Argumentation
What is argumentation?
• Argumentation is an appeal to reason.
• It is a reasoned, logical way of presenting a
position, belief, or conclusion.
• It takes a stand—supported by evidence—
and urges people to share the writer’s
perspective and insights.
What is the purpose of
argumentation?
• The purpose is:
• To consider all viewpoints
• What you expect your argument to accomplish
• How you wish your audience to respond
The structure:
• An introduction with a clear thesis or claim
(remember the thesis must be debatable and can be
tested with an antithesis)
• A clear sense of purpose and audience (why are you
writing this and to whom/what are you writing?)
• Evidence – facts and opinions
• Appeals – facts, emotions, credibility
• Nods to the opposition and then refutation to it
Four Criteria to Evaluate
Evidence:
1. Relevance: information should support the
thesis/claim being made and support the argument.
2. Representative : evidence should represent your
side and the opposing side. Just make sure most of
your information is about your position.
Criteria continued
3. Sufficient: there should be enough evidence to
support the claim. The amount of evidence you need
depends on
-length of the paper
-your audience
-your thesis statement
4. Accuracy: Data shouldn’t be used unless it is
accurate and up-to-date.
Acknowledging the
Opposition
A writer acknowledges the points of view of those that
do not agree with him/her in order to refute that
position.
When an argument is so compelling that it cannot be
dismissed you should concede. This means to admit
that it is valid.
How do you get to a
conclusion?
• You move from evidence to a conclusion by using deductive
reasoning or inductive reasoning.
• Most arguments use both types of reasoning.
• Deductive reasoning: proceeds from general to specific
• Syllogism: basic form of deductive argument and consists of a major
premise, minor premise, and conclusion.
• When a conclusion follows logically from the major to minor
premise then the argument is valid.
• Inductive reasoning: moves from individual observations to a
general conclusion (no specific form)
• First, decide on a question to be answered: hypothesis.
• Gather evidence that is relevant to the question.
• Move from your evidence to your conclusion by making an
inference.
Recognizing Fallacies
• Fallacies are illogical statements that may sound
reasonable but are actually deceptive and dishonest.
• The following are common fallacies you should both
recognize and avoid:
Fallacies
• Begging the question: this tactic asks the readers to
agree that certain points are self-evident when they
are not
• False Analogy: a comparison that ignores important
dissimilarities between what is being compared
• Personal Attack: tries to divert attention from the
facts of the argument by attacking the person
making the argument
• Generalizations: sometimes called jumping to
conclusion – occurs when a conclusion is based off
too little evidence
Fallacies
• Either/Or: writers suggest only two alternative exist
• Equivocation: the meaning of a key term changes at
some point in the argument
• Red Herring: the focus of the argument is shifted
• You Also: the opponent’s argument has no value because
the opponent does not follow his/her own advice
• Appeal to Doubtful Authority: attempt to strengthen an
argument with references to experts or famous people –
not valid when the person referenced has no expertise on
the subject.
More fallacies!
• Misleading statistics: statistics that are distorted or
misinterpreted to influence the audience
• Post hoc: because two events occur close together in
time the first must cause the second
• Non sequitur: a statement does not logically follow
form a previous statement