Chapter 14
China
SECTION 1
THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Politics in Action
•
2010: Liu Xiaobo—first Chinese citizen to win Nobel Peace Prize
–
–
•
•
“For his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human
rights in China”
Liu, however, could not attend Oslo, Norway ceremony since he
was in a Chinese prison.
China remains world’s harshest dictatorships
Authoritarian political system is ominous.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Geographic Setting
•
Comprised of 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 centrally
administered cities, and 2 special administrative regions
–
•
China is rich in natural resources, particularly coal and petroleum.
–
•
•
•
Autonomous region—In PRC, territorial unit equivalent to
province having large concentration of ethnic minorities with some
autonomy in cultural sphere, but in most policy matters strictly
subordinate to the central government.
Also, world’s greatest potential for hydroelectric power
Less than fifteen percent of land is usable for agriculture.
Countryside plays important role in political development.
Population centered around eastern seaboard, three rivers
–
More than fifty ethnic minorities, most living in border regions
o
Contributes to tension with central government
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Critical Junctures
•
•
People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949.
Must look at history, which can be divided into three periods:
–
–
–
•
Imperial period (221 B.C.–1911 A. D.)—China ruled by series of
dynasties and emperors.
Republican period (1912–1949)—China plagued by civil war and
foreign invasion.
Communist period (1949–present)
Chinese empire first took political shape in 221 B.C.E.
–
–
Small kingdoms were unified under first emperor.
China ruled by numerous family-based dynasties.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Critical Junctures (Cont’d)
•
Foundation of imperial system that lasted until 1911
–
–
•
Traditional order supported by influence of Confucianism
o Stresses importance of group over individual, deference to
superiors, importance of education, need to maintain social
harmony, responsibility of rulers to govern benevolently
Effective national government with merit-based bureaucracy
o Examinations were on mastery of teachings of Confucianism.
Imperial China experienced internal rebellions.
–
Some led to overthrow of ruling dynasty.
o
New dynasty built on traditional foundations
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Critical Junctures (Cont’d)
•
Late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century empire faced combination
of internal crises and external challenges.
–
–
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Population explosion led to economic stagnation.
Corruption and exploitation caused social unrest.
European powers surpassed China in industrial and military
development.
o
•
Pressed China to open its markets to foreign trade

Opium War (1839–1842) defeat forced China to sign unequal
treaties to open borders.
1911–1912: Revolution overthrew dynasty; end to 2000-year-old
empire.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–
1949)
•
Republic of China established in 1912.
–
–
Revolutionary Sun Yat-sen became president, but could not
hold on to power.
China fell into conflict and disintegration.
o
o
•
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organized in 1921 by
intellectuals inspired by Russian revolution and supported by
Soviet Union
–
•
Parts of country were run by rival warlords.
Sun started revolution to unify country under Nationalist Party.
Joined with the Nationalist Party to fight warlords
Chiang Kai-shek became leader of Nationalist Party, turned
against communist partners, and unified Republic.
–
Struck deals with warlords
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–
1949) (Cont’d)
•
Communist Party relocated headquarters into countryside.
–
Created conditions for Mao Zedong’s rise to power
o
o
–
–
•
Advocated peasants as support for revolution
Consolidated power, sometimes ruthlessly
1934: Chiang Kai-shek’s army began 6,000 mile journey
called the Long March.
Implemented land reform and policies to benefit peasants
1937: Japan invaded China.
–
Pushed Nationalist government to southwestern part of
country, eliminating it as active combatant
o
Successfully mobilized peasants in guerrilla warfare—Strategy
based on small bands of soldiers (guerrillas) who use hit-andrun tactics to attack a superior and better-armed enemy.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–
1949) (Cont’d)
•
Communist Party expanded membership and developed
military force by end of World War II.
–
–
•
•
Controlled countryside in north
Nationalists unpopular due to corruption, repression, and
economic mismanagement.
Chiang Kai-shek retreated to island of Taiwan.
October, 1949: Mao Zedong declared the founding of the
People’s Republic of China.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976)
•
•
Communist Party seen as social reformers, patriotic fighters.
Chairman Mao and Party addressed country’s problems:
–
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Redistribution of land increased agricultural production.
