1
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2
Chapter 17
1954-1975
The Vietnam War
Section 1:
The United States Focuses on Vietnam
3
Early History of Vietnam
Vietnam’s history goes back to 200
B.C.
Vietnam was ruled by the Chinese
for over a thousand years
More than a dozed different dynasties
have ruled
European contacts began in the 16th
century
France became interested in Vietnam
in the 19th century and eventually
conquered the nation along with
Laos and Cambodia.
The French were firmly in control by
1893 and began exploiting the
economic wealth of the region
Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia became
known as French Indochina
4
French Indochina
consisted of Laos,
Cambodia and Vietnam.
5
During WWII France was defeated and
occupied by Germany in 1940.
Japan invaded the French colonies of
Indochina where they ruled Vietnam through
a puppet government.
During the war the nationalist Communist
leader Ho Chi Minh formed a resistance group,
the Vietminh, that fought both the Japanese
and Vichy French.
After the U.S. entered WWII, the Office of
Strategic Services (later the Central
Intelligence Agency), sent U.S. agents into
Vietnam. These men helped to train the
Vietminh and they promised Ho Chi Minh that
the United States would support his goal for
Vietnamese independence after the war.
Ho Chi Minh believed that after the war the
United States would support independence
for Vietnam but he could not foresee the Cold
War.
6
Communists gain support
The French returned
The war began
U.S. provided support for France
France defeated at Dien Bien Phu
7
Vietminh training film in
1946
During Japanese occupation Ho
Chi Minh established small,
independent cells in remote areas
to build resistance against the
Japanese. These people helped
Minh establish a network of
supporters throughout the
country by the time the French
attempted to reoccupy Vietnam in
1945. Ho Chi Minh also trained
teams to tour villages and
practice what was known as
“Agit-Prop”, Agitation and
Propaganda. The purpose was to
turn people into supporters of the
NLF by pointing out the injustices
practiced by the Japanese and
French occupiers and offered
people a chance to join the
movement to eradicate the
8
occupiers.
In 1945 Ho Chi Minh and the communist Viet Minh gained
the good will of many Vietnamese when they provided relief
during a devastating famine killed almost 2 million.
The famine was caused in large part by the Japanese who
exported Vietnam’s rice to feed their troops.
9
FRENCH
INDOCHINA
After WWII Ho Chi Minh, leader of the
Communist Vietnamese, believed that
the U.S. would not allow France to
reoccupy to its former colony, since
the OSS promised that to Minh during
the war. When French soldiers
returned to reassert their authority
and reclaim their colony a bitter nine
year war began that ended in a
French defeat that divided Vietnam
into two halves. One, the north,
became communist, while the south
was under U.S. influence.
HO CHI MINH
10
The French returned to Vietnam to
reclaim its former colony, 1945
11
In May of 1950 President Truman authorized $15
million in economic and military aid to the French, who
were fighting to retain control of French Indochina,
including Vietnam. As part of the aid package, Truman
also sent 35 military advisers.
12
General Giap, the leader of
the Viet Nimh forces
stepped up the war effort
against the French from
1949-1953. French
officials and Vietnamese
who cooperated with the
French were assassinated,
isolated military outposts
were attacked, and
military convoys were
ambushed.
These escalated attacks
led the French to abandon
their remote military
outposts and they
evacuated most of
13
Vietnam.
Vietminh attacked Dien Bien Phu:
In the last year of the war the Vietminh changed their
tactics and attacked large army units and enjoyed many
successes 1953 and 1954.
14
The French sought a decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu in
Vietminh territory, based on their air superiority, but the
Vietminh brought artillery through the jungle and used it
against the base and cut off air support.
After 6 months, the French surrendered at Dien Bien Phu
and agreed to withdraw from Vietnam.
15
Major reasons the Vietminh beat the French
 France was “tired of war”
 French troops not prepared for
guerilla warfare
 Colonialism lost support in the
world
 The Vietminh had intelligent
leaders in Giap and Ho
 After 1950 the Vietminh were
supported by the Chinese and
Soviets
 The terrain was ideal for guerilla
warfare
 The Vietminh were popular among
the Vietnamese for resisting the
Japanese and French colonial
powers
16
Geneva accords
SEATO formed
The Domino Theory
Eisenhower pledged U.S. support for South
Vietnam & Ngo Dinh Diem
1958 Communist forces in South Vietnam
National Liberation of Vietnam formed 1960
17
In July of 1954 the Geneva
Accords were signed
dividing Vietnam at the 17th
parallel for two years until
elections could be held to
unify the nation.
The north became
communist while the south
established an anticommunist regime that was
tied to the U.S.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of
State John Foster Dulles (from left) greet south
Vietnam's President Ngo Dinh Diem at Washington
national airport, 05/08/1957
18
Vietnamese
refugees fled
North Vietnam
after the division
of the nation,
1954
19
President
Ho Chi
Minh,
Democratic
Republic of
Viet Nam
President
Ngo Dinh
Diem
Republic of
Viet Nam
20
The Domino Theory
First proposed by President Eisenhower in 1954.
It was the foundation for the war in Vietnam.
“But when we come to the possible sequence of events, the loss
of Indochina, of Burma, of Thailand, of the Peninsula, and
Indonesia following, now you begin to talk about areas that not
only multiply the disadvantages that you would suffer through
loss of materials, sources of materials, but now you are talking
really about millions and millions and millions of people.
Finally, the geographical position achieved thereby does many
things. It turns the so-called island defensive chain of Japan,
Formosa, of the Philippines and to the southward; it moves in to
threaten Australia and New Zealand.
It takes away, in its economic aspects, that region that Japan
must have as a trading area or Japan, in turn, will have only one
place in the world to go -- that is, toward the Communist areas in
order to live.
