Introduction:
- An Operating System is a program that
acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware. i.e.
a control program that controls the
execution of user programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer.
- The purpose of an OS is to provide an
environment in which a user can execute
programs.
- Primary goal is make the computer system
convenient to use.
- Secondary goal is to use the computer
hardware in an efficient way.
- A computer system can be divided into 4
components:
+ Hardware (CPU, memory, I/O:
provides the basic computing resources)
+ Operating System (controls and
coordinates the use of the H/W among the
various application programs for the
various users)
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+ Application programs (compilers,
DBs, games, business programs: define the
ways in which these resources are used to
solve the users computing problems)
+ Users (people, machines, other
computers trying to solve different
problems)
Banking
Airline
Web
system reservation browser
Compilers Editors
Command
Interpreter
Operating system
Machine language
Microprogramming
Physical devices
- We can view an OS as a resource
allocator, which acts as manger of
resources (H/W: physical resources; S/W:
logical resources) and tries to allocate
them to specific programs and users as
necessary for tasks.
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- Another view of an OS focuses on the
need to control the various I/O devices and
user programs.
- In general, there is no completely adequate
definition of an OS.
Batch Systems:
- In these systems the user does not interact
directly with the computer systems while
the job is executing.
- He prepares a job ((program + data) and
control cards), and submits it to the
computer operator.
- The OS in these systems was fairly simple.
- To speed up processing, jobs with similar
needs were batched together and run as a
group.
- A batch OS reads a stream of separate jobs
(from card reader), each with its own
control cards that predefine what the job
does.
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- When a job is complete. Its output is
usually printed (on line printer).
- In his execution environment, the CPU is
often idle.
- This idleness occurs because the speeds of
the mechanical I/O devices are slower than
those of electronic devices. (CPU works
(1000s of instruction per second, CR,
reads 1200 cards per minute i.e. 17 cards
per second)).
- The relative slowness of the I/O devices
can mean that the CPU is often waiting an
I/O.
- The problem is that: “ while an I/O
operation is occurring, the CPU is idle,
waiting for the I/O to complete, while the
CPU is executing, the I/O devices are
idle.”
- The CPU was still faster than the I/O
devices.
Buffering is used to solve the problem of
slowness of I/O devices.
The idea is:
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“After data has been read and the CPU is
about to start operating on it, the input
device is instructed to begin the next input
immediately”.
The CPU and I/O devices are both busy.
Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral
Operation On-Line)
The introduction of disk technology has
helped in this regard. Essentially uses the
disk as a very large buffer for reading as far
a head as possible on input devices and for
storing output files until the output devices
are able to accept them.
Spooling overlaps the I/O of one job with
the computation of other jobs.
The spooler may be reading the input of one
job while printing the output of different job.
During this time still another job(s) may be
executed.
Spooling can keep both the CPU and I/O
devices working at much higher rates.
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Multiprogramming:( memory partition)
- Spooling provides a very important data
structure: a job pool.
- When several jobs are on a disk, job
scheduling becomes possible.
- The main aspect of job scheduling is the
ability to multiprogram.
- Multiprogramming increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs such that the
CPU always has on to execute.
- The idea:
The OS keeps several jobs in memory
at a time. This set of jobs is the subset of the
jobs kept in the job pool. The OS picks and
begins to execute one. Eventually, the job
may have to wait for some task (I/O
operation to complete). The OS switches to
another job and execute it, when that needs
to wait, the CPU switches to another and so
on. When the 1st job finishes waiting it will
get the CPU back. The CPU will never be
idle as long as there is job to be executed.
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Time Sharing: (multitasking) (Interactive
Systems)
- A time-shared OS allows the many users
to simultaneously share the computer.
- Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU
switching between them executes multiple
jobs; so that, the user may interact with his
program while it is running.
- A time-shared OS uses CPU scheduling
and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time-shared
computer.
- Each user has a separate program in
memory.
- When it executes, it will execute for a
short time before either finishes or needs
I/O. I/O may be interactive (output to
display, input from keyboard). During that
it will switch to another job.
Personal Computer Systems (PCs)
- It is a system that is dedicated to a single
user.
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- The goal of these OSs is: instead of
maximizing CPU and peripheral
utilization, the system chooses maximizing
user convenient and responsiveness.
- CPU utilization is no longer a prime
concern.
Parallel Systems:
- Most systems to date are single-process
systems (i.e. they have only one main
CPU).
- There is a trend toward multiprocessor
systems.
- Such systems have more than one
processor in close communication, sharing
the computer bus, the clock, and
sometimes memory and peripheral
devices.
- These systems are referred as tightly
coupled systems.
- There are several reasons for building such
systems:
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 One advantage is increase throughput:
By increasing the number of processors,
we hope to get more work done in a
shorter period of time.
 Multiprocessors can save money
compared to multiple single systems,
because the processors can share
peripherals, cabinets, and power
supplies.
 Another reason is that, they increase
reliability.
- If functions can be distributed
properly among several processors, then
the failure of one processor will not halt
the system, but rather will only slow it
down.
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Distributed Systems:
- A recent trend in computer system is to
distribute computation among several
processors (sites, nodes, computers)
- The processors do not share memory or a
clock, but each processor has its own local
memory, which communicates with each
others through various communication
lines (high-speed buses and telephone
lines). We call it site (small
microprocessors, workstations, generalpurpose computers)
- These systems are referred as loosely
coupled systems or distributed systems.
- The major reasons for building these
systems are:
+ Resource sharing (user of one site can
use resources of another site)
+ Computation speedup (1. If a problem
computation partitioned sub computation
run concurrently then can distributed
among sites. 2. If one site is overloaded
move some to other sites load-sharing)
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+ Reliability: If one site failed, the other
can continue operating.
+ Communications: If sites are connected
by network, processes can exchange
information between them.
Real-Time Systems:(Special Purpose OS)
- It is used when there are rigid time
requirements on the operation of a process
or the flow of data and used as a control
device.
- Systems that control scientific
experiments, medical imaging, and
industrial control are real-time systems.
- Processing must be dome within the
defined constraints, or the system will fail.
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