Drives to eliminate opium addiction and prostitution
National law to enhance status of women
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’d)
•
Between 1953 and 1957: PRC and Soviet Union implemented
centrally planned economy and took steps towards
socialism.
–
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Centrally planned economy—An economic system in which
the state directs the economy through a series of
bureaucratic plans for the production and distribution of
goods and services. The government, rather than the market,
is the major influence on the economy. Also called a
command economy.
Socialism —the state plays a leading role in organizing the
economy, and most business firms are publicly owned. In
Marxism-Leninism, socialism refers to early stage in the
development of communism.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’d)
•
Private property overtaken by government and collectivization
of agriculture
–
–
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Collectivization—Agricultural
land removed from private
ownership and organized into
state and collective farms.
Achieved economic success
Increased bureaucracy
and inequalities persisted.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’d)
•
Great Leap Forward (1958–1960)
–
–
Mao’s discontent with direction of People’s Republic of
China
Utopian effort to accelerate economic development and
move toward true communism
o
o
–
Communism—A system of social organization based on the
common ownership and coordination of production. In China,
the Communist Party, which has controlled the state and
society in an authoritarian manner, and have applied MarxismLeninism to justify their rule.
Relied on labor power and revolutionary enthusiasm of masses
Irrational policies, wasted resources, lack of incentives for
hard work, and bad weather led to famine.
o
Industrial depression followed.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’d)
•
Early 1960s: Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took charge.
–
•
Mao became unhappy with social and political development.
–
–
•
Revived economy by abandoning strategy of Great Leap for
combination of government planning and market-oriented
policies to stimulate production
Perceived resurgence of elitism and inequality
Also, believed China was moving toward capitalism.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
–
–
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Ideological crusade to restore Mao’s vision of socialism and
communism
Objectives: political purification through class struggle
Created Red Guards to support him and attack anyone
betraying Mao Zedong Thought
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’d)
•
Cultural Revolution first phase (1966–1969)
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•
Cultural Revolution second phase (1969–1971)
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•
People’s Liberation Army to restore political order
Red Guards sent to countryside.
Cultural Revolution final phase (1972–1976)
–
•
Red Guard rampage
Destroyed cultural artifacts as symbols of China’s imperial
past.
Harassed, tortured, killed those accused of being class
enemies
Factional conflict over Mao’s successor
1976: Mao dies.
–
Moderate leaders staged coup d'état, and arrested Gang of
Four, marking end of Cultural Revolution.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of Chinese
Communism (1977–1997)
•
Deng became most powerful leader but appointed younger,
loyal men to positions.
–
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•
Inflation, corruption, desire for political freedom challenged
Communist Party in 1989.
–
–
•
Reduced state economic controls; increased market forces
Encouraged private enterprise; foreign investment
Strong economic growth through 1980s; international acclaim
Large scale demonstrations; media coverage
Communist Party decided to use force at Tiananmen Square.
Years of political repression and economic slowdown
–
Deng took steps to accelerate economic reform, avoid
collapse of communist system in 1992.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 From Revolutionaries to Technocrats (1997 to the
Present)
•
Deng replaced head of Communist Party.
–
•
Gradually turned power over to Jiang Zemin, who succeeded
Deng on his death
Jiang continued economic reforms and growth.
–
–
–
China became integral part of global economy.
Enhanced its regional and international stature
Politically stable although problems of unemployment,
corruption, inequality
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 From Revolutionaries to Technocrats (1997 to the
Present)
•
Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang in 2002.
–
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•
Both were technocrats as opposed to revolutionaries.
Technocrats —Administer public policy according to a
technical rather than a political rationale.
First orderly transfer of power
Hu places emphasis on socioeconomic problems but takes
hard line of political dissent.
2008: Xi Jinping being groomed as Hu’s successor.
–
–
Also a technocrat
Little reason to expect change
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Themes and Implications
 Historical Junctures and Political Themes
 The World of States
•
Weak international position in1949
–
–
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Destiny had been shaped by incursions and influences it
could not control.
Mao built strong state able to affirm and defend its
sovereignty.
International stature has increased with economic and
military growth.