So, the possible consequences of the loss are just incalculable to
the free world. “ President Eisenhower, 1954
21
Chapter 17
1954-1975
The Vietnam War
Section 2:
Going to War in Vietnam
22
The Domino Theory
Cold War theory based on
the idea that if one nation
was conquered by
communists, neighboring
nations were at risk, and
therefore it was the United
States’ obligation to prevent
that from occurring.
First proposed by President
Eisenhower in 1954.
It was the foundation for
the war in Vietnam as well
as other Cold War conflicts.
23
The U.S. supported a Catholic, Ngo Dinh Diem, who was hated by
the majority of the south Vietnamese who were Buddhist. His
misrule led to a small rebellion which grew into a major war in the
early 1960’s. President Eisenhower sent a small training unit to
help build Diem’s army in 1955.
PRESIDENT OF SOUTH VIETNAM NGO DINH DIEM AND PRESIDENT DWIGHT D.
EISENHOWER. BEHIND THEM, FROM LEFT, AIR FORCE CHIEF OF STAFF GENERAL
NATHAN TWINING, SECRETARY OF STATE JOHN FOSTER DULLES, AND PRESIDENTIAL
AIDE AND PILOT, COLONEL WILLIAM C. DRAPER. 05/08/1957
24
From 1955-61 Eisenhower sent $200 million
in aid and around 675 military advisers.
Eisenhower’s
policy on Vietnam
did not involve
troops, only
monetary
contributions and
advisors.
25
The National Liberation Front (NLF) was organized in 1960 by antiDiem groups. It was controlled by former communist Vietminh
cadres who had fought against the French. The NLF was ultimately
controlled by the north Vietnamese.
NLF FLAG
Eisenhower’s military advisory and assistance group was replaced
by MACV (military assistance command Vietnam) under the
command of General Paul Harkins. Over 11,000 advisors with
modern weapons and aircraft were sent to help the south
Vietnamese government. The number grew to 16,000 by November
1963.
MACV headquarters
building in Saigon
26
JFK felt pressured
JFK sent combat forces & started
Corrupt government under Diem
Kennedy assassination
Strategic hamlets
27
President Kennedy, to avoid being accused of
“losing south Vietnam” as President Truman was
accused of “losing China”, increased the number
of military advisors from 800 to 16,000 and
formed the Green Berets special forces.
28
To protest the Catholic Diem’s attacks on
Buddhist pagodas, Buddhist priests set fire to
themselves in protest. The U.S. decided that
Diem's corrupt and murderous regime was too
unpopular and supported an army coup that killed
Diem.
Vietnamese Buddhist
monks set themselves on
fire to protest the brutal
Diem regime.
29
President Kennedy was assassinated a few weeks
later in Dallas, Texas on November 22,1963.
30
General Harkins’ overly optimistic reports led to a confused
understanding of the true situation in south Vietnam. The south
Vietnamese army was not fighting with any spirit or skill and
would lose without a massive U.S. troop deployment.
"By Christmas it will be all over.” (American
General Paul Harkins, April 1963). But it
wasn’t over until 1975 when the communists
won and took control of south Vietnam.
31
STRATEGIC HAMLETS: OPERATION
SUNRISE
Vietnamese peasants
were forced to build and
move into these fortified
villages to prevent
contact with communist
Vietcong guerrillas.
6800 were built by 1963.
They were unpopular
with the Vietnamese
people and this along
with other abuses by the
south Vietnamese Saigon
government caused many
to support the
communists.
32
“Guarding” the hamlet
33
Hundreds of
blockhouse strong
points were built
throughout the
countryside to
“protect” the peasants
from the VC.
These were equipped
with thousands of
rifles and machine
guns, most of which
ended up in the hands
of the VC to be used
against the south
Vietnamese and
Americans.
34
Tonkin Gulf
Incident,
August 1964
An excuse
for
escalation
35
Tonkin Gulf Incident, August 1964
The official story was that North Vietnamese torpedo boats launched an "unprovoked
attack" against a U.S. destroyer on "routine patrol" in the Tonkin Gulf on August 2,
1964, and that North Vietnamese PT boats followed up with a "deliberate attack" on a
pair of U.S. ships two days later. Evidence uncovered since the event has proven that
there was no attack that night, and some have suggested that this incident was an
excuser to escalate U.S. involvement in the region.
USS Maddox
Target of a
fictional
North
Vietnamese
naval attack
36
Planes from the USS Ticonderoga were
immediately sent to attack North
Vietnamese naval bases
37
Information obtained after the
fact indicated there was actually
no North Vietnamese attack that
night, although U.S. authorities
were convinced at the time that it
had happened.
A few days later, the U.S.
Congress passed the Gulf of
Tonkin Resolution, which gave
the president authorization to
wage war in Southeast Asia.
38
President Johnson (LBJ) signed the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August
1964
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was approved by Congress on August 7 and authorized
President Lyndon Johnson to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack
against forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." The resolution
passed unanimously in the House, and by a margin of 82-2 in the Senate. The Resolution
allowed Johnson to wage all out war against North Vietnam without ever securing a formal39
Declaration of War from Congress.
LBJ explained “why we are fighting in
Vietnam”
“Most of the non-Communist nations of Asia cannot, by themselves
and alone, resist the growing might and the grasping ambition of
Asian communism.
Our power, therefore, is a very vital shield. If we are driven from
the field in Viet-Nam, then no nation can ever again have the same
confidence in American promise, or in American protection.
In each land the forces of independence would be considerably
weakened, and an Asia so threatened by Communist domination
would certainly imperil the security of the United States itself.
We did not choose to be the guardians at the gate, but there is no
one else. Nor would surrender in Viet-Nam bring peace, because we
learned from Hitler at Munich that success only feeds the appetite
of aggression. The battle would be renewed in one country and then
another country, bringing with it perhaps even larger and crueler
conflict, as we have learned from the lessons of history.
