Understanding Food
Chapter 14:
Meat
Types of Meats

Beef
Cattle are classified according to age and
gender.
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Steers are male cattle that have been castrated while young
so that they will gain weight quickly.
Bulls are older uncastrated males, usually used in processed
meats and pet foods.
Heifers, females that have not borne a calf, are also used
for meat.
Cows are female cattle that have borne calves and this meat
is less desirable than that from steers or heifers.
Types of Meats
Veal comes from calves of beef cattle,
either male or female, between the ages
of three weeks and three months.

Calves three to eight months old are too
old for veal and too young for beef.
Types of Meats
Lamb and Mutton

Lamb comes from sheep less than fourteen months
old.

Mutton from those over fourteen months.
Pork

Derived from young swine of either gender
slaughtered at between seven and twelve months of
age.
Composition of Meats

Structure of Meat
Meats are composed of a combination of:

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Water
Muscle
Connective tissue
Adipose (fatty) tissue
Bone
Composition of Meats

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Collagen: A pearly white, tough, and fibrous
protein that provides support to muscle and
prevents it from over-stretching.
Marbling: Fat deposited in the muscle that
can be seen as little white streaks or drops.
Composition of Meats

The animal’s
age, diet, and
species affect
the color and
texture of fat.
Composition of Meats
Exposure of meat to oxygen changes
the color of myoglobin, and therefore
the meat.
 Cooking meat initially converts the
color of raw meat to bright red.

Composition of Meats

The food industry uses several methods to keep meat
products from turning brown.

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One such method is the addition of nitrites to
processed meats.
Extractives: Flavor compounds consisting of
nonprotein, nitrogen substances that are end-products
of protein metabolism.
Purchasing Meats


To ensure that consumers are purchasing
meat that is safe, federal laws require the
inspection of animal carcasses.
In addition to this mandatory inspection
for safety, meat may also be assigned
yield grades and the later quality grades
to assist consumers in selection.
Purchasing Meats

The Federal Meat
Inspection Act of 1906
made inspection
mandatory for all meat
crossing state lines or
entering the United
States through foreign
commerce.
Purchasing Meats

The grading of meat is not under
government mandate or control, but is a
strictly voluntary procedure that the meat
packer or distributor may have done
under contract with the USDA.
Purchasing Meats

Yield grade: The amount of lean meat on the carcass in proportion to fat,
bone, and other inedible parts.
Purchasing Meats

Tenderness of Meats
Overall, natural meat tenderness is due to factors such
as the cut, age, and fat content.
 Meats can also be treated to make them more
tender.
 Preparation temperatures and times also have an
influence on tenderness.
Purchasing Meats
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Natural Tenderizing
The particular cut of the
meat
Age at slaughter (connective
tissue concentration)
Heredity and diet
Marbling
Slaughtering conditions
Aging
…all play a part in
determining tenderness

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Rigor mortis: From the
Latin for “stiffness of
death,” the temporary stiff
state following death as
muscles contract.
Aging: Ripening that occurs
when carcasses are hung in
refrigeration units for longer
periods than that required
for the reversal of rigor
mortis.
Purchasing Meats

Prior to reaching the
supermarket, a carcass is
divided into about seven
wholesale or primal cuts.
 Wholesale (primal)
cuts: The large cuts of
an animal carcass, which
are further divided into
retail cuts.

These wholesale cuts are
then divided into the retail
cuts purchased by
consumers.
 Retail cuts: Smaller cuts
of meat obtained from
wholesale cuts and sold
to the consumer.
Refer to p. 263 for complete figure.
Purchasing Meats

Variety meats: The liver, sweetbreads (thymus), brain, kidneys, heart,
tongue, tripe (stomach lining), and oxtail (tail of cattle).
Preparation of Meats
Preparation of Meats

Carry-over cooking:
The phenomenon in
which food continues
to cook after it has
been removed from the
heat source as the heat
is distributed more
evenly from the outer
to the inner portion of
the food.
Preparation of Meats
F I G U R E 1 4 - 1 8 Touch as a test for doneness.
Preparation of Meats

