and O2 deficiency may limit the
maximum water-depth penetration of emergent vegetation. Oxygen release from the
roots of macrophytes to the surrounding substrate may have a positive influence on plant
growth by oxidizing reduced, phytotoxic metabolites in the substrate (e.g. S 2-, Fe+2,
Mn+2) (Weisner, 1988), promote phosphorus absorption onto the sand and prevent
ammonia accumulation. P. Australis growing in a reducing substrate are more sensitive
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to a reduction in the O2 supply to rhizomes than reeds growing in a more oxidizing
substrate (Weisner and Graneli, 1989).
Conclusions
Sustainable agricultural practices have minimum environmental impact without imposing
significant financial burdens on the farmers. Thus, understanding and implementing
innovative technologies based on natural attenuation processes offers such advantages.
The objective of this research was to elucidate removal of nutrients due to natural
attenuation mechanisms in drainage canals in Evrotas River delta in Greece. We
investigated nutrients balance in groundwater, sediments, and reeds (Phragmites
australis and Arundo donax) of the drainage canal. Groundwater fluxes indicated that the
rate of mineralization was 37.6 mg N/m2 day. The accumulation of toxic ammonia was
prevented through the nitrification process (26.6 mg N/m2 d). The decrease of NO3-N
flux in groundwater in the riparian zone, was calculated to be 56.1 mg N/m2 day (20.48
g N/m2 year). Phosphate was absorbed to sediments and its load to the drainage canal
was minimized. Harvesting of above ground reed biomass in mid June, when maximum
standing stock of nutrients was attained for both plants, would remove 2.73 g P/m2 and
11.2 g N/m2. 76.5 % of the nitrate nitrogen (14.64 g N/m2 year) and all the phosphorus
(1.39 g P/m2 year) entering the drainage canal was removed by plants.
This field and laboratory study revealed that the riparian zone of the
agricultural drainage canal under study in the Evrotas River delta, natural
attenuation mechanisms (denitrification and adsorption of phosphates), as well
as phytoremediation (P.australis and A.donax nutrient uptake and harvesting of
their above ground biomass), could remove significant amounts of N and P. The
harvesting of above ground biomass of reeds (P.australis and A.donax) is suggested to
take place in mid June when maximum standing stock of nutrients was attained for both
plants P.australis and A.donax. Overall, drainage canal management is suggested as an
efficient low cost – high gain agri-environmental measure, which is easy to be adapted
by farmers, to reduce diffuse nutrient pollution.
2. Riparian Zone Restoration
Temporary rivers are flashy in nature and under extreme precipitation events produce
floods with extremely high erosion potential. An example of the flood destruction is a
site in the area of Sparta where the river bank erosion control and phytoremediation was
demonstrated (Figure 5.4.11). At the site, we designed and constructed a bank
restoration system using large stones following the rivers curvatures to stabilize the bank
and the riparian zone from future flood events. The bank erosion was therefore restored
using a stone hedge of large boulders. The length of the stone hedge was 120m, the
width 2.5m at the bottom and 1 m at the top, and the height 3.5m. In addition, we
planted a riparian forest of 200 poplar trees to decrease nutrient loads due to uptake and
enhanced denitrification. In this way, phytoremediation in conjunction with river bank
erosion controls was demonstrated as a combined remediation tool for non-point source
pollution of nutrients.
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Figure 5.4.11. Sparta area – Riparian zone river bank erosion control and phytoremediation.
To monitor the temporal 3-dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of ground
water, nine multi-level (3, 4 and 5m) wells were installed (Figure 5.4.12). Groundwater
sampling was conducted in order to assess the fate and transport of nutrients as they
move from the groundwater to the River.
Field hydrologic studies - The water depth of the wells was monitored on a monthly
basis. The hydraulic characteristics of the subsurface were determined by conducting
single well pumping tests and the infiltration capacity of the fields was estimated by
conducting in situ infiltration experiments. Horton‘s equation was used to obtain the
 kt 
infiltration rate ( f  f c   f co  f c   e
where fco and fc were the initial and final
infiltration rates and k was an empirical constant.
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Multi-level probe clusters
A1
River
Multi-level well clusters
A2
A3
River
A4
A5
A7
A6
A8
A9
9
6
4
2
3
5
7
8
1
Figure 5.4.12. Multi-level probe design in relation to restored riparian zone.
Surface and ground water chemistry monitoring - The multilevel wells were
sampled every 2 months (3/07, 5/07, 7/07, 11/07, 3/08, 5/08), with a peristaltic pump
with low flow (< 1 L/min), so as turbidity was maintained in minimum levels, and the
physicochemical parameters pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (D.O.),
and, redox potential (Eh) were measured in situ using the following electrodes: Orion
9107 pH meter, Orion 081010 D.O. meter, and Orion 011050 Conductivity meter. The
samples were filtered through a 0.45 µm Nylon filter and analyzed using a Hack 2010
spectrophotometer for nitrates (NO3-N, Cadmium Reduction Method, 8039), nitrites
(NO2-N, Diazotization Method, 8507), ammonia (NH3-N, Salicylicate Method, 10023),
phosphates (PO4-P, phosVer3 Method, 8048), total phenols (T.phenols, Folin Ciocalteu
method), dissolved organic carbon (Direct Method Patent Pending, 10129) or by a TOC
analyzer (Shimadzu 5050), after the removal of inorganic carbon by air sparging for 10
min), chemical oxygen demand (COD, Reactor Digestion Method, 8000), and total
nitrogen (TN, TNT Persulfate Digestion Method, 10071) or Kheldalh nitrogen (TKN, by the
Kjeldahl digestion technique with a Hach digestahl digestion apparatus, Nessler method,
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8075). Dissolved organic nitrogen was derived by the abstraction of ammonia from the
TKN.
Results
Hydraulic characteristics - The spatial distribution of the wells at the at the restored
riparian zone of Evrotas River is presented in the Figure 5.4.13. Typical results of the
piezometry are given in the figure 5.4.14. The groundwater movement is almost paraller
with the river flow (Figure 5.4.15). The average hydraulic conductivity was estimated to
be 0.01 cm/sec. The infiltration rate under steady state of moisture was estimated using
Horton‘s equation to be 0.0596 cm/min.
Ground water chemistry monitoring - seasonal averages results of the six sampling
sessions of ground water are presented in table 5.4.8 and figure 5.4.16. Moreover in the
figure 5.4.17 is presented the vertical 2-D profile of polutants in groundwater of the
restored riparian zone of Evrotas River in May 2007. The following findings were
identified:
7. The ground water presented low levels of dissolved oxygen. The samples from the
5m probes were colored (black) and smelled.
8. The ground water presented high levels of COD, which increased with depth,
Τ.phenols, DOC, DON and NH3-N and seasonally of NO3-N and PO4-P.
9. The organic N was as significant as the inorganic N and was estimated to be
approximately 60% of the total dissolved nitrogen.
10. Moreover the average DOC-to-DON ratio was relative low and ranged from 2.5 to
15, indicating abundance of organic N.
11. The molar DIN/DIP ratio for ground water was highly variable ranging on average
(sampling sessions) from 30 to 350, suggesting P limitation to eutrophication.
12. There was generally a consistent decrease of pollutants in the restored riparian
zone suggesting the role of phytoremediation and probably other natural
attenuation mechanisms in action.
Spatial distribution of wells - Sparta area
16
N2
14
y, m
12
10
River
8
N1
6
N9
N4
4
2
N3
10
20
30
40
N8
N7
N5
0
0
N6
50
60
70
x, m
Figure 5.4.13. Spatial distribution of the wells at the restored riparian zone of Evrotas River.
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2.90
2.70
N4.3
2.50
N 3.3
2.30
N 6.3
N 5.3
N 7.3
2.10
N 9.3
Dec-07
Nov-07
Oct-07
Sep-07
Aug-07
Jul-07
Jun-07
May-07
Apr-07
Mar-07
Feb-07
1.90
Jan-07
Piezometric Height from the same
datum, m
Environmental Friendly Technologies for Rural Development
(a)
2,90
2,70
N4.4
N 3.4
2,50
N 5.4
2,30
N 6.4
N 7.4
2,10
N 9.4
Dec-07
Nov-07
Oct-07
Sep-07
Aug-07
Jul-07
Jun-07
May-07
Apr-07
Mar-07
Feb-07
1,90
Jan-07
Piezometric Height from the same
datum, m
Date
Date
(b)
Figure 5.4.14. Horizontal profile of the piezometriuc height in time (piezometers of a) 3 and b)
4m depth).
2.87
2.85
Hydro 3 all May 07
2.83
2.81
2.79
2.77
2.75
10
2.73
2.71
2.69
5
2.67
2.65
10
20
30
40
50
60
50
60
Hydro 4 all May 07
10
5
10
20
30
40
2.63
2.96
2.94
2.92
2.9
2.88
2.86
2.84
2.82
2.8
2.78
2.76
2.74
2.72
2.7
2.68
2.66
2.64
2.62
Figure 5.4.15. 2-D profile of groundwater movement in the restored riparian zone of Evrotas River
in May 2007.
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Averages physicochemical parameters of Ground water
underneath Riparian Zone at Sparta
1400
1200
25
1000
20
800
15
600
10
400
5
Conductivity
Temperature, pH, DO,
Eh
30
200
0
0
Mar-07
May-07
Temperature (oC)
Jul-07
Nov-07
Sampling month
pH
DO (mg/L)
Mar-08
May-08
Conductivity (μS/cm)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
DON/TDN ratio
Concentration, mg/L
Averages chemical parameters of Ground water
underneath Riparian Zone at Sparta
0.0
Mar-07
May-07
Jul-07
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
Sam pling m onth
DIN (mg/L)
DON (mg/L)
DON/TDN
Averages chemical parameters of Ground water
underneath Riparian Zone at Sparta
150
15
100
10
50
5
0
COD, mg/L
Concentration,
mg/L
20
0
Mar-07 May-07 Jul-07 Nov-07Mar-08 May-08
Sampling month
DOC (mg/L)
T.phenols (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
Figure 5.4.16. Seasonal averages from six sampling sessions of physicochemical parameters of
ground water underneath the restored Riparian Zone at Sparta.
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2.96
2.94
2.92
2.9
2.88
2.86
2.84
2.82
2.8
2.78
2.76
2.74
2.72
2.7
2.68
2.66
2.64
2.62
y, m
Piezometric heights, m (4 m depth wells, May 07)
10
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
x, m
y, m
Concentration of NO3-N, mg/L (4 m depth wells, May 07)
10
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
x, m
1.75
1.65
1.55
1.45
1.35
1.25
1.15
1.05
0.95
0.85
0.75
0.65
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.25
0.48
0.44
0.4
Concentration of NH3-N, mg/L (4 m depth wells, May 07)
0.36
0.32
0.28
y, m
0.24
10
0.2
0.16
0.12
5
0.08
0.04
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
x, m
20
18
16
Concentration of COD, mg/L (4 m depth wells, May 07)
14
y, m
12
10
10
8
6
5
4
2
10
20
30
40
50
60
x, m
0
14.5
13.5
12.5
Concentration of DOC, mg/L (4 m depth wells, May 07)
11.5
10.5
y, m
9.5
8.5
10
7.5
6.5
5
5.5
4.5
3.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
x, m
Figure 5.4.17. 2-D profile of polutants in groundwater of the restored riparian zone of Evrotas
River in May 2007.
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Reduction of the pollutants at the restored Riparian Zone - The collected data from
the monitoring of qround water quality allowed for the estimation of the nitrate reduction
taking place at the riparian zone. As it was already mentioned denitrification was not
expected to contribute significantly in the nitrate reduction due to the relative high
dissolved oxygen and redox potential. Therefore the potential reduction would be
attributed to the poplar trees uptake. The nitrate flux reduction was calculated for the 70
m length of the riparian zone for two equally divided parts (35 m). The water flow was
calculated from the piezometric gradient between the wells (pairs of wells 3 andι 4, and 5
and 6), and then the difference between the concentrations resulted in the calculation of
the flux. Totally, 8.2 kg ΝΟ3-Ν/y or 39 g ΝΟ3-Ν/m2y (for 3 m width of poplar trees)
reduction of nitrates was estimated (70 % reduction). It is worth noting that the
reduction the first period (until the July ‘07 sampling) was 60%, while the second period
was 80%, coinciding with the further growth of the poplar trees and their root system.
Moreover, accumulation of nitrogen ammonia was also observed which decreased in
time, suggesting the contribution of the oxygen release from the trees‘ roots. The
graphical depiction of the seasonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the wells
before and after the poplar trees planted (Figure 5.4.18a and b) indicates also the
reduction of the ammonia accumulation after the July ‘07 and the enhancement of the
nitrate reduction in the respective wells (after the trees). It is noticeable that nitrates
presented during the six sampling sessions on average 81% higher, and 11.6, 18.9,
37.0, 49.4, and 32.7 lower concentration after the poplar trees planted zone. On the
other hand the nitrate reduction in the 150 m filed from the irrigation well to the riparian
zone (before the planted zone) was estimated to be only 8-25%.
Conclusions
The bank erosion was restored using a stone hedge of large boulders and moreover a
riparian forest of 200 poplar trees was planted. The collected data from the monitoring of
ground water quality allowed for the estimation of the nitrate reduction taking place at
the riparian zone. As it was already mentioned denitrification was not expected to
contribute significantly in the nitrate reduction due to the relative high dissolved oxygen
and redox potential. Therefore the potential reduction would be attributed to the poplar
trees uptake. The nitrate flux reduction was calculated for the 70 m length of the riparian
zone for two equally divided parts (35 m). The water flow was calculated from the
piezometric gradient between the wells (pairs of wells 3 and 4, and 5 and 6), and then
the difference between the concentrations resulted in the calculation of the flux. Totally,
8.2 kg ΝΟ3-Ν/y or 39 g ΝΟ3-Ν/m2y (for 3m width of poplar trees) reduction of nitrates
was estimated (70% reduction). It is worth noting that the reduction the first
period (until the July ‟07 sampling) was 60%, while the second period was
80%, coinciding with the further growth of the poplar trees and their root
system. Moreover, accumulation of nitrogen ammonia was also observed which
decreased in time, suggesting the contribution of the oxygen relese from the trees‘ roots.
The graphical depiction of the sesaonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the
wells before and after the poplar trees planted (Figure 5.4.18a and b) indicates also the
reduction of the ammonia accumulation after the July ‘07 and the enhancement of the
nitrate reduction in the respective wells (after the trees). It is noticable that nitrates
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presented during the six sampling sessions on average 81% higher, and 11.6, 18.9,
37.0, 49.4, and 32.7 lower concentration after the poplar trees planted zone. On the
other hand the nitrate reduction in the 150 m filed from the irrigation well to the riparian
zone (before the planted zone) was estimated to be only 8-25%. Consequently,
phytoremediation in conjunction with river bank erosion controls as a is suggested as a
combined efficient remediation tool, low cost – high gain, for non-point source pollution
of nutrients.
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COD
Concentration, mg/L
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mar-07
May-07
Concentration, mg/L
Irrigation well
Nov-07
before poplar trees planted
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
NO2-N
0.045
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
Mar-07
May-07
Irrigation well
Jul-07
Nov-07
before poplar trees planted
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
NO3-N
3
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
2
2
1
1
0
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
NH3-N
0.70
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
before poplar trees planted
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Jul-07
Nov-07
before poplar trees planted
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
Figure 5.4.18a. Seasonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the irrigation well and the
groundwater before and after the poplar trees planted.
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PO4-P
Concentration, mg/L
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
T.Phenols
2.50
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
before poplar trees planted
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
DOC
16
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
before poplar trees planted
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Nov-07
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
DON
7
Concentration, mg/L
Jul-07
before poplar trees planted
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Mar-07
Irrigation well
May-07
Jul-07
Nov-07
before poplar trees planted
Mar-08
May-08
after poplar trees planted
Figure 5.4.18b. Seasonal average concentrations of the pollutants in the irrigation well and the
groundwater before and after the poplar trees planted.
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TASK 4 - Agricultural product waste management
The demonstration of agricultural waste treatment technologies was focused on the two
most important point sources of pollution in Laconia, namely, olive mill effluents and
wastewater from orange juice production.
Two general technologies were used in four
application sites:

