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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Asian Americans are the second largest ethnic group in the United States, and
Chinese Americans make up a large number of this group (American FactFinder, 2009).
Moreover, there are more than 76,000 recent Chinese immigrants living in the United
States, according to 2007 demographic statistics, and close to one-third of them were
children (US Department of Commerce, 2009). California is the state with the highest
percentage of Asian Americans (12.5%), after Hawaii (U. S. Census Bureau, 2009). The
2000 census shows that 3.8 million people in California are of Asian origin with 76,655
from China. Additionally, of 210,626 immigrant children in the US, 14,389 of them are
of Chinese origin (US Department of Homeland Security, 2007). Because of the growing
number of immigrants in California, especially Chinese immigrants, American teachers
are facing greater cultural diversity in the classroom, and the challenge goes beyond
language differences (Trumbull, Rothstein-Fisch, Greenfield, & Quiroz, 2001).
Because of the extensive cultural diversity in the US, and particularly in
California, there is the strong potential for cross-cultural conflicts and issues in the
preschool setting. First, researchers have confirmed that cross-cultural value conflicts are
likely to occur when preschool teachers and parents come from different cultures
(Greenfield, Flores, Davis, & Salimkhan, 2008; Lahman & Park, 2004). For instance,
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many new immigrants to the US have collectivist values, which place emphasis on
children learning to be group-oriented; whereas US preschool teachers are likely to have
individualistic values, which place emphasis on children’s individual ideas and free
choices. Second, American preschool teachers’ beliefs, values, and assumptions may
subtly affect their classroom practices in ways that are culturally insensitive to culturally
diverse students. When what parents teach at home is different from what preschool
teachers teach at school, young children can be confused about what to do and not to do.
Third, teachers’ cultural beliefs, values, and assumptions may conflict with those of their
students’ parents and consequently lead to decreased parent involvement or ineffective
parent-teacher communication (Trumbull et al., 2001). Given the challenges of cultural
diversity for preschool teachers, the current project aims to provide American teachers
with an informational handbook focusing on Chinese immigrant families and their
culture. In general, the handbook informs preschool teachers about Chinese parenting
beliefs and practices along with some useful strategies to work with Chinese immigrant
families.
Significance of the Project
The current project is informed by the “bridging cultures” framework and the
“developmental niche” framework, as well as the cross-cultural literature on preschool
education. These frameworks guide the project’s overall conception of cross-cultural
differences in care-giving beliefs and practices, the cultural context of children’s
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development, and the cultural context of preschool beliefs and practices. They also guide
the project’s specific discussion of potential conflicts and misunderstandings between
American preschool teachers and Chinese immigrant parents.
The “Bridging Cultures” Framework
Trumbull et al. (2001), the authors of Bridging Cultures between Home and
School, used individualism and collectivism as the practical framework for understanding
cultural differences. Individualism emphasizes individual autonomy and separateness
from the group while collectivism emphasizes individuals’ strong cohesive ties to a group
and interdependence with members of the group. Trumbull et al. (2001) proposed that
“bridging cultures” is the key factor related to effective communication between parents
and teachers. Therefore, they developed a guidebook and workshops to help teachers of
immigrant students to better understand the cultural orientations of their students’
families. Furthermore, Trumbull et al. provided some suggestions, such as understanding
parents’ points of view, developing closer personal relationships with families, extending
opportunities for parent-teacher interaction, and promoting bicultural proficiency, to help
to promote harmony between teachers and immigrant families.
