I.
Miller Chapter 12 Review
Chapter 12: Food Production and the Environment a.
12-1: What is Food Security and Why is it Difficult to Attain? i.
Food Security – the condition under which all or most of the people in a population have daily access to enough nutritious food to live active and healthy lives ii.
Food Insecurity – living with chronic hunger and poor nutrition, which threatens their ability to lead healthy and productive lives
1.
The root cause of food insecurity is poverty
2.
Other causes are: war, bad weather (prolonged drought, flooding, and heat waves), climate change, along with corruption and political upheaval iii.
Good health you need:
1.
Large amount of macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
2.
Smaller amounts of micronutrients – vitamins (A,B,C, and E) and minerals
(iron, iodine, and calcium) iv.
Chronic Undernutrition (Hunger) – people who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs
1.
Most of the world’s hungry people live in low-income, less-developed countries a.
Diets consists mostly of wheat, rice, or corn v.
Chronic Malnutrition – a condition in which they do not get enough protein and other key nutrients
1.
This can weaken them, making them more vulnerable to disease, and hindering the normal physical and mental development of children vi.
Famine – which occurs when there is severe shortage of food in an area and which can result in mass starvation, many deaths, economic chaos, and social disruption
1.
Usually are caused by crop failures from drought, flooding, war, and other catastrophic events vii.
Many people suffer from a deficiency of one or more vitamins and minerals usually:
1.
Vitamin A – go blind from a lack of
2.
Iron – can cause anemia – which causes fatigue, makes infection more likely, and increases a woman’s chances of dying from hemorrhage in childbirth a.
Mostly women and children are affected with this
3.
Iodine – essential for proper function of the thyroid gland, which produces hormones that control the body’s rate of metabolism a.
Can cause stunted growth, mental retardation, and goiter (abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland) viii.
Overnutrition – occurs when food energy intake exceeds energy use and causes excess body fat ix.
Underfed and underweight and those who are overfed and overweight share similar health problems:
1.
Lower life expectancy
2.
Greater susceptibility to disease and illness
3.
Lower productivity and life quality x.
The US suffers from an overweight and obesity epidemic, mostly because on average, people consume too much sugar, fat, and salt and lead physically inactive lifestyles
1.
Four of the top ten causes of death in the US – heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and some forms of cancer b.
12-2: How is Food Produced? i.
Three systems supply most of our food:

1.
Croplands – produce mostly grains and provide about 77% of the world’s food using 11% of its land area
2.
Rangelands, Pastures, and Feedlots – produce meat and meat products and supply about 16% of the world’s food using about 29% of the world’s land area
3.
Fisheries and Aquaculture (fish farming) – supply fish and shellfish, which make up about 7% of the world’s food supply ii.
About two of every three people in the world survive primarily by eating one or more of three grain crops – rice, wheat, and corn iii.
Since 1960 there has been a staggering increase in global food production from all three of the major food production systems
1.
Technological advances such as greater use of tractors and other farm machinery and high-tech fishing equipment iv.
Irrigation – a mix of methods by which water is supplied to crops by artificial means
– increasing use of manufactured chemical fertilizers and pesticides to provide plant nutrients and reduce crop losses to pests. v.
Industrial Agriculture (High-Input Agriculture) – uses heavy equipment along with large amounts of financial capital, fossil fuels, water, commercial inorganic fertilizers, and pesticides to produce single crops (monocultures) vi.
Plantation Agriculture – a form of industrialized agriculture used primarily in tropical less-developed countries (aka: Growing cash crops) vii.
Two main types of traditional agriculture:
1.
Traditional Subsistence Agriculture – supplements energy from the sun with the labor of humans and draft animals to produce enough crops for a farm family’s survival, with little left over to sell or store as a reserve for hard times
2.
Traditional Intensive Agriculture – farmers increase their inputs of human and draft-animal labor, animal manure for fertilizer, and water to obtain higher crop yields. If the weather cooperates, farmers can produce enough food to feed their families and have some left over to sell for income a.
Many grown several crops on the same plot simultaneously
(polyculture) b.
Reduces the chance of losing most or all of the year’s food supply to pests, bad weather, and other misfortunes viii.
Slash and Burn Agriculture – involves burning and clearing small plots in tropical forests, growing a variety of crops for a few years until the soil is depleted of nutrients, and then shifting to other plots to begin the process again
1.
Each abandoned patch normally has to be left fallow (unplanted) for 10-30 years before the soil becomes fertile enough to grow crops again. ix.
