PROJECT
INTRODUCTION
ELECTRONICS
Coffee for ALL
Contactperson:
Michael Kessner
m.kessner@saxion.nl
Jan Bollen
j.w.bollen@saxion.nl
Project introduction electronics
PROJECT
INTRODUCTION
ELECTRONICS (PRIE)
Contactperson:
Michael Kessner
m.kessner@saxion.nl
Jan Bollen
j.w.bollen@saxion.nl
Enschede, September 2013
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Contents
PROJECT INTRODUCTION ELECTRONICS ...................................................................... 1
PROJECT INTRODUCTION ELECTRONICS (PRIE) ............................................................ 2
1. INTRODUCTION & ASSIGNMENT.................................................................................. 4
2. PROJECT MANAGEMENT & PRODUCTS ......................................................................... 8
3. COFFE MAKER PROJECT INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 10
4. BATTERY MEASUREMENT ......................................................................................... 16
5. V MODEL ................................................................................................................ 30
6. PROJECT PLAN ........................................................................................................ 36
7. COMPANY MEETING AND MINUTES ........................................................................... 39
8. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.............................................................................................. 47
9. OPAMP AS COMPARATOR......................................................................................... 51
10. POSTER PRESENTATION ......................................................................................... 59
11. WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT .............................................................................. 60
12. ORAL PRESENTATIONS ........................................................................................... 72
13. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND ..................................................................................... 83
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1. INTRODUCTION & ASSIGNMENT
Welcome to the project introduction electronics or better known as the coffee-makerproject. The aim of this project is to learn, in a group, more about project management and
basic technical calculations, simulations and measurement. This module is done as group
work. The group acts as a real engineering company. The group or engineering company
assignment is;
”Saxion EEE is looking for an engineering company who can modify a simple
coffee-maker-machine into an advanced coffee-maker-machine. The
temperature of the drinking coffee should be adjustable.”
Students will be able to:
-
Do a battery measurement, inclusive report
-
Analyze an existing coffee-maker-machine
-
Calculate simulate and build temperature control
-
Work for a customer
-
Work in a structured way following the V-model
-
Experience teamwork
-
Organize meetings
-
Feel time pressure
-
Report technical information
-
Present the result on a poster
-
Present all project results
Course topics
Technical
a.
Temperature measurements
b.
Wheatstone bridge
c.
Comparator
d.
Power switch
Social
a.
Teamwork with different roles
b.
Structured work (V-model)
c.
Organize and participate meetings
d.
Reporting / Poster
e.
Presentation
At the end of the project there should be a working modified coffee-maker-machine, A
complete report, a poster and a group presentation. The students have act as a group like a
engineering company. Each student gets 3 credit points.
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Saxion course outline (educational)
School of Life Science, Engineering & Design
Course title
Project introduction electronics
Examination code:
T.LED.10351
Phase of study
Propedeuse
EC
3
Lecturer in charge :
Michael Kessner
Document Version:
20111231
Course description / Moduul omschrijving
The aim of this module is to learn, in a group, more about project management and basic
technical calculations, simulations and measurement. This module is done as group work.
The group acts as a real engineering company. The group or engineering company
assignment is ”Saxion EEE is looking for an engineering company who can modify a simple
coffee maker machine into an advanced coffee-maker-machine. The temperature of the
drinking coffee should be adjustable.”
Course objectives / Doelstellingen
Students will be able to:
- Do a battery measurement
- Analyse an existing coffee-maker-machine
- Calculate and build temperature control
- Work for a customer
- Work in a structured way following the V-model
- Experience teamwork
- Organise meetings
- Feel time pressure
- Report technical information
- Present all project results
Course topics / Onderwerpen
- Technical:
a. Temperature measurements
b. Wheatstone bridge
c. Comparator
d. Power switch
- Social:
a. Teamwork with different roles
b. Structured work (V-model)
c. Experience meeting
d. Reporting / Poster
e. Presentation
Prerequisites / Voorkenniseisen
Mathematics and Physics on college level
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Literature / Literatuur
Course book coffee-maker
J.W. Bollen
Educational materials required / Benodigde onderwijsmiddelen
1. Hardware took box
2. Internet access
3. Simulation program
4. Complete office 2010 program
Assessment / Toetsing
A group report of the whole process of innovating the coffee-maker is made by each group.
Also a final presentation will be done by the whole group, each member participating. At the
end a demonstration of the modified coffee-maker is done. It should work correctly!
Aspect
Report battery measurement (individual)
Project plan (group)
Agenda and minutes (individual)
Report (group)
Poster (group)
Presentation (individual)
Coffee machine works
Technical
10 %
40 %
10 %
30%
10 %
100 %
Social
10%
20 %
10 %
30 %
10 %
20%
100 %
Assessment matrix / Toetsmatrijs
Not applicable
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Lesson schedule / lessen planning
Students will work as a group in the lab, and organise meetings weekly
Wk: Method
Time
topics
Literature
Manual
1.
- instruction
- labwork
10,5 h
-
Introduction to the assignment
Making the groups
2.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Battery measurement
Battery report ready !!
3.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Wheastone bridge
Analysing the old machine
4.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Document the old machine
Generating ideas for functional design
5.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Presenting functional design to customer
GO / NO GO
6.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Implementing new design
7.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Implementing new design
Finalise documentation poster and presentation
8.
- instruction
- labwork
-
Implementing new design
Finalise documentation poster and presentation
-
Presentation and demonstration
9.
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2. PROJECT MANAGEMENT & PRODUCTS
In this project you learn how to
handle and organize a project.
To work together
To devide the work
To make a planning
To make a report
To make a poster
To do a presentation
For this work we need the book
Project management
ISBN 978-90-01-79092-9
Studiepunten overzicht
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Actions to be taken in sequence
1. Make a group of 5 .. 6 persons
2. Choose chairman, secretary, planner, documentalist an members
3. Make a company name and logo
4. Organize first meeting learn and discuss the V model and make a work plan to
divide the work
5. Do measurements on old machine in different situations
6. Gather measurement results, show graphs and make a conclusion
7. Open and analyze the old machine, make electrical drawings, and explain the
working
8. Think of a functional design of the new machine, also who is the target group
9. Present new functional machine to customer; GO / NO GO from customers.
10. Design, build and test the new machine
11. Do measurements on the new machine
12. Finalize documentation and presentation
13. Hand in the report and do the presentation
14. Prove the new coffee-machine works like the specifications
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3. COFFE MAKER PROJECT INTRODUCTION
Coffee
Coffee maker
maker project
project
MAJOR
MAJOR educational
educationalgoals:
goals:
••
••
••
••
••
To
To work
work for
for aa customer
customer
To