subsurface distribution of waste with phytoremediation and

electrolytic treatment of wastes.
The environmental impact of the olive oil production is very significant because of the
very high COD content and the toxicity of some ingredients. The volume of the liquid
effluents from the olive mill can be double or even quadruple the amount of olive oil
produced, and there is a need to reuse or dispose large amounts of solids and liquid
effluents in an environmentally acceptable manner. Whatever the type of the production
plant (classical, two-phase or three-phase), about 1500 kg of by-products result from the
production of 1000 kg of olive oil, either in the form of high humidity solids (2-phase
process) or as vegetation water and medium humidity solids (classical and 3-phase
processes). The disposal and treatment of this liquid waste are the main problem of the
olive oil industry because of its high organic load and content of phytotoxic and
antibacterial phenolic substances, which resist biological degradation. OMW has also a
high potassium concentration and notable levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium, and iron, important factors in soil fertility. Lime precipitation and water
evaporation in ponds constitute common practice in OME treatment. As part of
EnviFriendly LIFE program, the following alternative treatment technologies have been
implemented and their efficiency demonstrated.
1. Use of OMW for irrigation of crops during the summer months
The basic idea behind this technology was to pre-treat the OMW with lime and pump the
liquid to a nearby ―evaporation pond‖ for storage for the next 3 to 6 months. From the
beginning of June the OMW was used for irrigation (after dilution with water) of a corn
field. This approach has been used in a 20.000 m2 area near the ancient lake mentioned
by Pafsania for the last 5 years (Figure 5.5.1). The overall results from the corn
production have been very positive as well as all wastewater in the pond was
used up before the end of the summer on an annual basis. The primary objective
of the EnviFriendly program was to evaluate any potential problem with the aquifer under
the corn field.
Figure 5.5.1. Corn field where OMW irrigation is implemented (―P. TZINAKOS Ltd‖ olive mill in
Aiges, Gytheio, Laconia).
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The particular location where this technology was implemented was the olive mill ―P.
TZINAKOS Ltd‖ in Aiges (Gytheio, Laconia). The irrigation facility consisted of a CaO
pretreatment tank, evaporation lagoon, mixing with fresh water and finally land
application in cultivated corn field. We investigated the soil physical and chemical
properties for the identification of soil effects after 5 years of land application of CaO
pretreated OMWW. Figure 5.5.2 presents a satellite image (Google Earth) with the Olive
mill plant, the evaporation/storage lagoons and the maize field. The area was mainly
comprised of Alluvial (quaternary) formations of conglomerates and loose sediments, of
Tertiary formations mainly marls and phyllites and quarzites. The soil was characterized
as alluvial mixed with regosols. The olive mill plant was a three phase olive mill and the
OMWW management practice included liming of OMWW in tanks and then pumping the
waste in lagoons during the olive oil production period (November to February).
Evaporation lagoons accommodated the waste water up to May when the irrigation
season commenced. From June to September waste water from the lagoons was mixed
with fresh water to a ratio of 1/3 (OMWW/water) and was used for the irrigation of the
maize field. The irrigation flow was 30 m3/h for 3 days a week. The surface area of the
maize field was 18,750 m2 (1.8750 ha) which corresponded to 18,432 m3/ha/year
(irrigation period for 4 months). Taking into account the dilution ratio (1/3), the total
supply of OMWW was 6144 m3/ha/4 months or a dose of 51.2 m3/ha/d for the irrigation
period from June to September.
Two experimental wells were constructed for groundwater monitoring to a depth of 10 m.
The water table varied from 5 to 6.5 m seasonally (wet to dry period). Four topsoil
samples (T1-T4) (0-15 cm) and an undisturbed core sample (C1-C3) were used for
analysis, whereas, a control uncultivated topsoil sample (N) from an adjacent area
covered with shrubs was used as reference soil. Sampling was conducted by obtaining 15
topsoil samples (0-15 cm depth) and three undisturbed soil cores C1-C3 (0-50 cm). The
15 topsoils were blended as depicted in figure 5.4.2 (e.g. T1 composite consists of T1.1
T1.4) Samples collected in November 2007 which was two months after the end of
irrigation period (May-September) with treated OMWW. Figure 5.5.2 illustrates the
sampling grid for surface samples T1.1-T4.3. Soil auger (Edelman type) was used for
surface sample collection. Samples were transferred to the laboratory, dried at 37ºC for
48 h, homogenized and sieved with 2 mm sieves. The samples were then placed in
plastic containers and stored at room temperature in the dark until use. Core samples
were divided into 3 parts with depth (0-10 cm), (10-30 cm), (30-50 cm) and the
respective parts from C1-C3 cores were blended and three composite samples Cu (0-10
cm), Cm (10-30 cm), Cd (30-50 cm) obtained.
Six field campaigns (January 2007, March 2007, June 2008, August 2007, December
2007 and March 2008) were conducted for ground water sampling. Groundwater was
sampled with a low flow peristaltic pump (< 1 L/min), so as turbidity was maintained at
minimum levels and no atmospheric oxygen was introduced to the sample. The following
physicochemical parameters: pH and temperature (pH/cond WTW 340i), electrical
conductivity (EC: ORION 105), dissolved oxygen (DO: WTW oxi 340i), and redox
potential (Eh: ORION 250A), were measured, in situ. The samples were filtered, in situ,
through a 0.45 µm Nylon filter and analyzed using a Hack 2010 spectrophotometer for
nitrates (NO3-N, Cadmium Reduction Method, 8039), nitrites (NO2-N, Diazotization
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Method, 8507), ammonia (NH3-N, Salicylicate Method, 10023), phosphates (PO 4,
phosVer3 Method, 8048), total phenols (T.phenols, Folin Ciocalteu method (Box, 1983)),
dissolved organic carbon (Direct Method Patent Pending, 10129 or by a TOC analyzer
(Shimadzu 5050), after the removal of inorganic carbon by air sparging for 10 min),
chemical oxygen demand (COD, Reactor Digestion Method, 8000), and total nitrogen
(TN, TNT Persulfate Digestion Method, 10071) or Kheldalh nitrogen (TKN, by the Kjeldahl
digestion technique with a Hach digestahl digestion apparatus, Nessler method, 8075).
Dissolved organic nitrogen was derived by the abstraction of ammonia from the TKN.
OMWW from evaporation lagoons (after lime treated) was once sampled and analyzed for
the aforementioned, as well for nutrients like Ca, Mg, K, with ICP-MS.
Olive mill
plant
Lagoons
Liming
Mixing
C1
T1.1
T2.1
T3.1
T1.2
T2.2
T3.2
A2
T2.3
T3.3
T1.4
T2.4
T3.4
50 m
T4.1
T4.2
Maize field
Lagoons
C2
T1.3
A1
Olive mill
C3
T4.3
25 m
Figure 5.5.2. Satellite image of maize field, sampling grid and geology of the area. Black circles
denote drill position.
Soil dry bulk density and porosity, were estimated according to standard methodologies
(Nikolaidis et al., 1999). The sand, silt, and clay content of the soil samples were
determined by Bouyoucos method (Bouyoucos, 1962). Soil infiltration capacity was
estimated by conducting in situ infiltration experiments with the use of regular
infiltrometers. A 50 cm cylinder was inserted into the soil, filled with water, and the time
it took for the water to drain into the sediment was measured. Horton‘s equation was
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used to model the infiltration rate (
f  f c   f co  f c   e  kt  ) where fco and fc were the
initial and final infiltration rates and k was an empirical constant.
Soil total organic carbon was determined using the Walkley-Black (WB) acid dichromate
digestion technique Walkley (1946) and total Kjeldahl N by the Kjeldahl digestion
technique. Soil pH was determined in the supernatant of a 1:2 soil to water ratio, as
described in Thomas (1996). Electrical conductivity was determined by a conductivity
electrode in the extract from saturated soil paste. Calcium content was determined in the
aforementioned,
paper
filtrated,
extract,
by
inductively
coupled
plasma
mass
spectroscopy (ICP-MS Agilent 7500 cx). Available K and Mg were extracted from soil
samples by CH3COONH4 1 M in pH 7 (Bower, et al., 1952, Thomas, 1982), and
determined by ICP-MS. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined with the method
described by Amrhein & Suarez (1990) for soils salts and/or carbonates. Soil was initially
saturated with 0.2M CaCl2, adjusted to pH 8.2, and then extracted with 0.5 M Mg(NO3)2.
Correction for calcite dissolution was made by the determination of HCO 3- in soil solution
prior to extraction. Determination of Ca2+ in extracted solutions was carried out by
inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and HCO3- with IC analyzer
(Shimadzu 5050).
Bioavailable phosphorous was extracted with 0.5M sodium bicarbonate (Olsen et al.,
1954) and measured spectrophotometrically (PO4-P, phosVer3 Method, 8048). Soil
nitrogen fertility was accessed by the estimation of exchangeable mineral N (EMN)
content and potential mineralizable N (PMN) of soils. EMN and short-term PMN
(ammonium-nitrogen production under anaerobic waterlogged conditions) in soil was
extracted with 2 mol L−1 KCl in a 1:5 soil:solution ratio shaken at 200 rpm, and
incubated 1 h at 20
o
C (EMN) and for 1 week at 40 oC. PMN was calculated as the
difference between incubated and non-incubated samples. The leachates of both tests
were filtered through a 0.45 µm Nylon filter and analyzed for NO3-N and NH4-N and TKN
and dissolved organic carbon with the methods described in the ground water chemistry
monitoring section. Regarding NO3-N measurement calibration curves were prepared for
Cl− interference. Total phenols content in soil was extracted with 120 dichlomethane
(DCM), for 24h at a rate of 6 cycles per hour, in a soxhlet apparatus (Helaleh et al. 2001)
and
measured
with
the
Folin-Ciocalteu
colorimetric
method
(Box,
1983).
Soil
dehydrogenase activity was determined by the reduction of triphenyltetrazolium chloride
(TTC) to triphenylformazan (TPF) (Chu et al. 2007, Wittling et al. 1995). Calcium
dehydrogenase and CEC measurements were not possible to core samples due to limited
sample amount. All soil analysis was run in triplicates.
Results
The physicochemical properties of soil samples are presented in Table 5.5.1. Dry bulk
density was estimated to be 1698 ±70 Θg/m3 for cultivated soil (T1-T4) and 1612±62
Θg/m3 for control soil (N) whereas porosity was 38.5±2% and 35±2%, respectively.
Infiltration was calculated to be 0.012 m/min in the treated soil. Topsoil organic carbon
content decreased by 29%, and total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) decreased by 25%
compared with the control uncultivated soil (N) (1.55 and 0.25% respectively). The lower
organic matter content of the cultivated soil as well as the lime pretreated OMWW
application was depicted in the higher pH (7.75) compared to control soil (N) (6.26).
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Electrical conductivity also increased by a 4.4 fold compared to that of control sample (N)
(174 μS/cm). Magnesium availability decreased in the cultivated soil by 28 % compared
to the control soil (N). On the other hand, calcium and potassium availability increased
by 154 and 56 %, respectively. Finally, CEC increased by 86%. The bioavailability of
phosphorous was extremely low (0.03 mg/Kg) in control soil, while it was high as 0.64 ±
0.2 mg/Kg in the cultivated soil. Exchangeable mineral nitrogen (EMN) was found to be
29% higher in the cultivated soil compared to the control (20 mg/kg) and was dominated
by nitrate nitrogen in both soils (90% and 81% of EMN for cultivated and control soil,
respectively). Potential mineralizable N (PMN) was estimated to be 22 and 29 mg/Kg for
cultivated and control soil respectively. The dissolved organic nitrogen (7 day extraction)
showed no significant changes for the cultivated soil (T1-T4) and the control soil (N)
(Figure 5.5.3). The total phenols were on average lower in the cultivated soil, and only
T1 exhibited 20% higher content compared to the control. Finally, the dehydrogenase
activity did not present any statistically important change. A spatial variability was
observed mainly in the T1 composite with increases in the physico-chemical parameters.
K+, Ca, P-PO43-, N-NO3-, phenols and CEC increased for composite T1 (62%, 35%, 72%,
30% 66% and 18% respectively) compared to T3 and T4. T2 composite also presented
some increase in N-NO3- and phenols compared to other composites (T3 and T4). Figure
5.5.4 presents the grain size distribution which was found to be slightly finer for the four
composites compared to the control soil probably due to tillage.
12.00
2a
10.00
mg/l
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
T1
T2
T3
Mineral N
3500
3000
T4
N
PMN (7 days)
Cu
Cm
Cd
Cm
Cd
DON (7 days)
2b
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
T1
T2
T3
Kd Mineral N
T4
PMN (7 days)
N
Cu
Kd DON (7 days)
Figure 5.5.3. Mineralizable Nitrogen (Mineral N=Ν-ΝΟ3- + Ν-ΝΖ4+) after 1 hour extraction with 2Μ
KCl and Potential mineralizable nitrogen (PMN=Ν-ΝΟ3- + Ν-ΝΖ4+) and dissolved organic nitrogen
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(DON) after 7 days extraction with 2Μ KCl. 2b) Distribution coefficient Kd of mineral N, PMN and
DON.
Figure 5.5.4. Grain size distribution of treated soil (T1-T4) and control soil (N).
The soil core samples Cu, Cm, and Cd showed similar pH values as the topsoil samples
whereas the electrical conductivity was decreased in deeper horizons (by 48% in the Cd
compared to Cu). TOC decreased with depth from Cu (1.0%) to Cd (0.7%). Total
Kjeldahl nitrogen also decreased with depth from Cu (0.19%) to Cm (0.15%), while in
the deeper horizon (Cd) presented an enrichment (34%) that can not be explained with
the available data. Magnesium was relatively constant (4.57-4.93 g/kg) throughout the
core depth, whereas potassium and phosphate content decreased with depth. It is worth
noting that the availability of potassium and phosphorous of the Cm and Cd part of the
soil core was similar to those of the control topsoil sample. Exchangeable mineral
nitrogen (EMN) was estimated to be constant throughout the soil depth ranging from 18
to 20 mg/Kg. Potential mineralizable N (PMN) was constant between Cu and Cm (12.5
and 12 mg/Kg, respectively) and appeared to be negligible in the lower part of the core
(Cd). DON (after 7 days extraction) was stable for all horizons.
Measured physicochemical properties of the OMWW and the lime treated OMWW -in the
evaporation ponds before the mixing with fresh water- are presented in Table 5.5.2. pH
was alkaline (9.65) due to lime treatment. There was substantial decrease in COD (89
%), total phenols (90%) and TOC (48%) content. However, the electrical conductivity
remained high and this was probably related to high potassium content. Nitrogen
concentration in the treated OMWW was 1111 mg/L (54% DON, 30% N-NO3-, and 16%
N-NH4+). The DOC/DON ratio was slightly higher than 20, indicating nitrogen as the
limiting factor. Phosphate phosphorous concentration was 25.6 mg/L. The average
physicochemical properties of groundwater are presented in Table 5.5.3. No significant
spatial variability was observed between wells A1 and A2. The groundwater had high
electrical conductivity, neutral pH, low nutrient concentrations and DO and reducing
conditions.
In general, no adverse effects were observed in ground water due to the
surface application of the OMWW. However attention should be drawn to the electrical
conductivity which could be related to potassium leaching from OMWW application and/or
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to geogenic factors due to interaction of groundwater with marls (rich in calcium) and
phyllites (rich in potassium) which consist the soil parent material.
Discussion
Several publications referred to pH decreases in soil after irrigation with untreated
OMWW (Cabrera et al., 1996; Sierra et al., 2001) which was however attributed to soil
buffering capacity. Time dependent experiments showed initial decrease in pH and finally
recovery to normal soil pH levels (Levi-Minzi R. et al., 1992; Piotrowska et al., 2006). In
the present study the application of lime pre-treated OMWW lead to an increase of soil
pH by 20% compared to that of the relatively acidic control soil. The pH change was
related to the high alkalinity of the applied OMWW, (due to liming practice). The electrical
conductivity increased in the amended soil (340% increase) and this was consistent with
the scientific literature (Paredes et al., 1987; Mekki et al., 2007). These studies referred
to EC increases up to 275% (dose 200 m3/ha) (Mekki et al, 2007) and 54% (Paredes et
al., 1987) after direct application of untreated OMWW for 5 years or single application of
690,000 L of waste. Potassium and sodium accumulation in soil has been found to be the
main reason for the increase of electrical conductivity (Zenjari and Neimeddine, 2001). In
such cases, exchange of calcium with potassium and sodium in soil can lead to the
depletion of calcium (Sierra et al. 2001, Cabrera et al., 1996) and to soil degradation
(Paredes et al., 1987). In our case, potassium availability was increased by 56%.
Although, calcium concentration of OMWW is not as high as that of potassium, calcium
availability showed even higher increase (154 %). The increase of calcium availability
could be attributed to calcium oversaturation.
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Table 5.5.1. Physicochemical parameters for surface soil samples (T1-T4), different depth core samples (Cu, Cm, Cd) and control soil N.
Sample
pH
EC
(μS/cm)
K+
(g/Kg)
Mg2+
(g/Kg)
Ca2+
P-PO4
(mg/L)† (mg/Kg)
C%
CEC
N-NO3- N-NH4+
N-NO3- N-NH4+
Phenols Dehydrogenas
cmole/K TKN(%)
mg/Kg (mg/Kg)
(mg/Kg) (mg/Kg)
(mg/Kg)
e (mg/Kg)
g
(7 days) (7 days)
T1
†
8.35
704
2.36
4.38
101.3
0.94
1.14
125.62
2034
25.90
2.37
32.59
23.84
42.16
0.12
Stdev
0.20
32
0.29
0.08
1.4
0.08
0.25
105
1.16
0.35
5.27
0.50
2.3
0.05
Stdev
7.19
0.40
998
21
1.53
0.09
4.60
0.29
111.1
0.6
0.54
0.21
1.29
0.16
3714
122
27.14
0.38
2.44
0.05
30.10
1.22
30.51
0.25
38.25
5.2
0.12
0.06
Stdev
7.22
0.50
697
22
1.46
0.09
5.25
0.26
73.0
2.2
0.52
0.09
1.22
0.23
4082
50
21.60
0.22
2.30
0.24
22.94
0.54
27.27
5.98
28.29
3.4
0.17
0.06
635
41
1.38
0.08
5.06
0.04
80.2
0.9
0.58
0.13
0.77
0.19
2593
87
18.44
0.41
2.94
0.25
23.70
3.51
27.94
0.34
23.43
4.2
0.15
Stdev
8.24
0.22
7.29
0.58
739
27
1.31
0.03
4.57
0.02
-
Stdev
0.31
0.03
1.01
0.21
1876
136
15.96
0.46
2.97
0.10
14.14
1.3
17.30
1.32
28.86
1.2
Stdev
7.25
0.31
488
44
1.08
0.03
4.61
0.03
-
0.05
0.01
0.90
0.24
1466
85
15.77
0.57
1.86
0.03
17.20
1.64
12.38
2.32
24.94
1.3
7.44
0.11
387
32
0.86
0.01
4.93
0.11
-
Stdev
0.04
0.02
0.68
0.13
3388
139
16.92
0.62
2.62
0.12
10.32
2.01
7.99
1.02
28.24
2.5
Stdev
6.26
0.15
172.7
12
1.08
0.04
6.69
0.47
36
4.2
0.03
0.01
1.55
0.07
3.79
T2
101.43
20.10
T3
107.68
17.78
T4
110.12
5.64
Cu
Cm
Cd
N
59.82
12.12
2490
75
16.15
0.32
3.81
0.16
14.62
1.49
27.66
6.15
35.45
1.7
0.08
0.11
0.07
Concetration in soil solution (extraction media: aqua)
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Table 5.5.2. Physicochemical characteristics of OMWW and treated OMWW in evaporation ponds.
pH
EC (mS/cm)
Mg2+ (mg/L)
K+ (mg/L)
Ca2+ (mg/L)
N-NO3- (mg/L)
N-NH4+ (mg/L)
TKN (mg/L)
P-PO4 (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
TOC (mg/L)
T.Phenols
(mg/L)
OMWW
4.9 (±0.17)
3,93 (±0.1)
57,384
(±2,500)
24,285
Treated OMWW
9.65 (±0.25)
10.68 (±0.12)
80 (±1.45)
4474 (±1.25)
109 (±0.53)
335
180
776
25.58
6,295 (±1,199)
12,665
6,337 (±356)
606 (±50)
- Not measured
Table 5.5.3. Groundwater physicochemical parameters.
pH
EC μS/cm
Eh mV
Dissolved oxygen
(mg/L)
N-NO3- (mg/L)
N-NH3 (mg/L)
P-PO4+ 3 (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
TOC (mg/L)
Total phenols (mg/L)
A 1.8
6.92(±0.15)
1259 (±310)
132 (±66)
A 2.8
7.09 (±0.25)
1185(±324)
99 (±34)
1.68(±0.75)
0.46(±0.32)
0.45(±0.32)
0.08(±0.05)
27 (±16)
2.54
(±2.43)
2.04
(±0.81)
1.2 (±0.57)
0.26 (±0.01)
0.34 (±0.15)
0.14 (±0.01)
35 (±18)
1.30 (±0.98)
2.05 (±0.13)
The increase of CEC observed in this study has been also observed by Paredes et al.
(1987). However the previous researcher did not clearly identified the causes of CEC
increase which were probably related with higher organic matter after the OMWW
application. The increase of cation exchange capacity could be related to the higher pH of
the treated soil, since oxides and hydroxides in soils can generate negatively charge sites
in alkaline environment (McBride 1994).
After 5 years of OMWW application, organic carbon appeared lower in treated soil
compared to the control soil (29% decrease). This was attributed to intense cultivation of
the field for more than 10 years. Moreover, the OMWW application has not enriched the
soil in organic carbon. This in accordance with the results presented by others
(Piotrowska et al., 2006) who showed decrease of organic carbon and return to initial
values after the OMWW application dose of 100 m3/ha and incubation time of 28 and/or
42 days. Moreover the same researcher showed that dehydrogenase activity was
recovered to initial values after 28 days. Dehydrogenase activity was also estimated to
be statistically the same between the cultivated and control soil. The fact that soil
sampling took place in November, 2 months after the end of irrigation period with pretreated OMWW, allowed the assumption to be drawn that decomposition bacteria
probably had favourable conditions (OMWW had low COD and low phenolic content
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compared to untreated OMWW -Table 5.5.2) and enough time to act. In adittion, Mekki
et al. (2006) presented increase in the colony forming units (CFU) for fungi populations,
actinomycetes and spore forming bacteria (organic matter break down bacteria) and that
was probably our case considering also the enhanced effect of maize root system in
developing fungi populations and thus eased organic matter decomposition (e.g.
mycorrhizal) (Tisdale et al., 1993). Consequently, decomposition of organic matter
proceeded in satisfactory rate approximately 2 months after the end of OMWW
application and no residual organic matter observed in soil after 5 years of practise.
We expected high N concentration in soil after the application of OMWW due to
mineralization of organic N. Our case revealed slightly higher N in soil and lower PMN
which
was
probably
related
with
the
decomposition
of
organic
nitrogen
and
transformation to leachable and absorbable mineral (Perez and Gallardo-Lara, 1987).
Furthermore, Paredes et al. (1987) reported increase of 704% and 537% of denitrifiers
and nitrobacteria after 16 days from the end of ‗alpechin‘ application. Thus, in our case
probably nitrification and/or denitrification processes were started after the end of
irrigation with OMWW. The presence of maize had also contributed to the mineralization
and nitrification of organic N with the development of bacteria in the vicinity of plant root
(Tisdale et al., 1993). In addition, tillage after the crop period probably enhanced
mineralization and nitrification processes. C/N ratio in treated soil was in average 3.1
whereas in control soil was 6.2 which exhibited satisfactory decomposition for treated
soil. Furthermore, C/N for treated OMWW was 21 which meant that mineralization and
nitrification processes were near to starting boundary value (<20). The supply of nitrates
was attenuated probably by maize NO3- uptake and/or by denitrifying bacteria with
concomitant release in the atmosphere. This was in accordance with the low values of
nitrates
observed
through
out
the
groundwater
sampling
campaign.
Potential
mineralizable nitrogen (PMN) had relevant concentration to all surface samples whereas
PMN decreased for core samples as the depth increased and this was probably due to
accumulation of organic matter deeper in soil which was more resistant in decomposition.
This was also confirmed by the high PMN distribution coefficient of observed for Cd
sample. Distribution coefficients for mineral N and DON for treated soil exhibited identical
values which meant that organic matter decomposition proceeded and no residual effects
observed.
Table 5.5.4 presents the load input of nutrients, organic carbon, PMN and electrical
conductivity after 5 and 1 years of OMWW application. The content of nutrients in the
upper 50 cm of N soil and treated soil (T1-T4) were also presented. The upper 50 cm of
soil was considered for calculation of total nutrient load in soil since the majority of
nutrients remained in this depth taking into account the hypothesis that nutrients
infiltration rate was identical to water infiltration (0.012 cm/min, maximum ~50 cm-for 3
days constant irrigation). This hypothesis was true for the last year, since samples were
taken November (high rainfall after December) and no significant rain could leach
nutrients deeper in soil. In addition, return of most nutrients concentration into normal
values (compared to N) for Cd sample (30-50 cm) enhanced this hypothesis. Comparison
of nutrients increase in T1-T4 (Nutrient(T1-T4)-Nutrient(N)) with the OMWW nutrients input
yielded the attenuation of nutrients which ranged from 55 to 100% according to the total
input of nutrients in five years. Moreover, comparison with the last year nutrient input
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(2007) revealed the attenuation that occurred without the leaching effect of rain since
the samples were obtained before the rain period in Greece as already mentioned
(December-March). The last year attenuation in nutrient load was due to maize uptake.
Potassium and calcium exhibited an increase of 55% and 175% respectively for treated
soil (T1-T4) and attenuation of 82% and 40% for the last year load, respectively.
Moreover, 97% and 92% was the attenuation for potassium and calcium respectively,
after 5 years of OMWW application which showed that with increased application time we
have increase in attenuation which was probably related with leached into deeper
horizons and/or into groundwater (increased groundwater electrical conductivity).
Magnesium deficiency was observed for the treated soil and probably that was related to
ion exchange with potassium and leached deeper into soil. Significant amounts of
potassium have been uptaken by maize (at least 45% from the last year nutrient input)
due to high potassium requirements of the specific crop (Sugiyama and Ae, 2001).
Phosphates and phenols exhibited high attenuation in soil which was solely due to plant
uptake and soil decomposition capacity. TKN showed 82% attenuation considering the
five year of TKN input and increased load of +100% considering 1 year input. Thus
treated soil contained residual organic matter with strongly bound nitrogen which yielded
23% increase for T1-T4. Leaching effect has not been observed since groundwater
analysis exhibited no changes in nitrates and ammonium (decomposition products in
anaerobic conditions of groundwater). Thus, there was an accumulation of organic matter
which has higher content of nitrogen in treated soil and probably was decayed in very
slow rate. Consequently, organic load (e.g. phenols) and nitrogen chemical species
(nitrates and ammonium) have been effectively attenuated without impacting the
groundwater,
Conclusions
Irrigation with lime pre-treated and OMWW of a maize field for five years showed that
the main soil effects included increase of electrical conductivity, correlated with increase
of potassium and calcium availability in soil solution. Both pretreatment of OMWW
and maize crop showed that enhanced the attenuation processes of organic
load, phenols content, nitrates, and ammonium in soil. However, salinity was still
far below threshold of salinization problem and probably application of limed OMWW in
rotation with periods of non OMWW application could be an environmental convenient
method of OMWW management in areas with water shortage or high irrigation demand
and low organic matter and nutrient soil content (like phosphates). Groundwater quality
remained untouched except electrical conductivity and this was correlated with both deep
water level, slow infiltration rate and cultivation practises (cultivation of maize for
potassium uptake, decomposition of organic load).
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Table 5.5.4. Amount of nutrients input in soil for 5 and 1 year OMWW application, estimated content of nutrients for the upper 50 cm of treated soil
( Nutrient (T1T4) ) and control soil ( Nutrient (N) ), percentage of nutrient changes in soil and percentage of attenuation for 5 and 1 year nutrient load
compared to residual nutrient in soil (1-
Nutrient (T1T4)  Nutrient ( N)
5 or 1 year input OMWW
InputOMWW
(Kg) ±
5 years
InputOMWW
(Kg) ±
1 years
Nutrient (T1T4)
Nutrient (N)
(Kg)
(Kg)
TKN
44,695
8,939
42,162
TOC
Phenols
PMN
PO43+
K
Mg
†
Ca
729,504
34,905
145,901
6,981
1,473
257,702
5,068
2,552
294
51,540
1013
510
E.C.
±
†
)
Nutrient (T1T4)  Nutrient ( N)
Nutrient ( N)
 Nutrient (T1T4)  Nutrient (N) 
1 
 100
5 year input OMWW 