Poor, but size of economy makes it a powerhouse
o
o
o
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Import and export policies influential
Nuclear power with largest conventional military force
Active in most international organizations
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Governing the Economy
•
•
•
Experimented with different economic systems: Sovietstyle planning 1950s, Mao’s radical egalitarianism, and
Deng’s market-oriented policies
Ideological disputes over development strategies resulted
in political struggles.
Ability of leaders to successfully govern economy has
maintained the Communist Party.
 The Democratic Idea
•
Deng rule brought greater economic, social, cultural
freedom.
–
•
Communist Party suppressed democratic idea.
Jiang and Hu have championed economic reform but
ensured the Communist Party’s control of power.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 The Politics of Collective Identity
•
China has a strong sense of collective national identity.
–
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•
Memories of past foreign encounters continue to
influence China’s international relations.
As communist ideology weakens and capitalism
strengthens, leaders use nationalism to rally government
support.
Cultural and ethnic homogeneity have prevented
widespread communal violence.
–
Exception is in border regions with large concentration of
minorities.
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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE
 Implications for Comparative Politics
•
In comparison with communist party-states and developing
nations:
–
–
–
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Communist party-states —A type of nation-state in which
the Communist Party attempts to exercise a complete
monopoly on political power and controls all important state
institutions.
China is part of Third World according to standard of living
measurements, but record of economic growth exceeds other
developing countries.
Educational and health levels are comparatively good.
China has not embraced democracy like other developing
countries.
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SECTION 2
POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 State and Economy
•
By 1949, China’s economy was suffering from one hundred years
of rebellion, invasion, civil war, and bad government.
–
Communist Party stabilized and revitalized economy
o
–
When production restored, moved to Soviet model
o
o
–
Private ownership and capitalism allowed to continue
Command economy—government controlled production and
distribution of goods and services.
Five Year Plan yielded results but grew bureaucracy and inequalities.
Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution embodied Maoist
approach to economic development.
o
Mao economy plagued by political interference, poor management,
and ill-conceived projects.
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 China Goes to Market
•
Under Deng, politics and ideology second to economic goals
–
–
Introduced capitalist-style free market policies
Redefined role of Communist Party in governing economy
o
•
Individuals encouraged to work harder and more efficiently to
make money
In most sectors government no longer dictates.
–
Prices set according to supply and demand.
o
–
Competition between state-owned and non-state-owned firms
Communist Party encourages private business.
o
o
o
State-owned enterprises still exist; e.g., steel, petroleum.
Private businesses—sometimes called “red capitalists”
encouraged to join Communist Party
Private sector is largest and fastest growing in economy.
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 China Goes to Market (Cont’d)
•
•
•
Fastest growing major economy for three decades
Consumer revolution, new middle and upper classes
Officially, socialist market economy, not fully free market
–
Socialist market economy—Refers to country’s current economic
system. It is meant to convey the mix of state control (socialism) and
market forces (capitalism) that China is now following in its quest for
economic development. The implication is that socialism will promote
equality, while the market (especially the profit motive) will encourage
people to work hard and foreign companies to invest.
– In theory, market subordinate to state and party
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 Remaking the Chinese Countryside
•
•
1949: Communist Party launched land reform program.
1950 : Peasants were reorganized into collectives and
communes.
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•
Crops sold to state at low fixed price
Agricultural production and living standards stagnant 1957–
1977
Deng abolished collective farming and established household
responsibility system, which is still in effect.
–
Household responsibility system—System in which major
decisions about agricultural production are made by
individual farm families based on the profit motive rather than
by a people’s commune or the government.
o
–
Long-term contracts, move to privatize
Sharp increase in productivity and income
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 Society and Economy
•
Chinese society made more diverse and open by market reform
and globalization
–
•
Economic change also caused social problems.
–
•
Free to choose jobs, travel, practice religious beliefs, and so on
Crime, prostitution, drug use
Economic reform changed social welfare system.
–
Maoist economy characterized by iron rice bowl—provided
guarantees of lifetime employment, income, and basic cradle-tograve benefits to most urban and rural workers.
•
Breaking of iron rice bowl
o
Reformers believed that such guarantees were costly and poor
motivators and so income and employment are no longer
guaranteed.