To work
work in
in aa structured
structured way
way following
following the
the V-model
V-model
To
To experience
experience teamwork
teamwork
To
To feel
feel time-pressure
time-pressure
To
To complete
complete all
all documents
documents of
of aa project
project
MINOR
MINOR educational
educational goals:
goals:
•• To
To know
know how
how temperature-control
temperature-control works
works
11
Customer
Customer
Saxion
Saxion EEE
EEE is
is looking
looking for
for an
an engineering
engineeringcompany
company who
who
can
can modify
modify aa simple
simple coffee
coffee maker
maker machine
machine into
into an
an
advanced
advanced coffee-maker-machine.
coffee-maker-machine.
The
The temperature
temperature of
of the
the drinking
drinking coffee
coffee should
should be
be
adjustable
adjustable by
by the
the customer.
customer.
22
V-model
V-model structure
structure
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V-model
V-model actions
actions
Investigate
Investigate coffee
coffee making
making
Research
Research actual
actual machine
machine
Measurements
Measurementsactual
actual machine
machine
Conclusions
Conclusions
Requirements
Requirements
Specifications
Specifications new
new machine
machine
Functional
Functional design
design go
go // no
no go
go
System
System design
design// block
blockdiagram
diagram
Component
Component design
design // simulation
simulation
Build
Build components
components // assemblation
assemblation
44
Team
Team work
work
••
••
••
••
Chairman
Chairman
Secretary
Secretary
Planner
Planner
Documentalist
Documentalist
•• Saxion
Saxion customers
customers
55
Time
Time pressure
pressure // planning
planning
•• Gannt
Gannt
diagram
diagram
•• Who
Who
does
does
what
what
and
and
when
when
•• Start
Start
•• Ending
Ending
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All
All documents
documents
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
Circuit
Circuit old
oldcoffee
coffee maker
maker
Measurement
Measurement notes
notes of
of coffee
coffee maker
maker
Functional
Functional design
design
Minites
Minites // Notes
Notes
Agenda
Agenda
Log
Log book
book
Powerpoint
Powerpoint final
final presentation
presentation
77
Measurements
Measurements
••
••
••
••
••
••
What
What to
to measure
measure
Set-up
Set-up
Measurement
Measurement
Data
Data
Graph
Graph
Conclusions
Conclusions
== execution
execution
== information
information
== presentation
presentation
== decicion
decicion
88
Graph
Graph
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••
••
••
••
••
Clear
Clear title,
title,
with
with all
all parameters
parameters
@
@ 12
12 Volt
Volt
Tambient
Tambient == 22
22 °C
°C
@
@ 22 cups
cups of
of coffee
coffee
••
••
••
••
Y
Yaxis;
axis;
Dependent
Dependent parameter
parameter
Symbol
Symbol TT
Unit
Unit [°C]
[°C]
••
••
••
••
X-axis;
X-axis;
Independent
Independent parameter
parameter
Symbol
Symbol tt
Unit
Unit [Minutes]
[Minutes] 99
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Agenda
Agenda
•• Logo
Logo company
company // Logo
Logo Saxion
Saxion
•• Date
Date place
place time
time and
and participants
participants
••
••
••
••
••
••
Opening
Opening
Minutes
Minutes last
last meeting
meeting
Announcement
Announcement
•• Subject
Subject 11 (for
(for example
example functional
functional design)
design)
•• Subject
Subject 22 (for
(for example
example technical
technicaldesign)
design)
•• Subject
Subject 33 (for
(for example
example planning)
planning)
Questions
Questions
Next
Next meeting
meeting
Closing
Closing
10
10
Minutes
Minutes
•• Logo
Logo company
company // Logo
Logo Saxion
Saxion
•• Date
Date place
place time
time participants
participants
••
••
••
Opening
Opening
Minutes
Minutes last
last meeting
meeting
Announcement
Announcement
•• Subject
Subject 11 and
and remarks
remarks or
or
decicion
decicion
•• Subject
Subject 22 and
and remaks
remaks or
or
decicion
decicion
•• Subject
Subject 33 and
and remaks
remaks or
or
decicion
decicion
••
••
••
Questions
Questions and
and answers
answers
Next
Next meeting
meeting
Closing
Closing
11
11
Questions
Questions
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
Who
Who is
is my
my target
target group
group of
of clients?
clients?
What
What will
will my
my clients
clients pay
payfor
for the
the machine?
machine?
What
What isis aa normal
normal drinking
drinking coffee
coffee temperature?
temperature?
What
What isis the
the maximum
maximum coffee
coffee temperature
temperature ii can
can make?
make?
For
For how
how many
many cups
cups ii will
will make
make the
the coffee
coffee machine?
machine?
What
What conclusions
conclusions do
do ii have
have from
from the
the measurements?
measurements?
What
What will
will the
the functional
functional design
design look
look lilke?
lilke?
How
How many
many knobs
knobs and
and what
what isis the
the function?
function?
•• How
How is
is the
the organisation
organisation of
of the
the group
group (functions)
(functions)
•• How
How is
is the
the document
document control
control of
of the
the group
group
12
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Balanced team
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People oriented roles
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4. BATTERY MEASUREMENT
Objectives of the practical measurements
- Gaining insight into the "why" of experimenting.
- Getting acquainted with a number of measuring instruments.
- Recognizing and calculating inaccuracies in measurements.
- Presenting results of measurements.
- Keeping a laboratory notebook.
- Reporting.
Gaining insight into the "why" of experimenting
Although students sometimes mistakenly think that experiments, whether they are useful or
not, only serve to pass the time, it should be clear to you from the first experiment that
experimenting in principle always serves to test existing or new theory.
Testing or checking theory is only possible if there is an “expectation” of the outcome of the
measurements beforehand i.e. before the experiment takes place. After working out the
measured results it can be concluded whether the outcome does or does not match that
expectation. In extreme situations, which do not arise in this practical, this may even lead to
adapting or rejecting the theory. In this way almost all physical and electro technical laws
have arisen.
Getting acquainted with a number of measuring instruments
In order to carry out measurements you need instruments; in this introductory practical they
will generally be instruments to measure currents and/or voltages. Depending on the
objective of the experiment involved, instruments of widely ranging quality are used.
Therefore it is necessary to make the measuring method dependent on the instruments that
are available.
Recognizing and calculating inaccuracies in measurements
The accuracy of results of measurements is limited. There are two reasons for this: the
quality of the instruments and the skills of the experimenter. You had better say that the
result of a measurement is uncertain. For each measured value this uncertainty must be
stated by indicating a margin for the value measured. In practice this margin is called the
measuring error. This word may bring to mind wrong associations; measuring errors are
inevitable and are made always and in all situations. The only thing the experimenter can
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and should do is limiting these “errors” as much as possible. This is done by the right
choice of instruments and by measuring carefully.
We distinguish three types of measuring errors:
- reading errors, which you make yourself.
- tolerance errors, which depend on the quality of the instruments.
- systematic errors, which result from the measurement procedure followed.
Basically, for each measurement you should take into account all three types. Especially the
third type is often overlooked beforehand and causes results to deviate clearly from the
theoretical expectations. In most cases measured values do not produce the information
needed, but they constitute the rough material from which the quantities to be determined
can be distilled with the help of a number of formulas and graphs. Since all measured
values contain measuring errors, the real art is to find out in what way all individual
measuring errors result in one error in the outcome of the quantity that is calculated.
For independent quantities – quantities that do not affect each other – there are a number
of rules of thumb that allow quick calculations. For dependent quantities it becomes much
more difficult.
Rules of thumb for independent quantities