The two orientations of individualism and collectivism guide different beliefs and
values in schooling and childrearing. The potential conflicts between the two
orientations can be reflected in everyday classroom experiences. For instance, children
from collectivistic families might be taught to stay quiet at school; however, preschool
teachers from an individualistic culture might encourage children to talk and share ideas
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in the classroom. Furthermore, because of the different childrearing beliefs, attitudes and
practices, there can be disagreement between immigrant parents and teachers (Mau,
1997; Peng & Wright, 1994; Rao, McHale, & Pearson, 2003; Steinberg, Lamborn, &
Dombusch, 1992). For instance, researchers have shown that Chinese parents have
higher expectations for their preschool children’s academic achievement and show
greater exertion of parental control compared to American parents. This can also be
related to collectivist orientation because Chinese parents might thought that their
children’s excellence in academic help to bring merit to the family and potentially be a
constructive person to the community. US preschools, on the other hand, put emphasis
on developing children’s verbal skills and developing their ability to make choices (Tobin
et al., 1989). This demonstrates an individualistic orientation in which children are
expected to develop communication skills to express themselves. Given these cultural
differences, US preschool teachers might find it difficult to communicate with Chinese
immigrant parents in order to enhance their Chinese students’ learning. The current
project builds on Trumbull et al.’s work by providing cultural information specific to
Chinese families and suggestions specific to working with Chinese families.
The Developmental Niche Framework
Parents in different cultures have their own set of beliefs and values regarding
children. For example, some parents believe children’s natural ability in learning is more
important than externally helping with children’s development whereas some parents
value the role of parental control and discipline to assist children develop. Parents’
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beliefs about children and socialization goals are part of children’s “developmental
niche”, and the developmental niche concept helps explain how culture shapes child
development (Super & Harkness, 2002). The developmental niche consists of three
subsystems: (a) physical and social settings, (b) childrearing customs, and (c) caregivers’
psychology. These three components interact and influence each other. “Caregivers’
psychology” includes parents’ childrearing beliefs, values, expectations, which these
caregiver ideologies are influenced by the particular physical and social setting and
related to parents’ childrearing customs and practices.
In the US, the dominant group of people are middle-class European-Americans,
who tend to embrace a Western, individualistic culture. Therefore, their main goal is to
prepare their children to become interdependent (Chen et al., 1998; Chiu, 1987; Lin &
Fu, 1990). On the other hand, in China, people value collectivism and are influenced by
Confucianism. Therefore, their main goal is to guide their children to become
interdependence and to value large group’s benefit (Lahman & Park, 2004). Because
parents’ childrearing beliefs and practices have significant impact on children’s
development, it is important for preschool teachers to understand such beliefs and
practices of different cultures (Greenfield et al., 2008; Hsueh & Barton, 2005; Lin & Fu,
1990). For that reason, the current handbook includes a section on cultural variation in
childrearing beliefs and practices.
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Preschool Education in Cross-Cultural Perspective
The cultural orientations of individualism and collectivism also play roles in
preschool education. For instance, preschools in individualistic cultures such as the US
emphasize teaching children to become independent, to form their own opinions and
preferences, and to develop strong verbal skills for self-expression. In contrast,
preschools in collectivistic cultures such as China emphasize the acquisition of national
culture and teaching children to become group members rather than individuals.
In the US, there is not one licensing standard for preschools, and therefore each
state develops its own standards (Allhusen et al., 2006), but in general, the aims of
preschools in the US are to develop children’s creativity, independence, and selfexpression (Pang and Richey, 2007; Phelps, 2005). Therefore, American preschool
teachers provide more opportunities for children to make choices and to express
themselves by using words. Children are also given more free play time daily. In China,
the preschool program is regulated by the Kindergarten Work Regulation (Li, 2006;
Ministry of Education, 1995). Although local education departments may stretch the
regulations, the main aim is for children to develop skills to face and interact positively
with others in the society. Therefore, the Chinese preschool program is influenced by
collectivistic ideas and particularly Confucianism. In addition, preschool classrooms are
teacher-centered, activities are academic-based, and children do not get as much free play
time.
Parents from different cultures have their own set of childrearing beliefs and
values; immigrant parents’ experiences with preschool in other countries may also
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influence their views and expectations about preschool. Therefore, it is essential that
preschool teachers acquire knowledge about preschool education in different cultures.
For that reason, the current handbook also addresses preschool education in different
cultures, with focuses on preschool education in the US and China.