Moreover, we are in Viet-Nam to fulfill one of the most solemn
pledges of the American Nation. Three Presidents -- President
Eisenhower, President Kennedy, and your present President -- over
11 years have committed themselves and have promised to help
40
defend this small and valiant nation.”
The election of 1964
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Johnson won by a
landslide and quickly
escalated U.S.
involvement in Vietnam
486
electoral vote
popular vote
61.1
52 38.5
Johnson
Goldwater
41
42
LBJ stated in the 1964 presidential campaign he
was “not going to send American boys nine or ten
thousand miles away from home to do what
Asian boys ought to be doing for themselves.” By
early 1965, the communists were well on their
way to victory and Johnson had to either increase
U.S. involvement or see South Vietnam defeated.
43
In 1965 after Vietnamese Communist
(Viet Cong) forces attacked several
American bases LBJ authorized the
"Rolling Thunder" campaign, the
systematic bombing of North Vietnam.
This bombing would continue off and on
for the next seven years.
44
In Vietnam, the
U.S. dropped three
times the tonnage
used in all of World
War II, and 12
times the tonnage
used in the Korean
War.
Neither LBJ nor the
American people were
willing to resort to the
kind of all-out war the
United States had
fought against Japan
and Germany. He
thought we could win
the war with massive
bombing and limited
45
U.S. ground troops.
President Johnson did not want a full scale war in
Vietnam like World War II. However, he did not
want to be accused of “losing South Vietnam” as
President Truman had been accused of “Losing
China” in 1948. In early 1965, LBJ approved the
use of U.S. ground troops. Two battalions of
Marines were sent to Da Nang.
Marines landing at China Beach
46
Massive U.S. troop
deployments starting in
1965 saved South Vietnam
from falling but the
majority of the rural areas
of the country remained in
the hands of Communist
forces. The bulk of combat
was now being done by
U.S. soldiers.
47
U.S. troop strength in Vietnam:
1960-1972
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
60- 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
63
48
General Westmoreland
49
U.S. Vietnam military strategy under General
Westmoreland
General Westmoreland's strategy was one of a "war of attrition," in
which he sought to kill both infiltrated and indigenous Vietnamese
Communist soldiers more rapidly than they could be replaced.
The general followed a plan of "search and destroy" missions in which
well-trained and armed American Units would try to find and decimate
so-called main-force Communist forces. However, General Westmoreland
was under constant pressure from Washington to avoid the kind of
disaster that befell the French Army during the 55-day siege at Dien Bien
Phu in 1954 that ended the French effort in Indochina.
To avoid a French type disaster he normally forbade any military
operations by units smaller than a battalion of about 750 men. He also
developed a somewhat unusual method of operation in which artillery
guns were airlifted into fire bases and troops were, for the most part,
forbidden to proceed past the 11,000- to 20,000-yard "fan" of the
artillery.
However, several objections were raised to this plan. One was that
Communist units could avoid the artillery fan and continue to fight.
Another was that the war of attrition did not work and that North
Vietnam was able to infiltrate Communist soldiers faster than General
50
Westmoreland's soldiers could kill them.
LBJ announced in
July 1965, U.S.
troops would
now engage in
combat. By the
end of 1965
there were
180,000 U.S.
troops in
Vietnam. This
grew to 500,000
by the beginning
of 1968.
51
Search and Destroy operations
U.S. attacks inflicted many
causalities on civilians and
turned 5 million
Vietnamese into homeless
refugees.
52
SEARCH AND DESTROY MISSIONS
Offensive military operations undertaken by United States combat units in Vietnam to find
and neutralize the enemy, especially when the enemy's strength and disposition had not
been fixed precisely. The capture and holding of territory during such operations was not a
priority.
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
“U.S. Search and Destroy missions” often came
up empty handed
60
The geography of Vietnam made it a
difficult battleground for U.S.
soldiers.
Much of the land was covered with jungles and
rice paddies making it hard for U.S. armor (tanks
and armored personnel carriers) to move around.
Dense foliage prevented aerial observation and
allowed the enemy to move unhindered and stage
ambushes.
It was impossible to tell who the enemy were,
for the communist Vietcong were integrated into
the countryside villages.
Monsoon (rainy) seasons prevented the
effective use of American airpower.
61
62
Vietnam was a wet,
rainy county to
fight in.
63
HIGH TECHNOLOGY WEAPONS
FOR A LOW TECHNOLOGY
ENVIRONMENT
 Arc Light
 Defoliation
 Infiltration detection
 Aerial envelopment and movement
 Psychological warfare
 Tactical weaponry
64
ARC LIGHT OPERATIONS
Arc Light was the code name for the devastating aerial raids of B-52
Strato fortresses against enemy positions in Southeast Asia. The first B-52
Arc Light raid took place on June 18, 1965, on a suspected Vietcong base
north of Saigon. In November 1965, B-52s directly supported American
ground forces for the first time, and were used regularly for that purpose
thereafter.
65
B-52 bomber munitions load of over 70,000
pounds of ordnance including bombs, mines
and missiles
66
Defoliation
Defoliation in Vietnam, called Operation Ranch
Hand, was the use of chemical herbicides to kill
vegetation and thereby deny cover to enemy
forces. Heavily sprayed areas included inland
forests near the Demilitarized Zone and along
the South Vietnamese borders with Cambodia
and Laos, and the mangrove forests in the Rung
Sat Special Zone along the river approaches to
Saigon and in the Mekong Delta's Ca Mau
Peninsula. No safety precautions were taken
with the dangerous chemicals and soldiers and
civilians claimed ill effects for many years after
the war ended.
67
Operation Ranchhand: Defoliation 1962
The goal was to clear vegetation along highways in order to
make it more difficult for the VC to conceal themselves for
ambushes.