When adding/subtracting quantities, add up absolute errors.
When dividing/multiplying quantities, add up relative (or percentage) errors.
In all cases the error in the final answer must be stated absolutely and in no more than two
significant digits. That is why answers with the help of a calculator should always be
rounded off “sensibly”. In the first classes you will hear more about this subject. This will be
discussed in the introductory class.
Presenting the results of measurements
Results of measurements must be presented clearly. Basically, there are two ways:
- In a table.
- Graphically.
Both a good table and a good graph should meet a number of requirements.
A table should:
- have a title above it.
- show the symbol and unit of the quantity to be measured in the header of each
column.
- state the “error” for each measured value.
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A graph should:
- have a title above it.
- show symbols, units and scale divisions along both axes.
- show measuring errors, so that there are measuring ranges instead of measuring
points.
- have a scale division 1:1, 1:2 or 1:5 (no other scale).
Keeping a laboratory notebook
Working in a neat and well-organized manner during a practical appears to be very difficult,
yet this is a must. You are expected to keep a special notebook (= the laboratory notebook)
of what you do during the practical.
The laboratory notebook should include:
- date the experiment is carried out,
- title of the experiment,
- name of the student you cooperate with,
- remarks and/or measurement procedures as a result of the preparation of the
experiment,
- numbers of all instruments used,
- measured values that were observed (in the form of a table),
- details that came up during the experiment.
So a laboratory notebook is created during the practical, not afterwards! Many students tend
to fiddle around on a piece of scrap paper, this must be stopped once and for all; the
supervisors will gladly help you with that. It is wrong – and therefore not allowed – to tear
out sheets from a notebook. The notebook is the mirror that shows you, and your
supervisor, how you work: if you work neatly then the notebook will be neat.
Reporting
Working out an experiment happens on the basis of the contents of the notebook. This
working out will always result in a report; during the first quarter you will use the report
forms, also called worksheets.
The aim of the battery measurement is to get insight in measuring techniques and accuracy.
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The structure of the report should be as:
COVER PAGE
Logo University / report title
nice subject picture / authors name (& student number)
submission date
TITLE PAGE
Logo University / report title
authors name (& student number)
authors e-mail / authors education
companions name / University name and address
teachers name or company coach / signed for acceptance
submission date
SUMMARY (short)
assignment / methods of analysis
Conclusions / recommendations
FOREWORD
personal introduction
why this report / for what education
what did you learn from it / thanking
TABLE OF CONTENTS list of numbered sections and paragraphs
ABBREVIATION LIST
alphabetic
FIGURE LIST
numeral
1
INTRODUCTION/ASSIGNMENT
what to measure and why?
outline of report’s body structure
2
BODY
2.1 Theory of battery and internal resistance
2.2 Measure plan, and hardware setup
2.3 Measure results (graph!!)
CONCLUSION
conclusions on measure results
Are the results according the theory?
REFERENCE LIST
list of reference material consulted during research for report
Books / Internet addresses
APPENDIX
Remarks:
data that supports your analysis but is not essential to its explanation
Every figure should have a figure number with text
Every table should have a table title and a number with text
Every graph should have a graph title
X and Y axis should state the variable and the [dimension], i.e. Current [mA]
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BATTERY measurements on
INTERNAL resistor
1 What is internal resistor
2 How to measure voltage and current
3 How to calculate internal resistor
4 Error in measurement analog / digital
5 Calculating with errors
1
Battery
In real
Ideal model
2
Battery ideal / real
E = EMF =
Elektro Motive Force
Ideal = the Battery delivers any current
without voltage loss (12 Volt = 12 Volt)
Real = the Battery delivers current, more
current more voltage loss (12 Volt ≠12 Volt)
3
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Battery real model
r is internal resistor
Mathematical model
If there is load current
There is voltage-loss
Because of r
4
Battery real
What is the
battery voltage
If you start a car with the
lights on? What do you see?
5
Battery real
6
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Thevenin
Vo = open voltage
Io = short circuit
ri = Vo / Io
ri = ∆ V / ∆ I
7
Error in measurement
Analog
Error =
a percentage
of the full-scale
So, adust to
maximum swing
8
Error in measurement
Digital
+/- 1.0% plus +/- 3 Digits
Reading
= the true value on DMM
LSD
= least significant digit
9
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Calculalting with errors
Addition and subtraction
The rule of thumb add the absolute errors.
Multiplication and division
The rule of thumb add the relative errors.
10
Addition and subtraction
The rule of thumb add the absolute errors.
If you subtract two quantities, A and B with
estimated errors eA and eB.
The result will be A – B with an estimated
absolute error of eA + eB.
11
Multiplication and division
The rule of thumb add the relative errors.
If you divide two quantities, A and B with
errors eA and eB, the relative errors will be
rA = eA/A and rB = eB/B.
The result will be A/B with an relative error of
rA + rB.
The absolute error will be (A/B ) x (rA + rB)
12
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Analog meters;
The accuracy of an
electronic
measurement defines
how close the
indicated value is to
the true value of the
measured signal.
Analog meters usually
have their accuracy
listed as a percentage
of the full-scale
reading. When a measured value is close to full scale, or at least above 2/3 of full scale, the
published accuracy is meaningful. However, the further away the reading is from full scale,
the greater it can deviate from the true value when viewed as a percentage of reading, not
as percentage of full scale.
For example, an analog voltmeter with a ±3% accuracy is set to the 0 to 100-V range. Based
on this accuracy, its pointer can be 3 volts (100 V x 0.03 = 3 V) below or above the true
reading. If the true measured value is, for example, 90.0 V, the meter might read between
87 V and 93 V or ± 3.3% of reading. However, 10.0 volts measured on a 100-V scale of the
same voltmeter can read between 7 V and 13 V, or ± 30% of the actual reading, while the
meter is technically within specifications. So, to maintain reasonable accuracy, select the
analog meter range that places the pointer between 2/3 of full scale and full scale.
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Digital Multi Meters
Most hand-held DMMs have a so-called “3½digit” display. The three full numeric
characters on the right can show any value
from 0 through 9, but the leading (most
significant) digit can be only 0 or 1, and is
called the “½ digit.” Such meters can display
numbers from 0 to 1999. They are also known
as 2000-count DMMs. DMM resolution
depends on the maximum number of analogto-digital converter (ADC) counts during a full
conversion. For example, the theoretical
resolution of a 2000-count meter with a 3½digit display is (1/2000)(100%) = 0.05%.
However, a practical resolution also accounts
or the number of least significant counts
similar to the accuracy rating.
Since DMMs have automatic polarity detection,
they display negative values equal in range to
the positive values. That is, the display of a
3½-digit DMM can show any number from -1999 to 0 and from 0 to 1999.
Typical selection of available ranges in dc volts of a 3½-digit DMM will include 200 mV, 2 V,
20 V, 200 V, and 1000 V. For manual range-changing meters, switch to a range that
provides the maximum number of digits for the unknown voltage. When measuring a 1.5-V
battery, the highest 1000 V range will only show “1”. Switching to the 200 V range will show
1.5 on the display, the 20-V range could display 1.52, and the most accurate reading is
obtained in the 2-V range: perhaps 1.523. The last one is the most accurate.
DMM accuracy
Some instruction manuals list basic meter accuracy as ± % of reading. For example, if the
basic meter accuracy in the dc volts range is ±1 %, and the true voltage is 1.00 V, the meter
is expected to display a reading of 1.00 V ±1 %, or 0.99 V to 1.01 V. However, basic
accuracy does not take into account the inner workings of the ADC (that is at the heart of
every DMM) and other circuitry on the analog side. These circuits and the ADC have
tolerances, nonlinearities, and offsets that vary from function to function. In addition, signal
noise might require limiting the resolution. To give meter users a more accurate value, DMM
manufacturers present accuracy specifications in the following format:
Complete accuracy specifications: ±(% of reading + number of LSD)
+/- 1.0% plus +/- 3 Digits
Where:
Reading = the true value of the signal that the DMM measures
LSD = least significant digit
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EXPERIMENT: INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A BATTERY
Objective of the experiment:
Determining the internal resistance of a voltage supply
Body of knowledge;
Internal resistance, source voltage, terminal voltage, Volt meter, Ampère meter.