Rural social services safety net disappearing

Public health system, once a model, now in shambles
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 Society and Economy (Cont’d)
•
Market reforms opened cities to rural immigrants.
–
–
o
•
Floating population of migrant workers is filling important role
but burdening housing and social services.
Population no longer constrained by limits to internal movement
Opportunities for corruption
Market reforms and economic boom created inequalities between
urban and rural areas.
–
Sustainable development is part of party-state’s current
emphasis on “harmonious socialist society”—emphasizes not
only achieving a higher average standard of living for the whole
country, but also a more equitable distribution of income and
social services.
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 Society and Economy (Cont’d)
•
Gender inequalities have also increased.
–
•
Although china has one of the world’s highest rates of female
participation in the urban workforce, women are in lower-paid and
subordinate positions in the work force.
China has unique and stringent population policy.
–
One-child policy
o
o
o
Positive incentive: More farmland or preferred housing for one-child
households
Negative: Fines and loss of jobs; forced abortion, sterilization, female
infanticide and abandonment of female babies (to make sure their one
child is a son and heir)
Exception: Two children, if first is a girl; Tibet can have four children
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 Society and Economy (Cont’d)
•
Population policy results in unusual gender imbalance.
–
–
•
120:100 males to females
Extreme gender imbalance likely to cause rise in social instability,
violent crime, and gang formation.
Economic boom also created enormous opportunities for
corruption.
–
Consumer product safety and quality control in Chinese exports
o
•
Economic growth has damaged environment.
–
•
Involving toys, pet food, tires, tooth paste, and powdered milk
Loss of arable land, water shortages, and deforestation
China has become leader in development of alternative clean
energy, including wind and solar power.
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
 China in the Global Economy
•
China was not a major trading nation in 1978.
–
•
China is now second largest trading nation.
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•
Enormous growth but lack of effective regulation in many sectors
China mostly imports industrial machinery, high-level technology
and scientific equipment, iron and steel, and raw materials.
Net importer of oil due to energy demands
Foreign investment has also skyrocketed.
–
•
Became one of Deng’s major goals
Huge domestic market: For example—Coca-Cola, General
Motors, Starbucks, Wal-Mart, and Philip Morris.
Economic growth, expanding trade and investment, and vast
resource base has made China a rising economic superpower.
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POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
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SECTION 3
GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 Organization of the State
•
China is one of five remaining communist party-states.
–
•
Chinese Communist Party claims only it can govern in best
interests of entire nation.
–
•
Characterized by Communist Party domination of all government
and social institutions, official Marxist-Leninist ideology, state
control of economy
Still asserts it is building socialism with goal of egalitarian and
classless society
Constitution states underlying principles of party-state.
–
–
–
States under “leadership of Communist Party of China”
Defines China as “a socialist state under the people’s democratic
dictatorship.”
Implies democratic rights and privileges, but gives Communist
Party authority to repress opposition to socialism or party
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 Organization of the State (Cont’d)
•
Officially Marxism-Leninism still important to party-state
–
–
–
•
Mao adapted Marxism-Leninism to China by emphasizing role of
peasants in revolution.
Communist Party admits Mao made mistakes but praises “Mao
Zedong Thought.”
Communist ideology still provides framework for governance and
policymaking.
Constitution is more political statement than governing document.
–
Changes reflect political changes and reflect ideology of
prevailing party leadership.
o
o
Mao era: Stressed class struggle and continuing revolution
Current: Emphasizes national unity and economic development
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 CCP Organization (Cont’d)
•
National Party Congress and Central Committee are highest
bodies of the Chinese Communist Party according to its
constitution.
–
National Party Congress meets one week every five years.
o
o
o
o
–
More symbolic than substantive
Approves decisions made by top leaders
Little debate or contested voting
Not a legislative check
Central Committee meets annually for one week.
o
o
Members elected for five year term by National Party Congress

Secret ballot but limited choice

Composition controlled by top leaders
Significant gathering of party elite

Arena for political maneuvering and decision making
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 CCP Organization (Cont’d)
•
The most powerful political organizations in China’s
communist party-state are the two small executive bodies at
the very top of the CCP’s structure: the Politburo (Political
bureau; 25 members) and Standing Committee (9 members).