 Nutrient (T1T4)  Nutrient (N) 
1 
 100
1 year input OMWW 

34,002
+23%
-82%
+100%
166,071
465
24
10
25,135
72,113
321†
231,901
480
22
0.136
16,158
100,091
117†
-28%
-3.5%
+10%
-100%
-100%
+55%
-28%
+175%
-100%
-97%
-97%
-82%
-92%
-40%
758
172
+340%
Calculations for total nutrients in soil considered the volume of upper 50 cm of soil
Calcium load was calculated from the volume of porosity considering saturation humidity.
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2. OMW subsurface disposal and phytoremediation
Phytoremediation as a restoration technology is based on the use of vegetation for in situ
treatment of contaminated soils, sediments, and water. It is applicable at sites containing
organic contaminants, nutrients, or metal pollutants that can be accessed by the roots of
plants and sequestered, degraded, immobilized, or metabolized in situ. As far as the
subsurface disposal of OMW is it concerned, there are two technological approaches that
can be followed:
a) One is to have a confined soil disposal area with a protective membrane placed at
least 5 m below the surface so that no wastewater leaks during the winter months to
the groundwater. In addition through a series of perforated pipes and pumps, the
―stored OMW‖ disposed during the winter months is recycled vertically (during the
spring/summer months) in order to enhance the phytoremediation action of poplar
trees. In this process one can further enhance the remediation efficiency by adding
isolated bacterial degraders (of OMW) from the rhizosphere of irrigated plants (for
extended periods) with OMW (Oleico process/ recent Italian patent/LIFE Environment
Project, http://www.lifeoleico.it).
b) A second approach is to dispose the OMW in between densely planted poplar trees
taking into account the soil properties so that the groundwater is not contaminated
with disposed OMW and the cost is significantly reduced compared to the approach in
(a) above (as no excavation and no continuous pumping is involved).
Within
EnviFriendly,
we
concentrate
on
the
second
approach.
In
general,
the
configuration of the plants in the chosen phytoremediation area is determined by a
combination of factors like wastewater irrigation system and weed control methods, OMW
disposal system etc. The site where this technology is implemented is the KOKKOLIS
Olive Mill in Vassilaki, Laconia (Figure 5.5.5). In this case, the poplars were planted in
rows with a spacing of about 1.2 to 1.5m betweens the plants and a spacing of about
3.2m between the rows. The two-year old poplars were planted in late November of 2006
and subsurface disposal was initiated in December of 2007. The OMW delivery system
includes pumps and PVC pipes needed to transfer the OMW from the olive mill facility to
the distribution system at the poplar site. The OMW is distributed in subsurface
perforated pipes placed between the poplar rows. The distribution pipe is located
approximately 40 cm below the surface and it is placed in an excavated channel with a
cross-sectional area of 50 cm X 50 cm. The channel is filled with medium size gravel. The
maximum quantity of OMW that can be disposed on a particular site should be less than
the Specific Retention of the soil in the area. Specific Retention is the measure of the
water retained in the soil against gravity by capillary and hydroscopic forces when the
water table of an unconfined aquifer drops. In our case, it is actually the maximum
volume of water and OMW that can be retained against gravity in a unit area of the
investigated site. Therefore, for a plant with a root system that reaches 5 m deep, the
objective is not to allow the OMW plume to go beyond this limit. This corresponds to a
maximum volume of OMW retained in a volume V (m3) equal to 5m
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Raw OMW
from the mill
OMW distribution piping system
Equilibration
Tank 40 m3
1.2 m
Poplar tree
29.8 m
Perforated pipe
35.2 m
3.2 m
Figure 5.5.5. Subsyrface disposal of OMW with phytoremediation at the ―Kokkolis LTd ‖ olive mill
in Vasilaki, Hania) with phytoremediation field design.
Specific yield and porosity of various materials:
Group
Sedimentary
materials
Metamorphic
rocks
Porous
Material
Range of
Specific
Yield Sy
Average
Specific
Yield Syavg
Range of
Porosity
ε
Average
Porosity
εavg
Sandstone
0.02-0.40
0.21
0.14-0.49
0.34
Siltstone
0.01-0.33
0.12
0.21-0.41
0.35
Sand (fine)
0.01-0.46
0.33
0.26-0.53
0.43
Gravel (fine)
0.13-0.40
0.28
0.25-0.38
0.34
Silt
0.01-0.39
0.20
0.34-0.61
0.46
Clay
0.01-0.18
0.06
0.35-0.57
0.42
Limestone
0.00-0.36
0.14
0.07-0.56
0.30
Schist
0.22-0.33
0.26
0.04-0.49
0.39
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To determine the values of specific retention (S r), the values in the Table given above
can be subtracted from the porosity according to equation:
Sr = ε – Sy
Observing the values in the Table, it can be seen that clayey soils (like the ones in our
test area) have one of the highest retention capacities which is very advantageous as it
allows us to dispose higher volumes of OMW at the phytoremediation site.
Maximum retention capacity of the Phytoremediation area:
Clay
(max)
Clay
(min)
porosity
specific
yield
Specific
Retention
Area
(m2)
Depth
(m)
Liquid
volume
(m3)
0.57
0.06
0.51
1049
5
2675
0.35
0.06
0.29
1049
5
1521
To determine the actual maximum amount of OMW that can be disposed, one should
subtract the amount of anticipated rainfall in the same area.
Maximum volatilization capacity of the poplar trees in the Phytoremediation area:
Poplar
Trees
mature > 5
years
young < 5 years
Pumping
rate
L/day
Activity period
days (4 mo.)
Volume/tree
m3/year/tree
No. of
trees
Total
volume
m3
200
120
24
300
7200
120
120
14.4
300
4320
Based on our calculations, and the average rainfall in the area, the production of OMW by
the KOKKOLIS olive mill which is about 1000 m3, can be accommodated by the area. As
seen from the second Table above, the capacity of the poplar trees planted in the
Phytoremediation area is quite high. Nonetheless, there is an additional area that it could
be planted with poplar trees should the production of OMW by the plant increases
substantially over the next few years.
Figure 5.5.6. Sampling wells constructed in the field by the KOKKOLIS olive mill.
Six sampling wells constructed in the field (Figure 5.5.6). Three level loggers were placed
in different depths (3, 4, and 5 m). Sampling campaigns were done to monitor the
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temporal 3-dimensional variability of hydrology and chemistry of ground water, 6 multilevel (3, 4 and 5 m) wells were installed (Figure 5.5.7). Groundwater sampling was
conducted in different periods prior and after the underground waste release. The field
campaign dates were at 1/2007, 3/2007, 5/2007, 7/2007, 11/2007, 3/2008, 2/2009. The
time period from 1/2007 to 11/2007 was prior the underground waste release, whereas
field campaigns from 3/2008 to 2/2009 were done after the underground waste release.
Poplar trees
Κ2
Κ4
Κ6
Figure 5.5.7. Sampling wells design.
Κ3
Κ5
Κ1
River
Ground water monitoring: The multilevel wells were sampled, with a peristaltic pump
with low flow (< 1 L/min), so as turbidity was maintained in minimum levels, and the
physicochemical parameters pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (D.O.),
and, redox potential (Eh) were measured in situ using the following electrodes: Orion
9107 pH meter, Orion 081010 D.O. meter, and Orion 011050 Conductivity meter. The
samples were filtered through a 0.45 µm Nylon filter, stored in low temperature (with
preservative when needed) and sent to laboratory. Water samples were analysed with a
Hack 2010 spectrophotometer for nitrates (NO3-N, Cadmium Reduction Method, 8039),
nitrites (NO2-N, Diazotization Method, 8507), ammonia (NH3-N, Salicylicate Method,
10023), phosphates (PO4-P, phosVer3 Method, 8048), total phenols (T.phenols, Folin
Ciocalteu method), dissolved organic carbon (Direct Method Patent Pending, 10129) or
by a TOC analyzer (Shimadzu 5050), after the removal of inorganic carbon by air
sparging for 10 min), chemical oxygen demand (COD, Reactor Digestion Method, 8000),
and total nitrogen (TN, TNT Persulfate Digestion Method, 10071) or Kheldalh nitrogen
(TKN, by the Kjeldahl digestion technique with a Hach digestahl digestion apparatus,
Nessler method, 8075). Dissolved organic nitrogen was derived by the abstraction of
ammonia from the TKN.
Soil sampling: Core samples were collected in 2/2009, one year after the underground
irrigation with waste water. Water samples were also collected in the same period. Figure
5.5.8 shows the soil samples position. Sampling included 4 core samples in different
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depths below the irrigation pipe (0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80 cm). Samples analysed for
organic carbon (Walkley & Black, 1934), pH and phenols content. Phenols were extracted
with 120 ml of dichlomethane (DCM) for 24 hours with 6 extraction circles per hour, in
soxlet apparatus. Phenols ware measured with the Folin-Ciocalteu method (Box, 1983).
Figure 5.5.8. Core samples position.
Results
Figure 5.5.9 presents the mean values and standard deviation from 6 wells in the 4 m
depth probe. After the underground disposal of OMWW, there was a decrease in the
concentrations of nitrite, ammonia, TKN and phosphate while the nitrate and phenol
concentration were statistical similar. The pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and redox potential
remained constant after the OMWW application, the electrical conductivity decreased
(Fig. 5.5.10). Soil samples were taken up to 80 cm below the irrigation pipe. In general,
no changes were observed in pH and total organic carbon compared to the control soil
(surface sample) apart from sample KE4 which showed decline in pH and increase in
organic carbon content (Figure 5.5.11 and 5.5.12). Increase was also observed in the
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concentration of phenols (Figure 5.5.13). At 20-40 cm depth a great decrease was
observed in phenol content whereas organic carbon was high for sample KE4. The
comparison of phenols content in two samples KE4 and KE3 and the surface sample
(above the irrigation pipe) is presented in figure 5.5.14.
P-PO4
N-NO2
0.25
0.20
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
N-NO2
mg/L
mg/L
0.035
0.030
P-PO4
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
March 07
March 07
March 08
N-NO3
Total phenols
2.00
5.00
4.00
1.50
N-NO3
mg/L
mg/L
March 08
1.00
0.50
Total phenols
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
March 07
0.00
March 08
March 07
March 08
N-NΗ3
TKN
1.00
5.00
4.00
N-NΗ3
0.60
mg/L
mg/L
0.80
0.40
0.20
TKN
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
March 07
March 08
March 07
March 08
Figure 5.5.9. Nutrients concentration in wells of 4 m in two different time periods.
pH
DO
4.00
8.00
7.50
pH
mg/L
3.00
7.00
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
DO
2.00
1.00
0.00
March 2007
March 2007
March 2008
Electrical conductivity
Redox potential
2500.00
200.00
2000.00
μS/cm
150.00
mV
March 2008
100.00
50.00
1500.00
1000.00
0.00
March 2007
March 2008
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March 2007
March 2008
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Figure 5.5.10. Physicochemical parameters for wells in depth of 4 m in two different time periods.
Organic matter%
a
6
0-20 cm
5
20-40
4
40-60
% 3
60-80
2
1
0
ΚΕ1
ΚΕ2
ΚΕ3
ΚΕ4
ΚΕ5
ΚΕ6
Control
(surface
sample)
Figure 5.5.11. Organic matter in all samples and in control sample b) pH in all samples.
b
pH
14
0-20 cm
20-40
40-60
60-80
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ΚΕ1
ΚΕ2
ΚΕ3
ΚΕ4
ΚΕ5
ΚΕ6
Control
(surface
sample)
Figure 5.5.12. Organic matter in all samples and in control sample b) pH in all samples.
Irrigation pipe
wastewater
Depth cm
0-20
20-40
40-60
60-80
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
Total phenols (mg/Kg)
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Figure 5.5.13. Total phenols in different depths in sample ΘΔ4.
Figure 5.5.14. Total phenols in different depths for samples ΘΔ4 and ΘΔ3 and the control soil.
Discussion - Conclusions
The subsurface application of OMWW showed no adverse effect to groundwater
quality. Stabilization of nutrient concentration after the planting the poplar
trees, showed that biological action of the plants decreased the variability in
nutrient content. The groundwater water level in the field was on average 2.5 m
(winter) to 3 m (summer) below the surface. Soil coring showed no transfer of waste in
deeper horizons (below 60-80 cm) thus there are no adverse effects in groundwater from
waste application. Phenols showed no variability in concentration after the subsurface
application of waste water which was probably related with adsorption in soil and
concomitant degradation of phenols. The rhizosphere of the poplar trees was a crucial
factor for the degradation of phenols. Low pH and high organic load in core KE4 showed
high spillage of the wastewater in that place. The phenol content was high in depth 0-20
cm whereas it decreases in deeper horizons which had similar phenol content to
undisturbed soils (36 mg/Kg, Tsinakos field). The control soil also exhibited similar values
to
Tsinakos
field.
The
subsurface
application
of
OMWW
in
conjunction
with
phytoremediation was shown to be an effective low cost technology.
3. Electrolytic treatment of OMW.
One of the alternative methods for OMW partial treatment is the use of advanced
oxidation processes for the complete oxidation of the phytotoxic polyphenols present in
the OMW as well as for the simulataneous reduction of COD through oxidation and the
removal of coagulated particles of high COD. The advanced oxidation process used in this
application is electrolysis. OMW is often disposed in Evrotas riven without any prior pretreatment to remove at least the content of polyphenols. Electrolytic treatment of OMW
for a short period is expected to reduce substantially the polyphenols concentration and
at the same time achieve a noticeable reduction in the COD of the OMW prior to disposal.
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As part of the LIFE EnviFriendly program, an electrolytic treatment unit was installed at
the ―Ν & Α TOUTOULIS‖ Olive Mill in Platana (Laconia) with the following characteristics:
(9)
Electrolytic Cell (Anode: Ti/Pt/Ir with a total surface area of 160 cm 2, Cathode:
stainless steel 316 (tubo) with an internal diameter of 70 cm; The complete
electrolytic unit was manufactured by WATERSAFE S.A., Greece).
(10)
DC Power supply (WATERSAFE S.A., rated at 700 A @ 20 Vdc).
(11)
Recirculation pump (Lowara, stainless steel 316, with a flow of 30 m 3/h @ 4
m).
(12)
Stirring vessels (PVC with a volume of 0.5, 0.5 and 1 m3).
Following one season of unsuccessful operation due to complete unwillingness of the
olive mill owner to follow the operating instructions, it was decided to change the location
of the electrolytic unit to another place in Laconia, where the wastewater is from the
production of table olives (EUROAMERICANA S.A.).
Experimental Results
The electrolytic system was also tested in parallel in our laboratories in order to ensure
that the best operating conditions have been chosen for the particular application.
Effect of Voltage
OMW, diluted 1 to 20 with water and following addition of 4% (w/v) NaCl (4 g/cm 3), was
subjected to electrolytic treatment employing three different voltages: 5 V, 7V and 9V.
The recirculation flow through the electrolytic cell was 0,62 L/s. The temperature was
kept within the range 27-35 oC (Figure 5.5.15). The temperature and pH increase was
the highest during the electrolysis with 9V. The gradual increase of pH can be explained
by the fact that throughout the electrolysis more OH- ions are generated than H+, with
the results the gradual move towards more alkaline conditions. The value of pH does not
affect the production of Cl2 and the overall efficiency of the process (for an initial pH in
the range 4 to 10) and hance no pH control was implemented (Rajkumar & Palanivelu,
2004).
Temperature (C)
37
35
33
31
29
27
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90
60
9V
120
7V
45
Time (min)
5V
30
20
15
10
5
2
25
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9
pH
8
7
6
7V
120
90
60
45
30
Time (min)
5V
20
15
10
5
2
0
5
9V
Current Intensity (Α)
Dilution 1:20, 4% NaCl
25
20
15
10
5
0
2
5
10
15
20
30
Time (min)
5V
7V
45
60
90
120
9V
Figure 5.5.15. Variation of (α) Temperature, (β) pH and (γ) current intensity, during electrolysis
at a constant voltage of 5, 7, 9 V.
COD
The drop of COD as a function of time is given in the diagram below (Fig. 5.5.16). It is
obvious that the rate of COD reduction is higher as the voltage increases. We observe an
initial increase of COD for 5 and 7 V before the continuous reduction of COD with time
commences. This is probably due to production of intermediates (chlorinated compounds
or polymerized compounfd). The production of polymerized compounds is fovoured at a
low pH and temperature leading to an increase in COD (Chen et al., 2003).
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Figure 5.5.16. Changes in COD versus time for different operating voltages.
The reduction of COD after 2 hours of treatment was 35,5 % at 9V, 24% at 7 V and just
3,4% at 5V. The COD reduction is directly linked to the current density which was: 7.77
A/dm2 at 5 V, 19.26 A/dm2 at 7 V and 31.54 A/dm2 at 9 V.
The diagram (Fig. 5.5.17) shows the dependency of COD on the applied charge per unit
volume of the liquid phase being treated. The average COD reduction is 188 mg O 2/Ah at
9 V, 200 mg O2/Ah at 7 V and 80 mg O2/Ah at 5 V. The the same amount of applied
charge, the COD reduction is higher at higher voltages.
Polyphenols
As seen in the diagram below (Fig. 5.5.18), the phenolic compounds are degraded totally
within 15 min at 9V, 20 min at 7V and 40 min at 5V.
Dilution 1:20, 4% NaCl
2700
COD (mg/L)
2400
2100
1800
1500
1200
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
Charge per unit volume (Ah/L)
5V
7V
5,00
9V
Figure 5.5.17. COD reduction as a function of the applied charge at different working voltages.
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Dilution 1:20, 4% NaCl
Polyphenols (g caffeic/ L)
2,0
1,6
1,2
0,8
0,4
0,0
0
10
20
5V
Time (min)
30
7V
40
50
9V
Figure 5.5.18. Reduction in polyphenols as a function of time at different operating voltages.
The results of the electrolytic treatment are shown together for polypohenols and COD
reduction in the following diagram (Fig. 5.5.19). At an operating voltage of 9V, when the
polyphenols are totally removed, the corresponding COD reduction is 14%.
% Reduction COD, polyphenols
100
80
polyphenols
60
COD
40
20
0
Figure 5.5.19. Comparison of % COD and polyphenol reduction.
0
15
30
Effect of Solids
45
5V
60
75
Time (min)
7V
90
105
9V
All the prevous experiments have been conducted with filtered OMW where all suspended
solids have been removed. In order to examine the effectiveness of the unit in a real
situation where the Olive Mill Owner neglects to remove the solids, two sets of
experiments were conducted one with filtered OMW and the other without any filtering
prior to the electrolytic treatment. The results are shown on the figure 5.5.20 working at
a voltage of 9 V and 4% NaCl.
COD
The profile of COD with respect to time for not filtered OMW is shown on the figure
5.5.21. As expected the initial COD is much higher compared to the filtered one. After 2
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hours of electrolysis, the COD of the non-filtered OMW was reduced from 6545 mg/L to
5080 mg/L and for the filtered OMW, COD was reduced from 2310 mg/L to 1490 mg/L.
Figure 5.5.20. Changes in (a) temperature, (b) pH and (c) current density, during the electrolytic
treatment of OMW filtered and not filtered.
Polyphenols
First it is worth noticing that the total amount of phenolic compounds is double for the
nonfiltered OMW. The reduction of polyphenols as a function of time is shown in figure
5.5.22. For the filtered OMW, the polyphenols (1.52 g/L) are removed within 30 min.
During the same period, the polyphenols drop from 2.85 g/L to 0.82 g/L. The presence of
solids does not affect the phenol reduction rate as the two curves are practically parallel.
Figure 5.5.21. COD reduction of non-filtered OMW as a function of (a) time and (b) charge.
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Figure 5.5.22. Reduction of polyphenols versus time for filtered and non-filtered OMW.
Colour
The decolourization of the OMW corresponds to the degradation of high molecular weight
compounds with mineralization of the low molecular weight aromatic compounds. The
polymerized aromatic compounds are responsible for the dark colour. Complete
decolorization coincides with the removal of the polyphenols. The colour is removed
faster at higher operating voltages and higher NaCl concentrations.The time for
decolorization varies from 10 min to 1 hour depending on the conditions.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.5.23. Samples from experiment at a volatage of (a) 9V and (b) 7V.
Effect of Solids
As seen below (Fig. 5.5.24), the effect of solids is very strong on decolorization. Their
presence results in a temporary increase in colour.
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Figure 5.5.24. Change of color with time after treatment.
We observe an increase in the rate of decolorization with increasing voltage and NaCl
concentration. At higher OMW concentration we observe an initial increase in colour due
to temporary polymerization of the polyphenols (Fig. 5.5.25).
Based
on
the
above
experiments
we
can
readilty
conclude
that
OMW
pretreatment for the removal of the suspended solids is essential for a succeful
and efficient decolorization and ployphenol removal.
Figure 5.5.25. Comparison of change of color of filtered and non-filtered OMW with time.
Conlusions and Recommendations
From the previous experiments we arrive at two important conclusions:

Decolorization and removal of polyphenols takes place in a very short period of
time if we have removed all suspended solids from the OMW.

The effectiveness and efficiency of the electrolytic system increases substantially
as the concentration of NaCl increases.
The above findings coupled with the unwillingness of the TOUTOULIS Olive Mill ownwers
to do any pretreatment whatsoever, lead us to the decision to transfer the electrolytic
unit from their premises to another location in Laconia. It was decided to move the unit
to the industrial unit for the production and packaging of table olives, EUROAMERICANA
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S.A., for the treatment of their wastewater. This choice was made since the wastewater
of table olives is already rich in NaCl and the unit is expected to work much better.
Indeed, in May 2009 the unit was put in operation at EUROAMERICANA S.A., and the first
results were very encouraging. Table olive processing occurs through a series of steps,
namely initial olive cleaning, debittering, washing, fermentation and packing. Table olives
wastewater is similar to olive mill wastewater, however, it is not as strong in terms of
COD and suspended solids and it has in addition sodium chloride, calcium chloride and
lactic acid. As a result this wastewater has a high conductivity (about 100 mS/cm) and a
pH of about 4.5. Since the amount of salt added for processing is quite high (about 10 kg
salt per 120 kg of kalamata olives) EUROAMERICANA S.A. has instituted a brine recycle
scheme to reduce the cost of salt usage and to reduce the amount of wastewater.
EUROAMERICANA S.A. has final disposal vessels (septic tanks) to keep their effluents
prior to final disposal. The electrolytic unit was installed prior to the disposal tanks
whereby the effluents are pumped from a small flow equilibration tank to the electrolytic
cell vessel where they are oxidized and overflow into the final disposal tanks. The
overflowing stream is where the electrolytically-treated effluents can be sampled to test
the efficacy of the installed unit. During the month of May (2009) the facility was mostly
packing the olives and hence, the generated wastewater was not very strong in terms of
COD. Nonetheless, the installed electrolytic unit was able to fully remove the dark color
from the effluents. A couple of samples were tested for COD removal which was of the
order of 50%, however, the initial COD load was quite low (of the order of 1.5 g/L). The
unit is expected to work satisfactorily as we have conducted independent experiments in
the Technical University of Crete where it was shown that electrolytic treatment of table
olives wastewater can achieve complete decolorization, remove more that 50% of initial
COD (a load of about 5 g/L) and essentially achieve complete removal (98%) of
polyphenols.
4. Prototype unit for treatment of Orange Juice wastewater
The Lakonia Orange Juice Plant produces large amounts of orange juice and although it
has a complete biological wastewater treatment facility already in place, significant
problem in the effluents are observed particularly during the period of peak production.
We investigated possible improvements in the treatment and arrived at a few changes in
the current operation of the facility. We installed an electrolytic pretreatment unit. The
unit is placed in the outlet of the dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit and prior to the
biological treatment. The location of the unit is expected to aid by partially oxidizing the
wastewater and making more easily degraded by the microorganisms. Excluding the
mixing vessel, the rest of the equipment is placed on four wheels to make it easily
transportable to another location in the plant. The installed electrolytic unit was
evaluated for its capability to aid the overall operation (lower COD in the effluent stream)
and decolourization of the final effluents.
Existing situation
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As a first step the overall wastewater treatment facility was examined and our findings
were communicated to the Director of the plant. The general observation is that the
system does not work satisfactorily during periods of peak production. By examing the
existing units, we were able to pinpoint the problem. The wastewater reached first the
flow equalization vessel (Fig. 5.5.26) and then proceeds to the Dissolved Air Flotation
(DAF) unit where the solids (i.e., the natural fibers of the orange fruit) are removed. The
efficiency of this unit is very important as ceculose is difficult to biodegrade. In the figure
5.5.27 the fibers are shown in the equillization vessel. Subsequently the wastewater is
pumped to the DAF where the fibers are removed with the addition of coagulants (Fig.
5.5.27).
Figure 5.5.26. Flow Equilization vessel where the wastewater arrives first.
Addition of coagulants
Flotation and removal of solids
Effluent from the D.A.F.
Natural fibers that have been
collected
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Figure 5.5.27. Typical setup of the facility.
The DAF works satisfactorily as the effluent does not contain at least visible fibers.
The flocculated natural fibers are then taken to the dewatering unit where most of them
are removed from the system; however, a large amount of smaller fibers is returned to
the pumping station and directed to the biological treatment units (Fig. 5.5.28).
From
D.A.F.
(without
fibers)
From dewatering
unit (fibers are
present)
Figure 5.5.28. Pumping station (flow from DAF and dewatering unit).
The presence of the fibers is evident form the yellow color of the feed taken from the
pumping station to the biological treatment unit (Fig.5.5.29).
Figure 5.5.29. Pumping of pretreated wastewater where fibers are still present as evidenced by
the yellow colour.
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Given the above findings it was decided to follow two alternatives taking into
consideration the fact that the plant was not in a position to change the dewater unit.
1st Alternative: Electrolytic Pretreatment of the wastewater
We proceeded with the installation of an electrolytic unit with the primary goal to oxidize
in part the returning solids in the pumping station prior to their transfer to the biological
treatment unit (Fig. 5.5.30).
Figure 5.5.30. Installation of the electrolytic Unit in the pumping station.
The effectiveness of this approach was very difficult to evaluate on the site because of
the variations in the federate and the long residence time of the wastewater in the
biological treatment unit. As a result, we examined the efficiency of the unit with
independent experiments in our laboratory using the same wastewater.
2nd Alternative: Decolorixation of final effluent
The goal here was to evaluate the electrolytic decolourization of the final effluent
regardless of the overall treatment efficiency of the existing facility. This was done with
independent experiments in our lab and in the field. The color of the final effluent is
shown in the figure 5.5.31 when no treatment is applied. Based on our findings a
complete unit was designed for the decolorizationof the effluent at all times and was
given to the plant Director.
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Figure 5.5.31. Colour of final effluent during the period of normal operation (not peak period).
Results
The graduate student involved in this project carried out a complete experimental design
where many operating variables were examined. The complete experimental matrix is
shown in the table 5.5.5. It is noted that the COD of the inlet wastewater to the
biological treatment unit was higher than 10.000 mg/L whereas the final effluent was
always less than 1.000 mg/L. In both cases the yellow colour was always there.
Table 5.5.5. Experimental setup.
Current
10Α
Flowart
e
0,9L/s
ec
0,6L/s
ec
Electr
olytic
cell
Operating
conditions
Pt/Ir
Concetration of
Na2SO4
Concetration of NaCl
0,5%
1%
2%
3%
√
4%
6%
1%
√
20Α
√/ √
√
40Α
√
√/ √
6%
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√/ √
BDD
√
√
120 min
√
√/ √
>450 min
√: Final effluent
√: wastewater from the inlet of the biological unit
Effect of operating voltage
Final Effluent
Three different operating voltages were examined: 10, 20 και 40A. The salinity was 4%
NaCl and the temperature was kept contsnat at about 25 0C.. A small yet consident
increase of the pH was observed in all experiments (Fig. 5.5.32).
pH NaCl 4%
8,8
8,6
8,4
pH
8,2
8
7,8
7,6
10 A
20 A
7,4
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20
40
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40 A
7,2
60
80
t (min)
100
120
140
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Figure 5.5.32. Change of pH with time.
COD
The COD removal as a function of operating current density is shown in the figure 5.5.33.
The COD measurements have been adjusted for apparent increase due to the presence of
salt.
COD
removal
(%)
Time (min)
Figure 5.5.33. COD removal with time.
Decolourization
As seen, decolourization is achieved within the first 5 min of electrolytic treatment. The
colour measurement at 440nm is the most representative (Fig. 5.5.34).
TOC
Whereas we have seen a COD reduction of aboput 50% after 120 min, no reduction in
TOC is observed. This means that we have addition of oxygen atoms in the organic
compound but no mineralization (Fig. 5.5.35).
Χρώμα NaCl 4% 20A
4000
0 min
3500
Χρώμα
colour
NaCl 4%, 20A
3000
5 min
60 min
2500
120 min
2000
1500
1000
500
0
400
450
500
550
Wave length (nm)
600
650
700
Χρώμα
NaCl
4% 40A
Μήκος
κύματος
(nm )
10000
9000
Χρώμα
colour
0 min
NaCl 4%, 40A
8000
5 min
7000
60 min
6000
120 min
5000
4000
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2000
1000
0
400
450
500
550
Wave length (nm)
Μήκος κύματος (nm )
600
650
700
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Figure 5.5.34. Absorbance of effluent as a function of time and wavelength.
TOC 10-20-40A
29,00
27,00
TOC (ppm)
25,00
23,00
21,00
19,00
4% NaCl 10A
4% NaCl 20A
17,00
4% NaCl 40A
15,00
5
25
45
65
85
105
125
t (m in)
Figure 5.5.35. TOC of the effluent as function of time at different operating currents.
Effect of Salinity
The wastewater was treated at four different salinities: NaCl – 0.5, 1, 2 and 4%. The
changes in the pH are minimal as shown in figure 5.5.36.
pH 20A
10
9,5
pH
9
8,5
8
0,5% NaCl
1% NaCl
7,5
2% NaCl
4% NaCl
7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
t (m in)
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Figure 5.5.36. change of pH with time for the different NaCl treatments.
The COD reduction as a function of time and operating current is shown in the figure
5.5.37. The highest reduction is observed for the experiments at 2 & 1% NaCl.
%Απομάκρσνση COD
70
60
COD
removal
(%)
% Απομάκρσνση COD3
50
40
30
0,5% NaCl
20
1% NaCl
2% NaCl
10
4% NaCl
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time
t (m(min)
in)
Figure 5.5.37. COD removal with time.
Decolourization
Decolourization takes place within 5 min for the experiments with 2 and 4% NaCl
whereas 15 min are required for the experiments at 0,5 and 1% NaCl. The samples with
2 and 4% NaCl were decolourized by 96%, whereas the experiments with 0,5 and 1%
NaCl were only 30 and 56% decolorized (as measured at 440 nm) (Fig. 5.5.38).
Χρώμα NaCl 1%
5000
0 min
4500
5 min
4000
NaCl 1%
3500
Χρώμα
colour
15 min
3000
60 min
2500
120 min
2000
1500
1000
500
0
360
410
460
4000
Χρώμα NaCl 2%
510
560
610
Wave length (nm)
660
Μήκος κύματος (nm )
0 min
3500
5 min
Χρώμα
3000
colour
NaCl 2%
60 min
2500
120 min
2000
1500
1000
500
0
380
430
480
530
580
630
680
Wave
length
(nm))
Χρώμα
NaCl
4%
20A (nm
Μήκος
κύματος
4000
0 min
3500
3000
NaCl 4%
Χρώμα
2500
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2000
1500
1000
500
5 min
60 min
120 min
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Figure 5.5.38. Change of color with time.
TOC
Similarly we observe no reduction in TOC although a significant reduction in COD was
observed.
Conlusions and Recommendations
Based on the results the following recommendations were made
Change of the Dewatering Unit - The best solution, yet not the most economical, is
the substitution of the existing dewatering unit with a new decanter of high effiency. This
is the best solution for the long run.
Changing the existing piping – return from dewatering unit - The simplest
approach is to change the location where the returned liwuids from the dewatering unit
are returned. Instead of the pumping station, these should go to the flow equalization
vessel and pass again from the DAF. As a result only the effluents from the DAF will be
pumped to the biological unit. The only concerne is whether the quality of the separation
in the DAF will fall if the flow is operated at a higher level.
Electrolytic Pretreatment - The electrolytic pretreatment resulted in a reduction of the
overall COD however, no reduction was observed in the TOC. This suggests that oxygen
atoms are insered in the organic compounds which makes them more easily
biodegradable; however, no minerilzation of the wastewater was observed.
Decolourization
-
The
electrolytic
unit
can
be
used
independently
for
the
decolourization of the final effluent. With residence times of the order of 5 min only, a
satisfactory decolourization is achieved (>96%) where no yellow colour is visible.
Recommendations 2 and 4 are readily implementable and the Director of the plant has
accepted them.
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TASK 5 - Integration of socio-economic aspects
1 Results of the fieldwork research
Public Participation and Information
Within the framework of the LIFE project, the tasks of the NCSR research team included:

The study of the social implications of the project interventions and the
attainment of social consent and acceptance.

