Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology
Chapter 4 – Research Methods in Clinical
Psychology
Chapter Overview
Research methods are discussed, in one form or another, in nearly every course
in psychology. The importance of solid empirical research cannot be
underscored, and it is how our field continues to grow. This growth is essential,
not just for new treatments and entries on one’s resume, but also for continued
justification for treatment plans, modifications of existing scales, and new insights
into various disorders. This chapter covers ethics and the protection of research
participants. The selection of research designs are covered in detail allowing
students to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each as well as the
appropriate usage of employing the various research methods. Analyzing the
data as well as understanding statistical and clinical significance round out the
chapter to give students the primer they need to logically review and analyze
journal articles as assignments. More importantly, students will be able to
communicate with their instructor knowing the research terminology, and the
instructor will be able to challenge students with relevant first-tier journal articles.
Chapter Contents

Introduction

Generating Research Hypotheses

Ethics in Research

Research Designs


Case Studies

Single-Case Designs

Correlational Designs

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Experimental Designs

Meta-Analysis
Selecting Research Participants and Measures
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Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology


Selecting the Sample

Selecting the Sampling Strategy
Setting the Sample Size

Measurement Options and the Importance of Psychometric
Properties

Analyzing the Data

Statistical and Clinical Significance

Summary and Conclusions
Learning Objectives
1. What is evidence-based practice?
2. What are the most common errors in thinking?
3. How are research hypotheses created?
4. What are the sources of research ideas?
5. Discuss the importance of ethics in research?
6. Discuss the APA ethical principles for research and publication.
7. Define and discuss each of the research designs?
8. What are the common threats to the internal validity of a study?
9. What are the common threats to the external validity of a study?
10. What are the various research designs?
11. When are quasi-experimental studies performed?
12. What is effect size, and why is it important?
13. How do we select research participants?
14. How do we assign participants to various treatments?
15. How do we select the correct sample size?
16. What are the various measurement options?
17. How is data analyzed?
18. Explain statistical and clinical significance.
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Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology
Up for Discussion
1. What are the limitations of all research studies?
2. Why do people choose to participate in research studies?
3. Review Table 4.1, Common Errors in Thinking, and try to come up with
some examples from your own life.
4. How do extraneous variables affect a study, and how can we control for
them?
5. Discuss what the ethical pitfalls in research are, and how they can be
avoided?
6. Why do some researchers commit fraud?
7. Do you believe in the “publish or perish” mantra?
8. Why is informed consent important for all participants not only to sign but
to understand as well?
9. How does a case study limit the generalization of information?
10. Role play with one of your students and have one of your students
pretend to be a research participant while you present an informed
consent and go over a mock study with them. Have the class takes notes
and allow the students to share their impressions of the informed consent
process. You may want to perform both a good versus a not-so-good
informed consent discussion.
11. Discuss what an IRB or Independent Review Board does. Divide students
into various teams depending on the size of the class. Present one team
(4-5 students) with an actual or mock research study. This team would
present a research study to the second team (4-5 students). The second
team would be an Ethics Review Board who would evaluate whether the
study would be approved or not. The second team should be prepared to
ask questions about the nature of the study, the number of participants,
and why the study needs to be conducted.
12. Would you participate in a randomized controlled trial on an experimental
medication? Why or why not?
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Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology
13. Why do we need to be careful with accepting the results of a metaanalysis?
14. What is the purpose of randomly and representatively selecting research
participants for a study?
15. Why can’t we just retool, edit, and amend assessments and scales to fit
our needs?
16. How can repeatedly analyzing the same data in different ways give
inflated results?
Out-of-Class Activities
1. Have students design a research study on a mental disorder of their
choice. They should write up an introduction, hypotheses, and a
methodology along with references. Students should have an
inclusion/exclusion criterion as well. If students are advanced, they may
wish to include a mock results section and a discussion section. Students
can turn this in for credit or present in class for discussion.
2. Ask students to think about what extraneous variables there are in a
depression, bipolar, or schizophrenia study. Have them consider how they
can control for these variables and which ones they would not be able to
control.
3. Have students review Table 4.4 on the APA Ethical Principles for
Research and Publication and choose one or two of the principles to write
up real-world examples of how the ethics could be violated.
4. Have students design an informed consent form for a clinical research trial
on any disorder. Students should research the elements of informed