–
•
Elected by Central Committee under carefully controlled and
secretive conditions
Chairman of the Standing Committee was top position in party
prior to 1982.
–
Title was abolished in 1982 to symbolize break with Mao’s
style of leadership.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 CCP Organization (Cont’d)
•
General secretary is party’s leader.
–
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–
•
Top leaders are well-educated.
–
•
Presides over Politburo and Standing Committee
Governs as part of collective leadership
Position held by Jiang Xemins (1989-2002) and Hu Jintao
(2002 to present)
Evidence of shift from revolutionary leaders to technocrats
Politboro and Standing Committee not accountable to Central
Committee or any other institution
–
–
Operations are secretive.
Leaders work and live in heavily guarded and walled
compound called Zhongnanhai (“Middle and Southern
Seas”).
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 CCP Organization (Cont’d)
•
•
Secretariat
–
Manages daily work of Politburo and Standing Committee
–
Coordinates party’s structure
–
Authority in organizational and personnel matters
Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI)
–
Monitors members’ compliance with Communist Party’s
constitution and rules
–
Recently used to fight corruption
–
Minor offenses get reprimand or probation while serious
offenses are turned over to the courts.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 CCP Organization (Cont’d)
•
Subnationally the Communist Party has hierarchy of local
organizations.
–
–
Each is headed by party secretary and party committee.
Primary organizations are called branches.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 PRC Organization
•
National People’s Congress (NPC) is top government
authority.
–
–
National legislature
Formally elects president and vice president
o
•
Only one candidate is chosen by Communist Party for each
position.
President’s term is five years, concurrent with the congress,
with two-term limit.
–
–
–
As China’s head of state, meets and negotiates with other
world leaders.
President has always been high-ranking communist leader.
Position of Vice president is used to groom next leader.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 PRC Organization (Cont’d)
•
Premier (prime minister) has authority over bureaucracy and
policy implementation.
–
Appointed by president, although with the approval of the
National People’s Congress.
o
–
•
In reality, chosen by communist party leadership
Five year term with two-term limit
Premier directs State Council —much like cabinet in
parliament; size is determined by changing policy needs.
–
–
Most State Council members run functionally-specific
departments, such as Ministry of Education.
Super-ministries coordinate policies on complex issues, such
as National Energy Commission.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 PRC Organization (Cont’d)
•
Bureaucracy is immense.
–
Not all cadres are party members.
o
–
o
Cadre—A person who occupies a position of authority in a
communist party-state; cadres may or may not be Communist
Party members.
Two-term limit for all cadres, include party and state
–
Moves toward professionalizing bureaucracy
o
Increasing education level, civil service exams, mandatory retirement
between 60 and 70
Policy process influenced by cadre list, or nomenklatura
o
Nomenklatura —A system of personnel selection under which the
Communist Party maintained control over appointment of officials in
all spheres of social, economic, and political life.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 Other State Institutions
 The Judiciary
•
Four tiered system with Supreme People’s Court at top
–
•
Supreme People’s Court supervises lower courts and application
of country’s laws.
–
•
High (provincial), intermediate (city), and (grassroots)
county/township levels
Hears few cases and does not exercise judicial review
Judicial system accused of elitism and revisionism during Cultural
Revolution.
–
Many functions handled by political or police organizations,
which acted arbitrarily
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 The Judiciary (Cont’d)
•
Legal system has been revitalized.
–
•
Increased number of lawsuits have been filed and won against
businesses, local officials, government agencies.
–
–
•
Legal advisory offices have been established.
Courts provide avenue for non-political grievances.
Citizen mediation committees settle civil cases out of court.
Criminal justice works swiftly and harshly.
–
–
–
Outcome of cases that come to trial usually predetermined
Prison terms are long with only cursory appeal.
Variety of cases subject to capital punishment
o
o
Death sentences must be approved by Supreme People’s
Court.

Review has become more rigorous.
Statistics are officially a state secret.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 The Judiciary (Cont’d)
•
Judicial independence guaranteed in constitution but actually
under party control
–
–
•
•
Appointments subject to party approval
Party bends laws to serve its own interests.