The planning and implementation of a dissemination campaign to inform the
public about the objectives and the results of the project.
The NCSR research team elaborated a series of studies and fieldwork activities seeking to
reveal and register the local peculiarities and problems (floods, fires), as well as the local
dimension of specific environmental management issues (recycling). During the interim
report, the NCSR team also implemented a series of information and sensitization actions
(production and dissemination of printed and electronic material, organization of
workshops and public events), many meetings and discussions with local stakeholders.
Overall, the whole of the aforementioned activities set the basis for a long-term
constructive public consultation process that evolved throughout various research project
phases (goal setting, opinion-registering, information about the project‘s actions and the
foreseen implications, new meetings and new information events based on the latest
data collected etc.).
Thus, the NCSR team established a solid network of co-operation with the local
stakeholders which resulted in spectacular partnerships (e.g. the creation of Open Farms
with New Farmers‘ Union, the Mapping Trails with the Sparta Hacking Association etc.).
The co-operation with local stakeholders, such as the municipal authorities around
Evrotas, the local agencies for land reclamation (TOEB) of these municipalities and the
environmental education institutions of the wider area, was continuous.
The overall objective of the aforementioned co-operation was the viability of the Network
of Co-operation of Local Stake-Holders following the completion of the project. This
Network will be based on the Observatory for Sustainable Development. Its operation will
be the responsibility of the Prefecture of Laconia and its tasks will include the collection
of information material regarding local development perspectives, the provision of
information to and the collection of feedback from all stakeholders and citizens, the
overall coordination of the development actions and the participation to the resolution of
the emerging development problems. Brief summaries of these surveys and studies are
presented below, offering a synopsis of the views and observations of the responsible (in
each case) local actors and of a sample of the local population.
Professionals - Residents
Comparative presentation of two surveys results
Following the completion of two surveys (initial and repetitive) the results have been
correlated by the NCSR researchers. An overview of the comparison of these results is
given below:
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5. According to the initial survey, the Evrotas River is perceived primarily as a
significant agricultural asset (55.00%) and secondarily as a source of natural
wealth (31.00%). Only 14.00% of the respondents consider Evrotas as a historic
and local cultural asset.Respectively, according to the repetitive survey, the
Evrotas River is primarily perceived as a considerable agricultural asset (60.7%)
and secondarily as a source of natural wealth (19.7%). Only 12.1% of the
respondents perceive Evrotas as a historic and local cultural element. By
comparison, the findings are similar and indicate a marked increase in the
proportion of responses that positively value the contribution of Evrotas in the
rural development especially as a supplier of water resources (44.4%).
6. Regarding the problems that Evrotas presents, respondents in the initial survey
emphasized primarily the problem of pollution (total of relevant answers 65.00%)
and secondarily the fact that most of the river‘s development potential remains
unexploited (23.00%). A 12.00% percentage of the population referred to the
problem of floods and draught. In the repetitive survey, 38.9% of the respondents
stress the population problem while there is a marked increase in the percentage
of respondents who consider draught and floods to be the primary problem
generated by the Evrotas River (36.2%). This marked increase is attributed both
to the damage caused by the relatively recent floods and particularly by the
prolonged
drought.
The
percentage
of
respondents
that
emphasized
the
unexploited development potential of the river (the irrational use of water
resources) was about the same (22.2%).
7. With reference to the expectations generated by Evrotas, according to the results
of the initial multiple-choice survey, the majority of respondents stressed the
river‘s value as a clean and abundant source of water (72.2%) and a wetland of
valuable flora and fauna (62.1%). Secondly, in the opinion of respondents,
Evrotas could be used as a recreational area (22.7%) and serve as an incentive to
attract tourists (19.5%). The findings of the repetitive survey are similar.
Considering the future contribution of the Evrotas River in local development,
70.9% of respondents identified Evrotas‘ significance as a high-quality water
resource (which contributes to the increase of agricultural production and the
enhancement of quality of life), 16.2% of respondents referred to the rivers‘ use
as a tourist attraction incentive, while 12.2% mentioned the use of Evrotas as a
means to raise funding from Community and national resources.
8. According to the initial survey, respondents considered that the contribution of the
LIFE / EnviFriendly project to the resolution of the Evrotas‘ management problems
should primarily focus on the reduction of pollution (39.6%) and the elaboration
of
water
resources
and
riparian
land
management
plans
(36.6%);
and
secondarily, on the best exploitation of the river (13.4%) and the management of
seasonal floods (10.4%). According to the repetitive study, from the whole of the
respondents who were familiar with the implementation of the LIFE / EnviFriendly
project, 47.7% considered the project‘s main contribution to be the monitoring of
pollution and of the pollution sources, while 15.4% most highly valued the
quantitative and qualitative management of the water resources. Adding to the
above percentages the percentage of respondents who emphasized the antiFinal Report (Technical issue) – LIFE05 ENV/GR/00024
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pollution measures adopted for the Evrotas River (relevant categories) it is clear
that the two major inputs of the projects consisted of the reduction of pollution
and the wise water resources management.
The above findings lead to the conclusion that both the initial content and
objectives of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project and the implemented actions
(elaboration of management proposals, dissemination – sensitization activities,
local events and workshops etc.) evolved in accordance with the priorities and
the expectations of the local professionals and residents. Subsequently, the NCSR
research team argues that the goal of social acceptance of the proposed interventions
has been largely achieved. Moreover, it is indicative that 16.9% of respondents have
positively valued the contribution of the project to the mobilization of the relevant
communication mechanisms and the provision of information to the local population
regarding the prospects of sustainable local development.
The basic conclusion of both the initial and (especially) the repetitive surveys is
the promotion of the urgency of the Evrotas pollution problems and of the need
for wise water resources management, and the realization by the vast majority
of the local community of the fact that the aforementioned problems cannot be
resolved without the adoption of relevant planning measures. This conclusion has
been verified the respondents‘ demand for the prioritization of pollution reduction and
specialized water resources management plans in any future programming.
Elected Officials – Representatives of the Municipalities around Evrotas
Overview of the findings of the initial survey
One of the most important, if not the most important, research findings is the
fact that elected officials positively view their participation in practices that
promote sustainable development (95%), particularly through institutional and
communicative means. Moreover, a significant percentage (62.4%) of elected
officials is familiar with the «integrated forms of agricultural production» and
vastly supports the dissemination of information about them (76.5%).
The aforementioned findings are indicative of the existence of a particularly fertile
framework for the long-term exploitation of the project‘s results. The long-term
implementation of the project foresees the establishment and operation of the Local
Development Observatory. The positive inclination and the high degree of awareness of
the elected officials will positively contribute to the success of the Observatory given that
it will be housed in the prefecture and will be staffed by employees of the local
authorities. As already mentioned, elected authorities have a primary role to play in the
dissemination of information since they are themselves communication channels between
the citizens and the project administrators. The dissemination of the relevant information
can be realized through three different ways:
a) First, through the information sources elaborated by the project: information
workshops, website, environmental education, printed material, posters etc.
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b) Second, through the active participation of the elected authorities in the
implementation of the project and the permanent co-operation with the project
managers; this is necessary for the two-way dissemination of information. The
project seeks to produce a know-how totally adapted to the peculiarities and the
needs of the local community.
c) Finally, the elected local authorities can function as opinion leaders and
disseminate
information
about
the
project,
generate
discussion
over
the
achievement of the project‘s objectives and communicate expectations, ideas and
solutions regarding the development perspectives of the region.
One more remarkable finding is the fact that the majority of respondents perceive
Evrotas as primarily contributing to the irrigation of the region and local agricultural
development (39.8%). Simultaneously, respondents blame industrial, agricultural and
house wastes (35.8%) and the irrational water resources management (29.9%) as the
main sources of the pollution of the Evrotas River. Subsequently, elected authorities
argue that the LIFE / EnviFriendly project should directly focus on the monitoring of the
pollution and the pollution sources and the quantitative and qualitative management of
the water resources (81% and 77% respectively).
These findings are very important since they reflect the needs and problems of the local
community. Furthermore, they highlight particularly interesting issues such as the local
authorities‘ utilitarian perception of the Evrotas River as a water source and their
weakness up-to-date to fully explore the river‘s cultural, historical and environmental
development potential. The rich and long-term history of the region, if properly explored,
could contribute both to the economic development of the area, e.g. as a tourist
attraction, and to the enhancement of the quality of life of the residents. However, it
seems that today the agricultural qualities of the river have prevailed over its cultural,
environmental and tourism qualities.
Finally, elected officials have expressed their belief that the LIFE / EnviFriendly project
would lead the way for the implementation of similar projects by local stake-holders
(91.9%). However, it shoul;d be noted that the implementation of new projects is not the
only goal of the project. The project also seeks the elaboration of a set of feasible
solutions fully adapted to the local needs, the improvement of the current conditions and
the dissemination of local ―best-practice‖ examples.
Summary conclusions of the repetitive survey
Following the completion of the survey and the analysis of the data, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
a) Overall, the vast majority of elected officials is substantially informed
about the progress of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project and the project‟s
implementation guidelines. Moreover, many elected officials had been directly
participated in the information meetings that concerned the local peculiarities and
needs, as well as to the various dissemination activities throughout the
implementation of the project.
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b) Elected officials have demonstrated only limited awareness of the
Observatory for Local Development. This could be due to the organizational
difficulties that have hindered the smooth operation of the Observatory and the
only partial clarification of the Observatory‘s tasks. The NCSR researchers
estimate that in the long-run and following the full operation of the Observatory
elected officials will comprehend its significant contribution in the development of
the region mostly as a co-ordination and information mechanism.
c) Regarding the familiarity of local officials with the ―integrated forms of agricultural
production‖ there are significant differentiations depending on the orientation of
each municipality (i.e. whether the municipality is oriented towards the primary or
the tertiary sector). However, it is indicative that the elected officials who have a
relevant professional activity are fully aware of the ―integrated forms of
agricultural
production‖
and
could
subsequently
disseminate
the
relevant
information to the residents of their locality.
d) The whole of the officials have a positive opinion as regards the content
and objectives of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project and its successful
implementation. Moreover, they fully agree with the project‘s prioritization of
the local development problems, as well as with the project‘s proposals regarding
the required managerial measures.
e) Finally, nearly the whole of the respondents consider the implementation of
the LIFE / EnviFriendly project to have provided the local community with
considerable
know-how
regarding
the
implementation
of
European
projects in the field of local development and to have opened the way for
participation in future European projects. Considering the fact that elected
officials have agreed with the importance attributed by the LIFE / EnviFriendly
project to the exploration and wise management of the water resources of the
Evrotas River, it would be reasonable for any future European projects to follow
the thematic lines of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project.
The above findings allow a lot of optimism regarding the future participation of local
officials in the management of forecoming projects and the achievement of the necessary
social acceptance by the whole of the community.
Research Results on Floods
The pilot research on the floods of the Evrotas River in Laconia complements the
research «Reducing the floods‘ impact - New methods to cope with flooding and the
central role of local authorities‖ of Dr. R. Gkeka and A. Mitsou. To get a broad picture of
floods in the case-study region the NCSR researchers first contacted the Laconia branch
of the General Secretariat for Civil Protection (GSCP) and then the Greek Agricultural
Insurance Organization (first the Tripolis Branch and second the Central Office in Athens)
from where they obtained the approvals and allowances tables for 2003 and 2005 and
the Prefecture of Laconia.
Then, the NCSR researchers specially designed two
questionnaires to address the specific target-groups. The first questionnaire was
addressed to the local authorities of the municipalities around the Evrotas River and was
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completed by the Mayors with the goal to register the readiness and the prevention and
recovery capacity of the municipalities in case of flood. The second questionnaire was
addressed to the residents affected by floods and was completed through personal
interviews with the aim to detect the residents‘ familiarity with the protection measures
and the relevant compensation and rehabilitation procedures. Below there is a brief
overview of the relevant findings.
Results of the flood awareness questionnaire to local authorities
The questionnaires were completed with the assistance of the elected officials –
managers of the LIFE / EnviFriendly project in January 2007 by the Mayors of 7 out of 8
municipalities to which the questionnaires had been originally distributed. The findings of
the questionnaire to the local authorities and the relevant research ―Plan for flood
disaster management in Laconia‖ are summarized below:
1. 4 out of 7 municipalities ignore the existence of an emergency plan in case of
flood in their region.
2. The vast majority of respondents (5 municipalities) declared the flood readiness of
both manpower and equipment.
3. During the peak rainfall periods 4 out of 7 municipalities are particularly alert.
4. Only 2 municipalities are aware of the regular monitoring of the hydrology and
geomorphology of the river by the Prefecture.
5. Most of the municipalities regularly follow the weather forecast (meteorological
data) on the Media (TV, radio etc.) while one municipality has its own local
meteorological station.
6. 3 out of 7 municipalities monitor the history of floods in their region while 2 keep
a record of floods.
7. In all
7 municipalities, there is no municipal institutionalized specialized
mechanism to coordinate activities in case of emergency (there are however cases
of co-operation between municipalities, e.g. the co-operation between the Skala
and Elos municipalities).
8. Similarly, there is no compensation foreseen (through contribution) for properties
which have been shown to impede the flow of the river.
9. Municipal authorities in all the municipalities ignore the existence of information
and education programmes for the citizens whose property is located in high risk
areas.
10. In over half of the municipalities the local population (agricultural associations
and citizens) participate in flood protection actions.
11. 5 out of 7 municipalities agree on the need for better information and enhanced
readiness of the local community regarding flood prevention and rehabilitation.
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12. The majority of the municipalities agree that flood management is problematic
and recognizes the need for inter-municipal co-operation for flood protection and
rehabilitation in the case of the Evrotas River.
Results of the flood awareness questionnaire to residents
The questionnaires were completed in Sparta in January 2007. The respondents affected
by floods can be grouped in 3 categories:
1. Riviotissa
area:
The
GSCP
had
prepared
an
initial
list
of
the
financial
compensation petitions of the home owners affected by the 2006 floods.
2. Klada area: The GSCP possessed information about those affected (crop
production) by the 2003 flood.
3. In the street market of Sparta the NCSR researchers interviewed four producers
who had been affected by floods outside the Sparta Municipality (harvest located
in other municipalities).
A number of questionnaires were also completed by Riviotissa and Klada residents not
recommended by the GSCP. More specifically:

12 questionnaires were completed in Riviotissa.

6 in Kladas.

4 in regions of other municipalities outside the Sparta Municipality.
To the question « Is your property located in a high risk area? » the majority of the
Riviotissa residents and the whole of the residents of Klada and of the regions outside
Sparta gave a positive answer.
The land uses in the case-study regions consisted of:
1. Half of the Riviotissa residents and all of the Kladas / other regions‘ residents
answered that they have crops (orange trees in Riviotissa and Klada and garden
produce in the other regions).
2. In Riviotissa there is one enterprise; all respondents have their primary residence
in Riviotissa, Kladas and the other regions.
3. With the exception of the aforementioned enterprise, 2 farms exist in Riviotissa, 1
in Kladas and 1 in the other regions (sufficient number of animals, sheep and
goat).
To the question « Do you think that a system of early warning would more efficiently
protect your property? » positive responses were divided in all three cases: Riviotissa
(40-60%), Kladas (70-30%) and other regions (50-50%).
To the question « Do you know how to protect your-self from floods? » most of the
respondents in Riviotissa (10 out of 12) gave a negative answer, while most of the
respondents in Kladas gave a positive answer (5 out of 6).
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To the question « Do you know whom to contact in case of flood? » responses were
divided with 7 out of 12 respondents in Riviotissa, 2 out of six in Kladas and 1 out of 4 in
the other regions giving a negative response.
To the question « Would you be willing to participate to a system of prevention of the
impact of floods in Evrotas? » the majority gave a positive response in all three cases.
Concerning the issue of financial compensation, 40% had submitted the necessary
documents and had already received or were in the process of receiving financial
compensation, 32% had submitted the relevant documents but had been rejected while
27% had not taken any action. (The storage equipment enterprise in Riviotissa which had
flooded did not apply for financial compensation).
In conclusion, the following remarks can be made:

The
residents
are
well
aware
of
the
fact
that
their
property
(produce/residences) is located in high risk areas.

There is a need for the establishment of an information and early
warning system.

There is a need to inform the population as to the agencies involved in
the repairing of the damages following a flood.

People are willing to participate to preventive actions and activities.
Management Measures on the Impact of Fires
The LIFE project research team thoroughly analyzed the impact of the 2007 fires and
prepared a series of studies on fire restoration treatment.
In particular, the researchers of NCSR examined the prospect of the creation of Animal
Parks in the region and prepared a relevant study whose main findings are presented
below.
ANIMAL PARKS
It is obvious that livestock farmers in the affected areas are in need of extensive support
and better information. Furthermore, the recent damages and the subsequent need for
restoration – reform demand radical changes in the operating system of the animal farms
and the adoption of improved (if not integrated) long-term business actions by the
producers. All these constitute prerequisites for the restructuring of animal husbandry
and of the broader primary production in accordance with the new Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) requisitions. At this point it would be useful to mention the peculiarities of
Greek animal husbandry. The Greek land use agenda, rural infrastructures and climate
conditions constitute a framework with the following dimensions:
a)
Animal husbandry consists of numerous small units, many of which are
located within settlements.
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b)
The urban organization of the countryside and the relevant differentiation of
land use and infrastructures, combined with the small size of plots, have led
to the emergence of agricultural settlements rather than scattered farms.
c)
The climate conditions do not allow the development of natural pasture of
large grazing-capacity resulting in animal husbandry directly depending on
agricultural fodder production.
The aforementioned points demonstrate the need of the creation of animal reception and
husbandry units that will be adapted to the local conditions and the pre-defined
organizational framework. Subsequently, the creation of Animal Farms would enhance
the livestock producers‘ capacity to find effective and economically-sound solutions to
their problems, and would simultaneously secure the operation of the smaller units and
the protection of the environment. Today, there is an urgent need for animal stalling at
least in the fire-affected areas. However, a lot of complexities emerge and need to be
considered:
a) Technological complexities: bio-ethical reasons and enhanced production
purposes demand the modernization of the animal stalling conditions.
b) Social complexities: animal stalling requires the improvement of farmers‘
working conditions, the protection of the agricultural environment (villages and
settlements) and the safeguarding of residents‘ health.
c) Financial
complexities:
animal
stalling
demands
considerable
financial
resources and defines the sustainability of goat, sheep and cow breeding.
The main benefits of the operation of Animal Farms include:
Significant increase in the livestock farmers‘ income, protection of the environment,
enhanced quality of the produce, improved health and controlled feeding of the animals,
improved living conditions for the animals and working conditions for the people, farmers
and
herds
spending
the
winter
with
the
mountain
Communities
avoiding
the
disorganization of the latter, co-operation and trust between different small animal
husbandry groups, use of the common infrastructure of the parks, pre-planned and
controlled pasture management and exploration, more effective environmental protection
(infestation, pollution, degradation) and beautification of agricultural landscape with the
building of environmentally harmonized farms.
Survey on the Recycling Procedures and Problems
Questionnaire to Public Stakehoders
During the first week of April 2008, the NCSR researchers conducted their fieldwork in
the Municipality of Sparta regarding public and private stakeholders‘ role in the recycling
of paper, personal computers, printers and ink cartridges. The completion of the relevant
questionnaires took place in the Prefecture of Laconia, the Municipality of Sparta, the
educational institutions of the region and other public actors (Banks, Hospital, Tax Office,
Hellenic Telecommunications Organization, Social Insurance Institute, Public Power
Corporation and Library), as well as in private businesses involved in the transfer of
paper.
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The existing situation in the recycling field is presented below based on the replies of the
respondents:
Paper recycling: the Municipality lacks a system of organized and regular collection.
Thus, the actors that collect paper for recycling do not know how to dispose of the
collected material. The whole of the respondents have expressed their will to participate
in any future recycling action, though some (Tax Office and other public stakeholders)
emphasized the existence of confidential documents that should be destroyed.
PC and printers‟ recycling: there is considerable variation in the disposal of older or
obsolete appliances. More specifically, the Prefecture gives them for recycling, the
Municipality grants them to schools, the educational institutions and the Hellenic
Telecommunications Organization save them for potential future use while the private
companies store them in their basement.
Ink cartridge: the Prefecture and the Library are the only public or private stakeholders
with a collection system. There are individual recycling initiatives (a teacher collects
cartridges from all the educational institutions and recycle them in Tripoli). A lot of the
respondents argued for the necessity of a municipal collection system.
Finally, special comments were made by the respondents for the proper disposal of
infectious waste (hospital waste), as well as for the disposal of aluminum packaging to
street gypsies. Not ignoring the good intention of the respondents and the existing
individual attempts to solution there is no doubt that the lack of an organized collection
system for paper and ink cartridges in Sparta should be rapidly addressed.
Questionnaire to the Shopkeepers
The study was conducted from 22 to 28/02/2008 and involved the interviewing of
shopkeepers (mass catering and leisure) in Sparta and in the settlements of: Skala,
Vlahiotis, Gythio, Krokees, Xirokampi, Goritsa, Geraki, Mystras, Parori and Agios Ioannis.
The NCSR researchers studied the participation of the relevant shopkeepers in a system
of collection and recycling of plastic, aluminum and other packaging.
The first finding is that the aforementioned Laconia municipalities lack even an
elementary system of collection of recyclable waste. More specifically:

In the Municipality of Sparta, no business participates in a system of collection of
recyclable wastes. A small number of shops collect paper for recycling and used
cooking oils. Most of these shops were coffee places. The consumption of soft drinks,
bottled water and relevant products substantially increases during the summer
months, while tetra-pack packaging is more often used compared to other regions.

In Skala there is no collection system; a relevant attempt was never made. However,
the Municipality attempts to inform the local population about the collection of used
cooking oil. Nevertheless, very few shopkeepers participate in this initiative, while
others seem to completely ignore it. Considering the operation of a system for
recyclable products, respondents prioritize the installation of collection points near
their shops over the regular and orderly collection by the recycling agencies. Finally,
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in Skala too, there is an increase (slight) of consumption and tetra-pack packages
during the summer months.

The picture is similar in Gythio, though there are cases of shopkeepers who properly
dispose of paper and used cooking oils. Respondents here emphasize the existence of
an organized system of recycling over the distance factor. The average consumption
per shop is larger than that of Skala, however there is no significant increase during
the summer months.
In the smaller municipalities the picture is similar and the only differentiation is that the
consumption patterns are much smaller. More specifically:

In Elos there is no collection / recycling system and respondents emphasize the need
for organized collection and sanitation.

In Krokees, there is no collection system; a relevant attempt was never made.
Consumption increase during the summer months however it remains smaller
compared to Gythio and Skala. With reference to the setting up of a recycling system,
respondents emphasized the significance of the location of the collection point issue.

A recycling attempt was never made in Mystras. In view of the establishment of such
a system respondents are divided between those who stress the significance of the
proximity of the collection points and those who emphasize the issues of sanitation
and organized collection.

In the municipality of Farida the picture is the same with small consumption patterns
and emphasis placed by respondents on the organized collection dimension of any
future recycling system.

In the Municipality of Therapnes, despite the lack of an organized system a small
percentage of shopkeepers collect aluminum packaging. Here too, consumption
increases during the summer months and the organized and orderly collection of
recyclable products is considered to be the most important factor of success for any
future organized recycling activity.