Purpose of the Project
Preschool classrooms are experiencing rapid changes and are becoming more
culturally diverse, especially with the increase of Chinese immigrants. Therefore,
American preschool teachers need to be more culturally sensitive, and they need
resources to assist them in acquiring knowledge about childrearing beliefs and practices
of different cultures, including the Chinese culture. When teachers and parents are
working together towards enhancing children’s development, children can better develop
to their full potential (Greenfield et al., 2008). Unfortunately, many studies have shown
that teachers are not well prepared to work in multicultural classrooms and to
communicate with immigrant parents (Suleiman, 1996). Therefore, the purpose of this
project is to provide American preschool teachers an information handbook focusing on
Chinese culture so that their knowledge of Chinese culture, beliefs, and values will be
increased. Moreover, the goal is for the handbook to help American teachers become
more culturally sensitive when working with recent Chinese immigrant families as well
as decrease the difficulty of dealing with cultural-related conflicts.
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The contents of the handbook will include chapters that describe individualism
and collectivism; why it may be difficult for American preschool teachers to work with
recent Chinese immigrant families; the differences between American teachers’ and
recent Chinese immigrant parents’ expectations for children’s academic achievement in
preschool; the role of play in Chinese and American cultures; and the different comments
on the amount of adult intervention of children’s daily practices, including sleeping
habits and eating habits. This project is intended to help American preschool teachers to
understand better immigrant Chinese parents’ childrearing beliefs, practices, and
expectations for preschools. American preschool teachers can then more readily develop
a positive relationship with recent Chinese immigrant parents as well as develop
strategies to enhance the educational success and well-being of their Chinese immigrant
preschool students.
Methodology
Target Audience for the Handbook
The information handbook, How You Can Help Chinese Students by Working
Effectively with Their Parents, was developed for American preschool teachers who work
with Chinese immigrant/Chinese American children and their parents, especially those
American teachers who work for private childcare centers with relatively little knowledge
of Chinese culture.
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Procedure for Developing the Handbook
There were a total of four phases in developing the handbook. First, the author
worked with her sponsor to develop a table of contents of the handbook. In this
information gathering phase, the author did a preliminary review of the literature,
reviewed the book “Bridging Cultures between Home and School” by Trumbull et al.
(2001), and talked to her former co-workers at a private preschool in order to get
information necessary to develop the handbook. Second, the author gathered information
through library online databases of Sacramento State University and browsed different
websites through different search engines such as Yahoo and Google. Third, after
gathering and organizing the information, the author wrote the handbook based on this
information. The final step includes providing the draft of the handbook for the author’s
former co-workers and her sponsor to preview in order to make necessary corrections.
Organization of the Handbook
The information handbook includes Chinese culture, traditions, and beliefs related
to childrearing and parental expectation. The handbook is written based on the
individualism and collectivism framework. There are four sections include (1) Working
with Cultural Diversity and “Bridging Cultures”, (2) Chinese Cultural Background, (3)
Chinese Families in Preschools in the United States, and (4) Tips for Working with
Chinese Families.
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Role of the Researcher
The researcher is both an American preschool teacher and a Chinese immigrant
mother. Therefore, on one hand, she embraces American’s teaching styles and
understands the difficulties preschool teachers face when working with immigrant
families. On the other hand, she has certain expectations for her son’s preschool
education. Drawing on these two roles, the researcher decided to examine
misunderstandings between American preschool teachers and Chinese immigrant parents,
and therefore developed this project in order to bridge the two cultures.
Organization of the Project
Chapter One has provided an overview of this project for readers to understand
the background and the need of creating a handbook for American preschool teachers.
Chapter Two is a review of literature related to the information handbook. It is organized
into four main sections that support the need for this project. The first section addresses
the cultural diversity in American preschools, which emphasize that the number of
immigrant Chinese are increasing in the United States and preschools are having more
and more immigrant Chinese children. The second section reviews the conceptual
framework of this project. It focuses especially on the differences between collectivism
and individualism, and how people who belong to different cultures think and act.
