Performance Benchmark N.12.A.2
Students know scientists maintain a permanent record of procedures, data, analyses, decisions, and
understandings of scientific investigations. I/S
This performance benchmark addresses both the processes of science (procedures, data, analysis, decisions)
and the documentation of those processes (permanent record). Both topics will be covered in the following
discussion.
Science Notebooks and Documentation
Scientists over the ages have always documented their work. Prior to the Renaissance (which began near the
14th century) philosophy and religion were the science authorities. Aristotle’s philosophy was a significant
basis of how people understood the world. Beginning with the Renaissance a new scientific philosophy
began to develop during which scholars/scientists put more credence on experience, experimentation, and
observation rather than on philosophy and religion. From the time of Bacon (13th century), da Vinci (15th
century), Copernicus (16th century), Galileo (17th century), and others who followed, scientists began to use
what we now consider “scientific methods” to study, gather evidence, and support hypotheses and theories
using that evidence. Philosophers and religious leaders documented their thoughts and ideas in writing but
their knowledge was usually based on their own interpretations, without scientific evidence. The scientists
began to use notes and notebooks not only to record their interpretations, but to also record questions, ideas,
research, experiments, data, and more. Many original ancient scientific documents are in museums and other
secure archives. Images or translations of some historically relevant science observations and
experimentation can be found in books, journals, and on many internet sites.
For some examples of early science documentation, such as Leonardo da Vinci’s, go to
http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org/
or Galileo’s go to, http://galileo.rice.edu/lib/student_work/experiment95/paraintr.html.
As an example of a renowned scientist who put great care in their recorded work, the following was written
by Linus Pauling before he died:
"I made the decision to place my personal papers, medals, and other materials, and my wife's papers,
in the OSU libraries. I did so because I had confidence in OSU's [Oregon State University’s] ability
to preserve these materials and to make them available to scholars around the world for generations
to come."
As a scientist, Pauling used his science notebook to record activities he completed in the lab. The image
below shows two pages in one of his notebooks from 1922.
Figure 1. Page from one of Linus Pauling’s science notebooks documenting substances that
he made. (from http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/01/01-002.html)
Engineers, such as Orville and Wilbur Wright also documented and tracked data during their development
and testing of aircraft.
Figure 2. A sample of notebook from wind tunnel experiments conducted by the Wright brothers.
The signature, date and other historically valuable information can be seen on this notebook page.
(from: http://www.first-to-fly.com/Adventure/Workshop/lift_and_drift.htm)
Today, the acts of recording observations, procedures, experimental results, and thoughts are all considered
required parts of doing “good science”. Science notebooks used by scientists today are usually permanently
bound. Scientists record their activities daily using non-erasable ink, number and date the pages, and can
even have another scientist periodically read and review the entries. These scientific notebooks are often
kept private—used directly only by the scientist and the laboratory or organization involved. Sometimes
science notebooks are used in patent, copyright, or invention disputes in courts of law.
Even though science notebooks are generally private, scientists do value and respect peer review of their
work. Therefore, scientists will often make parts of their work public. This is evidenced by the thousands of
scientific journals published by the world’s scientific communities. A scientist publishes work either
formally or informally to strengthen and validate their findings. When research is documented and made
available for review, credence is given to the value and truth of the research. Some scientific work that is not
published in journals may be shared in committees, focus groups, regional and national workshops and
conferences. Although very little of what actually occurs in a science laboratory gets published, careful
documentation of the scientific work that is done in a laboratory is still critical in order to document
procedures, data and analyses. Decisions based on this documentation can then be carefully and
appropriately made.
An example of an online scientific journal is the Astronomy Education Review, which is found at
http://aer.noao.edu/cgi-bin/new.pl
With the widespread use of computers today, some organizations use electronic science notebooks.
Although electronic notebooks have not yet developed widespread acceptance as legal documentation, it is
still worthwhile for science teachers to introduce students to their use. For teachers who use probeware in
the classroom, electronic data-gathering, storage, and reporting can be a natural step.