consent and include these elements in their own form.
5. Have students research the Nuremberg trials, the Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiment, and the use of Thalidomide. Students should reflect on how
these events changed research and why we have numerous safeguards in
place.
6. Ask students to write a 2-3 page paper on someone they would feel would
make for an excellent case study. The person could be living or dead, but
ultimately someone of interest to the student. Have students consider the
limitations and advantages of such a case study.
7. Have students go to the library, select a major psychological or psychiatric
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Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology
journal article, and write up a review of the article demonstrating
understanding of the material. Students can then discuss in class as well
as hand in their review for credit.
8. Have students review a Meta analysis article, noting the flaws, limitations,
and disadvantages. Students should also note the purpose of the Meta
analysis and whether or not it elaborates on the particular problem or
disorder.
9. Ask students to create a set of ten questions for a new assessment on any
type of psychological disorder of interest to them. Students should decide
whether their questions will be used for diagnostic and assessment
purposes, be clinician administered or self-administered, be open-ended,
closed-ended, structured, semi-structured, etc.
Web Links
APA has a number of sources of information and links to resources for students
interested in conducting research:
http://www.apa.org/index.aspx
Although the focus is on social psychology, this wonderful website contains
numerous links to resources on research methodology, research ethics, and
statistics.
http://www.socialpsychology.org/methods.htm
This site has extensive resources for understanding statistical procedures
commonly used in psychology, along with online calculators that provide you with
the option of conducting statistical analyses.
http://vassarstats.net/
If you are interested in learning more about meta-analysis, free meta-analysis
software is available at several sites, including:
http://ericae.net/meta/metastat.htm
http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/meta_e.htm
Video Suggestions
Extreme Measures (DVD, color, 118 min.) A thriller about the ethics of how far
we are willing to go to find a cure, and how much we are willing to sacrifice, in
order to cure the world's ills. This movie provides arguments for both sides of the
issue and should stimulate a great discussion. 1996 Columbia Pictures
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Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology
Methodology: The Psychologist and the Experiment (Video, color, 31 min.).
Explores the basic rules or methods common to all research by documenting two
different experiments. Discusses independent and dependent variables, control
groups, random assignment to conditions and other basic statistical concepts.
Shows how each important research concept applies to the experiments on
affiliation and on perceptual development. 1975, McGraw-Hill Films, New York,
New York 10020.
Research Methods for the Social Sciences, (Video, color, 33 min.). Describes the
research methods used in the social sciences and the steps used to apply the
scientific method. Ethical research methods are also discussed. 1995, Insight
Media, New York, New York
Measuring Up: An Introduction to Research Methods, (Video, color, 22min.).
Shows how to gather, organize, summarize and analyze data using classroom
situations and graphical representations such as line graphs, bar graphs and
histograms. Focuses on standardized testing and discusses surveys, samples,
populations, qualitative and quantitative data, and variables. 2000, Insight Media,
New York, New York.
Suggested Readings
Barnett, J. E., & Johnson, W. B. (2008). Ethics desk reference for psychologists.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Archives of General Psychiatry
American Journal of Psych iatry
Hayes, S. C., Barlow, D. H., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (1999). The scientist
practitioner: Research and accountability in the age of managed care (2nd ed.).
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Research design in clinical psychology (4th ed.). Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kazdin, A. E. (Ed.). (2003). Methodological issues and strategies in clinical
research (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of research methods in clinical
psychology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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Chapter 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology
Thomas, J. C., & Hersen, M. (Eds.). (2003). Understanding research in clinical
and counseling psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kline, R.B. (2009). Becoming A Behavioral Science Researcher. The Guilford
Press.
Goldman, B.A. & Mitchell, D.F. (2008). Directory of Unpublished Experimental
Mental Measures Volume 9. American Psychological Association.
Lowman, R.L., (2006). The Ethical Practice of Psychology in Organizations.
American Psychological Association.
Kazdin, A.E. (2003). Methodological Issues and Strategies in Clinical Research.
American Psychological Association.
Di Giovanna, I. & Hayes, G. (2001). Principles of Clinical Research. Wrightson
Biomedical Publishing Ltd.
Giles, D.C. (2002). Advanced Research Methods in Psychology. BrunnerRoutledge – Taylor and Francis Group.
Antony, M.M., Orsillo, S.M., and Roemer, L. (2001). Practitioner’s Guide to
Empirically Based Measures of Anxiety. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
McLean, P.D. & Woody, S.R., (2001). Anxiety Disorders in Adults: An EvidenceBased Approach to Psychological Treatment. Oxford University Press.
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