MEXICO AFTER INDEPENDENCE: 1821 CE – 1910 CE
Following independence from Spain in 1821, Agustin de Iturbide, Creole leader of the Mexican
War for Independence, proclaimed himself Emperor of the Republic of Mexico. His political outlook was
conservative. At the time of independence, Central America was united with Mexico, however they
quickly declared their independence from Mexico. Iturbide refused to recognize their independence.
Iturbide ruled as an autocrat and was overthrown in 1823 by liberals who wanted to see an extension of
rights to all citizens and greater representation of the people using a parliament. In the same year, the
United Provinces of Central America became officially independent from Mexico, but eventually split into
individual nations such as Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. This is an example of failed regional
unity, similar to the break-up of South America’s Gran Colombia into the nations of Colombia, Ecuador,
and Venezuela. In 1824, a new constitution was written for Mexico, promising some basic civil rights, but
Mexico was a republic in name only. The 1824 Constitution failed to meet the needs of most Mexican
citizens: there was limited access and ownership of land by the lower classes, a continued low status
position for Indians (Native Americans), no public education, and the majority of Mexicans were
extremely poor. This set Mexico up for continued struggles between conservatives who supported the
status quo and liberals who wanted more reforms.
The problem of rule by caudillos became a feature of Mexico after independence, similar to the
rule of caudillos in independent South American nations. For example, for several decades, the caudillo
General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana ruled Mexico as a conservative military dictator despite early
promises of liberal reforms. During his rule, the Mexican territory known as Texas rebelled and declared
its independence from Mexico, proclaiming itself an independent Republic. These Texans were primarily
of non-Spanish descent, being settlers from the East coast of the United States. They had very little in
common with the Mexican majority. Despite a few early victories, Santa Ana was defeated and briefly fell
out of favor with Mexicans until the United States annexed Texas in 1845. Mexico saw this as an act of
aggression and Santa Ana returned as a caudillo and leader of Mexico’s military. The Mexican American
War resulted, leading to US occupation of Mexico and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in
1848. With it, the US received the northern third of what was then Mexico, including California and the
American Southwest. In this way, the US continued its belief in Manifest Destiny – the belief that
Americans were destined to expand across the North American continent. Humiliated for a second time,
Santa Ana was removed from power once again.
Santa Ana’s replacement as Mexico’s leader was his polar opposite. Whereas Santa Ana had been
a wealthy Creole who put his personal power first, Benito Juarez was from a poor Native American family
who worked primarily to serve his country. President Benito Juarez, a personalist leader with liberal,
secular leanings, introduced a new constitution and started “La Reforma” in 1854. “La Reforma” was a
movement aimed at limiting the power of the military and the Catholic Church in the name of equality, or
“land and liberty,” according to its slogan. It limited the privileges of priests and military elites, and
confiscated their lands in order to give it to Mexico’s peasants. Unfortunately, Juarez’s plans backfired.
The land was instead bought up by Mexico’s Creole elite. Most Mexicans remained landless and
impoverished despite Juarez’s good intentions. Fearing Juarez’s liberalism, conservative Mexicans sought
to overthrow Juarez and briefly did so with the aid of French troops between 1861 and 1867. A wave of
Mexican nationalism arose in response to foreign occupation and Benito Juarez returned to power, but
this time ruling more like a caudillo with an iron fist.
By the end of the 19th century, one of Benito Juarez’s generals, Porfirio Diaz, rose as a caudillo. In
1876, Diaz carried out a coup against the elected government and began serving as president. Most of
Diaz’s strength came from having the support of the Mexican military, Creole elite, and foreign investors.
During his rule, all political elections, even for parliamentary representatives, became meaningless. Diaz
offered land, power, or political favors to any Creoles who supported him. Elections were rigged and
opponents were imprisoned. Despite restrictions on political freedoms, Diaz’s presidency did bring
tremendous economic growth for Mexico. Most of this economic growth was a result of Diaz’s
encouragement of foreign investment, especially from the United States. The US, a consistently growing
industrial neighbor, was interested particularly in Mexico’s oil supplies. By 1910, American businessmen
came to own most of Mexico’s oil supplies and railroad networks. Creoles reaped the benefits of this
American investment, while Mexico’s poor were neglected. In 1910, 95% of Mexico’s rural families were
landless. Mexico’s economy was still largely unindustrialized and dependent on Western demand. A
Mexican Revolution was on the horizon.
PROBLEMS FACING INDEPENDENT MEXICO: 1821 CE – 1910 CE
DIRECTIONS: Using the reading on Mexico after independence, identify evidence to support the argument that Mexico
faced many of the same problems that the rest of Latin America’s nations faced after independence. Do so for each of
the following general problems.
PROBLEM:
Mexico was controlled
by Caudillos.
PROBLEM:
Mexico failed to establish a stable democratic
government.
-ex. General Santa Ana ruled as a military dictator, though
promised liberal reforms that never came
PROBLEM:
Most Mexicans lived in poverty.
PROBLEM:
Mexico’s social inequality continued.
PROBLEM:
Mexico was economically
dependent on the West.
PROBLEM:
The United States increased its involvement in
Mexico’s affairs.