Heavily sprayed areas included inland forests near the
Demilitarized Zone (along the South Vietnamese borders with
Cambodia and Laos), and the mangrove forests in the Rung
Sat Special Zone along the river approaches to Saigon and in
the Mekong Delta's Ca Mau Peninsula. Guerrilla trails and
base areas were exposed, and crops that might feed Vietcong
units were destroyed.
Vast tracts of forest were sprayed with “Agent Orange”, an
herbicide containing the deadly chemical Dioxin. No safety
precautions were taken with the dangerous chemicals and
soldiers and civilians claimed ill effects for many years after
68
the war ended.
KEY TO MAP
Figures indicate
the number of
gallons of
herbicide applied
during the
Vietnam war.
(O)
Agent Orange
(B)
Agent Blue
(W)
Agent White
Date indicates the
last time
herbicides were
used in that
province.
Source:
http://www.landscaper.net/ag
ent.htm
69
Vietnam war
era map
showing area
to be defoliated
70
71
72
Infiltration detection
73
In 1966, Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara issued
guidelines for the U.S. to design and build an electronic "wall"
around South Vietnam to remotely track the movement of
supplies. This effort was given the code name Igloo White. This
multi-billion dollar program involved the implantation and
monitoring of remote electronic sensors all along the infiltration
route known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail to track vehicles and human
74
movement through acoustic and seismic signatures.
Aerial envelopment and
movement
75
Helicopters
76
77
Air mobility:
the U.S. had
complete
mastery of
the air in
South
Vietnam
78
Psychological warfare
The purpose of psychological operations (PSYOP) was to demoralize the
enemy by causing dissension and unrest among his ranks, while at the
same time convincing the local population to support American troops.
PSYOP units also provided continuous analysis of the attitudes and
behavior of enemy forces to the tactical commanders in the field, so they
could develop, produce and employ propaganda in a successful manner.
Examples of propaganda used by
PSYOP units
79
Examples of anti-VC propaganda
80
The U.S. military set up schools and
clinics in an attempt to win the “hearts
and minds” of the South Vietnamese
81
people.
U.S. infantry tactical weapons
M-16A1 Assault Rifle
Main U.S. infantry weapon. There were some
early teething problems but it remains the main
infantry rifle today.
M-60 GPMG General Purpose Machine Gun
M-203, 40mm Grenade Launcher
Combination of the M16A1 and the grenade
launcher
M-72 Light Anti-Tank Weapons (LAW) The LAW was
designed as a one time use one-man rocket launcher
for use as an anti-tank weapon. In Vietnam
however, the LAW was used to destroy bunkers or
for attacking enemies who were entrenched.
82
The Communist response to high tech weapons:
How could they counter the U.S.’s massive
superiority in firepower and control of the air?
VC terror tactics: bombing
VC soldier sheltering
underground
83
Vietnamese Communist (VC) tactics
The most commonly used tactics were those involved
with Guerrilla Warfare. Guerrilla Warfare involves
fighters using the surrounding areas and geography of
the land-mainly in mountains, jungles, swamps and
cities-to hide in, to set traps in and to fight in without
using heavy weapons (tanks, planes, warships, etc).
Guerrilla warfare involves setting traps and using
ambushes to attack enemies. Some traps used were
tripwires, punji traps, covered holes in the ground and
spike pits with poison tipped spikes. The Vietcong hid
in trees and swamps and were spread out over a very
wide territory of jungle. Another aspect of Guerrilla
Warfare is that Guerrilla fighters look just like
everyone else. This gives them an advantage when
hiding in a town since it is hard to distinguish friend
from foe.
84
Vietnamese Communist (VC) tactics
Guerrilla Warfare is where the fighters use
the surrounding areas and geography of
the land-mainly in mountains, jungles,
swamps and cities-to hide in, to set traps in
and to fight in without using heavy
weapons like tanks, planes, warships, etc.
Guerrilla warfare involves setting traps and
using ambushes to attack enemies. Some
traps used were tripwires, punji traps,
covered holes in the ground and spike pits
with poison tipped spikes.
The Vietcong hid in trees and swamps and
were spread out over a very wide territory
of jungle.
Another aspect of Guerrilla Warfare is that
Guerrilla fighters look just like everyone
else. This gave them an advantage when
hiding in a town since it was hard to
distinguish friend from foe.
85
Vietcong traps used to
wound or kill American
and South Vietnamese
soldiers
86
The VC used
underground tunnel
complexes to hide from
U.S. firepower
87
The North Vietnamese Army entered the war after
it had begun to support the NLF or VC. They fought
in a conventional manner with tanks, artillery and
infantry tactics
88
Major battles
involving U.S.
troops
throughout
the Vietnam
War.
89
The River War
90
Ho Chi Minh trail
91
Map depicts the
Ho Chi Minh
trail. It
bordered
Cambodia and
Laos and was
used by the
North
Vietnamese
throughout the
war since they
could retreat
into nations
that the U.S.
was not at war
with and be
safe from U.S.
attacks.
92
Beginning in 1965 other nations sent troops to
aid the U.S. military in Vietnam:





Australia
Canada
New Zealand
Philippines
South Korea
93
Troop strength in Vietnam by year
Year
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
USA
760
900
3205
11300
16300
23300
184300
385300
485600
536100
475200
334600
156800
24200
50
SVN
243000
243000
243000
243000
243000
514000
642500
735900
798700
820000
897000
1,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
Aust.