Cultural diversity issues in preschools are also addressed. The third section discusses the
childrearing goals of parents from different cultures, especially in America and China.
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The fourth section explores preschool education in cultural perspectives, with special
focus on American and Chinese cultures. These sections further emphasize the
differences between Americans and Chinese, from different childrearing goals and
practices to different views and expectations on preschools. Moreover, the review of
literature provides an argument for support to create an information handbook on Chinese
culture for American preschool teachers.
Chapter Three is a description of the methods. It describes how the information
handbook was created, from gathering information for the handbook to submission to the
department. Chapter Four is a discussion of the current project, as well as limitations,
recommendations, and conclusions. It summarizes the information on handbook and
provides recommendations for future improvements. The information handbook is
presented in the Appendix.
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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
With over 309 million people, the United States is one of the most ethnically
diverse countries in the world (American FactFinder, 2009; Hsueh & Barton, 2005). Of
all its ethnic groups, Asian Americans are the second largest group, and Chinese
Americans make up a large number of this group (American FactFinder, 2009). As more
Chinese immigrants settle in the United States, preschools are servicing more Chinese
immigrant families. Consequently, both preschools and Chinese immigrant families may
benefit when American preschool teachers receive more professional education about
Chinese beliefs and values and more general cultural concepts such as individualism and
collectivism (Trumbull et al., 2001). With increased professional education in these
areas, preschool teachers may increase effective communication with Chinese immigrant
parents and enhance Chinese immigrant children’s learning in new environments.
Therefore, the purpose of the present project is to create an informational handbook for
American preschool teachers that provides background information on Chinese beliefs,
goals, and values related to early education. It also provides some tips and practical
strategies for preschool teachers when working with Chinese immigrant parents.
Every state has its own set of requirements for those who wish to work as
preschool teachers. According to the Title 22 regulations in California, the educational
requirement for preschool teachers is 12 units of Child Development classes that include
child growth and development, family and community, and program curriculum (Title 22
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Regulations, 2009). There has also been an increase in materials promoting classroom
diversity and assisting American teachers to work with immigrant families. However,
there are limited preschool resources on the Chinese culture, including Chinese parents’
expectations of their children in preschool. Due to the lack of resources, it may benefit
preschool teachers to have a handbook explaining the traditional culture and beliefs of
Chinese families.
The preschool years are important for children’s social and cognitive
development, and there are positive associations between preschool quality and
children’s development (Clarke-Stewart, Lowe-Vandell, Burchinal, O’Brien, &
McCartney, 2002; Peisner-Feinberg, 2004). In studies conducted in the US and other
countries, such as Sweden and Canada, preschool teachers’ education qualifications and
relationship to children were rated as the main criteria for preschool quality by parents
(Peisner-Feinberg, 2004). Therefore, by learning about cultural differences, especially
Chinese culture in this case, the qualifications of preschool teachers and the quality of
preschool may increase.
In order to understand the issues related to preschool teachers working effectively
with Chinese parents, the review of literature focuses on the following: (a) cultural
diversity in American preschools; (b) the conceptual framework for the handbook; (c)
parents’ childrearing goals in cross-cultural perspective, and (d) preschool education in
cross-cultural perspective. Additionally, Chinese families and culture are discussed in
each of these sections.
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Cultural Diversity in American Preschools
General Diversity
According to Corey (2007), “America has long been described as a nation of
immigrants, and California is most certainly a state of immigrants” (p.2). More than
50,000 people migrate to the US every year in search for economic opportunities, and
that does not include 74,602 refugee arrivals from around the world in 2009. Most of
these newcomers end up seeking U.S citizenship. According to the US Department of
Homeland Security (2010), in 2009, 1,130,818 immigrants obtained legal permanent
resident status and 570,442 newcomers filed petitions for naturalization. The U. S.