Polyculture also lessens the need for fertilizer and water because the root systems at different depths in the soil capture nutrients and moisture efficiently.
1.
On average, such low-input polyculture produces higher yields than does high input monoculture x.
Organic Agriculture – which crops are grown with the use of ecologically sound and sustainable methods and without the use of synthetic pesticides, synthetic inorganic fertilizers, and genetically engineered plants or animals.
1.
Classified as organically grown animals must be raised on 100% organic feed without the use of antibiotics or growth hormones.
2.
In the US, by law, a label of 100% organic (or USDA Certified Organic) means that a product is produced only by organic methods and contains organic ingredients

3.
The word natural is used on food labels primarily as an advertising ploy and carries no requirement for organic content xi.
Green Revolution – has come from using high-input industrialized agriculture to increase crop yields
1.
Has three steps: a.
Develop and plant monocultures of selectively bred or genetically engineered high-yield varieties of key crops such as rice, wheat, and corn b.
Produce high yields by using large inputs of water, synthetic inorganic fertilizers, and pesticides c.
Increase the number of crops grown per year on a plot of land through multiple cropping xii.
Farmers have two ways to produce more food:
1.
Farming more land
2.
Getting higher yields from existing croplands xiii.
People directly consume about 46% of the world’s grain production – about 34% of it is used to feed livestock and thus is indirectly consumed by people – the remaining 20% (mostly corn) is used to make biofuels for motor vehicles, along with starches and plastics xiv.
Case Study – The 1 st Green Revolution
1.
Agribusiness – a small number of giant multinational corporations increasingly control the growing, processing, distribution, and sale of food in
US and global markets
2.
In total annual sales, agriculture is bigger than the country’s automotive, steel, and housing industries combined xv.
Cross-breeding through artificial selection to develop genetically improved varieties of crops and livestock animals
1.
Typically, resulting varieties remain useful for only 5-10 years before pests and diseases reduce their yield xvi.
Gene Splicing – alters an organism’s genetic material through adding, deleting, or changing segments of it DNA
1.
The resulting organisms are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs) a.
At least 80% of the food products on US supermarket shelves contain some form of genetically engineered food or ingredients b.
GM ingredient information is not included on food labels because law does not require it c.
100% organic food, which is labeled as such, makes no use of genetically modified seeds or ingredients xvii.
Meet and animal products – represent the world’s second major food-producing system
1.
Mostly beef, pork, and poultry
2.
Global meat consumption is likely to more than double again by 2050 as affluence rises and more middle-income people begin consuming more meat and animal products in rapidly developing countries
3.
Half of the world’s meat comes from livestock grazing on grass in unfenced rangelands and enclosed pastures a.
Mostly in crowded feedlots or in very crowded pens and cages in huge buildings called concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) b.
Create environmental and animal health problems – serious impacts of air and water

c.
The feed is doctored with growth hormones and antibiotics, added to accelerate livestock growth i.
By feeding large amounts of grain to livestock a loss of cropland to urban development, can lead to greater reliance on grain imports d.
China and India are likely to follow this trend as they become more industrialized and urbanized xviii.
Fishery – a concentration of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given ocean area or inland body of water
1.
Aquaculture (Fish Farming) – the practice of raising fish in freshwater ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and rice paddies, and in underwater cages in coastal lagoons and estuaries or offshore in deeper ocean waters a.
Fish and shellfish are produced b.
The fastest growing type of food production, is sometimes called the blue revolution c.
Most of the world’s aquaculture involves raising species that feed on algae or other plants i.
The farming of meat-eating species such as shrimp and salmon is growing rapidly, especially in more-developed countries xix.
The industrialization of food production has been made possible by the abundance of nonrenewable oil and natural gas used to run farm machinery and fishing vessels, to pump irrigation water for crops, and to produce synthetic pesticides and synthetic inorganic fertilizers
1.
In the US food travels an average of 2,400 kilometers (1,300 miles) from farm to plate
2.
When we consider the energy used to grow, store, process, package, transport, refrigerate, and cook all plant and animal food, it takes about 10 units of fossil fuel energy to put 1 unit of food energy on the table in the US a.
Today’s systems for producing, processing, transporting, and preparing food are highly dependent on fossil fuels, and together they result in a large net energy loss b.
The amount of energy per calorie used to produce crops in the US has declined by about 50% since the 1970s i.
The amount of energy used to produce synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has dropped sharply ii.
The rising use of conservation tillage, which sharply reduces the energy use and harmful environmental effects of plowing c.