-----198
1560
4530
6820
7660
7670
6800
2000
130
--
Korea
-----200
20620
25570
47830
50000
48870
48450
45700
36790
--
New
Zealand
-----30
120
160
530
520
550
440
100
50
--
Philippines Thailand
----------20
-70
20
2060
240
2020
2200
1580
6000
190
11570
70
11570
50
6000
50
40
94
The Battle of Khe Sanh, January-April 1968
The Marine base at Khe Sanh was heavily
fortified to carry out attacks along the Ho Chi
Minh Trail and to cut off supplies to North
Vietnam. The NVA assaulted the base with
rockets, mortar, artillery, and automatic
weapons fire. Marine units patrolled the area
surrounding the base but the NVA was still
able to shoot down cargo planes and
helicopters with supplies. In early February
the special forces camp at nearby Lang Vei
fell to the NVA after both sides suffered heavy
losses.
The fighting around Khe Sanh was widely
televised on the evening news in the U.S.
President Johnson and others were
determined that Khe Sanh would not turn into
an American version of Dien Bien Phu.
Although the military victory ultimately went
to the Americans, it was a major
psychological victory for the North
Vietnamese.
Khe Sanh
95
Chapter 17
1954-1975
The Vietnam War
Section 3:
Vietnam Divides the Nation
96
THE TET OFFENSIVE: TURNING POINT IN THE
WAR IN SOUTH VIETNAM: (one)
In mid-1967, the costs of the war mounted daily with no military
victory in sight for either side. The party Communist leadership in
Hanoi (North Vietnam) decided the time was ripe for a general
offensive in the rural areas combined with a popular uprising in the
cities.
The primary goals of this combined major offensive and uprising were
to destabilize the Saigon regime and to force the United States to opt
for a negotiated settlement.
In October 1967, the first stage of the offensive began with a series
of small attacks in remote and border areas designed to draw the
ARVN and United States forces away from the cities. The rate of
infiltration of troops from the North rose to 20,000 per month by late
1967, and the United States command in Saigon predicted a major
Communist offensive early the following year. The DMZ area was
expected to bear the brunt of the attack. Accordingly, United States
troops were sent to strengthen northern border posts, and the
security of the Saigon area was transferred to ARVN forces. Despite
warnings of the impending offensive, in late January more than onehalf of the ARVN forces were on leave because of the approaching TET
(Lunar New Year) holiday.
97
THE TET OFFENSIVE: TURNING POINT IN
THE WAR IN SOUTH VIETNAM: (two)
On January 31, 1968, the full-scale offensive began, with
simultaneous attacks by the communists on five major
cities, thirty-six provincial capitals, sixty-four district
capitals, and numerous villages. In Saigon, suicide squads
attacked the Independence Palace (the residence of the
president), the radio station, the ARVN's joint General Staff
Compound, Tan Son Nhut airfield, and the United States
embassy, causing considerable damage and throwing the
city into turmoil. Most of the attack forces throughout the
country collapsed within a few days, often under the
pressure of United States bombing and artillery attacks,
which extensively damaged the urban areas. Hue, which
had been seized by an estimated 12,000 Communist troops
who had previously infiltrated the city, remained in
communist hands until late February. A reported 2,000 to
3,000 officials, police, and others were executed in Hue
98
during that time as counterrevolutionaries.
THE TET OFFENSIVE (three)
The TET offensive is widely viewed as a turning point in the war
despite the high cost to the communists (approximately 32,000
killed and about 5,800 captured) for what appeared at the time
to be small gains. Although they managed to retain control of
some of the rural areas, the communists were forced out of all of
the towns and cities, except Hue, within a few weeks.
Nevertheless, the offensive emphasized to the Johnson
administration that victory in Vietnam would require a greater
commitment of men and resources than the American people
were willing to invest. On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced
that he would not seek his party's nomination for another term
of office, declared a halt to the bombing of North Vietnam
(except for a narrow strip above the DMZ), and urged Hanoi to
agree to peace talks. In the meantime, with U.S. troop strength
at 525,000, a request by Westmoreland for an additional
200,000 troops was refused by a presidential commission
headed by the new United States secretary of defense, Clark
Clifford.
99
ORGANIZERS OF THE TET OFFENSIVE:
HO CHI MINH AND GENERAL VO NGUYEN
GIAP
Ho Chi Minh
known as the
“George
Washington”
of Vietnam
General Vo Nguyen
Giap was
Commander in Chief
of the People's Army
of the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam
100
(North Vietnam)
TET Offensive
101
Tet Offensive 1967-1968
The Tet Offensive of 1968 was
planned by General Giap,
commander of the North Vietnam
Army, who had planned and
executed the battle at Dien Bien
Phu which drove the French out of
Vietnam in 1954. During that battle
Giap was willing to lose 10 men for
every 1 enemy soldier killed.
By the end of 1966, North Vietnam
had suffered large causalities in
manpower and supplies through
the bombing of the North and the
fighting in the South. They
consider the war was at a
stalemate. North Vietnam would
need a major victory if they would
continue on with the war.
The primary goals of Giap were to
destabilize the Saigon regime and
to force the United States to opt for
a negotiated settlement. 102
The Tet Offensive: Turning point in the war in South
Vietnam
In October 1967, the first stage of the offensive began with a series of
small attacks in remote and border areas designed to draw the ARVN and
United States forces away from the cities. The DMZ area was expected to
bear the brunt of the attack, so U.S. troops were sent to northern border
posts, and the security of the Saigon area was transferred to ARVN forces.
Even though there were warnings of an attack, more than one-half of the
ARVN forces were on leave because of the approaching TET (Lunar New
Year) holiday.
On January 31, 1968, the full-scale offensive began, with simultaneous
attacks by the communists on five major cities, thirty-six provincial
capitals, sixty-four district capitals, and numerous villages. In Saigon,
suicide squads attacked the Independence Palace (the residence of the
president), the radio station, the ARVN's joint General Staff Compound, Tan
Son Nhut airfield, and the United States embassy, causing considerable
damage and throwing the city into turmoil.