Literature:
This syllabus, internet
Summary of theory:
In the ideal voltage supply the voltage at the terminals is
independent of the load current, whereas the current supplied
by an ideal power source is independent of the voltage across
the load to which it is connected.
In practice this is not the case, however. The terminal voltage
of a car battery, for example, decreases when the engine is
started. This is due to the fact that there is a small resistance,
also called internal resistance that is in series with the
battery.
This experiment shows that reality can be
different. We study a simple DC source (dry
cell). The voltage at the terminals of a dry cell
that does not supply current (is not being
loaded), is called the source voltage Uo or Open
Voltage. As soon as a dry cell is loaded, for
example by connecting a light, with a
resistance RL it is no longer called source
voltage but terminal voltage Uk.
The difference between Uo and Uk is explained by assigning an internal resistance Ri to the
voltage supply.
According to Ohm’s law:
Uo = I*(Ri + RL),
Uo = I*Ri + I*RL
where Uk = I*RL
Uk = Uo – I*Ri
The relation between Uk and I can be shown in a graph. The internal resistance of a voltage
supply can be determined from the slope of the U-I curve found.
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Measuring method and instruments
A voltmeter, an ammeter and a variable resistor R
(instead of the light) are put in the circuit,
Here, RA represents the resistance of the
ammeter and RV the resistance of the voltmeter.
The values of both resistances can be derived
from the data on the back of the universal
measuring instruments: RA can be calculated
from the "voltage drop" given, RV can be read
directly.
The tolerance caused by the meters, both in the current I and in the voltage U, is also stated
by the manufacturer (see technical specifications). Also look at the theory of errors in
Analog meters Digital Multi Meters;
Measuring assignments:
Measurements on a dry cell
Build the shown circuit. The big slide resistor is used
as an adjustable resistor. Initially, put the slide in the
middle to prevent a current that is too big, because
the dry cell that is used is capable of supplying a
considerable current for a short period of time. That
should not happen in this experiment.
!! Mind: the maximum current is 100 mA !!
Required;
a 9 volt cell
two digital multimeters
slide resistor
Assignment
a)
Measure Uo the open voltage.
b)
Vary the load resistance and measure 5 well-spread points
of the U-I curve, so that it can be plotted well.
c)
Repeat assignment 1 a).
For each value of I and U determine the absolute "measuring error". Write down in the
laboratory notebook sufficient data for the universal measuring instruments to be able to
determine RA and RV.
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MEASURED VALUES (numbers correspond to assignments)
Assignment : a)
Uo =
±
V.
b)
Table 1: Uk (cell) as a function of I.
c)
Uo =
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WORKING OUT
Assignment 1:
On a separate sheet of graph paper, plot the Uk-I curve of the cell. From the slope of the
graph, calculate the Ri of the cell.
Ri =
Ω
Also determine the "error" in Ri by plotting in the graph two extra lines with maximum and
minimum slope.
Ri (minimum) =
Ω
Ri (maximum) =
Ω
Conclusion:
Ω
Ri =
FINAL CONCLUSION
Below, write down the conclusions that can be drawn at the end of this experiment.
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5. V MODEL
Project based and Methodological Design; all kinds of activities take place when a product
or system has to be designed. These activities can be characterized in three main ways:
1. Improvised activities
2. Routine activities
3. Project-based activities
To show the special position that project-based activities occupy, all three types of activities
will be described.
Improvised activities
An improvised work approach to new activities is one option for designing a product or
system. People usually improvise when something unforeseen that requires an immediate
response occurs. Their reaction will be an ad-hoc one: not according to a laid down plan.
Since there are no directions about what to do, it is hard to predict with any accuracy the
outcomes of working. The advantage of not having any directions is that new situations can
be met in a flexible manner. However, while the large amount of freedom may be welcomed
by the improviser, it carries the risk of chaos and could put the design process under a lot
of pressure. Designers in a design process in which there is a lot of improvisation going on
are likely to be working under a certain amount of stress.
Routine activities
Routine activities are activities that are repeated frequently and are relatively predictable.
The design of a new product or system will be carried out according to predetermined
pattern. Since there is are no new things, it is not necessary to constantly think about what
is to be done next. Note that this type of activities almost never applies for designing
something new. However within organizations most of the activities carried out belong to
this type. Some examples are; production line activities, sales procedures, purchasing
procedures and administrative activities.
Project-based activities
Project-based activities fall roughly midway between improvised and routine activities. They
are non-recurring and have limited duration, but are reasonable predictable. In order to
increase this predictability, the work should be done according to a plan. Before the
activities get underway, time needs to be spent on working out what the aims are and how
to achieve them. For this to be effective, large (design) projects are often divided up into a
number of phases. After each of these phases, the aims and procedures may be adjusted.
Projects often have an organization of their own, one created specially to deal with the
needs of the project. People who do not normally work together may do so as part of the
project group. Each will have their own specific tasks.
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2 Methodological Design
Designing a (new) system on project based activities desires a plan for the activities. When
this plan is set up according to a standard method it is called methodological. There are
several methods for a more methodological approach of a design. They are all based on:
think first, and then act
V-model
One of the models is the V-model. The V-model is a graphical representation of the
systems development lifecycle and it simplifies the understanding of the complexity
associated with developing systems. In systems engineering it is used to define a uniform
procedure for product or project development. It summarizes the main steps to be taken in
conjunction with the corresponding deliverables.
The left side of the V represents the defining of the requirements, and creation of system
specifications. The right side of the V represents integration of parts and their verification.
The V-model further demonstrates the relationships between each phase of the
development life cycle and its associated phase of testing. V stands also for "Verification
and Validation".
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Objectives
The V-Model provides guidance for the planning and realization of projects. The following
objectives are intended to be achieved by a project execution:
• Minimization of Project Risks: The V-Model improves project control by specifying
standardized approaches and describing the corresponding results and responsible roles. It
permits an early recognition of planning deviations and risks and improves process
management, thus reducing the project risk.
• Improvement and Guarantee of Quality: As a standardized process model, the V-Model
ensures that the results to be provided are complete and have the desired quality. Defined
interim results can be checked at an early stage. Uniform product contents will improve
readability, clear and verifiability.
• Reduction of Total Cost over the Entire Project and System Life Cycle: The effort for the
development, production, operation and maintenance of a system can be calculated,
estimated and controlled in a clear manner by applying a standardized process model.
• Improvement of Communication between all Stakeholders: The standardized and uniform
description of all relevant elements and terms is the basis for the mutual understanding
between all stakeholders.
The Phases of the V-model
The V-model consists of a number of phases. The Decomposition and Definition are on the
left hand side of the V, the Realization and Implementation Phase (Software /Hardware
Development) is at the bottom of the V and the Integration and Composition Phases are on
the right hand side of the V.
Business case
When a new project idea arises, first of all a business case study (preliminary research) has
to be performed.
To get a good idea about the possible business, research should be done in the field of
customers, market, pricing, culture aspects, concurrency, production time, and lifetime. A
definite go / no go decision on the project can be made subject to the findings of the
business case study.
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Requirements
The objectives of the requirements, must be collected by analysing the needs of the
client/user(s).
This phase is concerned about establishing what the ideal system has to perform. However
it does not determine how the software/hardware will be designed or built. The expertise
needed (i.e. software, hardware, mechanics, etc.) should be determined. The time and effort