12-3: What Environmental Problems Arise from Industrialized Food Production? i.
Industrialized agriculture allowed farmers to use less land to produce more food, and this has helped to protect biodiversity in many areas
1.
Point out that industrialized agriculture has greater overall harmful environmental impacts than any other human activity and these environmental effects may limit future food production ii.
Topsoil – the fertile top layer of many soils, a vital component of natural capital, because it stores the water and nutrients needed by plants iii.
Soil erosion – the movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one place to another by the actions of wind and water
1.
Some topsoil erosion is natural
2.
Flowing water is the largest cause of erosion
3.
In undisturbed, vegetated ecosystems, the roots of plants help to anchor the topsoil and to prevent some erosion

iv.
Erosion of topsoil has two major harmful effects:
1.
Loss of fertility through depletion of plant nutrients in topsoil
2.
Water pollution in surface waters where eroded topsoil ends up as sediment, which can kill fish and shellfish and clog irrigation ditches, boat channels, reservoirs, and lakes v.
Desertification – the process in which the productive potential of topsoil falls by
10% or more because of a combination of prolonged drought and human activities that expose topsoil to erosion
1.
A major threat to food security in some of the world’s water-short drylands a.
Can be moderate (10-25% drop in productivity); Severe (a drop of 25-
50%); or very severe (a drop of more than 50%, usually resulting in huge gullies and sand dunes) b.
Severe desertification can expand existing desert areas or create new deserts i.
Over thousands of years the earth’s deserts have expanded and contracted, primarily because of climate change ii.
Has accelerated desertification in some parts of the world mostly because of deforestation, excessive plowing, and overgrazing
2.
Dust Bowl
3.
Another way to degrade topsoil is to deplete it of key plant nutrients, either by repeatedly using it to grow crops or by allowing livestock to trample and overgraze the land’ vi.
Irrigation – which accounts for about 70% of the water that humanity uses
1.
Most irrigation water is a dilute solution of various salts, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), that are picked up as the water flows over or through soil and rocks – which then evaporates, leaving behind a thin crust of dissolved mineral salts in the topsoil
2.
Repeated applications of irrigation water in dry climates lead to the gradual accumulation of salts in the upper soil layers – soil salinization
3.
Waterlogging – which water accumulates underground and gradually raises the water table, especially when farmers apply large amounts of irrigation water in an effort to leach salts deeper into the soil a.
Lowers the productivity of crop plants and kills them after prolonged exposure, because it deprives plants of the oxygen they need to survive b.
Excessive irrigation in agriculture is that it has contributed to depletion of groundwater and surface water supplies in many areas of the world vii.
Agricultural activities, including the clearing and burning of forests to raise crops or livestock, create a great deal of air pollution
1.
Also account for more than a quarter of all human-generated emissions of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) a.
Livestock production generates about 18% of the world’s greenhouse gases – cattle and dairy cows release the greenhouse gas methane
(CH
4
) (Mostly through belching) viii.
One of the fastest growing threats to the world’s biodiversity is the cutting or burning of large areas of tropical forest in Brazil’s Amazon Basin and the clearing of areas of its cerrado (a huge tropical grassland region south of the Amazon Basin) ix.
Agrobiodiversity – the genetic variety of animal and plant species used on farms to produce food

1.
Traditionally farmers have saved seeds from year to year to save money and to have the ability to grow food in times in famine a.
In the US this tradition is disappearing as more farmers plant seeds for genetically engineered crops
2.
In losing agrobiodiversity, we are rapidly shrinking the world’s genetic
“library”, which is critical for increasing food yields a.
Individual plants and seeds from endangered varieties of crops and wild plant species important to the world’s food supply are stored in about 1,400 refrigerated seed banks i.
Power failures, fires, storms, war, and unintentional disposal of seeds can cause irreversible losses of these stored plants and seeds b.
The seeds of many plants cannot be stored successfully in seed banks i.
Stored seeds do not remain alive indefinitely, they must be planted and germinated periodically, and new seeds must be collected for storage ii.
If this does not happen seed banks can become seed morgues x.
Genetic Engineering:
1.
Pros: a.
Producers and investors of GM food production as a potentially sustainable way to solve world hunger problems
2.
Con: a.
Would allow a small number of seed companies to patent genetically modified crops and control most of the world’s food production
3.
Calls into serious question industry claims that genetic engineering will increase crop yields, lessen the need for pesticides, and yield droughttolerant crops
4.