Tender cuts are usually prepared by one of the dryheating methods:
 Roasting (baking)
 Broiling
 Grilling
 Panbroiling
 Frying
Preparation of Meats

Less tender cuts of meat are usually
prepared by moist-heat methods such as:
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Braising
Simmering/stewing
Steaming
Microwave ovens are usually not the best
option for cooking meats, except for
thawing and reheating leftovers.
Storage of Meats

Meat contains high percentages of water
and protein, both ideal for the growth of
microorganisms.
 Consequently, meat should be stored in
the refrigerator or freezer.
 Meats are best refrigerated at just
above freezing (32°F/0°C), between
32°F and 36°F (0° to 2°C).
Storage of Meats
Wrapping Meat

Most retail meats are packaged with plastic
wrap and can be refrigerated in their original
wrap for up to two days.
Frozen

Meats to be frozen should be wrapped tightly
in aluminum foil, heavy plastic bags, or freezer
paper and stored at or below 0°F (18°C).
Classification of Poultry


Ready-to-eat poultry is classified according to age and
gender.
Classifications vary from species to species:
 Chickens classified as:
 Broilers
 Fryers, etc.
 Turkeys as:
 Toms
 Hens
Composition of Poultry

The composition of poultry (muscle tissue,
connective tissue, etc.) is similar to meat.
Pigments

Turkeys and chickens have both white and
dark meat.
Purchasing Poultry

In 1968, the Wholesome Poultry
Products Act made inspection of
poultry shipped across state lines
mandatory.
Purchasing Poultry
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The grading of poultry is voluntary and is paid for
by the producer.
Three grades are used: A, B, and C.
The USDA grade shield is used only when the
poultry has been USDA graded.
The criteria used in grading are:
 Conformation
 Fleshing Amount and distribution of fat
 Freedom from blemishes
Purchasing Poultry

Types and Styles of Poultry
“Type” refers to whether it is:
 Fresh
 Frozen
 Cooked
 Sliced
 Canned
 Dehydrated
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“Style” describes the degree
to which it has been cleaned
or processed:
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Live
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Dressed
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Ready-to-cook
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Eviscerate: To remove
the entrails from the
body cavity.
Convenience categories
Purchasing Poultry

Processed Poultry
Processed chicken and turkey are commonly used in:
 Canned or dried soups
 Frozen dinners
 Pot pies
 Sausages
 Hot dogs
 Burgers
 Bologna
Purchasing Poultry
How Much to Buy
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Ready-to-cook poultry contains a good deal of
inedible bone and unwanted fat
A good rule of thumb for most poultry is to buy
1⁄2 pound or slightly more per serving.
One of the most economical ways to buy poultry
is in its ready-to-cook whole state.
Preparation of Poultry
Preparation Safety Tips

As a prelude to preparation, all ready-tocook poultry should be washed inside
and out and then patted dry with paper
towels.
Preparation of Poultry
Thawing
Frozen Poultry

The refrigerator is the
best place to thaw
frozen birds, and its
use requires planning
ahead.
Preparation of Poultry
Changes During Preparation

Properly prepared poultry is tender and
juicy, but overcooking causes the flesh to
become dry, tough, and stringy.
Preparation of Poultry
Determining Doneness
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Poultry should
always be heated
until well done
Doneness may be
determined by
internal temperature,
color changes, and/or
touch and
time/weight tables.
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Poultry is sufficiently
cooked when the internal
temperature reaches 180°
to 185°F (82° to 85°C).
A thermometer placed in
the center of any stuffing
must reach a minimum
temperature of 165°F
(74°C).
Preparation of Poultry
Color Change

.
Oven-roasted chicken or turkey will reach a golden brown
color.
The juices coming out of the bird should run clear.
Touch
 When pressed firmly with one or two fingers, the well-done
bird’s flesh will feel firm.
 White meat may be firmer than dark.
 Wiggle the drumstick
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Preparation of Poultry
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Dry-Heat Preparation
Roasting
Baking
Broiling
Grilling
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Frying
 Sautéed
 Pan-fried
 Deep-fried
 Stir-fried
Preparation of Poultry
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Moist-Heat
Preparation
Braising
 Also called
fricasseeing
Stewing
Poaching
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Microwaving
 The microwave
manufacturers’
instructions should
be followed for
preparing poultry.
Storage of Poultry

