CHAPTER
11
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Barry W. Lavay
Chapter 11 Specific Learning Disabilities
Chapter Outline
• Definitions
• Causes
• Incident rates
• Common characteristics
• General educational approaches
• Guidelines for teaching physical education
and sport
Assisting Calvin in PE
• Read the scenario of Calvin at the start of
chapter 11.
• Identify behaviors and list key challenges
that Calvin faces in Mr. Santos’ class.
• Based on these challenges, list and discuss
teaching methods and programming
strategies that Mr. Santos can use to help
Calvin have a positive PE experience.
What Is Learning Disability?
A disorder with these primary characteristics:
• Problems with written language and in mastering
academic areas, particularly reading
• Can’t be caused by cultural differences, lack of
educational opportunities, poverty, or other
disabilities
• Inability to store, process, and produce information
in the central nervous system
• Can’t be the result of other conditions but might
coexist with other conditions, such as ADHD and
DCD
Learning Disability Defined
“Specific learning disability” means a disorder in
one or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, that might manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write,
spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term
includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities,
brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia. The term does not include a
learning problem that is primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation;
or of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage. (IDEA, 2004)
Unexpected Underachievement
• Educationally significant discrepancy exists
between measured intellectual potential and actual
academic achievement.
• Discrepancy means a difference between ability
and actual achievement and is sometimes referred
to as unexpected underachievement.
• Individual has normal intelligence (IQ).
(continued)
Unexpected Underachievement
(continued)
• Academic performance lags behind peers; does not
perform at grade level.
•
Difficulty learning in traditional ways.
Summary: Influences how individuals learn and not
how well they learn.
(Kavale & Forness, 2000; Smith, 2007)
Learning Disability:
The Hidden Disability
• No easily identifiable physical signs exist.
• Based on dysfunction to the CNS that is
not visible.
(continued)
Learning Disability:
The Hidden Disability (continued)
•
Difficulty with the following is a possible indication
of a learning problem:
—Remembering newly learned information
—Expressing thoughts orally or in writing
—Understanding information presented
—Following directions and routines
—Moving from one activity to the next
Summary: Learning disabilities cannot be cured or go
away and can present lifelong challenges to
children and their families.
Individuals With Learning Disability
and Coexisting Disabilities
•
Many children with LD display
comorbidity, meaning the disability
coexists with other conditions:
1. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
2. Developmental coordination disorder (DCD)
•
ADHD and DCD alone are not recognized
as distinct disability categories under
IDEA; they do not qualify for special
education services.
What Is ADHD?
Children with ADHD are easily distracted by irrelevant
stimuli and frequently shift from one incomplete
activity to the next. Inattention occurs in academic,
occupational, or social situations and is more
difficult to observe than hyperactivity (APA, 2000).
The condition is divided into three subtypes:
1. Combined type
2. Predominantly inattentive type
3. Predominantly hyperactive–impulsive type
What Is DCD?
• An individual’s performance in daily activities is substantially
below that expected of age and IQ.
• The motor deficiency interferes with academic achievement
activities of daily living.
• Motor deficiency can’t be caused by a general medical
condition such as CP, MD, or PDD.
• If mental retardation is present, the motor difficulties must be
in excess of those associated alone with this disability (APA,
2000).
Summary: DCD is often operationalized as an individual being
two standard deviations below age norms on a standardized
motor test.
Suspected Causes
of LD, ADHD, and DCD
Complex, multidimensional, and the
culmination of many problems:
• LD: The most common theory is that it is a
neurological condition, such as the
existence of CNS dysfunction in producing,
processing, and storing information.
• ADHD: Many believe it to be primarily an
interaction of neurological, genetic, and
psychosocial factors (CHAAD, 2008).
Incidence of LD, ADHD, and DCD
Learning disability (LD)
• Affects 40%-50%, or the largest special education
category; 5%, or 2.9 million students.
• State-to-state and district-to-district statistics can
vary, ranging from 1.7% to 5.8%.
• High percentage of children with LD, ranging from
25% to 50%, also display ADHD (CHADD, 2008).
(continued)
Incidence of LD, ADHD, and DCD
(continued)
Attention deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD)
• Affects 3% to 7% of school-aged children, with
estimates reported as high as 20% (APA, 2000).
Developmental coordination disorder (DCD)
• Affects as many as 6% of children aged 6 to 11
years (APA, 2000).
Teaching Physical Education
to Children With a Specific LD,
ADHD, or DCD
Characteristics Presenting Unique
Challenges to LD, ADHD, and DCD
• Heterogeneous group.
• Movement characteristics or behaviors vary
from skilled movers to developmental
delays.
• Exhibit a wide range of physical, cognitive,
and social behaviors that affect movement.
• Common physical, cognitive, and social
characteristics are described on page 222.