Legal reform undertaken to ensure economic development
Rule by law: party-state uses law to carry out its policies and
enforce its rule.
–
Different from rule of law—everyone and every organization
including the Communist Party, is accountable and subject to
the law.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 Subnational Government
•
•
Unitary state in which national government exercises a high
degree of control over other levels of government
Four main layers below central government
–
Provinces, cities, counties, and rural towns
•
Four centrally-administered cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin,
and Chongqing) and five autonomous regions with large
minority populations
–
Each level has people’s congress that meets infrequently.
•
Central government retains considerable power to intervene in
local affairs when and where it wants.
–
Control over military and the police, the tax system, critical
energy resources, and construction of major infrastructure
projects
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 The Military and the Police
•
People’s Liberation Army (PLA), which encompasses
ground, air, and naval armed services is led by Communist
Party of China.
–
–
–
•
World’s largest military force
Military Service Law allows conscription of men and women
eighteen to twenty-two.
Service is considered prestigious.
Central Military Commission (CMC) is in charge of armed
forces.
–
Twelve Members; ten of whom are highest-ranking officers of
the PLA; the other two are the PRC president (Hu Jintao) and
the CCP general secretary (Xi Jinping).
o
Chair of CMC is commander in chief of China’s armed forces.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 The Military and the Police (Cont’d)
•
Internal security consists of several organizations.
–
–
–
People’s Armed Police (PAP): guards public officials and
buildings, some border patrol, public disturbances
Ministry of State Security: Combats espionage, gathers
intelligence
Ministry of Public Security: prevention and investigation of
crimes, surveillance of citizens and foreigners
o
o
In addition to regular prisons, maintains labor reform camps
(laogai) for those convicted of serious crimes.
Moreover, administers “reeducation through labor (laojiao)
centers for petty criminals, juvenile delinquents, prostitutes,
small scale drug users, as well as political and religious
dissidents.

Accused can be held for up to three years without formal
charge or trial.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 The Policy-Making Process
•
•
•
Policy-making under Mao seen as simple, top-down “Mao-incommand.”
During Cultural Revolution, policy resulted from factional and
ideological struggles between political elite.
Currently “fragmented authoritarianism”
–
Fundamentally an authoritarian state, but power is more
fragmented than it was under Mao
o
o
–
Decentralization of power that accompanied economic reform has
given more clout to provincial and local governments.
Focus on economic development has also led to growing influence of
nonparty experts and organizations in the policy-making loop.
Policymaking still controlled by Communist Party
o
Those that sit on Politboro wield much nearly unchecked power.
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GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING
 The Policy-Making Process (Cont’d)
•
Party leadership is balance between two coalitions:
–
–
–
Elitists—give priority to rapid economic growth and investment in
major cities
Populists—believe more attention needs to be paid to
consequences of growth
o
The two coalitions operate in a kind of “check-and-balance” mode
when it comes to allocating leadership positions and making policy
decisions.
•
Guanxi (connections) play an important role in the
policy process.
Depending on how they are used, they can either help cut red
tape or feed corruption.
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SECTION 4
REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Introduction
•
Chinese Communist Party describes China as socialist
democracy—providing democracy for the overwhelming majority
of people and suppressing (or exercising dictatorship over) only the
enemies of the people.
–
–
–
•
Chinese Communist Party believes this is better than democracy
dominated by wealth.
Based on role of Chinese Communist Party as only ruling party
Not to be confused with social democracy
Representation and participation play important, but limited role.
–
Allow citizens to influence policymaking and selection of some
government leaders
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 The Legislature
•
Constitution gives National People’s Congress powers.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Enact and amend laws, approve and monitor budget, declare and
end war, elect and approve officials
Powers only exercised as allowed by the Communist Party
Unicameral legislature that meets two weeks every March
When not in session, state power is exercised by its 150-member
Standing Committee (not to be confused with the CCP Standing
Committee) (called deputies), which convenes every other month.
Members are elected for five-year terms on geographic basis.
