LING 122: ENGLISH AS A WORLD
LANGUAGE – 15
Language Contact:
Bilingualism and Code
Switching
Readings:
Johnson
Zentella
Language Contact
 A situation that arises when
 two or more languages are spoken in the same or
adjoining regions
 And
 when there is a high degree of communication
between the people speaking them
 Can result in
 Language loss or even language death
 Bi- / multilingualism
 Language change
Bilingualism
(Multilingualism)
 Individual Bilingualism – the use of two (or more)
languages by an individual
 E.g., an individual who speaks both English and Spanish
as described by many of the informants in the Hinton
article
 Societal Bilingualism – the use of two (or more)
languages within a given community
 E.g., the bilingual setting in India, Canada, Switzerland,
Malaysia, etc.
Societal Bilingualism
 Identify a community here in California that
you are familiar with.
 From your impressions, what languages are
used? In what domains?
Describing Individual
Bilingualism & Multilingualism
 The term ‘bilingualism’ may mean different
things to different people.
 To the average person, bilingualism can be loosely
defined as:
 the use of two languages or
 the native-like control of two languages.
What it means to be bilingual …
 75% of the world’s population speak two or more
languages.
 Not all bilinguals speak two languages at the same
level.
 By the age of 2.5, a bilingual child begins to make
choices in language use, usually the majority language.
 Parents who want their children to retain their heritage
language must work at it.
 In the U.S. immigrants are strongly urged to assimilate
and discourages from retaining their heritage
language.
 That is a national loss.
Describing Individual
Bilingualism
 Bilingualism has often been defined in terms of
language competence. But a definition of
bilingualism must also account for the impact of
social, psychological and cultural variables on
the bilingual individual.
 How did you (or someone you know) become
bilingual?
 What is your (their) proficiency in each language?
 When do you (they) use each language?
Describing Bilingualism &
Multilingualism
 Is someone bilingual who:
 has a slight non-native accent in one or both
languages?
 makes occasional errors of syntax in one or both
languages?
 doesn’t always know the right word to use in one or
both languages?
 speaks both languages fluently but is culturally
comfortable in only one language?
Describing Bilingualism &
Multilingualism
 Five important variables in relation to
bilingualism:
1] degree of bilingualism
2] context of bilingual language acquisition
3] age of acquisition
4] domain of use of each language
5] social orientation
Degree of Bilingualism Definitions
 Bloomfield (1933): native-like control of two languages





(maximalist)
Mackey (1962): the ability to use more than one language
(minimalist)
Weinriech (1953): the practice of alternately using two
languages (minimalist)
Haugen (1953): the point where a speaker can first produce
complete meaningful utterances in the other language
(minimalist)
Maximalist approach: describes the ideal bilingual (not
reality)
Macnamara (1969): need to discuss the degree of
bilingualism / competence in sub-components (LSRW)
Degree of Bilingualism  Rate your own bilingual abilities (1 = weak; 5 =
excellent) in your two languages
Lg A
 Listening
 Speaking
 Reading
 Writing
Lg B
Degree of Bilingualism – Balanced
Bilinguals
 Individuals fully competent in both languages
(Lambert et al. 1959)
 Almost impossible to achieve (Baetens
Beardsmore 1982)
 Sociolinguistic forces demand that bilinguals
organize their languages in functionally
complementary spheres. No society needs two
languages to perform the same set of functions.
Balanced bilingualism entails the death of
bilingualism. (Fishman 1972)
Degree of Bilingualism – Dominant
Bilinguals
 Individuals who are dominant in one
language.
 Less dominant language = ‘subordinate.’
 Dominance does not apply to all domains.
 One may be dominant in the subordinate
language in some domains.
Degree of Bilingualism –
Passive / Recessive Bilinguals
 Individuals who are gradually losing
competence in one language, usually because
of disuse.
 common among immigrant groups
 often loose productive skills while retaining
receptive skills
Degree of Bilingualism –
Semilinguals / Limited Bilinguals
 Individuals who appear to have limited proficiency
in both languages. Deficit in six language
competencies:
 size of vocabulary
 correctness of language
 unconscious processing of language (automation)
 language creation
 mastery of the functions of language (e.g., emotive,
cognitive)
 meanings and imagery
Context of Bilingual Language
Acquisition
 Individual who are labeled as ‘limited bilinguals’
are usually from lower SES groups. Their
language proficiency is the result of their SES and
not some cognitive deficit.