The U.S. was able to attack the communist forces effectively throughout the
country through bombing and artillery attacks, which extensively damaged
the urban areas. Hue, which had been seized by an estimated 12,000
Communist troops who had previously infiltrated the city, remained in
communist hands until late February. A reported 2,000 to 3,000 officials,
police, and others were executed in Hue during that time as
counterrevolutionaries.
103
THE TET OFFENSIVE
This event is widely viewed as a turning point in the
war because up until that point Americans were told
that the communists were losing the war. Americans
questioned how a “defeated” army could launch such
a large-scale and effective attack.
Even though the American military scored a victory
within two months of the attacks since the
communists were ultimately forced out of all the
towns and cities, it was evident that this war could
only be won through a greater commitment of men
and resources,
On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced that he would
not seek his party's nomination for another term of
office, declared a halt to the bombing of North
Vietnam (except for a narrow strip above the DMZ),
and urged Hanoi to agree to peace talks.
In the meantime, with U.S. troop strength at 525,000,
a request by Westmoreland for an additional 200,000
troops was refused by a presidential commission
headed by the new United States secretary of defense,
Clark Clifford.
104
LBJ announced he
would not run for
president again in
1968
105
The Civil Rights movement mobilized students
on college campuses across the nation.
The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
was a radical student activist movement in
the U.S. in the 1960s. SDS criticized the
political system of the United States for
failing to achieve international peace, failure
to fix social problems, and advocated nonviolent civil disobedience as the way to
participate in democracy.
Initially, SDS focused on peaceful efforts to
promote the civil rights movement and
improve the conditions of the inner-city
ghettos. However, it came to be known for
the leading role that it played in student
opposition to the Vietnam War.
SDS called for a march in Washington D.C.
on April 17, 1965. Over 25,000 people
participated and this was the beginning of
organized large-scale anti-war protests that
would be done until the end of the Vietnam
War.
106
107
The Free Speech Movement
The Free Speech movement began at the
University of California at Berkeley in the 1964.
Students were fundraising for civil rights
workers in the south who were registering
voters and participating in civil disobedience
activates to protest segregation throughout the
south.
Berkeley officials stopped the fundraising, citing
the fact that protestors in south were arrested
and money could not be raised on campus that
funded illegal activities.
The students responded with sit-ins and
demonstrations. Over 800 students were
arrested for occupying the U.C. Administration
Building, the largest mass arrest of students in
U.S. history up to that time.
This event brought college campuses across the
nation into the anti-war movement, as they were
electrified by the brutal reaction to free speech.
108
The Vietnam War at Home: Demonstrations and Civil Disobedience
It wasn’t until Johnson began his massive bombing campaign against North
Vietnam in 1965, that the anti-war movement began organizing protests.
Extensive media coverage, especially on the nightly TV news, brought the
violent and bloody guerrilla war home each night to every American living
room. People realized the glowing reviews of the war effort their
government had been releasing were “sanitized” and far from the truth.
Once the draft was introduced young people on college and university
campuses all around the country began to organize protests against the
war. Teach-ins and student organizations like the SDS (Students for a
Democratic Society) held rallies and marches, the first of which happened
in Washington in April of 1965. Over the next 2 years the anti-war
movement snowballed. Activists, celebrities and musicians like Abbie
Hoffmann, Timothy Leary, Allen Ginsberg, Jane Fonda, Jimi Hendrix,
Jefferson Airplane, and countless others took up the anti-war cause and
waved anti-war banners. Their speeches and music reflected the anger and
hopelessness Americans felt over the Vietnam war. Even some GI’s
stationed overseas began supporting the anti-war movement in whatever
capacity they could, from wearing peace symbols to refusing to obey
orders.
Website for Vietnam Rag Protest song http://www.countryjoe.com/feelmus.htm
Lyrics link http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/snd/vietnamrag.html
109
Examples of anti-war
posters from the 1960’s
110
There were several types of protests
ranging from “teach-ins” on college
campuses to marches and civil
disobedience.
Early teach-in
and anti-war
street protests
111
112
Richard M. Nixon became the 37th President of the
United States when he defeated Hubert H.
Humphrey who had been LBJ’s Vice-President.
Nixon campaigned with a slogan that he had a
“secret plan” to end the Vietnam War.
113
Chapter 17
1954-1975
The Vietnam War
Section 4:
The War Winds Down
114
January 1969
President Richard M. Nixon he promised to
achieve "Peace With Honor." His aim was to
negotiate a settlement that would allow the
half million U.S. troops in Vietnam to be
withdrawn, while still allowing South Vietnam
to survive.
115
116
1969 saw some of the bloodiest fighting of
the war. This led to massive anti-war
demonstrations and the announcement of
a new policy.
Nixon visited
Vietnam, 1969
117
Vietnamization training bases and schools
Nixon launched
“Vietnamization” of the war.
This meant most of the
fighting would be done by
South Vietnamese (ARVN)
forces with the U.S.
providing support.
Vietnamization involved the
improvement and
modernization of the South
Vietnamese armed forces,
and training them in
techniques for pacification
and combat operations.
118
President Nixon, as part of
Vietnamization, began withdrawing U.S.
troops from Vietnam
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
troops
1969
1970
1971
119
January 1, 1972
Two thirds of America's troops were removed in only two
years. The ground war was then almost exclusively the
responsibility of South Vietnam, which had over 1,000,000
men enlisted in its armed forces.
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
Number
of
troops
0
60- 64 65
63
66 67
Year
68 69 70
71 72
120
My Lai Massacre March 16, 1968
Army First Lieutenant William Calley, Jr
My Lai was in an area of South Vietnam that
was entrenched with communists. On March
16, 1968 the Charlie Company, 11th Brigade,
under the command of Lieutenant William
Calley, entered the Vietnamese village of My
Lai. Numerous members of Charlie Company
had been maimed or killed in the area during
the preceding weeks.