Census Bureau (2009) also noted that there are 31 ethnic groups that have more than one
million members each. The four largest ethnic groups are White Americans (228.2
million), Hispanics (46.9 million), African Americans (37.6 million) and Asian
Americans (13.4 million).
California. According to the U. S. Census Bureau (2009), the state of California
has a population of around 38 million, with a net in-migration of 306,925 people over the
past ten years. In fact, 50% of the children in California live with at least one parent who
is an immigrant, with 67% of them being Latino, 14% Asian and the remaining
percentage being Caucasian. In addition, to being a state with a large immigrant
population, California has much ethnic diversity. About 42.3% of California residents
are White, 36.6% are Hispanic or Latino, 6.7% are African American, and 12.5% are
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Asian. Other than Hawaii, California has the highest Asian American percentage in the
United States.
Immigrant children and their families. Other than searching for employment
opportunity, many immigrants move to the United States to acquire higher education for
both themselves and their children. Most of the immigrants acquire US citizenship, and
their children become US citizens too. According to Corey (2007), 85% of immigrants
were born in the US, which means that the children of immigrants are likely to be US
citizens. Cheah, Leung, Tahseen, and Schultz (2009) also note that immigrant children
with one or two foreign born parents are the major contributors to diversity in the US
population today. Moreover, 19% of children attending school in America are from
immigrant families, and it is estimated that the number will grow steadily to 30% by 2015
(Powell, 2009). Consequently, it is likely that these immigrant students are being raised
with diverse parenting styles and goals that may have implications for classroom
behaviors. For instance, children from China might not share ideas in class because they
are taught from a young age to respect their superiors and are not supposed to disturb
other classmates by talking. Therefore, it is important for teachers to understand
children’s behavior and development in the context of cultural variation, especially in
terms of parenting beliefs, goals, and styles.
Chinese Families in the US
According to the US Department of Homeland Security (2009), China and India
have been two of the leading sources of new immigrants in California since 1998. The
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2000 census shows that 3.8 million people, that is, approximately 12% of the people
living in California, are of Asian origin with 76,655 from China. Furthermore, of
210,626 immigrant children in the US, 14,389 of them are of Chinese origin (US
Department of Homeland Security, 2007).
The US Department of Commerce (2009) has reported that, out of the 76,000
Chinese immigrants in the US, 20,000 of them are either children below school age or are
attending schools. Further, according to the data from Title III funding for newcomer
immigrant students in California 2002-2003 collected by the California Department of
Education, there were 175,090 immigrant students enrolled in California’s public or
private schools, and 9,561 of them were from China (2009). Key among the
determinants of the cultural-related behavior of the immigrant children are country of
origin, economic status, and the level of education (Effrem, 2007). Additionally, Corey
(2007) found that 80% of the immigrant children in America speak other languages
beyond English, and 4% out of the 80% speak Chinese. Overall, census information
suggests that many preschool teachers in California are working with culturally diverse
families everyday, and therefore it is important that they gain knowledge about cultural
diversity and increase their cultural sensitivity.
Conceptual Framework for the Project
As discussed in the above section, the United States has a diverse population,
including a growing number of Chinese immigrants. Since immigrant families bring
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more and more preschool age children to the United States, the diverse population leads
to the existence of diverse care-giving beliefs and practices that may be different from
those in US preschools. Both immigrant parents and American preschool teachers may
need to negotiate and resolve issues arising from conflicting care-giving beliefs and
practices. Therefore, getting to know each other’s culture is the first step to resolve such
conflicts; however, it can be difficult since culture is a multifaceted concept. According
to Hollins (1996), culture can include norms of social interaction, arts, dance, and
ceremonies, which focus more on observable customs. Culture can also be defined as a
set of shared norms, beliefs and values held by the members of a group, organization, or
nation, with this definition emphasizing the ideas, knowledge, and beliefs of a group
(Storey, 2006).