GM crops with built in toxins, such as Bt toxins, widely used to fend off insects in corn production, could threaten human health by triggering an inflammatory response leading to diseases such as diabetes and heart disease
5.
Have led to increased herbicide use and to herbicide-resistant superweeds, some of which can grow more than 2 meters (6ft) tall
6.
Reduce the gene pool needed to crossbreed new crop varieties and to develop new genetically engineered varieties
7.
Call for more controlled field experiments and long-term testing to better understand the ecological and health risk, and stricter regulation of this rapidly growing technology xi.
Limiting the success of the green revolution:
1.
Without huge inputs of water and synthetic inorganic fertilizers and pesticides crop varieties produce yields that are no higher (and are sometimes lower) than those from traditional strains
2.
Cost to much for most subsistence farmers in less-developed countries
3.
There comes a point where yields stop growing because of the inability of crop plants to take up nutrients from additional fertilizer and irrigation water
4.
Since 1978 the amount of irrigated land per person has been declining, and it is projected to fall much more between 2012 and 2050 a.
Due to population growth

b.
Wasteful use of irrigation water, soil salinization, and the fact that most of the world’s farmers do not have enough money to irrigate their crops c.
Projected climate change during this century is likely to melt some of the mountain glaciers that provide irrigation and drinking water for many millions of people xii.
By clearing tropical forests and irrigating arid land, we could more than double the area of the world’s cropland.
1.
The problem is that such massive clearing of forests would greatly speed up and magnify climate change and biodiversity losses
2.
Much of this land has poor soil fertility, steep slopes, or both, and cultivating such land would be expensive and probably not ecologically sustainable xiii.
Food production could also drop sharply in some major food-producing areas because of longer and more intense droughts and heat waves, also resulting from projected climate change xiv.
Proponents of industrialized meat production point out that it has increased meat supplies, reduced overgrazing, kept food prices down, and yielded higher profits.
1.
Environmental scientist point out that feedlots and concentrated animal feeding operations use large amounts of water to grow feed for livestock and to wash away their waste
2.
Analysts also point out that meat produced by industrialized agriculture is artificially cheap because most of its harmful environmental and health costs are not included in the market prices of meat and meat products xv.
When livestock are grazed on open land instead of raised in feedlots, environmental impacts can still be high, especially when forests are cut down or burned to make way for cattle ranches, as is occurring in Brazil’s Amazon forests xvi.
Industrialized meat production makes use of large amounts of fossil fuel energy
(mostly from oil), which helps to make it one of the chief sources of air and water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
1.
Cradle-to-grave carbon footprint of food items found that producing lamb, beef, pork, farmed salmon, or cheese through industrialized agriculture generate 10-20 times more greenhouse gases per unit of weight than does producing common vegetables and grains. xvii.
Another growing problem is the use of antibiotics in industrialized livestock production facilities.
1.
The Union of Concerned Scientist (UCS) found that about 80% of all antibiotics sold in the US (and 50% of those in the world) are added to animal feed a.
This is done to try to prevent the spread of disease in crowded feedlots and CAFOs and to promote the growth of the animals before they are slaughtered b.
Resistance can reduce the effectiveness of some antibiotics used to treat infectious diseases in humans, and it can promote the development of new and aggressive disease organisms c.
Animal waste produced by the American meat industry amounts to about 130 times the amount of waste produced by the country’s human population (Gross!) xviii.
Environmental effects of aquaculture
1.
About a third of the wild fish caught from the oceans are used to make the fishmeal and fish oil that are fed to farmed fish a.
A serious threat to marine biodiversity

b.
A very inefficient process i.
It takes about 3kg (6.6lbs) of wild fish to produce 1kg (2.2lbs) of farmed salmon, and this ratio increases to 5 to 1 for farmed cod and 20 to 1 for farmed tuna c.
Some fishmeal and fish oil fed to farm-raised fish are contaminated with long-lived toxins such as PCBs and dioxins that are picked up from the ocean floor i.
Aquaculture producers contend that the concentrations of these chemicals are not high enough to threaten human health
2.
Fish farms, especially those that raise carnivorous fish such as salmon and tuna, produce large amounts of wastes. a.
Can pollute aquatic ecosystems and fisheries
3.
Promoting the spread of invasive plant species a.
Asian kelp called wakame or undaria – a seaweed that is disrupting coastal aquatic systems in several parts of the world
4.
Farmed fish can escape their pens and mix with wild fish, possibly disrupting the gene pools of wild populations
5.
