Chapter 8
Finding the Facts
Critical Thinking-Tools for Ethical Decisions
When Facts Are At Issue
Moral disagreements are about values but also facts.
Some philosophers have argued that facts, not values,
are actually the crux of most moral disagreements.
“The devil is in the details”
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What Facts Are At Issue?
Facts can be confusing, misleading and inaccurate.
Three kinds of statistics
Death Penalty—Why does society permit it?
Critical Thinking Questions
What facts/evidence support its use?
What societies have it and which societies do not?
What are the comparisons?
How would you get evidence for or against
the claimed deterrence effect?
Other critical thinking questions?
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Chapter 8
Finding the Facts
What Facts Are At Issue?
Gun Control Why does society permit it?
Critical Thinking Questions
How many lives, for example, do guns take?
Compare other countries, what are the facts?
Who has it and who does not have it.
What is the evidence?
Other critical thinking questions?
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Finding the Facts
What Facts Are At Issue?
Marijuana- Why doesn’t society permit it?
Critical Thinking Questions
What would happen if marijuana use were legalized?
How do we find out?
Can we make comparisons with other countries?
How dangerous is the stuff?
Other critical thinking questions?
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What Facts Are At Issue?
Women in the military Why does society permit it?
Critical Thinking Questions
What actually have been the results of women in
fighting positions in the military?
Have they jeopardized the safety of fellow
soldiers or marines?
What affect does it have on families? Is it
different than men?
Other critical thinking questions.
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Chapter 8
Finding the Facts
Getting the Facts.
Some issues are simple while others are quite complex to discover facts.
Question: What percent of the federal budget goes to “welfare”?
Means tested by income:
Food stamps, unemployment compensation, welfare block grants to states,
child nutrition programs and Medicaid.
Results: 12% (1996)
Entitlement
Social security, veterans’ benefits, Medicare, earned income tax credits,
student loans and grants, refugee assistance, etc.
Results: 60% (1996)
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Getting the Facts.
Studies can show opposites occurring. Conflicting data. What appears to be
“obvious” is not. Look deeper!
Capital punishment
Increased and decreased
No absolutes in conclusions
Don’t give up! No evidence or just opinions is morally irresponsible
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Sources:
Library/Librarians
Books and Journals
Ethics Web sites
Peer Review –Get Both Sides of the Story
Author’s credentials
Research
Impartial
Scientific Journals
Tone of sources, extreme or simplistic, attacking, demeaning
Arguments on both sides presented
Media bias
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Finding the Facts
Inferences
Facts to conclusions
Generalizations
Small sample-limited data, a few examples-to stand for the whole.
Good generalizations do three things:
1. Cites specific and clear examples.
2. Cites many examples. More than antidotal
3. Cites representative examples, not all of one type, and give enough
background information to allow us to evaluate for ourselves how
significant and representative the examples are.
Example: Innocent death row inmates are executed
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Comparisons
Seemingly similar situations
A good comparison does two things:
1. Cities as a comparison a clear case about which true claims are made.
2. Cites as a comparison a relevantly similar case.
Example
Argument: Gun control in the United States is necessary since it reduces
homicides in Singapore. Is the comparison valid?
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Inferring Cause from Correlation
Cause and effect relationship
Example
Violence on TV correlates with real-life violence.
A good argument from correlation to cause:
1. Cities accurate correlations
2. Explains how the (proposed) cause leads to the (proposed) effect
3. Argues that the proposed cause-effect relationship is the best explanation
of the correlation.
A&B
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Exercises and Notes:
Identify the Facts at Issue
Page 144
Finding the Facts
Page 145
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