In discussing theories of cultural variation, this section covers the two conceptual
frameworks: (a) the developmental niche and (b) the two broad cultural orientations that
shape parental beliefs and goals – collectivism and individualism. This section also
discusses “Bridging Cultures”, a concept developed by Trumbull,Tothstein-Fisch,
Greenfield, and Quiroz (2001), which provides teachers with a framework for
understanding cultural differences. Finally, the section covers preschool diversity issues,
which further explain why there is a need to have preschool teachers know more about
childrearing beliefs and values of Chinese culture, is also covered in this section.
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The Developmental Niche
As Super and Harkness (2002) propose, parents’ beliefs about children and
socialization goals are part of children’s “developmental niche”, and the developmental
niche concept helps explain how culture shapes child development. The developmental
niche consists of three interacting components: (a) physical and social settings, (b)
childrearing customs, which includes caregivers’ practices for educating and protecting
children, and (c) caregivers’ psychology, which includes their parenting beliefs, goals,
and values. Cultural values and beliefs may be reflected in the child rearing practices
(Greenfield, Flores, Davis, & Salimkhan, 2008). Therefore, when preschool teachers and
parents are from different cultures, there are potential cross-cultural conflicts between
home and school. It is because both teachers and parents believe that their ways of
nurturing and protecting children are the best for children’s development, and they take
their reasons for such child rearing practices for granted (Greenfield, Flores, Davis, &
Salimkhan, 2008; LeVine, 1974).
Cultural Orientations: Individualism and Collectivism
A general goal of parenting is to assist children to acquire skills needed to survive
or function in their surrounding environment. Parents teach and show their children
cultural beliefs, values, norms, rules, and the way of thinking needed to survive in the
society (Super & Harkness, 2002). Parents and preschool teachers may have the same
goal of assisting children in acquiring skills, allowing them to adapt to the environment;
however, since beliefs and values are highly related to the “norms and expectations” of
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the culture, parents and teachers from different cultures may differ on what is viewed as
appropriate skills (Tamis-LeMonda et. al, 2007). In general, cultural researchers
categorize parental beliefs and socialization goals into either collectivism and
individualism.
Collectivism, which is typically practiced by Chinese families, is a cultural
orientation that emphasizes individuals’ strong cohesive ties to a group and
interdependence with members of the group. Tamis-LeMonda et al. (2007) described
three developmental goals of collectivist parents: (a) children’s connection to the family
and other close relationships, (b) their orientation to the larger group, and (c) children’s
respect and obedience with elders. Chinese adults have been described in social science
research as valuing group outcomes and goals over individual ones, and as identifying
themselves in terms of a particular group (Triandis, 2002). They feel more willing to
make individual sacrifices for the group. Although most parents value individualism and
collectivism to some degree, the patterns of “co-existence” varies across cultures (TamisLeMonda et al., 2008). Thus, Chinese, in general, give more emphasis to social
relationships, and they value group goals more than personal desires. Collectivists, in
this case the Chinese, tend to minimize argument and give room for the group goals to
prevail as opposed to the individual goals.
Individualism, which is widely practiced in the United States, is a cultural
orientation that emphasizes individuals’ autonomy and separateness from the group
(Triandis, 2002). Parents in individualistic cultures encourage their children to become
independent and autonomous, which means being able to govern and direct themselves.
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There are four key values associated with socialization in an individualistic framework:
personal choice, intrinsic forms of motivation, self-esteem, and self-maximization
(Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). Self-maximization, according to Tamis-LeMonda et al.,
refers to achieving one’s full potential as an individual (2008). For example, Harwood et
al. (1995) found that Anglo-American mothers, who were considered to be an
individualistic group, were more likely to mention the importance of children reaching
their full potential than were Puerto Rican mothers, who were considered to be a
collectivistic group. In this cultural orientation, individual interests and needs are often
valued over those of the entire group (Triandis, 2002). Although there are many
variations of parenting in the US, with some parents appearing more collectivistic than
individualistic, Americans, in general, place more emphasis on individual outcomes
compared to relationships (Harwood et al., 2001). Hence, when it comes to conflict
resolution, individualists have higher probability of giving more value to their own view,
emphasizing individual goals over group goals, and compromising only when it is
necessary to arrive at an agreement (Hong, 2001). These factors depict features of a
competing style of negotiation as opposed to that of an accommodating style found in
China.