Genetically modified soybeans as the primary feed for farm-raised fish and shellfish – could increase water pollution because fish that are fed soy produce more waste than other fish a.
Small number of seed companies control over much of the world’s seafood production b.
Loss of biodiversity that results when soy plantations replace tropical forests
6.
Farmed salmon that has been genetically engineered, through the combination of growth genes from a Chinook salmon and a sea eel, to grow quickly to the size of wild salmon a.
Requires about 25% less feed per unit of body weight, which could lower its cost and reduce pressure on fish stock used as feed d.
12-4: How Can We Protect Crops from Pests More Sustainably? i.
Pest – any species that interferes with human welfare by competing with us for food, invading our homes, lawns, or gardens, destroying building materials, spreading disease, invading ecosystems, or simply being a nuisance
1.
Natural enemies (predators, parasites, and disease organisms) control the populations of most potential pest species a.
Example: the world’s 30,000 known species of spiders kill far more crop-eating insects every year than humans kill by using chemicals
2.
When we clear forests and grasslands, plant monoculture crops, and douse fields with chemicals that kill pests, we upset many of these natural population checks and balances that help to implement the biodiversity ii.
Pesticides – chemicals used to kill or control populations of organisms that we consider undesirable
1.
Insecticides – insect killers
2.
Herbicides – weed killers
3.
Fungicides – fungus killers
4.
Rodenticides – rat and mouse killers iii.
Plants have been producing chemicals called biopesticides to ward off, deceive, or poison the insects and herbivores that feed on them
1.
1 st generation pesticides – mainly natural chemicals take from plants
2.
2 nd generation pesticides – chemists have created

a.
Created 100s of other pesticides by making slight modifications in the molecular of various classes of chemicals (Ex. DDT)
3.
Broad-spectrum agents – are toxic to beneficial species as well as to pests
4.
Selective (Narrow-spectrum) – are effective against a narrowly defined group of organisms
5.
Persistence – the length of time they remain deadly in the environment a.
DDT – remains in the environment for years and can be biologically magnified in food chains and webs b.
Organophosphates are active for days or weeks and are not biologically magnified but can be highly toxic to humans iv.
Rachel Carson – wrote the book Silent Spring – sounding a warning that eventually led to strict controls on the use of DDT and several other widely used pesticides v.
According to the EPA, the amount of synthetic pesticides used on the average US homeowner’s lawn is 10 times the amount (per unit of land area) typically used on
US croplands vi.
Use of synthetic pesticides point to the following benefits:
1.
They have saved human lives a.
Premature deaths of at least 7 million people from insect – transmitted diseases such as malaria and typhus
2.
They have been known to increase food supplies a.
Reducing food losses
3.
They can help farmers increase their profits a.
A dollar spent on pesticides can lead to an increase in crop yields worth as much as $4
4.
They work fast
5.
When used properly, the healthy risk of some pesticides are very low, relative to their benefits
6.
Newer pesticides are safer to use and more effective than many older ones a.
Genetic engineering is also being used to develop pest-resistant crop strains and genetically altered crops that produce natural biopesticides vii.
Use of synthetic pesticides point to the following problems:
1.
They accelerate the development of genetic resistance to pesticides in pest organisms a.
Develop immunity to widely used pesticides through natural selection
2.
They can put farmers on a financial treadmill a.
Find themselves having to pay more and more for a chemical pest control
3.
Some insecticides kill natural predators and parasites that help to control the pest populations
4.
Pesticides are usually applied to inefficiently and often pollute the environment a.
Herbicides applied by aerial spraying or ground spraying do not reach the target pest
5.
Some pesticides harm wildlife
6.
Some pesticides threaten human health viii.
Case Study: Cats into Borneo ix.
Insect ecology evaluated data from more than 300 agricultural scientist and economists, he reached three major conclusions:
1.
Between 1942 and 1997 – estimated crop losses from insects almost doubled rom 7% to 13%, despite a tenfold increase in the use of synthetic insecticides

2.
According to the International Food Policy Research Institute – the estimated environmental, health, and social costs of pesticide use in the US are $5 - $10 in damages for every dollar spent on pesticides
3.
Alternative pest management practices could cut the use of synthetic pesticides by half on 40 major US crops without reducing crop yields x.
More than 25,000 different pesticide products are used in the US
1.
Three federal agencies the EPA, the USDA, and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), regulate the use of these pesticides under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
2.
The EPA was supposed to assess the health risk of the active ingredients in synthetic pesticide products already in use a.
Less than 10% of the active ingredients in pesticide products have been tested for chronic health effects b.