needed for the project should be determined. The costs (hours, material, courses,
consultants, equipment, etc) and benefits of the project should be analysed.
The result of this is a ‘Project Plan’ (plan for the development, plan of approach). This
project plan consists of: background information, the project result, project activities,
project limits, the product, quality control, the project organization, schedule, costs and
benefits, risk analysis.
Also a document called the ‘User Requirements’ document is generated. This document will
typically describe the system as expected by the user: functional, physical, interface,
performance, security requirements, safety. The user requirements document is one which
the business analysts use to communicate their understanding of the system back to the
users.
System Specifications
The Systems Specification phase is the phase where system engineers, figure out
possibilities and techniques by which the requirements can be implemented.
A resolution is found and the user requirement document is edited accordingly and the
‘System Design’ document, which serves as a blueprint for the further development, is
generated. This document contains the general system organization and a detailed
specification of interfaces (i.e. inputs and outputs) of the system. It may also hold sample
user interfaces, i.e. windows. The document for system testing is prepared in this phase.
System Design
The System Design phase is also called Architecture Design or Functional Design.
This phase starts with analysing the requirements, generating concept ideas and selecting a
concept for what will be done mechanical, electrical or by software. This phase of the design
can be referred to as high-level design. After one of the concepts has been selected the
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individual parts are set up more detailed. Also the integration testing is described in this
phase.
A basic electrical architecture has to be made and the system is split up into sub-systems
(modules) with their interfaces. The result should be the architecture of the hardware with a
functional description of each module and the interfaces.
Component Design
The Component Design phase can also be referred to as low-level design. The designed
system is broken up into smaller units or components.
For each of them essential mechanical and electrical components are selected. Next, (global)
schematics and pseudo code are generated and each of them is explained. In this phase
simulations can be done to proof that the designs are according the requirements. Also for
each module test procedures has to be developed.
Build components
The result of the Component Design phase should be that in the Build Components Phase
the hardware designer can design detailed schematics, build and test the sub-systems. For
the programmer it should be possible to start coding directly.
Unit Testing
In the V-model of development, unit testing implies the first stage of dynamic testing
process. A fault discovered and corrected in the unit testing phase is more than a hundred
times cheaper than if it is done after delivery to the customer.
Hardware is tested in modules (e.g. separate PCB’s) and also at low level the software is
tested in conjunction with the hardware.
Integration Testing
In integration testing the separate modules will be tested together to expose faults in the
interfaces and in the interaction between integrated components.
Testing is usually black box as the hardware and code is not directly checked for errors.
System Testing
System testing will compare the system specifications against the actual system. The system
test design is derived from the system design documents and is used in this phase.
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Sometimes system testing is automated using testing tools. Once all the modules are
integrated several errors may arise. Testing done at this stage is called system testing.
User Acceptance Testing
Acceptance testing is the phase of testing used to determine whether a system satisfies the
requirements specified in the requirements analysis phase.
The acceptance test phase is the phase used by the customer to determine whether to
accept the system or not.
V model in coffee-maker-project, it is very important if the project is big and complex to
work in a good structure and sequence, step by step. With the V-model you are forced to
work like this.
Requirements you get from measurements of old machine
Specification = temperature range of new machine and functional design
Design = functional block schematic
Implementation = electrical circuit design due to simulation
Module testing = testing functional blocks separate
Integration test = total circuit test
Acceptance = report presentation and demonstration
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6. PROJECT PLAN
Before starting the project the group should make a project plan. Seerveral items should be
filled in and all questions should be answered. Al lthe background of the projectplan you
can find in the book of Project Management of Roel Grit. The master document of the
project plan you can find on the page www.janbollen.nl
Here you see the table of contents of the projectplan:
Chapter1 Background
Achtergrond
Chapter 2 Project results
Resultaten
Chapter 3 Project activities
Porject activiteiten
Chapter 4 Project boundaries
Project grenzen
Chapter 5 Interim results
Tussentijdse resultaten
Chapter 6 Quality
Kwaliteit
Chapter 7 Project organization
Project organisatie
Chapter 8 Planning and schelduling
Planning
Chapter 9 Costs and benefits
Kosten en baten
Chapter 10 Risk
Risico’s
Appendix A
Bijlage A
Appendix B
Bijlage B
Next paragraph shows the items of assessment of your project plan
Assessment model for checking
the project plan
Students Group:
Mandatory action by the group
 The project plan has been adequately assessed and does not need to be corrected
and resubmitted. Correct your project plan based on the remarks below, so that you
will have a good project plan in your portfolio!
 The project plan is still unsatisfactory and – together with the old PoA plus this
assessment – must be completely resubmitted.
 The project plan is still unsatisfactory. Only the pages below of which the
text 'Correct' is checked – together with the old project plan plus this assessment –
must be resubmitted.
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 Discussion with instructor. Make an appointment yourself.
 Process report still to be submitted.
 Correct
General remarks
 Your name, e-mail address and student number must be on the cover sheet
of the project plan.
 The project plan is not solid enough. It defines the project inadequately. Go
through the whole project plan.
 Do not use we, I, me, us and so forth in a business document like a project
plan. Correct everywhere.
 Too many language errors. Go through the whole text and correct all errors.
 See the remarks in the text!
 Correct
Chapter 1 Backgrounds
 The book Project Management chapter 5 plus the Checklist have been
insufficiently used. Do this now.
 Correct
Chapter 2 Project result (assignment)
 Goals/project result not formulated in a SMART manner (see Project Management,
4th edn).
 The project result (assignment) is not precisely enough defined: exactly what will
be produced at the end?
 The project assignment does not match the goal.
 Correct
Chapter 3 Project activities
 Insufficient project activities. There should be at least 40. Must come from
the project assignment.
 Many project activities forgotten.
 Project activities not in line with the project assignment.
 The book Project Management chapter 5 plus the Checklist have been
insufficiently used. Do this now.
 Correct
Chapter 4 Project boundaries
 Project boundaries are unclear. Think of more boundaries or define the
current ones more fully.
 The book Project Management chapter 5 plus the Checklist have been
insufficiently used. Do this now.
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 Correct
Chapter 5 Interim results (products)
 Think up more products (products are produced by activities). Note the
products point by point.
 Correct
Chapter 6 Quality
 Quality refers to the quality of the products in chapter 5. The chapter Quality
was not studied well enough.
 Checklist for this chapter insufficiently used. Do this now.
 Correct
Chapter 7 Project organisation
 The book Project Management chapter 5 plus the Checklist have been
insufficiently used. Do this now.
 Correct
Chapter 8 Planning
 Planning is not realistic.
 Gantt chart is missing.
 Change in connection with corrections you made in chapter 3.
 MS Project: your planning is printed out in a poorly organized manner. Do
again, preferably on one page.
 The book Project Management (4th edn) chapter 5 plus the Checklist have
been insufficiently used. Do this now.
 Correct
Chapter 9 Costs and benefits
 The costs/benefits are not realistic.
 Calculate costs/benefits in a table (even better: insert Excel object), aligning
the amounts to the right.
 The amounts are too exact for a project plan. An estimate cannot be so
accurate: round off the figures.
 Correct
Chapter 10 Risks
 Not thoroughly described. See also risk analysis in appendix 1.
 A risk analysis has been made but no conclusions have been draw
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7. COMPANY MEETING AND MINUTES
For the social skills it is important to know how a company works and how to organize
meetings also. Here you see in an overview the outline of group work. Students should be
aware of different roles and responsibilities.
How to organize and run
effective meetings
By Jan Bollen
1
Group organisation