The company engaged in a search and
destroy mission, and over 300 apparently
unarmed civilians, including women,
children, and the elderly were massacred.
Lieutenant Calley ordered his men to enter
the village firing, though there had been no
report of opposing fire. According to
eyewitness reports offered after the event,
several old men were bayoneted, praying
women and children were shot in the back of
the head, and at least one girl was raped and
then killed. For his part, Calley was said to
have rounded up a group of the villagers,
ordered them into a ditch, and mowed them
down in a fury of machine gun fire.
When news of the atrocities surfaced, it sent
shockwaves through the U.S. political
establishment, the military's chain of
121
command, and an already divided American
public.
My Lai was used by the anti-war movement
The anti-war movement attempted to use this event
to prove that the U.S. had no right to be involved in
the Vietnam conflict. However, they were applying
an unfortunate double standard.
North Vietnamese atrocities, such as the slaughter
of South Vietnamese civilians in Cai Be and Dak Son
in 1967 and the massive live burial of innocents in
Hue in 1968 were virtually ignored in the United
States. After the Tet Offensive the NVA and VC
murdered as many as 5,000 South Vietnamese
civilians including doctors, teachers, lawyers,
businessmen. The most widespread atrocities
happened in the city of Hue. There alone the
Communists killed over 3,000 South Vietnamese.
This was not widely reported by the press, and
routinely either ignored by the anti-war movement.
The United States Army punished its soldiers for
wartime atrocities. The North Vietnamese gave
medals to those who buried thousands alive at Hue.
122
My Lai Today: monument to the
Massacre
123
Operation Menu: The Cambodian Invasion February 1969
Despite restrictions, President
Nixon authorized the bombing of
North Vietnamese and Vietcong
bases within Cambodia. Over the
following four years, U.S. forces
dropped more than a half million
tons of bombs on Cambodia.
The invasion of Cambodia by U.S.
and ARVN troops was the first
real test for Vietnamization. The
U.S. military concluded that ARVN
was not up to handling the NVA,
and that it would take a long time
to develop a reliable ARVN
fighting force.
Early in 1969 Nixon had ordered the secret
bombing of Cambodia to destroy communist
bases
Domestically, negative reactions
to the Cambodian incursion,
including the killing of four
students at Kent State College in
Ohio became a major factor in
Nixon's decision to accelerate the
withdrawal of U.S. forces from
124
South Vietnam
On April 29, 1970 South Vietnamese troops attacked into
Cambodia, pushing toward Vietcong bases. Two days later, a U.S.
force of 30,000 mounted a second attack. Operations in
Cambodia last for 60 days, and uncover vast North Vietnamese
jungle supply depots. They captured 28,500 weapons, as well as
over 16 million rounds of small arms ammunition, and 14 million
pounds of rice. Although most Vietcong managed to escape
across the Mekong Delta, they suffered 10,000 casualties.
125
Cambodian invasion maps
126
In May of 1970 a Kent State University anti-war (Cambodian
invasion) protest turned deadly. National guardsmen opened fire
on protesting students killing four and wounding 8.
127
Kent State photo that shocked the nation
128
“Pentagon Papers” 1971
New York Times v. United States
The Nixon Administration attempted to prevent the New
York Times and Washington Post from publishing materials
stolen by Daniel Ellsberg as part of a classified Defense
Department study regarding the history of United States
activities in Vietnam. The President argued that prior
restraint was necessary to protect national security. This
case was decided together with United States v. Washington
Post Co.
In its per curiam (a Latin term meaning a decision delivered
by the court as a whole rather than by a particular judge)
opinion the Court held that the government did not
overcome the "heavy presumption against" prior restraint of
the press in this case. Justices Black and Douglas argued
that the vague word "security" should not be used "to
abrogate the fundamental law embodied in the First
Amendment." Justice Brennan reasoned that since
publication would not cause an inevitable, direct, and
immediate event imperiling the safety of American forces,
129
prior restraint was unjustified.
Vietnamization did not yield victories
In February 8, 1971 three South Vietnamese divisions drove
into Laos to attack two major enemy bases. Unknowingly,
they walked into a North Vietnamese trap. Over the next
month, more than 9,000 South Vietnamese troops were
killed or wounded. More than two thirds of the South
Vietnamese Army's armored vehicles were destroyed, along
with hundreds of U.S. helicopters and planes.
130
The end in Vietnam: 1972-1975
Communists launched a massive offensive
Paris Peace Talks
Nixon increased bombing over North Vietnam
Nixon cut troop levels
1973 Cease fire signed
All U.S. ground troops left Vietnam
1974-75 North Vietnam launched massive
attacks in South Vietnam
April 30th 1975 South Vietnam falls to
communism
131
March 1972 Communists launched a massive offensive
The Communists hoped to inflict
a Dien Bien Phu type defeat on
the Americans and force the U.S.
to sign a peace agreement
favorable to the North
Vietnamese.
The North Vietnamese were
unsuccessful however, and
suffered high causalities.
As a result, the U.S. increased
132
bombing raids over the North.
President Nixon wanted the North Vietnamese to engage in
peace talks. He sent them an ultimatum on December 14, 1972
that required them to respond within seventy-two hours or
face the consequences.
The North Vietnamese failed to respond and President Nixon
gave the order on December 18, 1972 to begin the Linebacker
II operation.
From December 18 - 30, 1972, the U.S. dropped approximately
40,000 tons of bombs on targets in the Hanoi and Haiphong
areas in North Vietnam.
133
B-52
The major targets of the operation were radio
stations, railroads, power plants, and airfields
located in the Hanoi and Haiphong areas.