As revealed from the discussion of the two concepts above, individualism and
collectivism, conflict can arise when two parties hold different perceptions over issues
that are due to their cultural orientation. The individualist and collectivist cultures found
in United States and China, respectively, have led to conflict of expectations, values,
outcomes and processes between the two groups (Cialdini, 2001). In this context, the
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root of conflicts in most cases is miscommunication and misunderstanding. In
preschools, teachers and immigrant parents may have different orientations; thus, they
may have different values and beliefs regarding young children’s learning and social
development. In situations where there is no clarification of the problem, the end result
may be harmful as it degenerates into real personal conflict and both teachers and parents
forget to focus on children’s learning. To solve the cultural conflict between Chinese and
Americans, there may be a need to establish a new intercultural environment, which
appears to be very difficult (Cialdini, 2001). Therefore, this further reconfirms the need
for the US preschool teachers to know more about cultural issues.
“Bridging Cultures”
Trumbull et al. (2001) proposed that understanding of cultural differences is the
key factor related to effective communication between parents and teachers. They
developed a guidebook and workshops to help elementary school teachers of immigrant
students to better understand the cultural orientations of their students’ families and
consequently to teach with greater success. Trumbull et al. also used individualism and
collectivism as the practical framework for understanding cultural differences. They used
the cultural framework to explain potential home-school conflicts. In their guide for
teachers, they described an incident in a kindergarten class as an example. Two teachers
from different cultures argued whether each student should get his or her own crayon cup
with all the colors in it or if the whole class should share all the crayons. Trumbull et al.
identified the underlying conflict between values of sharing (collectivism) and personal
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property (individualism). Therefore, when teachers and parents are from different
cultures, miscommunication and misunderstanding can arise. It is important to include
preschool teachers in the training category because an increasing number of parents
(including immigrant and nonimmigrant parents) are placing their children in preschools,
and there is a need to bridge cultures between home and preschool.
Trumbull et al. (2001) provided some suggestions to teachers in order to minimize
cross-cultural conflicts. These suggestions include understanding parents’ points of view,
developing closer personal relationships with families, extending opportunities for
parent-teacher interaction, and promoting bicultural proficiency. Although these
suggestions are not specific to early childhood education teachers, they help preschool
teachers learn to work with families of other cultures successfully. In fact, Trumbull et
al. emphasized that there is no specific ways to eliminate conflicts, only ways to promote
harmony. For instance, to make the classrooms more “cultural friendly” to students who
are from a more collectivistic orientation, teachers can use both choral reading and
individual reading at the same time, and they can prompt children by share cleanup of the
whole room at once rather than having each group clean up their own activity area. Also,
teachers can use parents as sources of knowledge about different perspectives towards
schooling and child-rearing. Additionally, teachers can support parent involvement by
understanding parents’ difficulties and offering them a range of ways to involve them in
students’ school- and/or home- work.
Trumbull et al. (2001) used individualism and collectivism as the framework for
their handbook “Bridging Cultures between Home and School”. Their framework helps
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American teachers to understand cultural variation in parents’ childrearing beliefs, goals,
and expectations. Therefore, this project will also use individualism, collectivism, and
Bridging Cultures as the framework so teachers would become aware of their own
childrearing beliefs and become more cultural sensitive.
Parents’ Childrearing Goals in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Research suggests that parents’ childrearing beliefs and expectations have a
significant impact on children’s development (Chen et al., 1998; Chiu, 1987; Lin & Fu,
1990). Because parents’ childrearing goals and practices are influenced by culture, it is
important for preschool teachers to understand different childrearing beliefs and
expectations of different cultures (Greenfield et al., 2008; Hsueh & Barton, 2005). In this
section, childrearing beliefs and practices across cultures will be discussed, with
emphasis on the US and Chinese cultures.