Unique Behaviors and Programming
•
Consider the wide spectrum of behaviors
for individuals with LD, ADHD, and DCD
with implications for teaching.
•
For example, ask yourself the following:
– What are the student’s strengths, and how does
this individual learn best?
– Why does the student have difficulty performing
certain skills, and what can I do to help?
•
How would you teach based on these
behaviors?
Physical Characteristics
That Affect Movement
•
•
•
•
•
Marked developmental delay
Difficulty with motor planning
Skill sequencing difficulty
Spatial difficulties
Extraneous movements not performed in a
smooth and efficient manner
• Inability to control movements
• Inconsistency in skill performance
Cognitive Characteristics
That Affect Movement
• Information-processing difficulties
• Perceptual and sensory difficulties
• Language and thinking delays
• Uneven academic achievement
• Difficulty completing and solving tasks
in allotted time
• Failure to pay attention to details
Social Characteristics
That Affect Movement
• Poor self-concept
• Impulsive—acting before thinking
• Hyperactive
• Easily distracted
• Short attention span
• Easily frustrated
General Educational Approaches
•
Physical educators can support and
collaborate effectively with other
professionals to meet student needs.
•
No universally supported approach but
rather several that can include these:
1. Multisensory
2. Behavior management
3. Multifaceted
Specific Recommendations
for Physical Education and Sport
•
•
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•
•
•
•
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Safety
Medication
Behavior management
Ecological task analysis
Perceptual–motor development
Inclusion
Learning through movement
Relaxation
Youth sport
Safety First and Foremost
• Be aware of any potentially harmful
activities; periodically check all facilities
and equipment.
• Use developmentally appropriate equipment
(age, body type, and skill level).
• Avoid unstructured physical activity
designed to blow off steam.
(continued)
Safety First and Foremost (continued)
• Allow time to motor plan; perform skills under
control and at a slower rate.
• Identify students taking medication.
• Safeguard against physical and psychological
harm.
• Design the program to promote cooperation and
positive interaction among students.
Medication
• Identification
• Schedule
• Type, dosage, and side effects
• Rebound effect
• Drug holidays
• See also medication sidebar in the text
(page 225).
Behavior Management
Emphasize student success and provide a positive
experience by organizing the environment with
instructional strategies.
• Class structure: Use consistent rules, routines, and
clear transitions.
• Class organization: Eliminate irrelevant stimuli;
keep students active and on task.
• Teaching prompts or cues: Keep directions simple;
avoid providing too much information.
• Give positive feedback for student’s efforts and for
staying on task.
Ecological Task Analysis (ETA)
The movement skill, form, and performance
outcome are all the results of the dynamic
interactions or constraints among the
1. task,
2. conditions or environmental situation, and
3. performer.
Summary: Be a careful observer of movement
and be able to task analyze skills.
Inclusion
The majority of students with LD, ADHD, and
DCD are taught in a general physical
education class with peers without
disabilities.
• Peer-tutor programs
• Reciprocal teaching
Learning Through Movement
or Interdisciplinary Teaching
Movement activities taught in physical education can be
integrated into other subject areas throughout the school
curriculum (Cone, Werner, Cone, & Woods, 1998).
• Helps in learning abstract concepts.
• Movement promotes active rather than passive involvement in
learning.
• Movement is a natural medium for kinesthetic learners.
• Movement can be used to stimulate expression and
communication.
• Learning is reinforced in a fun and meaningful way.
• Helps to foster collaboration among professionals.
Relaxation
• Socially appropriate way to control
emotions when upset or to handle stressful
situations.
• Use when students lose focus, become too
excited, or encounter a stressful situation.
• End class with relaxation in the form of a
cool-down or closure activity.
• Methods used in physical education can
include progressive relaxation, yoga, tai chi,
static stretching, imagery, or impulsecontrol games.
Youth Sport
•
•
•
•
•
Students with learning disabilities can experience the same
benefits as their peers without disabilities.
Find a developmentally age-appropriate sport the student
enjoys.
An individual sport such as dance, karate, tennis, or
swimming might be a better selection than a team sport.
Proper coach selection is critical.
Parents can assist the coach by providing such information
as the child’s
1. unique behaviors and strategies for overcoming them,
2. unique medical considerations,
3. reinforcements that motivate, and
4. learning strategies that work best.
Important Questions to Ask
To enhance instruction, physical educators can ask the
following questions:
• What are the student’s strengths and needs?
• How does this student best learn?
• How can I as the teacher change the environment and the task
to help this student learn?
• What approaches and programs are already in place for this
student at school and at home?
• What support systems will I need, and how will I work to get
them?
• How can I collaborate with others to ensure this student’s
success?
Helpful Organizations
• Children and Adults with Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD):
www.chadd.org
• Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD):
www.cldinternational.org
• Division on Learning Disabilities (DLD)
within the Council for Exceptional Children
(CEC): www.cec.sped.org; see also
www.teachingld.org