During Operation Linebacker II, the Air Force
and Navy bombed the area twenty four hours
a day.
The B-52s flew during the night with F111s
providing support through strikes on airfields
and surface-to-air missile sites. Daylight
operations were primarily carried out by A-7s
and F-4s bombing visually or with long-range
navigation (LORAN) techniques, depending
upon the weather over the targets. In
addition, escort aircraft such as the Air Force
EB-66s and Navy EA-6s broadcast electronic
jamming signals to confuse the radarcontrolled defenses of the North. The
Strategic Air Command also provided KC-135s
to support the in-flight refueling requirements
of the various aircraft participating in
Linebacker II operations.
Aerial photo of
bomb damage to
a Hanoi airfield
Refueling
134
Mig 17
Mig 21
By 1972, North Vietnam had 145
MiG fighters, 26 SA-2 Guideline
surface-to-air missile sites, a
heavy concentration of antiaircraft artillery, and a complex,
overlapping radar network that
had secretly been improved by
introduction of a new firecontrol radar that improved the
accuracy of the SA-2 weapons.
They used these to defend Hanoi
and Haiphong during Operation
Linebacker II.
MiG 15 on fire in
gunsite
135
Kissinger, an important advisor
to Nixon, became Secretary of
State in 1973. He was the
representative for the U.S. at the
Paris Peace talks. He hoped to
remove all U.S. troops and have
South Vietnam remain free from
communist control.
Nixon’s plan of talking and
bombing led to results in
the Paris Peace talks which
had been going on since
1968. With pressure
placed on North Vietnam by
both the U.S.S.R. and China
a final agreement was
reached in January of 1973.
136
The peace agreement signed in Paris by representatives
from the United States, North Vietnam, and South
Vietnam on January 27, 1973.
In the end, the North Vietnamese achieved their goal because the
agreement signed in Paris differed very little from the earlier
proposed and rejected settlement in October of 1972.
Hanoi looked upon the Paris Agreements as a "big victory" because
U.S. troops were removed, which allowed them to continue the war
in the South against only the South Vietnamese troops, who had
proven no match for the NVA. They realized that they could reunite
Vietnam at a time of their own choosing.
Signing the
documents,
1973
137
POW’s: Prisoners of War
North Vietnam kept the POWs in
shockingly inhumane conditions which
violated all standards of human decency.
They even denied the POWs the right to
write and receive letters from their loved
ones.
The United Nations, International Red
Cross and other organizations called on
North Vietnam to comply with the Geneva
Convention, which they had signed. It
expressed the acceptable treatment of
prisoners of war.
President Nixon made many offers to
exchange prisoners with the North. One
proposal called for the release of 8,000
North Vietnamese prisoners in exchange
for 800 world prisoners. The Communists
rejected every proposal.
The peace agreement signed on January
27, 1973, brought the American POWs
back. Within days, the first of 562 POWs
were returning home. Some had been
138
in
captivity for more than eight years.
South
Vietnamese
prisoners
released
U.S. prisoners
being released
American
prisoners
were
released
from Hanoi
139
The wives
welcomed home
POWs at Camp
Pendleton in
California.
The POW and MIA
(missing in action)
flag is meant to
acknowledge the
veterans who were
taken prisoner
during the war or
did not return.
140
The human cost of the Vietnam war.
U.S. Battle deaths 1960-1972
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
60- 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
63
141
% Vietnam combat death by race
90
81.1
80
70
60
50
Caucasian
Hispanic
Black
Other Races
40
30
20
10
5.2
12.5
1.2
0
% combat deaths
Source: National
Archives
142
US deaths in Vietnam
50000
47359
40000
30000
20000
combat deaths
10000
10797
0
Deaths
non combat
deaths
143
Communists continued the conflict
North Vietnamese final offensive 3/75
Fall of South Vietnam to communist
forces
144
The end in Vietnam
Nixon’s plan of talking and bombing led to results
in the Paris Peace talks which had been going on
since 1968. With pressure placed on North
Vietnam by both the USSR and China a final
agreement/ceasefire was reached in January of
1973. The treaty allowed the U.S. to withdraw
almost all of its troops. Unfortunately for South
Vietnam the ceasefire agreement was just a
prelude to a massive North Vietnamese invasion.
It was all over by April of 1975, when communist
forces entered the South Vietnamese capitol city
of Saigon and renamed it Ho Chi Minh City.
Vietnam was reunited under a communist
government. The U.S. mission to protect South
Vietnam had failed.
145
Secretary of State Henry
Kissinger, Vice President
Nelson Rockefeller, and
President Ford discuss the
American evacuation of
Saigon, April 28, 1975.
Final telegram from the
American embassy in Saigon.
146
April 30, 1975
South Vietnam fell to communist forces. South Vietnam
becomes part of North Vietnam and the country was united
after 20 years of war.
Last helicopter evacuation of U.S. Embassy in
147
Saigon
In 1975 South
Vietnam,
Cambodia and
Laos became
communist
states.
148
War Powers Resolution, 1973
Congress passed this law as a reaction to
Vietnam and increased presidential
powers. Congress wanted to reassert its
war powers:
The President could send troops overseas
where hostilities are imminent without a
congressional war declaration only under
the following circumstances:
Must notify Congress within 48
hours
Must withdraw troops after 60 days
(can be extended another 30 days if
the safety of the troops requires it)
Must consult with Congress if troops
are to engage in combat
Congress can pass a resolution, not
subject to presidential veto, to have
the troops withdrawn
149
The Vietnam Memorial was erected on Veteran’s Day
in Arlington National Cemetery November 11, 1978
150
History Online
Self-Check Quiz
Visit the American Vision: Modern Times
Web site at tav.mt.glencoe.com
and click on Self-Check Quizzes-Chapter
17 to assess your knowledge of chapter
content.
151