US congress has not provided them with enough funds xi.
Food Quality Protection Act (1996) – requires the use of 64 active pesticide ingredients, including DDT and most other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
1.
Federal law regulating pesticide use are inadequate and poorly enforced by the three agencies xii.
Banned or unregistered pesticides may be manufactured in one country and exported to other countries xiii.
Circle of poison (Boomerang Effect) – residues of some banned or unapproved chemicals used in synthetic pesticides exported to other countries can return to the exporting countries on imported food.
1.
Supporters of the exports argue that such sales increase economic growth and provide jobs and that if the US did not export these pesticides, other countries would a.
In 1998, more than 50 countries developed an international treaty that requires exporting countries to have informed consent from importing countries for exports of 22 synthetic pesticides and 5 industrial chemicals xiv.
Greatly increase the use of biological, ecological, and other alternative methods for controlling pest and diseases that affect crops alternatives:
1.
Fool the pest – rotating the types of crops
2.
Provide homes for pest enemies – polyculture, which uses plant diversity to reduce loss
3.
Implant genetic resistance – use genetic engineering to speed up the development of pest and disease resistant crop strains
4.
Bring in natural enemies – biological control by importing natural predators, parasites, and disease-causing bacteria and viruses to help regulate pest populations
5.
Use insect perfumes – sex attractants (pheromones) can be used to lure pests into traps
6.
Bring in the hormones – control their development processes at different stages of life
7.
Reduce the use of synthetic herbicides to control weeds – crop rotation, mechanical cultivation, hand weeding, and the use of cover crops and mulches xv.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) – the best way to control crop pests – a carefully designed program in which each crop and its pests are evaluated as parts of an ecosystem, and farmers use a combination of cultivation, biological, and chemical tools and techniques, applied in a coordinated process

1.
The overall aim of IPM is to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level
2.
When an economically damaging level of pests is reached, farmers first use biological methods and cultivation controls a.
They apply small amount of synthetic insecticides – preferably biopesticides – only when insect or weed populations reach a threshold where the potential cost of pest damage to crops outweighs the cost of applying the pesticides
3.
Show that a well-designed IPM program can reduce synthetic pesticide use and pest control without reducing crop yields and food quality – can also reduce inputs of fertilizer and irrigation water, and slow the development of genetic resistance, because pests are attacked less often and with lower doses of pesticides (pollution prevention)
4.
Drawbacks: a.
Expert knowledge about each pest situation and takes more time than does using conventional pesticides. b.
Methods developed for a crop in one area might not apply to areas with even slightly different growing conditions c.
Initial costs may be higher
5.
3 point strategy to promote IPM in the US a.
Add a 2% sales tax on synthetic pesticides and use the revenue to fund IPM research and education b.
Set up a federally supported IPM demonstration project on at least one farm in every county in the US c.
Train USDA field personnel and county farm agents in IPM so they can help farmers use this alternative e.
12-5: How Can We Improve Food Security? i.
Agriculture is a financially risky business ii.
Governments use two main approaches to influence food production:
1.
Control food prices by putting a legally mandated upper limit on them in order to keep them artificially low
2.
Provide subsidies by giving farmers price supports, tax breaks, and other financial support to keep them in business and to encourage them to increase food production iii.
Some analysts call for replacing traditional subsidies for farmers with subsidies that promote more environmentally sustainable farming practices iv.
Government and private programs that reduce poverty by helping the poor to help themselves can improve food security
1.
For example: some programs provide small loans at low interest rates to poor people to help them start business or buy land to grow their own food v.
UNICEF indicates that ½ to 2/3 of nutrition-related childhood deaths could be prevented at an average annual cost of $5-$10 per child
1.
Involves simple measures such as: a.
Immunizing more children against childhood diseases b.
Preventing dehydration from diarrhea by giving infants a mixture of sugar and salt in their water c.
Preventing blindness by giving children an inexpensive vitamin A capsule twice a year vi.
The world’s most secure seed bank is the Doomsday Seed Bank – located underground on a frozen Norwegian arctic island
1.
It is being stocked with duplicates of many of the world’s seed collections

vii.
One way to increase food security is to grow more of our food locally or regionally, ideally with certified organic farming practices
1.
“Locavores” people buying more of their food from local and regional producers in farmers’ markets, which provide access to fresher seasonal foods a.
By buying locally, people support local economics and farm families b.
Also help to reduce fossil fuel energy cost for food producers, as well as the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from refrigeration and transportation of food products over long distances viii.