Precautions should be taken in the handling of
poultry, because of the possibility of it being
contaminated with bacteria.
Storage of Poultry
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Refrigerated
Fresh, ready-to-cook poultry can be kept safely in the
refrigerator at 40°F (4°C) or below for up to three
days.
It is best kept in the bottom portion of the refrigerator
to prevent its drippings from contaminating other
foods.
Storage of Poultry
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Frozen
Frozen whole poultry can
be stored from six to
twelve months at 0°F
(18°C).
Breaded or fried poultry
should never be thawed
and refrozen.
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Thawing
Defrosting is
recommended in the
refrigerator.
Once defrosted, poultry or
any other meat should not
be refrozen unless it has
been cooked.
Classification of Fish and
Shellfish

Vertebrate
Finfish
 Finfish: Fish that have fins
and internal skeletons.

Invertebrate
Shellfish, which includes the
invertebrate crustaceans and
mollusks.
 Crustacean: An invertebrate
animal with a segmented body
covered by an exoskeleton
consisting of a hard upper shell
and a soft under shell.
 Mollusk: An invertebrate animal
with a soft unsegmented body
usually enclosed in a shell.
Classification of Fish and
Shellfish
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Salt or Fresh Water
Saltwater fish often have a
more distinct flavor than
freshwater fish.
Some saltwater fish:
 Halibut, cod, and
flounder
Some freshwater varieties:
 Catfish, perch, and pike

Lean or Fat
Fish are not very fatty
compared to most other
meats.
Composition of Fish
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Structure of Finfish
Collagen
 Fish are only 3 percent collagen.
Amino Acid Content
 There is less of a certain amino acid (hydroxyproline).
Muscle Structure
 The muscles of fish are shorter (less than an inch in length).
 This contributes to the characteristic flaking of
prepared fish.
Purchasing Fish and Shellfish
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Retailers providing consumers with nutrition
information must abide by the nutrition labeling
values provided by the FDA for fish and shellfish.
Fish processors may submit to inspection and grading
on a voluntary basis.
 The National Marine Fisheries Service of the U.S.
Department of Commerce is responsible for fish
inspections.
Purchasing Fish and Shellfish

Fish can be purchased fresh or frozen as whole, drawn, dressed,
steaks, fillets, and sticks.
Purchasing Fish and Shellfish
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Signs of Decay in Fresh Finfish
Changes that occur in a fish after death are that:
 The eyes flatten and become concave.
 The pupil turns gray or creamy brown.
 The cornea becomes opaque and discolored.
 The bright red gills turn a paler brown.
 Gaping is a sign of aging, or may be a result of
rough handling.
Purchasing Fish and Shellfish
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How Much Fish to Buy
Per Person:
 1⁄3 pound of steaks,
fillets, or sticks
 1⁄2 pound for dressed
 3⁄4 pound for whole or
drawn fish
.
Preparation of Fish and Shellfish
Moist-Heat Preparation
Dry-Heat Preparation
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Baking
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Broiling
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Grilling
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Frying
 Deep-Fat Fried
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Poaching
Simmering
Steaming
 Clambakes are
underground steamings.
Microwaving
Raw Fish
 Sashimi (raw fish)
 X51.ENEMA:
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Storage of Fish and Shellfish
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Fresh fish are best
consumed within a day
or two of purchase.
Fish should be stored in
the coldest portion of
the refrigerator.
It should also be tightly
wrapped to prevent
odors from coming in
contact with other
foods.
Fresh Shellfish


Fresh shellfish should
be eaten the day they
are bought.
Crabs, usually sold
precooked, should be
stored in the coldest
part of the refrigerator
and used within a day
or two.
Storage of Fish and Shellfish

Frozen
Freezing greatly extends the keeping time of fish
that, depending on the type, can be stored in the
freezer up to nine months.
Thawing
 Fish is best thawed by transferring it from the
freezer to the refrigerator one day before
preparation.
 Canned and Cured