 Can you think of individuals you know who might
fit into some of the categories listed above?
Context of Bilingual Language
Acquisition
 Primary context / natural bilingualism:
situations in which a child acquires both
languages in a naturalistic setting without
any structured instruction
 Secondary context / school bilingualism:
situations in which a child acquires one of the
languages in a structured setting, usually
school.
Context of Bilingual Language
Acquisition
 Naturalistic fused setting: no separation of
context for both languages; child is exposed
to both languages in the same context.
 Naturalistic separate setting: one parent, one
language model; but also applies to other
interlocutors, i.e., siblings, peers,
grandparents, etc.
Context of Bilingual Language
Acquisition
 Elective bilinguals: individuals who have
some element of choice about learning a
second language.
 Circumstantial bilinguals: individuals who
have no choice about learning a second
language; indigenous colonized or minority
groups.
 Distinction is important especially with
respect to how bilinguals are measured.
Age of Acquisition
 Sensitive age for language learning (from Lenneberg’s 1967
‘critical period’): We have a superior language learning
capacity early in life which will disappear or decline with
maturation.
 evidence for exceptions
 no clear cut-off age
 Important references on age & acquisition:
 Birdsong, D. 1992. Ultimate attainment in second language
acquisition. Language 684: 706-755
 Birdsong, D. 2005. Interpreting age effects in second language
acquisition, In J. Kroll & A De Groot, eds., Handbook of
bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Age of Acquisition
 Possible factors:
 neurological
 aptitudes
 attitude
 identity and motivation
 nature of exposure
 What is a ‘native speaker’?
Age of Acquisition
 Rate your competence in your first language in the
four macro skills (LSRW). Are you equally competent
in all skills? What would be considered ‘native-like’
proficiency for a learner of that language? What
levels of competence do you expect native speakers
to have?
 Who would you rule out as a native speaker? What
standards of norms do you use in your assessment?
(Consider someone brought up in India or the
Philippines who speaks English as a first language.
Would you consider that person a native speaker?)
Domains of Use
 Domains: the different spheres of influence in a
speaker’s life –
 Family
 Friendship
 Religion
 Education
 Employment
 etc.
Domains of Use
 Interlocutors: a language relationship tends
to evolve naturally. And once established, it is
usually not easy to alter
 Place or Location: work vs. home; physical
location like neighborhoods
 Topic: language of technical discourse or
cooking, gardening, etc.
Social Orientation
 Attitudes of bilinguals toward their bilingual
status;
 Attitudes toward the larger community;
 Attitudes of the larger community toward
them and their bilingual status.
Additive vs. Subtractive
Bilingualism
 Subtractive bilingualism / differential
bilingualism: Without first language support, the
learning of a new language may entail the loss of
that first language.
 Additive bilingualism: an environment conducive
to the development of the first language as well
as the development of the second language
results in the maintenance of both.
Code Switching –
The case of Spanglish
Ana Celia Zentella
 Code switching: The juxtaposition within the
same speech exchange of passages belonging to
two different grammatical systems or
subsystems (Gumperz 1982)
 Lexical borrowing: Words from one system
adapted phonologically and morph-syntactically
and used regularly in another system and
Why switch?
‘On the spot’ variables
 The linguistic proficiency of the person(s) to
whom one is speaking
 The language requirements of the setting, i.e.,
speak the language that is spoken to one
Why switch?
‘In the head’ variables
 Where to switch
 Switch at turn points
 Switch within a turn
 Switch to co-construct a unique identity
 Footing (re-alignment)
 Speaker to quoter; friend to protector; narrator to
evaluator
 Clarification
 Check for approval, attention, or hearer’s
knowledge
Why switch?
‘Out of the mouth’ variables
 One’s own language proficiency
 Lexical limitations
 Syntactic constraints
Zentella’s conclusions
 English-Spanish switching is a creative style
of bilingual communication






To negotiate meaning with each other
To construct a unique identity
To realign footing
To clarify
To emphasize a message
To control the interlocutor
 Code switching was a way of saying that one
belongs to both worlds
Discussion
 Code switching is especially noticeable to those
who don’t speak one of the languages involved in
the switching, yet even monolinguals engage in
style shifting, moving from one style or variety of
their language to another (for example, when a
minister or politician who is speaking Standard
English switches to a regional or ethnic dialect
for humor or to make a point). When do you shift
styles? Why? Can you give an example?