Community-supported agriculture (CSA) – programs in which they buy shares of a local farmer’s crop and receive a box of fruits or vegetables each week during the summer and fall
1.
The demand for locally grown food could result in more small, diversified farms that produce organic, minimally processed food from plants and animals
2.
Planting gardens and raising chickens in many urban and suburban backyards, growing dwarf fruit trees in large containers of soil, and raising vegetables on rooftops, balconies, and patios
3.
People are also building raised gardening beds in urban parking lots (AKA asphalt gardening)
4.
Vertical Farms – on high-rise buildings a.
Its sloped glass front would bring in sunlight, and excess heat which would be stored in tanks underneath the building for use as needed b.
Have solar panels for generating electricity on its rooftop c.
Could also capture and recycle rainwater for irrigating its wide diversity of crops ix.
People could also cut food waste as an important component of improving food security
1.
About 1/3 of all food produced globally is lost during production or thrown away f.
12-6: How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? i.
Sharply reducing topsoil erosion is the most single important component of more sustainable agriculture ii.
Soil Conservation – involves using a variety of methods to reduce topsoil erosion and restore soil fertility, mostly by keeping the land covered with vegetation
1.
Terracing – involves converting steeply sloped land into a series of broad, nearly level terraces that run across the land’s contours – retains water for crops and reduces topsoil erosion by controlling runoff
2.
Contour Planting – on steeply sloped land – can be used to reduce topsoil erosion, it involves plowing and planting crops in rows across the slope of the land rather than up and down
3.
Strip-cropping – helps to reduce erosion and to restore soil fertility with alternating strips of a row crop (ex. Corn) and another crop that completely covers the soil (a cover crop)(Ex. Alfalfa)
4.
Alley Cropping (Agroforestry) – is another way to slow the erosion of topsoil and to maintain soil fertility
5.
Windbreaks (Shelterbeds) – trees found around crop fields to reduce wind erosion
6.
Conservation-tillage Farming - greatly reducing topsoil erosion is to eliminated or minimize the plowing and tilling of topsoil and leave crop residues on the ground

a.
This type of farming increase crop yields and greatly reduces soil erosion and water pollution from sediment and fertilizer runoff b.
One drawback is that the greater use of herbicides is promoting the growth of herbicide-resistant weeds, that force farmers to use larger doses of weed killers or, in some cases, return to plowing iii.
Hydroponics – to grow plants without the use of soil, some producers are raising crops in greenhouses iv.
Aquaponic System - wastewater from the fish runs flows into hydroponic troughs where it nourishes the plants – the plant roots then filter the water, which is then returned to the fish runs
1.
This is a closed-loop, chemical free, conserves soil, water, and energy supporting more than 100,000 tilapia and perch, which are sold in local markets along with the salad greens v.
Erosion Hotspots – withdraw these areas from cultivation, and plant them with grasses or trees, at least until their topsoil has been renewed vi.
The best way to maintain soil fertility is through topsoil conservation – the next best option is to restore some of the lost plant nutrients that have been washed, blown, or leached out of topsoil, or that have been removed by repeated crop harvesting
1.
Organic fertilizer – derived from plant and animal materials a.
Several types: i.
Animal Manure – the dung and urine of cattle, horses, poultry, and other farm animals
1.
Improves topsoil structure, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates the growth of beneficial soil bacteria and fungi ii.
Green Manure – consist of freshly cut or growing green vegetation that is plowed into the topsoil to increase the organic matter and humus available to the next crop iii.
Compost – produced when microorganisms in topsoil break down organic matter such as leaves, crop residues, food wastes, paper, and wood in the presence of oxygen
1.
The process of composting generates a considerable amount of heat, which is used to help warm the farmer’s greenhouse during cold months
2.
Synthetic Inorganic Fertilizer – manufactured of inorganic compounds that contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium along with trace amounts of other plant nutrients a.
Many farmers, especially those in more developed countries, rely on synthetic inorganic fertilizers b.
While these fertilizer can replace depleted inorganic nutrients, they do not replace organic matter
3.
To completely nutrients to topsoil, both inorganic and organic fertilizers must be used. vii.
Crop rotation is one way to reduce soil erosion losses
1.
Method helps to restore topsoil nutrients while reducing erosion by keeping the topsoil covered with vegetation viii.
Another way to restore fertility of degraded or contaminated soils, especially in polluted urban settings, is to use biological methods ix.
We know how to prevent and deal with soil salinization the problem is that most of these solutions are costly in one way or another

x.
