Our world is full of Integrated Circuits
The History of Computing:
The Integrated Circuit
We can find them everywhere
Ira Heifets
Alexander Eidenzon
Integrated electric circuit
Transistors
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Just a very advanced electric circuit.
Made from different electrical components: transistors, resistors,
capacitors and diodes, connected to each other in different ways.
Resistors
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Limits the flow of electricity and
allows to control the current
Used, among other things, to
control the volume in television
sets or radios
Operates like a switch
Turns electricity on or off
Amplifies current
Used in computers to store
information, or to amplify signals
Capacitors
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Collects electricity and releases it
all in one quick burst
Ex: in cameras where a tiny battery
can provide enough energy to fire
the flashbulb
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Diodes
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Vacuum Tubes
Stops electricity under some
conditions and allows it to pass
under another
Ex.: broken light bean in
photocells triggers the diode to
stop electricity from flowing
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Transistor vs. Vacuum Tube
Vacuum Tubes in Complex Circuits
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Engineers quickly became aware of vacuum tube limitations in complex
circuits.
First digital computer ENIAC weighed over thirty tons, consumed 200
kilowatts of electrical power.
It had around 18,000 constantly burning out vacuum tubes – very
unreliable.
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Controls movement of electrons in evacuated space to amplify, switch or
modify signal
Critical devices in electronics technology: radio broadcasting, television,
telephone, analog and digital computers
Still used as display device in television sets and computer monitors
VT
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Like a light bulb
Generates a lot of heat and
burns out
Slow, big and bulky
Transistor
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1946-55
1947
Tyranny of Numbers
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Invented in 1947, considered a
revolution.
Small, fast, reliable, effective
Quickly replaced vacuum tube
Advanced circuits contained many components and connections
Virtually impossible to build
This problem was known as the tyranny of numbers
Had to construct circuits by hand, soldering components in place,
connecting with metal wires
On the way to IC
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Problems: Size & Speed
Large computer components
and long connecting wires
Signals traveled too slow
through the circuit, making the
computer ineffective
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The birth of the IC
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Jack Kilby (1923-2005)
• Summer
1958, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments
solved miniaturization problem.
Precursor idea to IC: creating small ceramic
squares (wafers), each containing single
miniaturized component.
Components could then be integrated into a
two- or three- dimensional compact grid.
• Made all components and the chip out of the
same block of semiconductor material.
• Circuits could be made smaller, manufacturing
process could be automated.
The first integrated circuits
were manufactured
independently by two
scientists
Jack Kilby
Kilby received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 2000 for the invention
of the IC.
Robert Noyce
1958
1959-61
Robert Noyce (1927-1990)
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Robert Noyce, general manager of
Fairchild Semiconductor, had his
own idea for IC.
Solved Kilby’s circuit problems,
interconnecting all components on
the chip.
Added metal as final layer, then
removed some of it to form wires for
components connecting.
Mayor of Silicon Valley
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Robert Noyce also was one of the cofounders of Intel in 1968.
Intel is one of the largest manufacturers of
integrated circuits in the world.
Robert Noyce’ nickname was “Mayor of
Silicon Valley”
1961
IC: some details
• Depletion region in reverse
voltage as electrical isolation
Layout and Fabrication
Integrated Circuit Layout
Colored rectangles for different layers
R.Noyce:
The integrated circuit accomplishes the separation and
interconnection of transistors and other circuit elements
electrically rather than physically. The separation is
accomplished by introducing PN diodes which allow current to
flow in only one direction.
• Photolithography used in microfabrication to selectively
remove parts of bulk of substrate
• Uses light to transfer geometric pattern from photomask to
light-sensitive photoresist on the substrate
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Small-Scale Integration
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Apollo Guidance Computer
First IC contained only a few
transistors.
Called "Small-Scale Integration"
(SSI), used circuits containing
transistors numbering in tens.
SSI circuits were crucial to early
aerospace projects.
Apollo program needed lightweight
digital computers for its inertiallyguided flight computers
Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) was first
modern embedded system
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• Used in real-time by astronaut pilots to
collect and provide flight information and
control navigational functions of spacecraft
• Developed by the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory
1960-63
1969
AGC Description
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AGC in Apollo
Each flight to the moon had two
AGCs, one each in the command
module (the spacecraft itself) and the
lunar module (the lander portion).
Block I version used 4,100 ICs and Block II used 5,600
IC’s.
The computer's RAM was magnetic core memory (4K)
and ROM was implemented as core rope memory (32K).
Both had cycle times of 12 microseconds.
Core frequency of 0.78125Hz to 51.2 kHz (17 stages)
AGC in
Command Module was at the centre of
spacecraft's guidance & navigation system
(G&C).
AGC in Lunar Module ran its Primary
Guidance, Navigation and Control System, called PGNCS
(pronounced "pings").
1969
1969
The Mainframe Era
Punch Cards
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Large mechanical assembly that
held the central processor and
input/output complex.