The Municipality of Geronthron presents exactly the same picture with the
Municipality of Therapnes.
It should be stressed here that, independently of the location and the size of the
respective municipality, shopkeepers declare their will to participate in any future
organized recycling action, however they often present as an insurmountable obstacle
the existing workload and the problem of assigning new (recycling) responsibilities to old
personnel.
On the basis of the analysis of the findings there is no significant variation (attitude,
practice) with regard to demographic characteristics such as gender, age and education
level.
2 Report on socio-economic impacts (Integral Planning for Sustainable Development)
This study is about the demographic, economic and social characteristics of the
Prefecture of Lakonia (PL), focusing on the Evrotas Riverside Area (ERA). An analysis of
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the local development perspectives is presented, together with the investigation of the
development guidelines that appear to be of crucial importance for planning the
development in the area concerned. In brief, the findings of the study are summarized in
the following sections.
Socio-economic characteristics and local conditions
Demographic data
The demographic changes of the population in the PL do not reflect the economic and
social evolution. The population increase in the capital Municipality of Sparta is attributed
to the residential mobility of the residents of the rural areas. However, this movement
does not mean that former rural residents stop to undertake economic activities and to
participate in the social life of their villages of origin. For example, a remarkable
population decrease is observed in the Municipality of Skala, despite the considerable
tourist development and the increase of the number of local agricultural units
(greenhouses).
On the other hand, the birth rate of the PL is below the death rate in recent years,
bringing unsetting indices about future demographic perspectives and the social
potential. In 2002 the number of the Elementary Schools presented a decrease of 15%
compared with that of 1994. On the contrary, in 2002 there were 21 Secondary Schools
and 22 High Schools, compared with 18 and 15 respectively in 1994. In any case the
student population retains a crucial size, thus constituting an important target group for
the dissemination of the Project objectives and results, through adequate Environmental
Education (EE) courses, already established in the schools of the country. Concerning the
health sector recent changes seem to be positive, as the number of bed in hospitals and
medical centers increased by 21% and the number of doctors per 1,000 thousands by
56%. Further improvement in social infrastructure will contribute to the management of
current problems and to the exploitation of development opportunities.
Economic and social data
The dominant sector of employment in the area is that of the primary (and especially
agricultural) activities. Employment in manufacture is rather weak, limited at only 4.5%
of resident population. This percentage is lower than that of people employed in Public
Administration (even excluding public education and health agencies). The local
employment structure is a useful guide for any approach of the social profile and
indicates local problems and perspectives. Agricultural production in Greece faces several
problems and the restructuring of the economy is under permanent discussion, calling for
the implementation of informed policies. At the local scale, any initiative should exploit
the local comparative advantages, especially concerning secure and certified quality
agricultural products.
Data analysis in the ERA shows that the biggest part of the population work in
agriculture: the percentage varies between 62% and 66% in the Municipalities of Skala,
Therapnai, Elos and Krokees, while important percentages also emerge in the rest. In the
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capital Municipality of Sparta the percentage is significantly lower (18.5%), as there is
considerable concentration in the public administration, education and health sectors.
The secondary sector is generally low. Constructions sector prevails, especially
concentrating in the Municipalities of Sparta and Mystras. Other manufacture activities
concern almost exclusively food industries, concentrating in the same area. Sustainable
agricultural development is of large importance in order to maintain the local population.
Moreover, many researchers argue that agricultural production is not sufficient,
proposing solutions that focus on multiple and complementary activities. Although
current data show that the possibilities for multiple employments are found mainly in the
tertiary sector (in services as well as in commerce), the small share of manufacture and
the potential for vertical organization in some industries mean that the secondary sector
should be considered too. In general, the ERA presents common problems with other
similar agricultural areas in Greece but with specific perspectives.
Regarding occupational structure the largest single category is that of specialized arm
workers. Despite any reservations about the reliability of statistical data, this is a positive
indication, in terms of a local productive system that incorporates local skills, experience,
knowledge and flexibility. Once the percentage of those employed in professional job
positions is added, the general picture becomes even more promising. On the other hand
specific local conditions seem to endanger the possibility that most productive
socioprofessional groups remain in the area and specific measures should be taken. The
total surface of cultivated land is being reduced, while at the same time agricultural
production is still dominated by citrus trees. The decrease in agricultural production is
directly
connected
with
the
Project
oblectives.
The
transformation
of
Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP) calls for secure quality agricultural products. Rational water use
in the ERA is meant to provide an environment where new initiatives for agricultural
development could occur, through dissemination of information and technology.
Moreover, secure quality products result to reduced and more rational use of chemical
additives, a prerequisite for the increase of agricultural income as well as the effective
waste management in Evrotas.
Environmental management and natural resourses exploitation - Antifouling projects
In summer 2007, among other areas of Greece, the PL suffered the consequences of
extensive fire disasters. These consequences concern not only economic conditions but
also the social cohesion of the area, thus calling for specific measures in order to restore
development perspectives.
The estimated areas confronting erosion danger (of high, medium or small degree) have
a total surface of 232.677 km2. Proposed measures against erosion and soil degrading
include a) measures for the improvement of the flora (in agricultural land, breeding
grounds and forestland), b) constructions against erosion and c) erosion control
measures. The total budget of the proposed measures rises at €9,503,455.
Water resourses protection
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The fire-stricken areas have may cause water quality problems in the Evrotas basin.
Negative effects include:

Diminution of breeding use water

Land sliding in agricultural areas

Land sliding in pasturelands and stockbreeding units

Water shortage in mountainous areas

Water shortage in irrigation systems

Major land gliding
Proposed measures include aiming at the confrontation of these anticipated effects
include:

Bargaining of water tanks with capacity of 1.000 m³ for 6 months for
stockbreeding use.

Rehabilitation of 30 water drills in mountainous areas

Construction of 10 small water dams with capacity of at least 1,500 m³

Protection of streams and slopes

Drainage works

Water transportation and storage for six months

Construction of 8 new water drills of average depth 200 m in areas where the
altitude is lower than 200 m

Works against gliding in six places
The total estimated cost rises at €6,165,000.
Fire Consequences Management and Forest Protection
The most affected Municipalities are those of Therapnai (Municpial Districts of Ag.
Anargyroi, Chrysafai and Goritsa), Krokees (MDs of Krokees and Dafni), Oitylon (MD of
Aeropoli) and Geronthrai (MD of Kallithea). The total surface of the fire-stricken MDs is
1,425.7 km2, about 39.2% of the total area of the PL. Their population represents 54%
of the PL population. They include an important percentage of farmers (31%), a
relatively big percentage of routine occupations (13.8%), while about 30% is equally
shared by specialized technicians, those employed in services and clerks. Their cultivated
agricultural land (CAL) rises at 585.6 km2, 43.5% of the total CAL of the PL. 1,847
applications for reparation have been submitted to the Greek Organization for
Agricultural Insurance, concerning 17.64 km2, i.e. 1.3% of the CAL. The real disaster
may be even greater than described, because fired-stricken breeding grounds were not
declared. Olive trees units seem to have suffered more, as they represent 98.4% of the
fire-stricken agricultural land. The loss was 0.6% in the sheep and goats segment and
5.6% in the cattle sector, mainly in the Municipality of Anatoliki Mani (MD of Kokkalas)
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and the Municipality of Oitylon (MD of Aeropoli). The loss in forestland was 170 km 2,
representing 9.7% of the forestland of the PL.
Immediate activities in the forestland of the PL include:

Antifouling projects together (corm and bough webs) following woodcutting
works

Temporary flood-preventing projects (wooden dams)

Permanent flood-preventing projects (cement and stone dams)
Further intervention is also needed concerning:

Maintenance of the forest road network

Maintenance and construction of fire-preventing zones

Reforestation works

Breeding grounds restoration and improvement
The total cost of these projects rises at €23.200.000.
Development Perspectives in the Prefecture of Lakonia
The hierarchical context for the development perspectives of the area was elaborated
through the analysis of the existing demographic, economic and social conditions, also
exploiting information obtained in contacts and meetings with representatives of local
agencies and by the surveys on the opinions of a) residents and professionals and b)
local representatives in the municipal councils. The contribution of personal contacts with
residents and stakeholders during the dissemination process was of great importance.
Existing natural and human resources as well as the intentions and objectives of local
agencies were investigated. The integration of economic development objectives with
environmental protection and maintenance goals was attempted on this basis. Thus the
following framework of investment proposals was concluded.
Primary Sector
Agricultural production in the PL is concentrated in specific products (olives, olive oil,
oranges) that are characterized by increased demand and an organized distribution
system. However, future development is connected with the production of organic
products. In the context of the Single European Market there is strong competition
regarding the traditional agricultural products. Moreover, the Common Agricultural Policy
(CAP) is already directed to the elimination of subsidies concerning these products.
Consequently, a general reorientation of the productive priorities is needed.
Organic Products
According to the record of cultivators of organic products as kept by one relevant
certification agency (DEO), the PL counts 310 cultivators. Registries started in 1992 and,
although the annual variation was important, the general trend was one of increase. The
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biggest increase was observed during last years. There were 62 new entries in one single
year (2006), while more than 50% of the cultivators entered the market after 2004.
Same trends are recorded at the national level, reflecting international shifts. The
demand for organic products is increasing, as a bigger proportion of the consumers is
involved, although reservation concerning the increase prices still exist. The traditional
products of Lakonia (olives, olive oil, oranges) already belong to the group of the most
demanded organic products, while being exported to other countries. Advanced package,
standardization and marketing activities are needed.
Protected Destination of Origin (Pdo) Products
The Protected Destination of Origin as well as the Protection of Geographical Indication
(PGI) were institutionalised by the European Union in the Regulation 2081/92. The
Regulation 2082/92 established the certification of traditional specialty guaranteed
agricultural products. These two Regulations were replaced by Regulations 510/06 and
509/06 respectively, without altering the scope of implementation. According to this legal
framework and in the CAP context cultivators have the possibility to exploit opportunities
for integrated rural development, through the differentiation of agricultural production.
Cultivators (especially those in remote areas) are able to place specialized products in
the market, thus achieving better prices. Consumers on the other hand can purchase
quality products of guaranteed geographic origin.
In more detail, the basic categories of certified agricultural products are:
d) Destination of Origin
―Destination of Origin‖ is the name of a territory, a specific place or in some cases of a
country used for the description of an agricultural product or foodstuff originating from
this territory, when the quality or the characteristics of this product are exclusively or
mainly attributed to the geographic environment, including natural
and human
conditions, of the territory. The production, manufacture and processing of the product
have to take place in the same area.
e) Geographical Indication
―Geographical Indication‖ is the name of a territory, a specific place or in some cases of a
country used for the description of an agricultural product or foodstuff originating from
this territory, when the quality, the reputation or a specific characteristic of this product
may attributed to this geographic origin. The production and/or the manufacture and/or
the processing of the product have to take place in the same area.
f)
Traditional Specialty Guaranteed Agricultural Product
A ―Traditional Specialty Guaranteed Agricultural Product‖ is an agricultural product or
foodstuff with intrinsic characteristics that differentiate it from other similar products and
which has been present in the common market for a period that proves intergenerational
transmission. Intrinsic characteristics may concern physical, chemical, biological or
organoleptic features or the production methods and conditions. The traditional character
may concern the raw materials, the ingredients, the method of production or
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manufacture. The name has also to be peculiar or to express the peculiar character of the
product.
Since 1.6.2006 the Organization for Certification and Surveillance of Agricultural
Products, under the distinctive title AGROCERT is responsible for the approval of relevant
applications by enterprises concerned, the monitoring of production processes in
collaboration with the Agricultural Directorates of the Prefectures, the observance of the
prescriptions, the certification of products and the record of PDO and PGI holders.
Other Development Possibilities in Primary Sector
Non-stabling stockbreeding. There is a possibility to establish larger units (stockbreeding
parks) of integral and organic character. During the Project process a specific study on
the potential establishment of stockbreeding parks in Lakonia was elaborated, using the
existing stockbreeding park in Grevena (Prefecture of Pella, Northern Greece) as an
example. Other investment opportunities include the exploitation of wind energy and the
energy production capacity of oil-factory waste. The possibility to exploit the existing lead
deposit in the Municipality of Molaoi has to be investigated. Lead and silver mines
operated in the area in the past (even during the ‗90s) but today their efficiency is
contested.
Secondary Sector
Branches with development capacities: Olive processing, focusing on edible olives
standardization, seed-oil exploitation for electricity production and other contiguous
activities such as environmental protection (biological cleaning) and quality certification.
Possibilities for the establishment of wind energy parks in Mt. Parnon
Tertiary Sector
Branches with development capacities: As the PL lacks hotel units, especially those of
high standards, there still is enough space for further tourist development. Concerning
high quality tourist services as well as ecotourist activities on Mt. Parnon and Taygetos.
Existing tourist facilities in the ERA include:

Four hostels in the Municipality of Faris: One in Toriza (MD of Xerokampi) with
a restaurant, tavern and café; one in Paleopanagia (MD of Paleopnagia) in a
200,000 m2 plot with walnut and chestnut trees, near the Byzantine
monastery of Gola; one in Rahivi (MD of Vassiliki); and one in the MD of Arna.

Seven on the Mt. Taygetos: one municipal hostel in Georgitsi, the oldest in
the
area;
one
in
Kastori,
near
a
medieval
castle
characterized
as
archaeological site; one in Karyes; one in Polydroso (Tzitzina); two in
Anavryti, one of which remains closed as an investor is requested‘ and one in
Mystras - a traditional mansion that is going to be uses as a Vernacular Art
Museum.
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Additionally there are several mountain shelters in Parnon and Taygetos that are used for
the excursions organized by the Greek Mountaineering Club. Ecotourist activities and
mountaineering offer the opportunity to extend the tourist season beyond summer
months and to increase tourist services demand in remote areas of the PL.
3. Evaluation of the Life/EnviFriendly project in the development perspective
LIFE\Envifriendly objectives
According to the initial planning and schedule of the Project, its objectives included:
1. To select, plan and implement environmentally friendly technologies in
order to reduce pollution caused in the ERA by agricultural activities,
industrial and urban waste.
2. To develop and demonstrate tools of technological restoration of water
quality and to propose methods to incorporate these tools in the Evrotas
basin and coastline Master Plans.
3. To provide the context for the integration of these technologies and tools in
the socio-economic activities of the area and to promote the social
acceptance of the proposed measures.
4. The sensitisation of the local population against sustainable development
and
environmental
protection
through
dissemination
of
adequate
information.
Evaluation of the Achievements
5. During the materialization of the Project the specific conditions of the area were
investigated, the main sources of pollution were detected and alternative solutions
for
cleaning
were planned
and
proposed.
In
collaboration
with
agencies
responsible for water resources management a comprehensive plan for pollution
and the problems caused by natural factors (floods, water shortage etc.) was
elaborated. The comprehensive model was presented in several information
meetings and scientific conferences. The acceptance of the proposals by the
specialists of local agencies and by wider parts of the local population was
encouraging and thus provided the ground for the next step, that is for the
elaboration of the integrated plan for water resources management in the ERA.
6. The adoption and demonstration of technical solutions based on environmental
friendly technologies has been presented in detail, focusing on the advantages
and disadvantages of each alternative proposal and method. Certain manufacture
units in the area have implemented antilitter technologies, exhibiting satisfactory
results. They also participated in demonstration events. The overall process of the
final
management
plans
included
repeated
contacts
and
meetings
with
representatives of local agencies (especially the Local Organizations for Land
Improvement). This constant process of public consultation was remarkably
fruitful, giving the floor to express local views of all actors involved and to
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incorporate local specificities. This was crucial in order to widen social acceptance
and consensus, as the local agencies participate in the formation of local views.
On the other hand, the problem of personal responsibility remains, due to
insufficient information and the social cost of effectively taking proactive and
suppressive measures at the individual level. In any case the Project methods and
practices provided all local participants with new ideas and stronger arguments.
7. The establishment of adequate conditions for the incorporation of the Project
interventions in the overall local socio-economic process has been attempted
through:

The conduction of two repeated surveys in the resident population and
professionals of the ERA and in the focus group of the representatives in
Municipal Councils.

Ad hoc studies about specific local problems and conditions including the
consequences of natural phenomena (fire disasters, floods, water shortage),
suggested
measures
(stockbreeding
parks)
and
other
intervention
for
environmental improvement (recycling).

Regular meetings with representatives of the participant Municipalities and
with other agents about specific issues.

The organization
of public informative and
scientific events and
the
participation n events organized by other local agents. More generally through
the establishment of permanent public dialogue process.
The surveys‘ results, the findings of the studies and the relevant feedback
obtained by local agent‘s exhibit the achievement of the above goals. More
precisely, the overall picture shows that the local society has adopted the
proposed interventions, agrees with the hierarchical classification of priorities and
thinks that the Project demonstrates future directions and the preconditions for
the successful materialization of other development projects. Furthermore, these
projects should embrace the Projects‘ objectives, which are considered important
for the development perspective of the area.
8. The sensitization of the local population against sustainable development
and environmental production has been incorporated in the Project through
several activities. More precisely:

The production of printed and digital informative material either presenting
the immediate objectives and methods or other contiguous subjects of
environmental management. The material was regularly distributed.

The distribution of material from the above mentioned studies and relevant
presentations in several occasions.

The collaboration with the local EE agencies, together with the exploitation of
the long-standing involvement of the NCSR in the central planning of EE at
the national level. Several local events and conferences were organized.
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The evaluation of the results in these fields is very positive, especially in the field
of EE. That is because EE has already established adequate structures of
information and because activities in schools of every level have multiple effects
in the, as the sensitization of students disseminates in other groups of the local
society.
Concerning the local population as a total, evaluation of the results is also
positive, although certain gaps of information have been recorded. The absence of
relevant policies and information in the past has been important at this point.
However the Project as well as other interventions have made a contribution
towards this direction. Nonetheless, a more comprehensive national strategy
seems to be of relevance, in order to integrate the objectives of single projects.
Demonstrative and Transferable ‗GOOD PRACTICES‘ of LIFE/ENVIFRIENDLY Project
The implementation process of the Project indicated the need to adopt interventions and
practices that could be used as experimental ‗good practices‘, also suitable to contribute
to development objectives in other areas, Prefectures and Regions of the country. The
main issues around which these interventions and practices were undertaken are as
follows:

The Water Resources Management Plans, aiming at the adaptation of the existing
legal framework and of actual management practices in the field to EU Directive.
The implementation of the Directive is obligatory for all member-states and a
precondition for rational water use. The Integrated Water Resources Management
Plan was elaborated and completed after taking into account the analysis of local
conditions. Accordingly, more than being a tool for local development in the ERA,
it can be used as a model application in order to support similar plans in other
water basins. Thus, it can be used as a Development Guide, after adequate
revisions and adaptations to specific local conditions.

The public consultation process was implemented in the ERA according to local
social specificities. Similar specificities emerge at the most agricultural areas of
Greece. The acceptance and the effectiveness of the public consultation process
were found to depend on the ability to exploit local social networks. Thus, instead
of a simple guidance by the Project team that would merely follow the guidelines
of the central Dissemination Plan, more decentralized methods were adopted, in
order both to exhibit local conditions and to correspond to the local potential at
the micro-scale. Based on this ground, the informal meetings with representatives
of a wide range of local institutions and agencies and the dissemination of the
Projects achievements and progress in local social life spaces and events (the
coffee bars, celebrations and annual festivals) proved to be of major importance
for the mobilization and the participation of parts of the local society.
The Observatory for Local Development will act as a field for the coordination of the Local
Organizations for Land Improvement, where the synthesis of the above mentioned
‗inputs‘ (the Water Resources Management Plans and the consultation process) will be
materialized. Moreover, the operation of the Observatory in the auspices of the
Prefecture of Lakonia facilitates the cooperation with the Land Improvement Agency (LIA)
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and consequently the common planning of the Water Resources Management Plan. The
LIA is in permanent contact with the Municipalities of the ERA and the respective Local
Irrigation Boards (TOEBs), having encharged the latter with the management of water
resources at the local level. However the LIA also retains the capacity for central
intervention when water resources management fails and management problems occur.
Periodic and ad hoc meetings (on specific managerial problems) under the responsibility
of the Observatory are proposed. This scheme guarantees the connection between the
implementation of the management system and the broader development in the ERA. At
the same time it gives the opportunity for sustainable public participation, since the
Observatory will have become the basic dissemination mechanism in the local society.
In brief, the Observatory will be responsible for the practical organization of the
continuous public consultation process, thus providing the ground for the expression of
the views of different social groups and their integration into an overall development
strategy. These ‗Good Practices‘ can be used as paradigmatic cases for development
plans and the respective necessary procedures in other areas.
Future Planning on the Basis of Project Objectives
One of the aims of the project has been to extend its objectives beyond the period of
materialization. Accordingly, certain preconditions for future exploitation of its results
should be constructed. It is expected to be an information center for local agencies and
residents and a node for the coordination of investments, contributing to the
investigation and planning of development activities. Up to now the overall operation of
the Observatory is positive, despite functional problems and delays that occurred.
However, the Observatory was staffed with permanent employees, as this would reassure
its sustainability after the end of the Project. The Prefecture of Lakonia and other
involved agencies should maintain its activities.
Another development perspective of the Project has been that of organic agricultural
products, in the context of Codes of Equitable Agricultural Practice. Present conditions
seem to be promising, if one judges from the experience of existing organic agricultural
units and their efficacy. International and national trends provide an environment where
profitable exports of quality products can be achieved. Organic agricultural production
can be combined with eco- and agrotourist activities, thus providing one of the most
directions for sustainable development. The developmental role of antilitter technologies
should be stressed too. Antilitter activities in the industries of the area would contribute
significantly to the amelioration of local environmental conditions. Furthermore they can
be exploited as an added value in the promotion of local products and contribute to the
increase and amelioration of tourist activities.
Finally, such investments attract high national and supranational subsidies, while the socalled ‗green products‘ are expected to dominate in the near future, thus linking the
sustainability of localities with the establishment of green economic units.
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TASK 6 - Development of integrated watershed management plans
The fundamental challenge in the development and management of environmental
policies is the sustainability of the objectives of these policies. The objectives for
sustainable development require decisions that satisfy the needs for this generation and
they provide a chance to future generation to satisfy their needs as well.
The strategic objective is the integrated management of water resources of
Evrotas River Basin that will contribute to the
–
improvement of the environment,
–
social cohesion,
–
value added to the local economy, and
–
improvement of the quality of life.
The objective is to create the conditions for sustainable rural development while the
chemical and ecological quality of surface and ground waters is improved according to
the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC. Evrotas can be the comparative advantage
that would lead the Prefecture of Lakonia to the 21st Century.
The Strategic Plan was developed around the following six axes:
1. Agricultural development
2. Drinking water
3. Irrigation
4. Reduction of point and non-point source pollution
5. Unified response to floods and drought
6. Protection of biodiversity and restoration of river ecosystems.
1. Agricultural Development
The fundamental problems of agricultural production in Greece today should be fully
understood before conditions for sustainable rural development can be established.
Industrialized agriculture includes intensive grown mono-cultures, inorganic synthetic
fertilizers, intensive use of herbicides and insecticides (that affect adversely the soil fungi
and bacteria that catalyze the fertility of the soil), tilling (including deep tilling that
destroys the soil structure, making it fine and subject to erosion) and irrigation (reduces
the reserves of water resources). Agricultural production in Greece depends among other
things on the price of fertilizers, the seed market, the international financial speculation
on agricultural products and problems of social consensus.