Reducing desertification is not easy – we cannot control the timing and location of prolonged droughts caused by changes in weather patterns – but we can reduce population growth, overgrazing, deforestation, and destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and mining in dryland areas xi.
We also need to work to decrease the human contribution to projected climate change xii.
It is possible to restore land suffering from desertification by planting trees and other plants – we can also grow trees and crops together (alley cropping) and establish windbreak around farm fields xiii.
We need to work on a way to make aquaculture more sustainable
1.
Open-ocean aquaculture – which involves raising large carnivorous fish in underwater pens, where rapid currents can sweep away fish wastes and dilute them
2.
The environmental impact of raising fish far offshore is smaller than that of raising fish near shore and much smaller than that of an industrialized commercial fishing
3.
Reduce coastal damage – by raising shrimp and fish species in inland facilities using zero-discharge freshwater ponds and tanks a.
Recirculating aquaculture systems – the water used to raise the fish is continually recycled – captures its fish wastes and converts them to fertilizer – this reduces the discharge of polluting wastes and the need for antibiotics and other chemicals used to combat disease
4.
Fundamental Change - consumers to choose fish species that eat algae and other vegetation rather than other fish
5.
It becomes less sustainable when aquaculture producers try to increase yields by feeding fishmeal to such plant-eating species xiv.
Polyaquaculture – operations raise fish or shrimp along with algae, seaweeds, and shellfish in coastal lagoons, ponds, and tanks – the wastes of the fish or shrimp feed the other species
1.
Applies the idea of recycling and biodiversity xv.
Meat production has a huge environmental impact and meat consumption is the largest factor in the growing ecological footprints of individuals in affluent nations
1.
Also highly inefficient
2.
A more sustainable form of meat production and consumption would involve shifting from less grain-efficient forms of animal protein, such as beef, pork, and carnivorous fish produced by aquaculture, to gain more grain-efficient forms, such as poultry and plant-eating farmed fish xvi.
Modern industrialized food production yields large amounts of food at prices that are low as long as they do not include the harmful environmental costs of food production
1.
It violates three scientific principals of sustainability: a.
Relies heavily on the use of fossil fuels and thus adds greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and contributes to climate change b.
Reduces biodiversity and agrobiodiversity c.
Interferes with the cycling of plant nutrients
2.
Most of the harmful environmental costs of food production are not included in the market prices of food – a violation of the full-cost pricing xvii.
Compared to high-input farming, low-input agriculture produces similar yields with less energy input per unit of yield and lower greenhouse gas emissions while also improving topsoil fertility and reduces topsoil erosion

xviii.
A component of more sustainable food production is 100% USDA Certified Organic agriculture
1.
Where yields from organic farming are lower than conventional yields, farmers often make up for this by not having to use expensive synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, and they usually receive higher prices for their crops
2.
Organic agriculture can play an important role in slowing projected climate change by reducing fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions and by pulling more CO
2
from the atmosphere
3.
A drawback – it requires more human labor to use methods such as integrated pest management, crop rotation, low-till cultivation, and multicropping xix.
More sustainable agriculture could be to rely less on conventional monoculture and more polyculture, in which a diversity of organic crops are grown on the same plot
1.
Perennial crops – crops that grow back year after year on their own
2.
Helps to conserve and replenish topsoil, requires less water, cuts water losses, and reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides
3.
Also reduces the air and water pollution associated with conventional industrialized agriculture xx.
Large-scale industrialized agriculture:
1.
It changes the earth to suit the crop, but with modifications, it could instead diversify crops to suit the earth’s natural processes
2.
A shift from using fossil fuels to relying more on renewable energy for food production xxi.
Biogas Digesters – renewable solar energy, wind, flowing water, and biofuels produced from farm wastes in tanks
1.
Five major strategies to help farmers and consumers to make the transition: a.
Greatly increase research on more sustainable organic farming and perennial polyculture and on improving human nutrition b.
Establish education and training programs in more sustainable agriculture for students, farmers, and government agricultural officials c.
Set up an international fund to give farmers in poor countries access to various types of more sustainable agriculture d.
Replace government subsidies for environmentally harmful forms of industrialized agriculture with subsidies that encourage more sustainable agriculture e.
Mount a massive program to educate consumers about the true environmental and health cost of the food they buy xxii.
Over the next five decades, a combination of education and economic policies that reward more sustainable agriculture could lead to such a shift
1.
Inform people about where their food really comes from, how it is produced, and what the environmentally harmful effects of industrialized food production are