In the 1960s, most mainframes
had no interactive interface.
Accepted decks of punch cards,
operated in batch mode to
support back office functions.
Teletype devices were also
common, especially for system
operators.
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Paper containing digital info represented by presence / absence of holes in
predefined positions.
First used around 1725 in textile industry.
Early computers used punched cards for input of programs and data.
In 1896 Tabulating Machine Company was founded to develop punch cards
data processing (later merged into IBM).
1960s
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Batch Mode Processing
Time Sharing & Teletype Devices
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Computer gives full attention to your program.
Had to prepare program off-line on a key punch machine.
IBM Key Punch machine:
- operates as a typewriter
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- produces punched cards
rather than printed sheet
of paper
IBM and the Seven Dwarfs
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Time sharing:
- Way to interact with mainframe in
round-robin fashion.
- Perhaps 100 users were logged on,
each typing on a teletype.
- Firstly implemented in 1957, on IBM
704, later on IBM 7090.
Teletype:
- motorized typewriter
- transmitted keystrokes to mainframe
- printed computer's response on roll
of paper.
International Business Machines Corporation
IBM
Burroughs
UNIVAC
NCR
Control Data
Honeywell
General Electric
RCA
• Multinational computer technology
corporation, headquartered in Armonk,
New York, USA.
• Largest of 8 major computer
companies at the 1960s.
• In the 1950s, became chief contractor
for developing computers for US Air
Force's.
IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000
series and 360 series mainframes.
• Gained access to crucial research at
MIT, working on first real-time digital
computer.
IBM 700/7000 series
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Series of LS computer systems made in the
1950s and early 1960s.
Included several incompatible processor
architectures.
The 700's used vacuum tube logic and were
replaced by the transistorized 7000s.
The 7000s were replaced by System/360,
announced in 1964.
IBM 7090's at NASA's Project
Mercury, 1962.
-1964
IBM 704
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First mass-produced computer with
floating point arithmetic hardware,
introduced in 1954.
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IBM 704 Manual of operation:
The type 704 Electronic DataProcessing Machine is a large-scale,
high-speed electronic calculator
controlled by an internally stored
program of the single address type.
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FORTRAN and LISP were first
developed for the 704.
1954
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IBM Mainframe family tree
IBM System/360
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1952-64
Mainframe computer system family announced in
1964.
First computers family separating architecture
from implementation
Allowed release of compatible designs at
different price points.
One of the most successful computers ever,
influencing computer design for many years.
1964
General Electric
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Had extensive line of general
purpose and special purpose
computers.
Among them were:
- General purpose computers:
GE 200, GE 400, GE 600 series
- Real time process control
computers:
GE 4010, GE 4020, GE 4060
GE-200
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Family of medium large computers
Optional features were:
- Floating Point
- Decimal arithmetic
- Real-Time clock
- Move command
Technology was solid-state (diodes
and transistors).
8K words system contained 1,000
circuit boards, 10,000 transistors,
20,000 diodes and 186,000 magnetic
cores.
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- Message switching computer:
Datanet 30
1960s
Burroughs
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The Burroughs Corporation developed highly
innovative architectures, based on the design
philosophy of "language directed design".
Large systems machines starting with the B5000 in
1961 were stack machines designed to be
programmed in an extended Algol 60.
Included virtual memory and support for
multiprogramming and multiprocessing.
The B2000 or "medium systems" computers aimed
primarily at the business world, architected to execute
COBOL efficiently.
Control Data Corporation
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For most of the 1960s, built the
fastest computers in the world
In 1964, CDC 6600, outperformed
everything by roughly ten times.
Considered to be the first
successful supercomputer
CPU with multiple asynchronous
functional units, used 10 logical,
external I/O processors to offload
common tasks.
CPU only processed data, other
controllers punched cards, ran disks
etc.
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UNIVAC
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In 1960 started 1100 series of
compatible 36-bit transistorized
computer systems
Supported multiprogramming:
sharing CPU time among several
batch runs.
Digital Equipment Corporation
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PDP-8 was introduced in 1964.
Small enough to fit on a cart.
Simple to be used for many roles,
sold in huge numbers to new
market niches, labs, railways etc.
First computer to be purchased by a
handful of end users.
Regarded as the first minicomputer.
Bibliography
• http://en.wikipedia.org
• http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circ
uit/history/
• www.pbs.org/transistor/background1/events/icinv.html
• ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/5/17614/00811607.pdf
• inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa080498.htm
• www.bartleby.com/65/in/integrated.html
• http://www.ibm.com/us/
• http://www.ge.com/en/company/companyinfo/at_a_glance/hist_l
eader.htm
• www.hbci.com/~wenonah/history/edpart6.htm
• http://www.answers.com/topic/integrated-circuit
• http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm
• http://web.mac.com/joynerian/iWeb/Ian%20Joyner/Burroughs.ht
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