Fertilizer prices have increased dramatically that past two years. This price hike
was not due to increases in oil prices, but due to increases in the price of
phosphorous ore (from 50 to 350 dollars in 16 months). The price hike has been
attributed to decreasing reserves (PEAK Phosphorous), in a similar way as with oil
reserves (PEAK OIL). It is speculated that phosphorous reserves will decrease
dramatically between 2025 and 2040. The problem is that we consume 22,5 kg of
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P-rock/person/yr while the daily recommended dose is 1,2 g/person/d or 0,438 kg
P-rock/yr. We use 50 times more P than we need. The wasted P ends up in the
wastewater treatment plants, the lakes and rivers and causes eutrophication. The
price of the fertilizers will continue to increase because of the decreasing
quantities of P-rock production causing increasing demand. How are we going to
handle the situation when the reserves are depleted? The situation leads to a
deadlock unless alternative means of fertilizing the land is found.

The farmers also depend on the seed market (hybrid or genetically modified)
created by the international food industries. Using biotechnology, the food
industries have developed patented hybrid seeds. There is the notion among
farmers that only hybrid seeds can bring good production the time that many
ecologists recommend local varieties as the most appropriate since they could
withstand local conditions in time.

The international financial speculation on agricultural products (cereal, rice
etc) creates uncertainty in the food prices causing a series of world-wide
problems. In a similar fashion, farmer‘s speculation (i.e. production of corn for
biodiesel and not for animal feed) provides temporal improvement in income
without solving permanent agricultural problems. The international markets
should have limits as the current financial crisis taught us. A few things in life
should be outside the limits of international speculation and gambling.

Finally, there are significant problem with social consensus that impedes the
creation of successful farmers association that would develop market strategies
for their products and eliminating the price gap between the field and the super
market.
There alternative ways to rural development.
First we need to understand that
agriculture, tourism, local culture and the environment are communicating vessels. The
connecting link of these communicating vessels is the soil. Greece has forgotten to take
care of its soils as it has behaved before since the ancient times.
Plato in ―Kritias‖
described the Attica land as ―bones without flesh‖. The combination of erosion and bad
land practices creates a defincit in carbon and other micro-nutrients necessary for soil
fertility and health. Soil measurements in Greece show carbon content well below 2%
and in many times below 1% (pre-desertification stage). In addition, we have observed
significant deficiency in micro-nutrients like selenium that many connect such deficiency
to wide-spread diseases such as the ―bird flu‖ in China and AIDS in Africa. The bottom
line is that the Greek soils are eroded, have lost their fertility and this has consequences
in the quality of the produce and our health. We should regenerate soil fertility by
returning carbon, nutrients and micro-nutrients. There are examples all around the world
showing that we can have agricultural development, sufficient food production to cover
the global needs and at the same time to maintain ecological quality.

An example from Amazon – The native Indian 2500 till 500 B.C. realized that
once they cut the trees in the forest, the soil became infertile in 2-3 years. They
had to find ways to regenerate soil fertility. They developed the soils named Terra
Preta de Indio (Amazonian Dark Earths or Indian Black Earth). The soil was
enhanced with Biochar (char made up of plant material, food waste such as bones
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from fish that has plenty of calcium). This material was composted before it was
incorporated in the soil. This soil is fertile today.

Collaboration between agriculture and livestock raising – An example of
such a collaboration is Polyface farm in the State of Virginia, U.S.A. The farm is
raising 5 types of animals (cows, chicken, pigs, turkeys and rabbits) eating grass
without any animal feed. The owners make sure that there is plenty of available
grass in the farm by creating new soil as follows. First the put cows in an area
fenced by electric fences for several days. The cows eat the grass while they leave
plenty of manure. The owners move the cows to another location, let the worms
grow for 4 days and then they move the chickens in. The chickens eat the worms
that are rich in proteins and they leave manure rich in ammonia. The soil is
regenerated, grows new grass and the ecosystem is balanced. The result is that
using
the ecological
services
of the different
animals, the owners
earn
$700.000/year (10 people) while they maintain the ecological integrity of the
ecosystem.

Combination agricultural practices – Monoculture is a recent agricultural
practice.
Farmer in Greece used to practice good agricultural practices by
alternating what they grow in the field choosing between the set aside practice
and growing legumes or alfa-alfa in an olive grove. Such combination agricultural
practices replenish the soil with nutrient (without the use of fertilizers) while
keeping down the production cost.

Management of solid waste – Todate, landfilling has been the most wide
spread practice of solid waste management in Greece. In a few areas recycling
has been initiated as well. Since the current capacity of landfills is close to
completion and new landfills are difficult to site due to local opposition,
government officials have started looking into other options such as combustion
and recycling and composting. Given the state of fertility the Greek soils are, the
only logical and sustainable solution is separation at the source, recycling,
composting the organic fraction and landfilling the remaining wastes. In the
creation of the compost material other organic byproducts can be used such as
the biosolids and sludges from the waste water treatment plants and braches from
pumming of the plants. The compost can then be used to improve the quality and
fertility of the soils and allow the farmers to be independent from the energy
crisis. Such a system already is in operation at the Prefecture of Chanaia and is
the only logical and sustainable alternative in solving the problem.

Collaboration between tourism and agriculture – It is very important to
understand that ―quality‖ tourism is related to local culture and agricultural
activities. Local touristic establishments should support the local produce because
they are part of the uniqueness of the region. For instance, all the hotels and
restaurants of Lakonia should offer freshly squized orange juice in low prices to
promote one of the main agricultural product of the region. The same could be
followed for the other products. If every tourist was given a small bottle of olive
oil upon arrival to the region, use the same olive oil in every restaurant he/she
would go, this would become part of the trip experience and a value added for the
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products of the region. It would be the reason to return to the area in the future
creating in this way the conditions for sustainable development.
2. Drinking Water Supply
Drinking water supply for the towns and villages in Evrotas river basin is vulnerable to
accidents in the pumps, water lines and natural disasters. Every village and town has its
own water infrastructure and in case of system failure there is interruption in the service.
In addition, the municipalities cannot afford to hire personnel to ensure the quality of the
water and the service provided due to their small size (with the exception of the
municipality of Sparta. To overcome these problems and establish quality in the water
supply system the following are proposed:

Every village should have alternative sources of water that can be activated in
case of accidents and other system failures. In its simplest case, this can be
drilling an additional well and instrumenting it as a back up.

Develop an interconnected drinking water infrastructure that connects towns,
villages and small settlements that can be used to optimize water use and
improve the management of water resources of the region.

Creation of public water companies that would serve many municipalities that can
be staffed with scientist personnel and ensure the quality of the service.

Pricing the water use at the appropriate level in order for the water company to
be financially independent and be able to provide the quality of the service that is
appropriate of the 21st century.
3. Irrigation
There are approximately 150 public wells and 7,000 private wells in operation in the
Prefecture of Lakonia (Table 5.7.1). Approximately 3,550 private wells are located within
the basin and unknown is the number of the illigal private wells. Irrigation water annual
demand was estimated at 174 Mm3 based on typical plant water needs. Hydrologic
modeling suggested that the farmers are using 3 times more water. The overexploitation
of water resources threatens important natural habitats and affects negatively the
aquatic flora and fauna.
Table 5.7.1: Private irrigation wells in Evrotas basin
Mn. Inountos
65
Mn.Therapnes
250
Mn. Geronthres
200
Mn. Skala
550
Mn. Elos
1100
Mn. Spartas
300
Mn. Mystras
350
Mn. Faridos
120
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Mn. Pelanas
10
Mn. Niata
350
Mn. Krokees
250
The proposed program of measures for irrigation is the following:
5. Change irrigation methods - It is very difficult under current conditions to
estimate the real consumption of water. In many private wells, there are not any
records concerning well yield, well depth and any operational parameters.
Estimation of the real irrigation needs is necessary to persuade the farmers that it
is unnecessary to overexploit the water resources and switch to iirigation systems
such as drip irrigation that consumes less water.
6. Appropriate pricing of water use – Agricultural water use is based on areal
extent of the farm rather than the actual quantity of water used. This should be
changed and progressive pricing of water use should be established.
7. Water re-use (municipal and industrial treated wastewater) - Water from
the domestic wastewater treatment plant and the agro-industrial facilities isn‘t
reused. Water re-use especially during the dry months for irrigation could help in
the vital problem of water scarcity. Practical example for water re-use is the
practices of ―Tzinakos olive mill‖ where the wastewater is stored in evaporation
ponds and is used during the summer for the irrigation of a corn field.
8. Ecological flow of the river – There water abstraction from the main stem of
Evrotas river at several location. In certain periods of the year, the water is
abstracted completely, leaving the river downstream dry.
Maintaining an
ecological flow through out the year is essential for the survival of the fish and
other aquatic life.
The Prefecture of Lakonia has already initiated the planning of the enforcement of the
above measures. Several public irrigation projects operate in the basin with the help of
the local land reclamation office. Several of them have drip irrigation systems while
others (Trinasou, Zacharias and Magoulas) operate with open channels. It is planned that
these open channel irrigation systems will be converted to drip irrigation in the next few
years. In addition, the prefecture is planning to reverse the seawater intrusion problem
of the Glikovrisi and Molaon-Asopou aquifer with water diverted from Skalas springs and
construct a dam in Kelefina.
4. Pollution Control
Α. Pollution reduction of non-point sources
Non-point source pollution is derived mostly by agricultural and livestock activities.
Almost 38% of river basin area is covered by agriculture land (olive and orange trees,
vineyards) and it is estimated that 21933 tones of Nitrogen and 9428 tones of
Phosphorous are the annual loads in the basin. The livestock according to mucipalities
records are approximately 130540 sheeps and goats, 58070 kitchen, 1729 cows and 100
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pigs. The program of measures recommended for the reduction of non-point source
pollution is the following.
11. Use of Fertiliser recommended rates - Fertilizers can be used in quantities
that are necessary for plant nutrition and development. Overuse of fertilizers
increases the cost of farming and creates environmental pollution. It is important
that the state creates an agricultural service that would recommend appropriate
fertilizer application rates based on the needs of the plant and the condition of the
soil.
12. Organised livestock farms - It is proposed the creation of organized livestock
farms in pre-selected areas and the adoption for their operation of the
environmental standards. These farms have the advantage of offering better
protection to natural resources (water / soil), and contaminants and dioxins aren‘t
transferred to food chain and their solid wastes and wastewater can be reused
after treatment.
13. Rotation plant crops – Crop rotation is very important to maintain the structure
and integrity of the soil as well as enhance it with nitrogen improving in this way
its productivity.
14. Biological farming - The main difference in biofarming comparing to traditional
is that the agricultural practices don‘t include chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
chemical pesticides or synthetic hormones of all kinds.
15. Erosion control – Erosion control measure such as no-till, crop rotation etc are
recommended for adaption.
16. Integrated farming systems - Integrated Farming (IF) offers a whole farm
policy and whole systems approach to farm management. It seeks to provide
efficient
and
profitable
production
which
is
economically
viable
and
environmentally responsible and delivers safe, wholesome and high quality food
through the efficient management of livestock, forage, fresh produce and arable
crops whilst conserving and enhancing the environment. It goes beyond simple
compliance with current farming regulations, reinforces the positive impact of
farming practices on the environment and reduces their negative effects, without
losing sight of the profitability for the farm. It is geared towards the optimal and
sustainable use of all farm resources such as farm, livestock, soil, water, air,
machinery, landscape and wildlife. This is achieved through the integration of
natural regulatory processes, on-farm alternatives and management skills, to
make the maximum replacement of off-farm inputs, maintain species and
landscape diversity, minimise losses and pollution, provide a safe and wholesome
food supply and sustain income (EISA, 2006).
17. Retain and create terraces - Terracing reduces the length of slope on a hill
side, which can help to reduce erosion and prevent gully formation.
18. Riparian zone restoration and phytoremediation – Riparian strips and
buffers promote bank stability, prevent bank erosion and act as a filter for
agricultural pollution.
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19. Monitored natural attenuation technology – As it is shown in this project,
MNA should be the starting point before any other measures are established.
20. Drainage canals management - The reeds (Phragmites australis) and in
general the vegetation growing in drainage ditches if managed appropriately can
reduce pollution from agricultural fields.
B. Point Sources
Point sources of pollution are the effluents of olive mills, the orange juice factories and
domestic wastewater that are disposed untreated or partially treated into Evrotas river
and its tributaries. In the framework of LIFE-EnviFriendly project five (5) alternative
methods for OMWW treatment for single mills and five (5) for central units were
proposed (Table 5.7.2). Two orange juice press factories are operating in the basin
(Laconia and Papadimitracopoulos), where one of them «Laconia» has wastewater
treatment unit and consequently a large part of the organic load and solids to be
removed. In the framework of LIFE-EnviFriendly project an electrolytic unit was installed
in ―Laconia press‖ regarding the improvement of treatement process.
Table 5.7.2. Alternative solutions for the treatment of OMW.
Single olive oil mill
Central unit
[1]
Evaporation ponds
Phytoremediation
[2]
Storage and irrigation during the
summer
Evaporation pond with odour
control unit
[3]
Irrigation of olive trees
Filtration with sawdust and resins
[4]
Subsurface disposal and
phytoremediation without GW
monitoring
Anaerobic digestion
[5]
Subsurface disposal and
phytoremediation with GW monitoring
Deodorization and electrolytic
process
Finally there are villages such as Kastori which has no treatment plant, and dispose the
raw wastewater directly into Evrotas. Also villages (i.e.
Xirokampi, which has 1,500
residents) are served with septic tanks. These settlements could make use of small
decentralized natural treatment systems for their wastewater. In general the point
sources pose severe problems in chemistry and ecology of the river and a solution has to
be found. There are alternatives and should be choosed the appropriate for each case.
5. Coordinated response to floods and droughts
Significant flood and drought events have occurred historically in the Laconia. The
Prefecture of Laconia has prepared a Management Plan (Master Plan) for the flood
protection of the area. The plan has delineated and prioritized the flood prone areas and
suggested a number of measures that take under consideration mitigation measures for
droughts.
6. Biodiversity protection and restoration of river ecosystems
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Greece is characterized by high and unique biodiversity. This is particularly the case for
the basin of the Evrotas which is a hot spot for endemic species. For example, the fish
fauna of Evrotas includes species not found anywhere else. All these species can be
considered particularly at risk because of environmental deterioration of river. The
highest risk is the prolonged droughts. The fish in order to survive in difficult conditions,
during the dry period, are hosted in sections of the river that flow is maintained, and can
be used as shelters until the end of the drought. The sections that retain water should be
protected from the intense water abstraction if we want to preserve a priceless biological
heritage. The most effective way of protecting endemic species and biodiversity in
general is to protect natural habitats. In this context, the protection and restoration of
ecosystems of the river should be high priority and includes the following steps.