Size set prior to elections
Chosen because of ability to contribute to modernization or
represent important constituencies
Never addresses sensitive political issues, but increasingly active
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Political Parties and the Party System
 The Chinese Communist Party
•
Grown steadily since it came to power in 1949
–
–
•
Membership dropped only during Cultural Revolution due to
purges
“Vanguard” party that only admits those truly dedicated to
communist cause
Claims to represent interests of majority of Chinese
–
–
Membership provides access to influence and resources.
Actively recruiting from “new social stratum”
o
o
Party wants to broaden social base to include group on cutting
edge of economic development.
Membership to CCP remains a prerequisite for advance in
many careers.
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 China’s Noncommunist “Democratic Parties”
•
Eight officially recognized noncommunist parties
–
–
–
–
Called “democratic parties” to signify role of representing
different interests in political process
Each draws membership from a particular group.
All founded before Communist Party came to power
None contest for power or challenge Communist Party policy,
but members may take government positions
o
o
•
Provide advice to Communist Party
Generate support for Communist Party policies
New political parties are not allowed to form.
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Elections
•
Elections are used to give legitimacy to party-state.
–
–
•
Most elections are indirect
–
•
•
•
People allowed to participate in political process under controlled
circumstances
Increasingly more democratic
Members of one body elect those who will serve in next higher
body.
Direct elections most common at village level, although some
experiments at township level
Communist Party wants to prevent elections from becoming
forum for dissent.
Citizens do not have control over real power.
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Political Culture, Citizenship, and Identity
 From Communism to Consumerism
•
Communist Party continues to influence public opinion and
socialization to keep communist ideology visible.
–
Controlling media and education
o
o
o
–
–
•
Media more open but no true freedom
Political study still required but less emphasis.
Academic freedom increased but not seriously critical or
independent thinking

Teachers and students monitored for political reliability
Less direct influence in arts although party and state
censorship powerful
Censors challenged by Internet
Web access controlled by licensing, policing organization
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 From Communism to Consumerism (Cont’d)
•
Alternative sources of socialization growing
–
–
•
Often not in political forms due to threat of repression
Statues of folk gods, extended kinship groups, popular
culture, consumerism
Organized religion increasing
–
Freedom of religion guaranteed in China’s constitution
o
–
–
–
Party constitution modified 2007 to mention religion
Still closely controlled and limited
Clergy who defy authority are still imprisoned.
Chinese Catholic Church is prohibited from recognizing the
authority of the pope.
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Citizenship and National Identity
•
Chinese cultural identity strong, but national identity
transforming
–
Appeals to socialist goals and revolution no longer inspire
loyalty.
o
o
–
Patriotic themes, greatness of Chinese culture being used
Party-state highlights its role in economic achievements and
return of territories
Sensitive to perceived slights to national identity
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 China’s Non-Chinese Citizens
•
China is multinational state.
–
Fifty-six recognized ethnic groups
o
–
•
Minority population small, geographically isolated, limited
unrest
Minorities concentrated in five autonomous regions
–
–
All strategically located, some resource-rich, poor
Chinese constitution grants limited self-government to these
areas
o
o
•
Chinese majority called the Majority Han
Effort to recruit and promote minority cadres
Head of Communist Party in all regions is Han
Most extensive ethnic conflict in Tibet
–
Under Chinese military occupation since 1950s
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Interest Groups, Social Control, and Citizen Protest
•
Independent interest groups and social movements not permitted
to influence political process
–
o
Communist Party supports mass organizations, allowing interest
groups to express views on policy.
Mass organizations—Organizations in a communist party-state that
represent the interests of a particular social group, such as workers or
women but which are controlled by the communist party.

•
Two of the most important are:

All-China Women’s Federation—women’s advocate from
domestic violence to economic rights

All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU)—individual
workers with grievances against management; although
first loyalty is to Communist Party
New technologies make it difficult for China’s party-state to monitor
citizens as closely as in the past.
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REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
 Protest and the Party-State
•
Tiananmen Square response of 1989 meant as signal that
neither political protest or autonomous interest groups would
be tolerated.
–
•
Repression has not stopped all protests.
–
•
Few large scale demonstrations since
Countryside has seen upsurge of protests over corruption, exorbitant
taxes, and extralegal fees, and the government’s failure to pay on
time for agricultural products it has purchased.
Although people are much freer, repression can still be intense.
–
Public political dissent is almost nonexistent.