To read an article discussing electronic notebooks, see
http://www.genengnews.com/articles/chitem.aspx?aid=1951
The National Science Teacher’s Association position is that laboratory investigations, including the use of
science notebooks need to be part of the assessment process in the science classroom. Specifically teachers
need to learn to “develop assessments that reveal and measure inquiry skills – the ability to design, conduct,
analyze, and complete an investigation, reason scientifically, and communicate through science notebooks
and lab reports.”
The NSTA’s entire position statement can be found at: http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/laboratory.aspx
Additional information and commentary on the value of using science notebooks as an assessment tool can
be found in the article called “Science Notebooks: Tools for Increasing Achievement Across the
Curriculum” at: http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-4/notebooks.htm
The writing process that occurs when using notebooks requires reflection which is an important piece of
inquiry. The use of science notebooks daily in the science classroom can be a tool both for literacy
development and to mimic the journals that real scientists use in their studies and investigations. Science
notebook entries can and should be varied to model different types of work real scientists do. Research by
the NCOSP (North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership) revealed 8 different strategies used most
frequently in the context of science notebooks. Use of these various strategies will help students to model
what real scientists use in their notebooks. The following table describes those 8 strategies:
Entry Type
Drawings
Definition and Purpose
Definition
Student generated drawings of materials, scientific investigation set-up,
observations, or concepts. Three common types of drawings used in
science notebooks include:
1. Sketches: Informal pictures of objects or concepts created with little
detail.
2. Scientific Illustrations: Detailed, accurate, labeled drawings of
observations or concepts.
3. Technical Drawings: A record of a product in such detail that someone
could create the product from the drawings.
Purpose
Students use drawings to make their thinking and observations of concrete
or abstract ideas visible. Drawings access diverse learning styles, allow
entry to the writing process for special needs students and emergent writers,
and assist in vocabulary development (e.g. oral explanations, group
discussions, labels).
Tables, Charts, and
Graphs
Definition
Formats for recording and organizing data, results, and observations.
Purpose
Students use tables and charts to organize information in a form that is
easily read and understood. Recording data in these forms facilitates record
keeping. Students use graphs to compare and analyze data, display patterns
and trends, and synthesize information to communicate results.
Graphic Organizers
Definition
Tools that illustrate connections among and between ideas, objects, and
information. Examples include, but are not limited to, Venn diagrams,
“Box–and-T” charts, and concept maps.
Purpose
Graphic organizers help students organize ideas to recognize and to
communicate connections and relationships.
Notes and Practice
Problems
Definition
A record of ideas, observations, or descriptions of information from
multiple sources, including but not limited to direct instruction, hands-on
experiences, videos, readings, research, demonstrations, solving equations,
responding to guiding questions, or developing vocabulary.
Purpose
Students use notes and practice problems to construct meaning and practice
skills for current use and future reference.
Reflective and
Analytical Entries
Definition
A record of a student’s own thoughts and ideas, including, but not limited to
initial ideas, self-generated questions, reflections, data analysis, reactions,
application of knowledge to new situations, and conclusions.
Purpose
Students use reflective and analytical entries to think about scientific
content from their own perspective, make sense of data, ask questions about
their ideas and learning processes, and clarify and revise their thinking.
Inserts
Definition
Inserts are artifacts placed within a notebook, including, but not limited to
photographs, materials (e.g. flower petals, crystals, chromatography
results), and supplemental readings (e.g. newspaper clippings).
Purpose
Students use inserts to document and to enrich their learning.
Investigation
Formats
Definition
Scaffolds to guide students through a controlled investigation, field
investigation, or design process. Examples include, but are not limited to
investigation planning sheets or science writing heuristics.
Purpose
Students use investigation formats to guide their thinking and writing
while they design and conduct investigations. Students also use these
formats to reflect on and discuss their findings and ideas.