Chairman
Secretary
Planner
Documentalist
Designer
Purchase / Sales
Marketing
2
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Decide for a meeting




Why am I scheduling
or
attending this meeting?
What is my goal?
What information will
be exchanged?
What decisions will be
made?
3
Aim of meeting







Give information
Brainstorm ideas
To get information
Participate in decision making
Solve problems
Divide the work
Planning update
4
How to organise a meeting






Find a suitable time
Find location
Invite participants by mail
Mail also the agenda
Mail also minutes last meeting
Prepare meeting by having clear aims
5
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Agenda



Welcome / opening meeting
Announcements
Minutes of last meeting
approve / specific matters





Subject 1,2,3
informing
decision
Planning / Finance /
Documentation / anything else
AOB (Any other business)
Next meeting
Close meeting / goodbye
6
Chairman / staying in control






Being in contol of
Agenda
Interruptions
Negative body language
Participating
Changing of subject
7
Chairman / introduction





Starting of meeting
Process control
Introduce each topic
Explain why it is being discussed.
Stick to the topic
8
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Chairman / invite contributions




Invite contributions
Everyone who should
speak on an issue
Not just those who can talk the
loudest or longest.
Encourage quieter members to
communicate by prompting them with
questions.
9
Chairman / summarize





Summarize each item
Finish discussion
of each item by
Summarize items
check that everyone agrees
By confusion try to clarify
10
Secretary / take minutes







Follow agenda
Make note of most
important remaks
Absence
Discussions
Decisions
Next meeting
Distributions
11
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Secretary / minutes content







Meeting title
Date and location
List of attendees
and absence
Announcements
Topics discussed
Decisions made and actions
Date next meeting
12
Planning




Use Gannt diagram
To divide the work
To control progress
To signalize
bottlenecks
13
Documentation



Responsible for
complete documentation
in form not in content !
Report and
presentation
Meet the
documentation
rules
14
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Problems with group work
Students do not know the aim of the project
Students do not know what to do
Lack of control by the chairman
Lack of planning
Lack of documentation
Students wait on the others
Students are lazy
Students do not ask questions
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Example of meeting agenda, framework on www.janbollen.nl
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Example of minutes, framework on www.janbollen.nl
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8. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Introduction
For temperature measurement a temperature sensitive resistor PT-100 is used and a
Wheatstone bridge. The Wheatstone bridge consists of 4 resistors. One of the resistors is
the TP-100, the other 3 resisters are assumed as equal and fixed (Rx).
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE measurements
with PT-100 resistor
1 Principle
2 Working
3 PT 100 as measurement resistor
4 Sensitivity
5 Simulation graph
6 Examples
1
Principle
A Wheatstone Bridge consists of two voltage
dividers. At balance there is no current that flows
through a Galvanometer G
( G = a sensitive ampere meter).
2
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Working
Resistor RX is connected as
the fourth side of the circuit
R2 is adjusted until the
galvanometer G reads zero.
At this point,
RX = R2×R3/R1.
3
PT 100
Platinum resistance
temperature
detector
Pt-100
typical resistance of
100 Ω at 0°C
Resistance increases
when temperature is
increasing
4
Sensitivity
R2 = PT-100 = 100 Ohm
R1 = R3 = R4 = Rx
Simulate with
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
= 1 Ohm
= 10 Ohm
= 100 Ohm
= 1k Ohm
= 10 K Ohm
Find the resistor Rx for maximum sensitivity in
Uout signal, conclusion?
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Simulation graph
Bridge Voltage = f (resistance PT-100)
6
Balance idea for coffeemaker
2 arms;
One for
Reference
One for
Measuring
A.D = B.C
7
Light switch, example ...
Explain how this circuit works.
If it is light is the value of LDR high or low
If it is dark is the value of LDR high or low
8
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9
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9. OPAMP AS COMPARATOR
Introduction and overview of the opamp working as a comparator.
OPerational AMPlifier
OPAMP as Comparator
1
How does an OpAmp work
open loop?
2
What is compare?
3
What is hysteresis?
1
OPAMP, symbol and package
2
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OPAMP, connections
+V = Vcc
= most positive power supply
-V = Vee
= most negative power supply
V+ = non-inverting input
V- = inverting input
Output = output
3
OPAMP, internal
+V = Vcc
-V = Vee
V+ =
non-inverting input
V- =
inverting input
Output = output
4
OPAMP,
power connections
5
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OPAMP, Vcc and Vee, examples
6
OPAMP,
remember
7
OPAMP, real
8
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OPAMP
+V = Vcc = + 5 Volt
-V = Vee = - 5 Volt
R = voltage divider adjusted at + 1 Volt
V+ = + 1 Volt
V- = sine wave of + 5 Volt top
sine wave of 10 Volt top-top
Question; what will be the output voltage?
9
OPAMP
Question; what will be the signals if we change
the connections of V+ and V10
OPAMP
Question;
How much is V+ now ?
11
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OPAMP
Question;
1 Is this an inverting comparator or and
inverting comparator, explain !
2 Can the output voltage be equal to 0
(zero) volt, explain !
3 Conclusion?
12
Difference?
What is the difference, explain.
13
OPAMP
Conclusion;
• Opamp as comparator compares 2 input
voltages.
• The output voltage is always
High or Low /
Vcc or Vee
Yes or No
/
True or False
• It can be inverting or non-inverting
14
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Nice
Applicaton
Va = +3 Volt
Vb = +1 Volt
Vc = -1 Volt
Vd = -3 Volt
Va
Vb
Vc
Vd
Explain the working
15
Summary
A comparator compares 2 values, in our case
1
a reference value
(desired temperature / set point)
2
a measured value
(actual temperature)
And gives a logical output signal, indicating
too hot (no heating, heating off)
or
too low (heating on)
16
Temperature control block diagram
17
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Summary
If temperature changes
slightly around set point
the heater will be
on-off-on-off-on-off-onoff
This is unwanted, then
we use a hysteresis.
18
On-Off-On-Off
19
Hysteresis
20
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Hysteresis
By using hysteresis we get 2 new threshold
voltages
V TH high
V TH low
in between is the
Hysteresis width
21
Thresholds high and low
V Hi = +5 Volt
V Low = 0 Volt
V Ref = +5 Volt
R1 = 100 k
R2 = 100 k
R3 = 100 k
Calculate V1 and V2
22
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10. POSTER PRESENTATION
Elements of the poster:
Company
Title of product
Photo of new product
Strong selling points
Price
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11. WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT
The report will be the most important product of the project. Here the group present all the
work, good introduction, clearly solution, and complete documentation. Technical ideas and
modifications will be presented in a group report.
Writing a Technical report
By Jan Bollen
1
Aim of report



Transfer information
 Project
 Internship
 Final Theses
Connect to knowledge of reader
Stimulate the reader for more …
2
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Questions to the aim





You have to know clear
What is the subject?
What is the assignment?
Who is your reader?
How long can the report be?
3
Use of report

Not everyone will read the whole report

A summary can be read in a few minutes

Key facts and conclusions should be very
accessible
4
Not for all

Impossible it will be equally easy for everybody

Understood by decision makers

Short report is
 better but difficult to make
 needs a perfect organization
 likely to be fully read
5
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Structure, logical !!!!