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SECTION 5
CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 Political Challenges and Changing Agendas
 Scenes from the Chinese Countryside
•
Each rural area presents different picture of China.
 Huaxi, Jiangsu province
•
Richest suburb; well off; looks like American suburb
–
Grown from small, poor agricultural town by developing
industrial and commercial enterprises that are run by
residents and employ labor hired from outside
 Changwu, Shaanxi province
•
Persistent poverty; average income less than $100/yr
–
–
Residents are mostly older women as men and young
women have gone to look for work in towns and cities.
Education, health care, and other social services are
minimal or nonexistent.
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 Nanhu, Sandong province
•
Typical village; Per capita income about $1000/yr
–
–
–
Paved roads and public buses link the village to nearest
town where children go to school.
Most men work in factories; women tend the fields.
Village has leased out some of its land to expanding
businesses from town in hopes to create jobs.
 Zhaiqiao, Zhejiang province
•
Village brought to media attention due to violence and
possible cover-up when outspoken leader was crushed
to death not far from his home.
–
Government responds to public opinion.
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 Beiwang, Hebei Province
•
One of first villages with representative assembly,
democratically-elected local officials
–
Reassigned contracts for tending village trees
o
o
o
•
Changed from equal distribution to small number who
would be more efficient and productive
At first, Communist Party refused to approve but
eventually agreed under pressure.
New system proved successful.
Politics is not always national or international; people
can prevail.
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 Economic Management, Social Tension, and
Political Legitimacy
•
China’s leaders being challenged to sustain and manage
economic growth
–
–
Communist Party believes continued strong economic
performance will buy it legitimacy and keep citizens out of
national politics.
Failure to control inequality and inability to provide
opportunities for advancement could cause social instability.
o
–
–
Government must provide jobs for those laid off by state-owned
enterprises plus new entrants.
Must nurture private sector while bureaucracy creating
obstacles
Corruption is pervasive, public health poor, no social security
system.
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 China and the Democratic Idea
•
China has also slipped on World Bank’s voice and
accountability and rule of law indicators.
–
•
•
“Market-Leninism” combines economic openness and
political rigidity.
As Chinese conditions improve they will likely become more
politically active.
Reasons for pessimism about Chinese democracy
–
–
–
–
–
History of bureaucratic and authoritarian rule
Hierarchical values of Confucian culture
Communist Party remains coercive.
Low standard of living, large population, poverty, statedominated media and communications
Many Chinese apathetic about politics
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 China and the Democratic Idea (Cont’d)
•
Reasons for optimism about Chinese democracy
–
–
•
Success in Taiwan
High literacy rate, extensive industrialization, burgeoning
middle class, and economic growth
Changes could be harbingers of democracy
–
–
–
–
–
–
Increased autonomy of local governments
Term limits and retirement age for officials
Increasing role of National People’s Congress in
policymaking
Introduction of competitive elections
Depoliticalization of legal system
Resurgence of civil society—refers to space occupied by
voluntary associations outside the state.
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 Chinese Politics in Comparative Perspective
 China as a Communist Party-State
•
China is an interesting comparative case for two reasons:
–
Can be compared with other communist party-states
o
o
o
–
Can be compared with developing nations
o
•
Shared basic features of totalitarianism political system
Totalitarianism—state attempts to exercise total control over
all aspects of public and private life, including the economy,
culture, education, and social organizations, through an
integrated system of ideological, economic, and political control.
China is much less totalitarian today than during Maoist era.
Similar economic and political situations
PRC is now a “consultative authoritarian regime”
–
–
Recognizes need to obtain information, advice, and support
Still bent on suppressing dissent
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CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION
 China as a Third World State
•
When Chinese Communist Party came to power, China was
poor.
–
–
•
Economy devastated by world war and civil strife
In a weak and subordinate position in world order
China has made progress in improving standard of living,
building strong state, and enhancing international role.
–
–
China’s rulers have been successful at creating a
developmental state—Government power and public policy
used effectively to promote economic growth.
In contrast, some third world countries have served narrow
class of foreign interests more than national interests
resulting in predatory states—preying on their people and
nation’s resources to enrich the few at the expense of the
many.
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