Protection of riparian forests

Protection of the active bed of the river

Spatial measures for springs protection

Restoration / Conservation flood areas

Restoring connectivity to enhance fish movement -

Maintain ecological flow

Pressures on the coastal zone-

Extension of protected area to preserve biodiversity cores-
The region has a special aesthetic interest and keeps well (especially the upper part near
Palaiomonastiro) a wild and natural character (high rocks, gullys, and absence of human
made constructions. It is proposed, four areas (1. Kolliniotikou ravine junction, 2. Vivari
springs, 3. Skoura – Lefkochoma and 4. Vrontama gorge) to be included in Natura 2000
network and to be protected in the framework of the EU Habitats Directive 92/43 of a
point on the expansion of existing protected area network of Natura 2000 in Delta (Figure
5.7.1). This proposal ensures the special management of these small cores, but obviously
does not exclude human activities and sustainable develpoment (agriculture, livestock,
etc. on private land).
Program of Measures
A model for rural development has been applied in the river basin. The preliminary
management plans were created according to the following six axes:
1. Agricultural Production, 2. Drinking Water Supply, 3. Irrigation, 4. Pollution Control, 5.
Joint actions for flooding and drought protection, 6. Protection of the natural habitats
biodiversity and restoration of the riverine ecosystem.
The environmental measures were developed as follows. A database was created for each
water body on pressures and impacts on the ecological status, and on the measures for
the protection and restoration of water bodies. The corresponding municipalities were
informed concerning the status of their water bodies and the respective measures. The
main proposed measures are presented in Table 5.7.3. For each axis a detailed
description of the measures have been done in order to achieve good water quality.
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Some of the proposed measures have been implemented in Evrotas basin such as for
example the biological farming system. During the Envifriendly project, several
technologies for the minimization of point and non-point sources were demonstrated. In
Table 5.7.4 the effectiveness of each demonstrated technology is presented.
Some of the proposed measures have been implemented in Evrotas basin such as for
example the biological farming system. During the Envifriendly project, several
technologies for the minimization of point and non-point sources were demonstrated. In
particular: (1) in ―Tzinakos olive mill‖ the wastewater is stored in evaporation ponds and
is used during the summer for the irrigation of a corn field and for compost production,
(2)
in
―Kokkolis
olive
mill
the
underground
disposal
of
olive
mill
waste
and
phytoremediation with poplar trees, (3) in an orange juice factory, an electrocoagulation
unit was installed for the improvement of the wastewater effluent, (4) the management
of drainage canals as a low cost agro-environmental measure was also demonstrated.
Drainage canals are areas of accumulation of organic debris due to erosion and growth of
plants such as Phragmites australis. The appropriate timing of cutting reeds maximize
the removal of pollutants by plant uptake, (5) river bank management by the creating a
riparian forest of poplar trees, (6) monitored natural attenuation of nutrients at the basin
scale. It was proved that Evrotas basin has high capacity to attenuate pollutants such as
nitrate and phosphorous.
1
2
3
4
Figure 5.7.1. Areas of biodiversity cores
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Axis 1
Axis 2
Axis 3
Axis 4
Axis 5
Axis 6
Table 5.7.3. Main environmental measures proposed in Evrotas River basin.
MEASURES
Modify Farming
System
Alternative
Inter-municipalities companies of drinking water supply3,
choices for
Wise Cost estimate3.
water supply
Drip Irrigation
Estimation of the real irrigation needs, Switching irrigation methods,
and Drainage
Change Charges for water abstraction3, Water re-use (municipal and
system
industrial treated wastewater)3
Phytoremediation1, Drainage canals management1.
Fertilizer Control
Vegetation Management on river banks3
& Reduction
Use of Fertiliser recommendation system2
Estimation zones Riparian zone stabilazation1, Measures for fire disaster prevantion2,
vulnerable to
Natural hazards procasting2, Management plans for drought and flood
flooding
protection2.
River bed protection, Remediation /Protection of flooded areas1,
Riparian forest
Ecological effective discharge quantification (during dry period) 3,
protection
Extension of protection areas to ensure the integrity of biodiversity
cores3
1
active
has studied and actions are on the way
3
under discussion.
2
Residents believe that the most important function of Evrotas is to satisfy irrigation
needs for agriculture. Secondarily, Evrotas is perceived to be a source of natural wealth.
Its historic, ecological and cultural role is almost neglected. The over-exploitation of
Evrotas River water resources and the pollution originated from agro-indurstry have
created ecological implications that must be taken under consideration when designing
environmental measures. The integrated water resources management is a difficult and
multidisciplinary process. This study identified the dominant pressures and assessed the
impacts and the chemical and ecological status of the river. Based on these studies,
preliminary management plans were proposed and were specified for each municipality.
The proposed measures faced fully public acceptance. The effectiveness of measures, i.e.
the impact on the ecological status of Evrotas River, will be evaluated in the near future.
However, preliminary results concerning the proposed measures have shown positive
results.
Concluding, designing an appropriate management plan for the Evrotas basin demands
the participation of a wide range of scientists from additional fields (e.g. local
agronomists, sociologists and economists). Moreover, the success of the management
plan requires participation and acceptance of all the interested stakeholder groups. The
public dialogue has been the cornerstone in the development of the existing management
plans in the basin and it will continue in the future during the implementation of the
research project MIRAGE (Mediterranean Intermittent River ManAGEment) that has
been funded by FP7.
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Table 5.7.4. Evaluation of technologies demonstrated in the Envifriendly project.
Pollution
Location
Effectiveness
The study has shown that there is no adverse effect in the
soil and groundwater from the application of diluted olive
Tzinakos (Surface
mill waste for the irrigation of the corn field. The corn
Olive Mill Waste
Irrigation of a Corn
production has increased since the OMW application and
Water
Field)
additional benefits arise also from the extra reserve of
Treatment
water supply during the dry period (May-August).
Technologies
The study has shown that during the two years of
Kokolis (Subsurface
demonstration that there is no impact of OMW to the
Disposal and
groundwater or toxicity issues to the poplar trees.
Phytoremediation
Monitoring of the effectiveness of the technology will be
with Poplar Trees)
continued in the future.
An electrocoagualtion unit was installed at the end of the
wastewater treatment plant of the orange juice factory to
reduce the color in the treated water. Specific alteration
Orange Juice
Lakonia (Electroin the existing treatment scheme was suggested to
Waste Water
coagulation)
improve the appearance and turbidity of the wastewater.
Monitoring of the effectiveness of the technology will be
continued in the future.
The analysis of monthly samples of reeds suggested that a
significant accumulation of N and P was achieved of the
order of 20 and 3 g/Kg respectively. The reeds have a
Drainage
Skala
maximum accumulation of N and P during spring. The
Canals
(Phytoremediation drainage canal sediments have also a significant reductive
Management
with Reeds)
capacity reducing by 88% the concentration of nitrate
from groundwater. The study showed that proper
management of the drainage canals can reduce fluxes to
surface waters by over 90%.
Restoration of the riparian zone by the creation of a
Sparta (Riparian
riparian forest was shown to be an effective technology for
Zone Restoration
the combined reduction of non-point source pollution
River Bank
and
fluxes and bank erosion protection. In the first two year of
Management
Phytoremediation by the study, significant reductions in nutrient concentrations
a Poplar Forest)
were observed. Monitoring of the effectiveness of the
technology will be continued in the future.
Natural attenuation of nutrients in the basin was shown to
Monitored
be a very effective technology. Monitoring and modeling
Natural
Basin
studies estimated that nitrogen and phosphorous were
Attenuation
reduced in the basin by 86% and 92% respectively.
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TASK 7 - Evaluation of social acceptance and dissemination of results
1. Dissemination Strategy Plan
The initial planning of dissemination activities for the Project was elaborated on the basis
of four fundamental axes: a) thematic distribution of the activities, b) time schedule, c)
definition of target-groups, d) methods of dissemination.
A. Concerning the thematic distribution of the dissemination activities content, specific
issues addressed were defined as follows:

Overall local development perspectives.

Modern methods and practices of integrated agricultural production.

Alternative tourist activities (agro-tourism, eco-tourism).

Water resources management (modes and techniques for water consumption
reduction and anti-pollution technologies).

Environmental information and sensitization of the public.
B. The time schedule of the dissemination activities comprised:

An initial stage, where the goal was to inform the local population about the
Project objectives and thus to promote participation of several local agents and to
achieve social acceptance of the Project methods and priorities.

An intermediate stage, where the goal was to provide continuous information
about the ongoing progress of the Project, together with enhancing local agents'
participation in order to identify local specificities and development perspectives.

A final stage, where a twofold goal had been put: to propose the final form of
proposed measures and to disseminate the final results and the estimated
benefits of these measures, through an adequate consultation process. This stage
also aimed at the increasing the capacity for future development.
C. For methodological purposes the target groups were categorized as follows:

Local agencies/Project Participants (staff of the Prefecture of Lakonia, the ERA
Municipalities and the Local Organizations for Land Improvement.

Representatives of professional and entrepreneurial associations (Commercial and
Manufacture Association, Trade Union, Hotel Owners Association).

Agricultural and Stock-breeding Co-partnerships.

Environmental Education Agencies.

Non
Governmental
Organizations
(Environmental
Organizations,
Citizens'
Associations)

Local media.
D. Means and methods of dissemination comprised activities at different scales, such as:

Regular contacts and meetings with local agents and Projects participants
(planning and organization of the Project activities, meetings on specific issues,
organization and materialization of public events, participation in public events
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organized by third parts, public consultation processes and formation of the
content of final measures).

Public events (scientific and informative conferences, participation in conferences
ans festivals organized by third parts), addressed to the above mentioned target
groups.

Elaboration, production and distribution of imprint and digital informative material
(flyers, leaflets, posters, banners, CD, DVD etc.).
2. Transformations according to local specificities and urgent problems (fire disasters,
floods, water shortage, recycling)
The initial Dissemination Strategy Plan was shaped according to the Project objectives,
the above mentioned methodology and the information obtained by local agents.
However, during the materialization process (and even in the stage of its final
formation), several transformations appeared to be of crucial importance, due to specific
conditions and emerging problems.

Representatives of the ERA Municipalities, as well as the preliminary study on
'Social and Economic dimensions – the first approach' revealed the low
sensitization on environmental issues and more specifically the absence of any
recycling and waste management systems. This condition called for a new survey
in the local population and in the representatives of public agencies in order to
evaluate existing capacity together with an effort for more sensitization. In this
context a review of existing systems functioning at the national level was
undertaken, in order to investigate their potential implementation in the PL
(currently one of the four less developed Prefectures in Greece concerning
recycling). Lists of the different waste management systems were produced and
distributed to potential beneficiaries, together with informative material (posters,
leaflets). Additionally, the potential recycling of expired drugs was investigated,
based on the innovative practice adopted by the Pharmasists' Co-partnership in
the Prefecture
of
Thessaloniki. Relevant
material
was distributed
to the
pharmacists of the PL.

In the first year of the Project severe floods caused extended damags in
agricultural land and, in some cases, in settlements. The partners of the Project
responded by several means: adequate surveys with representatives and farmers,
elaboration of studies on flood prevention, data collection and processing in
collaboration with the Hellenic Agricultural Association, organization of local
meetings and seminars on flood prevention and restoration measures.

Water shortage in the area has been observed to increase in recent years, due to
reduced rains. This condition called for informative events, in order to discuss the
impact on agricultural production and possible methods to decrease water
consumption for agricultural and urban use. The example of the water distribution
system established by the Local Organization for Land Improvement in the
Prefecture of Serres was used as an indicative good practice, in order to
investigate the possibility of similar practices in the ERA. Several relevant
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meetings with local representatives were organized.

In the summer 2007 forest fires destroyed a great part of forest and agricultural
land in the Region of Peloponnesus and in the mountainous part of Lakonia. The
partners of the Project, in collaboration with other agents, responded by
elborating studies on the restoration of the ecosystems, the preservation of the
agricultural land and the possible establishment of stock-breeding parks, as in the
case of the Municipality of Kyrros in the Prefecture of Pella, Region of Central
Macedonia, focusing on the institutional framework and the economic viability.
The emerging transformations were incorporated in the initial Dissemination Plan and the
final framework of activities and interventions was adequately informed. The initial
definition of the target groups and the proposed means remained the same but the
thematic content was enriched, according to the new data.
3. Evaluation of Social Acceptance/Public Consultation
Τhe comparison of the results of the two socio-economic studies (initial and repetitive)
conducted throughout the project implementation (interviews with local electives and
residents/professionals) demonstrate the fact that to a considerable extent society in the
Evrotas River Basin (ERB) has adopted the philosophy of the EnviFriendly project,
accepted the need to implement the suggested actions in the field of water resources
management and prioritized in similar ways the necessary changes. Local society is now
aware of the alternative development perspectives of Evrotas and considers the
implementation of EnviFriendly to have set the framework for the sustainable agricultural
development of the region and to have paved the road for the implementation of new
development projects in the region.
Public participation is essential throughout the preparation, review and updating of the
ERB management plans. Different types of participation refer to different levels of
involvement of stakeholders and the public. The implementation of the WFD requires the
following forms of participation: a) information supply, b) consultation and c) active
involvement. It should be stressed that approaches to public participation should be
context
specific
and
adapted
to
the
specific
institutional,
socio-economic
and
environmental context of the River Basin within which they are pursued. The EnviFriendly
project organized the public participation process in full consideration of the centralized
and hierarchical nature of the Greek state, the limited experience of public and private
stakeholders in co-operation and the inexperience of the general public in participatory
processes. Thus the project team closely cooperated with the local authorities
(prefectures, municipalities and central state departments) in the preparation of the ERB
management plan and approached local stakeholders and the public through the
authorities.
Public participation took place at:
1) the central level: with the active involvement of the Laconia Prefecture in the
elaboration of the ERB management plans (the Land Reclamation Office specialized in
the problem of draught and the adoption of preventive practical measures, while the
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Department of Hygiene specialized on pollution issues in the Evrotas RB and the
riparian areas). The regional Office of the General Secretariat for Civil Protection also
actively participated in the elaboration of measures against natural disasters.
2) the local level: first with the active involvement of the local authorities and the
respective
local
organizations
of
land
reclamation
that
specialize
on
water
management issues and second with the establishment of an informal information
network that includes all local stakeholders (NGOs, professional unions, professionals,
civil society organizations) and households.
Public participation was organized along the following steps:
1) Initial step: upon the starting of the project a timetable and a strategic plan for the
project implementation towards the elaboration of the ERB management plan were
prepared.
2) Intermediate step: the regional peculiarities, the main pollution sources and the
related polluting activities were registered and the water management stakeholders
at the national, regional and local level were mapped and contacted. The basis for the
management plan was set. Some of the proposed measures have been demonstrated
in Evrotas basin, during the EnviFriendly project, such as for example (1) in ―Tzinakos
olive mill‖ the wastewater is stored in evaporation ponds and is used during the
summer for the irrigation of a corn field and for compost production, (2) the
management of drainage canals as a low cost agro-environmental measure.
3) Final step: The management plan was presented to the stakeholders and the public
in general for open discussion. Different views were presented, comments and
suggestions were taken into consideration and the results of the discussion were
incorporated in the final version of the management plan.
The analysis of the environmental problems of the ERB indicated the urgency of such
problems as the olive mills wastes and drought. These two points were thoroughly
addressed by all the participation mechanisms used towards the elaboration of the ERB
management plan:
3) Information provision and awareness rising: information was provided to all
the stakeholders (local and regional) in the ERB in order to raise the awareness of
stakeholders and the population in general and give them the necessary knowhow to participate in the consultation process at a second stage. More specifically,
a) printed and electronic material was widely distributed on a regular basis, b) the
results of the socio-economic studies conducted in the region were widely
distributed and presented in public thematic events, c) environmental education
was pursued with the collaboration of local educational institutions, d) information
events and workshops were realized in different municipalities and e) information
material was distributed and local stakeholders contacted during local celebrations
organized for different reasons in at least six municipalities. With reference to oil
mils wastes a handbook of 10 alternative scenarios for the treatment of wastes
was prepared and a series of information and educational
events were
implemented with the vast participation of olive oil producers. Similar actions
were addressed to farmers on draught and the role of wise agricultural practices.
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4) Consultation: in May 2008 a series of meetings were organized locally in five
municipalities in which local authorities (municipal council), large olive oil
producers and farmers and their unions, and representatives of the local
organizations of land reclamation reviewed and discussed the environmental and
socio-economic analyses‘ results and the development prospects of their localities.
The feedback was then incorporated in the drafting of the preliminary ERB
management plan which was presented for open consultation in November
(21st) 2008 in Sparta, the capital city of the Laconia Prefecture. The outcome of
the consultation process and the written contributions were incorporated in the
second draft of the ERB management plan which was presented for open
consultation in February (26th) 2009. Both consultation events were organized in a
similar way. Participants were invited by the prefectural authorities who issued a
press release in the local and prefectural press and the local radio stations –
personal e-mails were also sent. Participants included representatives of the local
and prefectural authorities and regional administration, representatives of the
Local organations of land reclamation, large olive oil producers and farmers and
representatives of their professional unions, scientists (agronomists, geologists,
hydrologists etc.), civil society, NGO representatives and citizens. Written
contributions-responses were then considered in the preparation of the final
management plan which focused on the Integrated Water Resources Management
of the ERB towards environmental enhancement, social cohesion, economic
development and improvement of life quality. The goal of the management plan is
the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices and the improvement of
the chemical and ecological status of the surface and ground waters of the ERB.
4. Issues of Dissemination Strategy
Project web site (http://www.envifriendly.tuc.gr)
The construction of a web site for the Project had been planned at the initial stage of its
implementation. The main objectives of the web page have been to include the research
findings and to provide additional ground for dissemination, especially concerning local
stakeholders. The web site is regularly updated and enriched with new emerging
material. It contains pages both in Greek and in English. Its contents include the
following thematic units:
-
The region
-
Local agents
-
The Project
-
Observatory for Local Development
-
Fire effects management
-
Environmental education
-
News and Events
-
Funding resources
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Thematic units contain informative material and links with relevant web sites of
Ministries, public services and private agents whose activities concern water resources
management, agricultural development, ecotourism etc. During the implementation of
the Project the web site proved to be effective for the communication and information
exchange among the partners. After the end of the implementation period the web site
will continue to evolve under the responsibility of the Observatory, thus consisting an
important tool for the constant realization of the objectives of the latter.
Observatory for Local Development
The Observatory for Local Development was established and operates as part of the
Prefecture
of
Lakonia
administrative
structure.
The
function
of
Observatory
institutionalized ordinary by the Peloponnesus region (number 725/16-04-09). Today it is
primarily a mechanism for collection and dissemination of information on investment and
development potential. In the future it is planned to obtain crucial role in the
implementation of the Water Resources Management Plan. It is going to coordinate the
continuous public consultation process, thus being able to accommodate views from
different stakeholders and social groups and to direct them towards a common
development perspective.
Open Farms and Mapping Trails
The aim of the LIFE/EnviFriendly coordinators is for Open Farms to:

Become educational and information centres for students: acquaint students with
the agricultural production procedures, the management and operation of an
organized farm, the seasonal problems, the connection between the supply of raw
material, production and marketing etc.

Link the objectives and results of the LIFE project with every agricultural practices
since the project emphasizes the adoption of the Codes of Good Agricultural
Practices, the promotion of organic products and the application of the
demonstration technologies in the agricultural field.

Facilitate the promotion of the local agricultural products, familiarize students with
the way local products are produced and inform the public about the advantages
of the local agricultural products and their contribution to the local economy.
The list of the Open Farms has been elaborated with the assistance of the Union of New
Farmers and other Farmers‘ Cooperative Organizations, on the basis of specific criteria
that seek to attract as many visitors and organized school / educational excursions as
possible. The response and representativeness criteria that the project team used
consisted of the following:
e) The distribution of the farms had to represent the largest and most important part
of the local agricultural production. Accordingly olive and orange groves and
horticultural farms (as well as a cattle farm) had been selected (traditional local
products).
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f)
The production way should address the whole of the necessary production
procedures. Thus, the Open Farms list included organic farms, traditional seasonal
farms and greenhouses.
g) The geographic distribution of the farms should cover the whole of the Evrotas
River Basin. Accordingly, the list included farms in the Municipalities of Elos,
Inounta, Krokees, Asopos, Molaoi, Skala and Pellana.
h) The farms should be easily accessible. Thus, the list included farms that can be
easily accessed by schools, tourists and other visitors through the highway or the
main regional road network.
According to the initial Dissemination Strategy Plan, the selection of specific farms had
been proposed, as a means to show off the local agricultural production and products and
to achieve interconnection with ecotourist activities. Self-consumption and non-market
exchange of agricultural products are well-established practices in local social networks.
Consequently, instead of constituting a way to integrate the local agricultural market, the
basic goal of the ‗Mapping of Open Farms‘ activity was to inform and educate the broader
audience. More precisely, Open Farms:
-
can be the ground for educational and informative activities for students who can
get familiarized with the local production process. The current school year has
been defined as the ‗Year for Agricultural Production and Wholesome Nutrition‘
and several relevant activities are being materialized.
-
can contribute to the linkage between the Project objectives and results and the
everyday agricultural practice, especially in what concerns the adoption of the
Code for Good Agricultural Practice the cultivation of organic products and the use
of new technologies for rural development.
Moreover, the mapping of river and mountain trails in the ERA was proposed in the
context of increasing possibilities for ecotourist development. Based on the study of the
University of Ioannina and in collaboration with the local branch of the Greek
Mountaineering Club maps of seven riverside and three mountainous forest zones were
produced. Some of the routes of the mountainous area (Eastern Taygetos) are parts of
the E4 international trail. Together with a relevant photographic presentation, this
material is available at the Project web page.
5. Evaluation of Dissemination Results
Upon the completion of the project the following results indicate the effectiveness of the
public participation tools towards a more active involvement in decision and policymaking:
3) The institutionalization of networking with the establishment of the Observatory
for
Sustainable
Development.
The
amendment
of
the
regulation
of
the
organization and operation of the Prefectural Authorities of Laconia was published
in the Official Journal of the Government in April 2009 (number 725/16-04-2009)
establishing the Observatory for Sustainable Development. The Observatory will
become operational under the jurisdiction of the Prefectural Authorities and its
tasks will include the collection of all information material for the exploitation of
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the ERB development potential and the collection of feedback from all local
stakeholders and citizens, the overall coordination of the development actions and
the participation to the resolution of the emerging environmental and broader
development problems.
4) Following the meetings with the local olive oil producers it became clear that the
majority of them were willing to implement the suggested by the EnviFriendly
project group waste treatment measures on the condition that they would receive
financial support and guidance by the State. Within this framework, the
procedures have started for the release of a Local Health Provision with a detailed
description of the obligations of the olive oil manufacturers in the ERB.
The implementation of the participation procedures planned by the EnviFriendly project
group has verified the assumption that for public participation approaches to be
successful (i.e. produce technical knowledge or social capital) they should be tailoredmade to the specific institutional, socio-economic and environmental context within which
they are pursued:
4) Considering the centralized and hierarchical nature of the Greek state it is no
wonder that the Prefecture of Laconia had to operate as a ‗leader‘ in bringing
together local stakeholders and the public at large. The inexperience of public and
private actors in Greece in participatory procedures necessitated the assumption
of a ‗leading‘ role by an authoritative public institution. Furthermore, in view of
the financial considerations of farmers and olive-oil manufacturers, the most
extensive participation of local authorities considerably diminished the reluctance
of local stakeholders and society at large to proceed with the required alterations
of well-established but not sustainable practices.
5) Local stakeholders and the public have no experience in participatory procedures
and often ignore basic environmental facts. Within this framework, before
planning and implementing the consultation procedures it is necessary to spend
some time to environmentally educate stakeholders and the public and create the
required participatory know-how.
6) While implementing the project the environmental conditions underwent dramatic
changes with the extreme 2006 draught and the catastrophic 2007 fires. These
changes had to be extensively studied by the project team and the results of the
relevant studies were introduced in the strategic management plan. The provision
of relevant advice to the stakeholders created trust between the project team and
the local population and facilitated the participation process in the elaboration of
the ERB management plan.
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Annex 4: Project tablets
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Life - Environment
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