Writing Frames
Definition
Writing prompts used to focus a student’s thinking. Examples include, but
are not limited to, “I smelled…I felt…I observed…”, “My results show…”,
“The variable I will change is…”, or “I think that because…”
Purpose
Students use frames to organize their ideas, prompt their thinking, and
structure their written response. Frames help students become more
proficient in scientific writing and less reliant upon the prompts.
This table was taken from the following site: http://www.sciencenotebooks.org/resources/Science_Notebook_Entry_types.doc
Scientific Process and “The Scientific Method”
Documenting scientific work means documenting all steps of an investigation. Although there is not ONE
scientific method, various components of scientific inquiry and scientific processes are used and should be
documented. Some of these components and processes are:





asking questions
making observations
developing hypotheses or possible explanations
designing procedures to investigate a question or problem
recording results of an investigation

discussing of results, conclusions, and further questions.
Not all of these steps are necessarily completed by a scientist during an investigation, but all are used at
various times. In addition, the steps scientific processes are not always completed in a specific order.
Science processes are dynamic and interactive as demonstrated in the following concept map:
Figure 3. A concept map showing connections between methods used by scientists.
(from: http://www.birds.cornell.edu/schoolyard/research/scientific_method.html)
For additional information on scientific methods that are used in real science, see
http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4917&page=4.
Student must also be taught that sometimes scientific discoveries are made serendipitously, and that all
observations, data, results, even if not apparently directly related to a scientific study, should be noted and
recorded. Several major discoveries were made by chance, and the scientist’s permanent records of these
accidental discoveries led to scientific breakthroughs.
For more information on discoveries that occurred “by chance” or serendipitously, see:
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/chance.html
By recording data carefully and permanently, and by repeating investigations, a scientist is able to compare
his work with his own work or with the work of other scientists. This enables scientists to determine the
precision and accuracy of their work.
Performance Benchmark N.12.A.2
Students know scientists maintain a permanent record of procedures, data, analyses, decisions, and
understandings of scientific investigations. I/S
Common misconceptions associated with this benchmark
1. Students incorrectly think that a “formal lab write-up” is the permanent document in a science
investigation.
Students think that a “formal lab write-up” is the permanent document in a science investigation. A common
classroom requirement for high school science students is a “formal lab write-up”. Because of this, students
often think that this is the method used to demonstrate their understanding of the value of permanent records
in science. Science teachers need to help their students understand that a “formal lab write-up” could be a
model for a published report or journal article. However the day-to-day use of a lab notebook models what a
scientist does on a daily basis.
To learn more about the use of a notebook in a scientific lab, see
http://otl.stanford.edu/inventors/resources/labnotebooks.html
2. Students incorrectly believe that “the scientific method” is rigid, that the steps are followed in a
specific order, and that it is used only by scientists to prove or explain things.
The Scientific Method is taught by many teachers in all the disciplines of high school science. While the
steps of “The Scientific Method” are important to scientists, the process of science is not rigid, and the steps
should not be taught as the only way to do science.
To read more about the myths associated with the methods of science and scientific processes, go to
http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf
National Science Education Content Standard A states that students “should develop abilities necessary to do
scientific inquiry and they should develop understanding about scientific inquiry.” It is important that a
science teacher provide opportunities for students to conduct meaningful scientific investigations. It is also
important to provide students with the opportunities to further engage in the scientific processes such as
discussion, evidence-based arguments, and providing explanations for laboratory results based on data and
evidence. Through inquiry-based activities, students will begin to learn how science works and that science
does not always follow a rigid set of steps or rules.
See http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/6e.html#si for additional details on National Science
Education Content Standard A.
Performance Benchmark N.12.A.2
Students know scientists maintain a permanent record of procedures, data, analyses, decisions, and
understandings of scientific investigations. I/S
Sample Test Questions
1. Observe the following diagram:
If you were asked to add one additional arrow to the diagram, which of the following would be the most
appropriate connection from a scientific process point of view?
a.
b.
c.
d.