Logical, like a joke
Good introduction
Context and assignment
Assignment plan
Research
Results and conclusions
6
Chapter structure
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Cover page
Title page
Foreword
Summary
Table of content
Abbreviation list
List of figures
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Company description
Introduction
Plan of approach
Method of research
Research activities
Results / Conclusions
References
Appendices
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Cover & title page
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Logo’s company and Saxion
Title & nice picture (cover page only)
Authors' name and ID number
Department and Course name
Place and date of submission
 Title page = cover + extra information
 Addresses of University and company
 Copyright / Statement about confidential
 Signature student, company & Saxion 8
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Foreword
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Written in 1st person.
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Why this report?
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For who?
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Information about author.
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Thanking of people.
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Summary
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Accurate representation of
the contents in an
abbreviated form.
Summarizes the whole report
in 100-200 words.
Decision
 Go /no go
 Read / no read
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Summary content
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Assignment
Method used
Results
Conclusion
Recommendations
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Written after the report is complete
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Table of Contents
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Organization of report.
Chapters
 Sub-chapters
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Shows the logical structure
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Page numbers
12
Abbreviaton list
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Explanation of
used
abbreviations
13
List of figures tables symbols
14
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Company organisation

Type of company

Product range

Structure / organogram
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Amount employers
15
Introduction
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Represents
 the subject
 the purpose
 the assignment
Introduce readers to the problem
that you are setting out to solve in
your technical report.
16
Plan of approach
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Main questions
Sub questions
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Plan of approach
Planning (Gannt)
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Research
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Method of research
 Theory
 Application of theory
 Setup of research
 Test setup or simulation
Executing of research
 Data
 Results / Graphs
18
Conclusions; your opinion

Discuss what you
 Invented
 Discovered
 Confirmed
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Use
 Calculated values
 Visual observations, plots
 Illustrations, graphs, or tables.
19
References
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Opportunity to follow up your work.
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Literature
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Websites
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Materials
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Data / Specifications
20
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References (examples)
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What to Avoid
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Clichés and stock phrases
Useless words
Excuses
Poems, use direct language
Computer program listings
22
Examples
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`at the end of the day...',
`going forward, we will...'
`at this point in time...‘
`in the opinion of the author...‘
These phrases add nothing to the content.
They could be replaced by a single word.
So use clear and direct language
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Excuses !!
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Do not use statements about
 how difficult the work was
 how the report would have been better
had the author had more time.
People often say these sort of things in
reports, and they don't look professional.
24
Language Style
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Check always grammar and spelling.
Make short sentences.
Use direct language.
Style
 Formal, use 3rd person.
 (not I or you better it )
Switching between formal and informal is not
acceptable !
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Presentation
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Your report will be based to a large extent on
the first impression made by the
presentation.
Consistency
Graphs and figures
Margins and lay-out
General appeal
good structure
complete
straight
professional
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Graphs
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Figures
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Top-down
Left right
28
Tables
29
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Suggested report structure of coffee-maker-project
COVER PAGE
Logo University
report title
nice subject picture
authors name (& student number)
submission date
TITLE PAGE
Logo University
report title
authors name (& student number)
authors e-mail
authors education
companions name
University name and address
teachers name or company coach
signed for acceptance
submission date
SUMMARY (short)
assignment
methods of analysis
conclusions
recommendations
FOREWORD
personal introduction
why this report
for what education
what did you learn from it
thanking
TABLE OF CONTENTS list of numbered sections and paragraphs
and their page numbers
INTRODUCTION/ASSIGNMENT
what to change to the coffee maker
outline of report’s body structure
BODY
research
description of the original machine
components of the original machine
electrical process
thermal process
chemical process
measurements at 12V DC power supply
measurements at 15V DC power supply
what is coffee
marketing research
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functional design
functional design
temperature range
user interface
technical design
Mechanical
Electrical circuit
Components
working
CONCLUSION
conclusions on new machine
REFERENCE LIST
list of reference material consulted during research for report
Books / Internet addresses
APPENDIX
Remarks:
data that supports your analysis but is not essential to its explanation
Every figure should have a figure number with text
Every table should have a table title and a number with text
Every graph should have a graph title
X and Y axis should state the variable and the [dimension], i.e. Current [mA]
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12. ORAL PRESENTATIONS
One very important thing for engineers is that they can present their ideas on a good and
clear way, even in this project. This theory and presentation gives you a good impression
about what to do and how. Oral presentations you can only learn by doing, just like driving
a car. So do it a lot and make a lot of mistakes.
The Presentation
Most presentations are divided into 3 main parts (+ questions):
1
INTRODUCTION
2
BODY
3
CONCLUSION
Questions
As a general rule in communication, repetition is valuable. In presentations, there is a
golden rule about repetition:
Say what you are going to say,
say it,
then say what you have just said.
In other words, use the three parts of your presentation to reinforce your message. In the
introduction, you tell your audience what your message is going to be. In the body, you tell
your audience your real message. In the conclusion, you summarize what your message
was. Now the tree parts are described in more detail..
Introduction
The introduction is a very important - perhaps the most important - part of the
presentation. This is the first impression that your audience has of you. You should
concentrate on getting your introduction right. You should use the introduction to:
welcome your audience
introduce your subject
outline the structure of your presentation
give instructions about questions
Some examples of good sentences;
Welcoming your audience
Good morning, ladies and gentlemen
Good afternoon, everybody
Introducing your subject
I am going to talk today about...
The purpose of my presentation is to introduce our new range
of...
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Outlining your structure
To start with I'll describe the progress made this year. Then I'll
mention some of the problems we've encountered and how we
overcame them. After that I'll consider the possibilities for
further growth next year. Finally, I'll summarize my
presentation (before concluding with some recommendations).
About questions
Do feel free to interrupt me if you have any questions.
I'll try to answer all of your questions after the presentation.
I plan to keep some time for questions after the presentation.
Body
The body is the 'real' presentation. If the introduction was well prepared and delivered, you
will now be 'in control'. You will be relaxed and confident. The body should be well
structured, divided up logically, with plenty of carefully spaced visuals.
Remember these key points while delivering the body of your presentation:
do not hurry
be enthusiastic
give time on visuals
maintain eye contact
modulate your voice
look friendly
keep to your structure
use your notes
remain polite when dealing with difficult questions
Conclusion
Use the conclusion to:
Sum up (Give recommendations if appropriate)
Thank your audience
Invite questions
Some examples of good sentences;
Summing up
To conclude,...
In conclusion,...
Now, to sum up...
So let me summarize/recap what I've said.
Finally, may I remind you of some of the main points we've
considered.
Giving recommendations
In conclusion, my recommendations are...
I therefore suggest/propose/recommend the following
strategy.
Thanking your audience
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Many thanks for your attention.
May I thank you all for being such an attentive audience.
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Inviting questions
Now I'll try to answer any questions you may have.
Can I answer any questions?
Are there any questions?
Do you have any questions?
Are there any final questions?
Questions
Questions are a good opportunity for you to interact with your
audience. It may be helpful for you to try to predict what
questions will be asked so that you can prepare your response
in advance. You may wish to accept questions at any time
during your presentation, or to keep a time for questions after
your presentation. Normally, it's your decision, and you should
make it clear during the introduction. Be polite with all
questioners, even if they ask difficult questions. They are
showing interest in what you have to say and they deserve
attention. Sometimes you can reformulate a question. Or
answer the question with another question. Or even ask for
comment from the rest of the audience.
Oral presentation
techniques
By
Jan Bollen
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Situation
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Consider the audience carefully !!
How big?
Who?
Level of knowledge?
Level of interest?
Resistance?
Time?
Title
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Define your title in one short sentence
Be short
Direct
Structure
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Basic structure
State questions during or after
presentation
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Agenda
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State topics
If needed ask to
turn off mobile phones
Storyline
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Logically structure in body
Production of slides
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One key message per slide!
5 rules when preparing visual aids:
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Keep it simple
Minimize words
List key points
Make letters large
Use color
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Visual aids
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Use visual aids to maximize the
effectiveness of your presentation.
visualise ideas
keep speaker on track
generate interest
help information retention
Practice
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Adequate rehearsal is essential for a
good presentation
Development of each visual
Self-confidence
Timing
 Practice Makes Perfect !!
Evaluation
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After every presentation
EVALUATE
Did the audience “get” the key points?
Were the visual aids clear and useful?
Were the questions relevant?
When possible use written evaluations
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Gesture
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Important in non-verbal communication
Emphasize points / Highlights
Audience attention
Eye Contact
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Look at each member of your audience
Involvement
Trust / support
Interest
Spontaneous reaction
Breathing
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Breathing is different
from normal breathing.
Breathing deeper for
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Volume control
Emphasis (accents)
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Voice
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Critical part of a verbal presentation
Volume - speak to be heard
Modulation – vary the voice
Pause – make emphasis with pause
Repetition
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Golden rule:
repetition
is valuable
Say what you are going to say,
Say it,
Say what you have just said.
Introduction
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Very important
First impression
Getting contact
welcome your audience
introduce your subject
outline the structure of your
presentation
give instructions about questions
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Body


The body is the 'real' presentation. If
the introduction was well prepared and
delivered, you will now be 'in control'.
You will be relaxed and confident.
The body should be well structured,
divided up logically, with plenty of
carefully spaced visuals.
Key points







do not hurry
be enthusiastic
Use questions / use pauses
give time on visuals / eye contact
modulate your voice / look friendly
keep to your structure / use your notes
remain polite when dealing with difficult
questions
Conclusion




Use the conclusion to:
Sum up
Give recommendations if appropriate
Thank your audience
Invite questions
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Questions
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Be polite
Repeat questions for the audience.
Reformulate a question
Difficult questions answer later
Stupid questions; out of range of
presentation
Ending
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Strong closing
You hope it was interesting
Thanking the audience for attending
Hope to see you next time
Yes YOU can
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Any professional can become an
effective presenter.
Knowledge is not enough.
Being able to communicate is equally
important.
Investing time and effort in improving
presentation skills is “always rewarded”.
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Know problems
Students are nervous
Presentation does not have a good structure
Presentation has too much text, and drawings are not good
Students read from overhead, do not look in audience
Students speak monotone
No good introduction = no connection with public
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13. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Temperature control is about 4 basic things; sensing reference value, comparison and
executing. First you need a block diagram, to define the functions, then you have to define
the exact circuit.
Block diagram is a
diagram of a system, in
which the principal parts
or functions are
represented by blocks
connected by lines that
show the relationships of
the blocks. They are
heavily used in the
engineering world in
hardware design,
electronic design,
software design, and
process flow diagrams.
The block diagram is
typically used for a higher level, less detailed description aimed more at
understanding the overall concepts and less at understanding the details of
implementation. Contrast this with the schematic diagram and layout diagram used
in the electrical engineering world, where the schematic diagram shows the details
of each electrical component and the layout diagram shows the details of physical
construction.
In a circuit diagram, the layout of the
symbols may not resemble the layout in
the physical circuit. In the schematic
diagram, the symbolic elements are
arranged to be more easily interpreted by
the viewer.
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A printed circuit board, or PCB,
is used to mechanically support
and electrically connect
electronic components using
conductive pathways, tracks or
signal traces etched from
copper sheets laminated onto a
non-conductive substrate. It is
also referred to as printed
wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic
components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit
board assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the
simplest commercially produced electronic devices.
Some technical examples of temperature control are giving below. Here are 2 examples
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Example 1 The temperature controller
Figure 6: Temperature Control Circuitry
Figure 6 is a schematic of the Aurora Alarm's temperature control system. If the unit is
operated in conditions which put components at risk of temperatures much below freezing,
the temperature adjustment can be set to supply enough extra heat in the enclosure to
maintain it at the desired temperature.
The op-amp is operated here as a comparator with positive feedback to provide some
hysteresis. The thermistor in the voltage divider connected to the non-inverting input has a
large negative temperature coefficient. As the temperature falls, the thermistor resistance
will eventually increase to the point where the non-inverting input to the comparator has a
higher voltage than the inverting input supplied by the reference divider. When this
happens, the comparator will switch states, driving the transistor into saturation and
dissipating about 1.3 W of heat in the heating resistors until the temperature again
increases to the set point.
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Example 2
This is a schematic for a very simple temperature controller suitable for controlling a beer
fridge or fermenter.
How it Works
The LM339 is a comparator (actually, it contains 4 of them, but this circuit only uses one of
them). When the voltage at the + input (pin 5) exceeds that on the - input (pin 4), its output
(pint 2) turns on. The thermistor is connected as a voltage divider. It's resistance decreases
as it's temperature increases. This puts more voltage on the LM339's + pin. There's a pot
connected as a voltage divider to the - pin of the LM339. You adjust this to set when the
fridge compressor or whatever turns on. When the output of the LM339 turns on, it turns on
the transistor. which powers up the relay and lights the LED. Also, there's a feedback
resistor between pins 2 and 5- this provides a "snap action" on the output. A big filter
capacitor is across the 13.8 VDC power supply to the circuit. It's not needed if you used a
well filtered power supply.
Details
The relay coil must be rated for 12 VDC and shouldn't draw more than 50 mA or so with the
transistor shown. The relay contacts must be rated for whatever voltage and current the
load to be controlled draws. I've wired mine to replace the thermostat in my fridge (actually
it's an up-right freezer). Physically, I didn't run the wires to the thermostat inside the fridge,
instead, I spliced into the appropriate wires on the back of the fridge. I did this cause I
wanted the fan inside running constantly. Downside is that the relay contacts need to be
beefy to handle the compressor current which can be quite high at startup. Check the
schematic for your fridge to identify the correct wires if you go this route (schematics are
usually pasted to the back of fridges). A simple alternative is simply to wire the contacts of
the relay in series with the hot 120 VAC wire to a receptacle you can then plug the fridge
into. Instead of a conventional relay, a solid state relay can be used.
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The controller has very little differential (difference in on and off temperatures). A
differential is needed to prevent the compressor from cycling on and off too frequently
which will shorten it's life. To add differential, I buried the thermistor in a walnut-sized
piece of duct-seal and placed it away from the outlet of the fan inside the fridge. This
results in about a 5 degF dT and decent cycles periods.
The controller will need to be calibrated. The easiest way is to put the thermistor into a cup
of water at the temperature you want the fridge to turn on at and twiddle with the pot until
the LED turns on. Mark the location of the knob attached to the pot. in case it gets bumped
or, if you use a board mounted trimmer pot instead of a panel mounted one, seal its setting
with a bit of hot melt cement. Another way to calibrate it is to look up the resistance of the
thermistor at the desired set point temperature, temporarily wire a resistor of this value
place of the thermistor and adjust the pot until the LED turns on. The thermistor page has
data on the resistance vs. temperature of the Radio Shack thermistors I use as well as info
on how to build a temperature probe.
Going Further
The 50kOhm pot is a bit coase if you wish to have various set points. For finer control, wire
a smaller pot in series with the big one or, better yet, use a smaller value pot in series with
a resistor of suitable value. Another way to have several set points is to use a rotary switch
to select one of several pots or fixed resistors arranged as a voltage divider. Here's a
diagrams showing these sort of dividers.
It's left as an exercise for the reader to calculate the resistances needed..
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