From hypothesis to pattern.
From pattern to conclusion.
From conclusion to questions.
From question(s) to conclusion.
2. In her laboratory journal, Kayla enters the following information: “Some mold growth was seen on the
agar plate that was streaked with bacteria three days ago. Bacterial colonies were observed on the plate,
but the area surrounding the mold did not show any bacteria.” Which of the following describes Kayla’s
journal entry?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Prediction
Observation
Conclusion
Hypothesis
3. All off the following can be found in a scientist’s notebook. Which of these is considered data?
a. A signature and date on every page.
b. A table containing the measurements recorded during an experiment.
c. A list of possible questions that could be investigated.
d. A possible answer to a question that the scientist has.
4. Observe the following diagram, which is taken from one of Charles Darwin’s notebooks. The words “I
think” can be seen at the top of the page and a branching diagram is shown below that.
The words “I think” represent a permanent documentation of one of Darwin’s
a. Hypotheses
b. Questions
c. Observations
d. Laws
5. Formal lab write-ups are often used by high school teachers as part of laboratory assessments. The use of
a formal lab write-up is valuable to help students learn how to
a. write formal hypotheses and conclusions.
b. write similar to the way a scientist might write when publishing work.
c. perform the one correct scientific method.
d. base an investigation procedure on previous scientific observations.
Performance Benchmark N.12.A.2
Students know scientists maintain a permanent record of procedures, data, analyses, decisions, and
understandings of scientific investigations. I/S
Answers to Sample Test Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(c)
(b)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Performance Benchmark N.12.A.2
Students know scientists maintain a permanent record of procedures, data, analyses, decisions, and
understandings of scientific investigations. I/S
Intervention Strategies and Resources
The following list of intervention strategies and resources will facilitate student understanding of this
benchmark.
1. Creating and Using Science Notebooks
Lori Fulton, a Clark County School District teacher co-authored a book titled: Science Notebooks:
Writing About Inquiry (2003). These authors presented a workshop on “Creating Student Centered
Science Notebooks”. This book and presentation are geared specifically to elementary school
students, but many of the ideas can be adapted for high school students.
The book may be ordered on-line through retailers, such as the National Science Teacher’s
Association Science Store at
http://www.nsta.org/store/product_detail.aspx?id=10.2505/9780325005683
To access the presentation slides, go to http://www.esiponline.org/csl/presentations/lorifulton.pdf
2. Notebook Guide for Scientists
The East Bay Educational Collaborative of Rhode Island provides a “Scientist’s Notebook Guide”
which features strategies for using notebooks in science classes. This site provides examples of types
of notebook entries, scientist notebook student guides, and links to articles that support science and
literacy. Although much of what is found at this site was designed based on elementary school
research, the material can be adapted easily to high school science classes.
The guide is found at http://www.ebecri.org/custom/toolkit.html
3. Use of Notebooks by Scientists. Teachers could take students to a computer lab and have them
investigate actual text (or translated texts) of scientists notebooks. Using one or more of the
following websites, a teacher could have students write/discuss some of the major features of these
notebooks (e.g., pages are dated, sometimes sketches are used, data is recorded, observations are
noted, etc.). The follow websites contain actual scientist notebooks and excerpts.
Darwins field notes at
http://darwinonline.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks.html
Newton notebook entries (click on “transcriptions”) at
http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/intro/ALCH00109
Linus Pauling’s notebook excerpts at http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/rnb/01/01-002.html
4. Summary of Science Notebook Topics
The North Cascades and Olympic Science Partnership (NCOSP) in northwest Washington with grant
support from the National Science Foundation, has developed a web site that addresses several topics
regarding science notebooks. Many helpful ideas and suggestions on topics such as notebook
features, student sample work, and classroom tools, and several teacher answers to frequently asked
questions can be found at this site.
The science notebook website can be accessed at http://www.sciencenotebooks.org/.