Parenting Across Cultures
Different cultures have their own set of beliefs and values. Parents of some
cultures believe in the importance of nurture whereas some parents believe that nature
plays an important role in children’s development and learning. For instance, in India,
people believe in the Hindu conceptualization of development, which emphasizes that
nature is more important than nurture (Roa et al., 2003). Therefore, Indian parents slowly
elaborate on guidelines for childrearing and education until children reach late childhood
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because they believe that childhood is supposed to be a carefree period. Moreover, since
young children are viewed as gifts from Gods, Indian parents tend not to insist their
children achieve academically and learn guidelines at young age (Rao, McHale, &
Pearson, 2003).
The role of parental control and discipline is also another area that varies across
cultures. In Jamaica, parents believe in authoritarian child discipline and behavior
management, for example. Discipline is enforced through shouting and physical
punishment, and this is a common and accepted way for parents to correct children’s
misbehaviors (Smith & Mosby, 2003). In Hispanic and Asian Pacific Island families,
firm insistence on respect for parental authority, especially for the father, is paired with
high maternal warmth. Such idea helps to promote compliance, identification with
parents and strong feelings of family loyalty (Fracasso & Busch-Rossnagel, 1992;
Harrison et al., 2006). In Italy, although parents are emotionally bonded with teens,
Italian parents are more likely to use punitive actions when rules are broken. They also
uphold family regulations and require their children to ask for authorizations until a much
later age (Claes et al., 2003).
From the above examples we discover the distinct parenting beliefs and practices
of different cultures. The following subsection will specifically explore childrearing
practices in the United States and China.
25
Parenting In the United States
There is great diversity in the US, in ethnicity, social class, and religious
affiliation, which creates differences in childrearing goals and practices. Therefore, this
section focuses on childrearing attitudes of middle-class European-Americans, which
represent the majority group in the United States.
The United States has historically had a Western, individualistic culture.
Americans value independence, and therefore American parents’ main childrearing goal
is to prepare their children to become independent (Chen et al., 1998; Chiu, 1987; Lin &
Fu, 1990). For instance, some American parents encourage babies to sleep on their own
by letting them cry without any physical comforting (Greenfield et al., 2008). American
parents are also more likely to let their children learn from experience rather than teach
their children by giving instructions (Pang & Richet, 2007; Tobin, Wu, & Davidson,
1989).
To further assist young children to become independent, American parents
encourage children to make choices by themselves and to use their own words to express
themselves (Hsueh & Barton, 2005; Pang & Richey, 2007; Phelps, 2005; Tobin, Wu, &
Davidson, 1989). To demonstrate to children how to express themselves, CaucasianAmerican parents, compared to Chinese, immigrant Chinese, and Chinese-American
parents, are more likely to use gestures or words to express their emotion and love to
their children (Chiu, 1987; Lin & Fu, 1990). Therefore, when compared to their Chinese
counterparts, American parents are less controlling and place more emphasis on selfexpression (Greenfield et al., 2008; Lin & Fu, 1990).
26
To further encourage independence, American parents are involved in children’s
schooling in a less direct way than Chinese parents. For instance, many American
parents prefer to volunteer at school than to help their children with homework problems.
According to Huntsinger and Jose (2009), there are three types of parent involvement:
communicating between parents and teachers, volunteering at school, and assisting with
learning at home. While Chinese parents focus more on systematic teaching at home,
middle-class American parents tend to become involved in their children’s schooling by
communicating with teachers and participating in school activities. American parents are
eager to communicate with preschool teachers to discuss their children’s learning at
school. Additionally, American parents are more likely to view teachers as a partner in
nurturing and educating their children and therefore discuss issues with the teachers as
equals (Pang & Richey, 2007). In general, American parents do not view homework as
especially important, and they spend less time to help children with homework, when
compared to Asian parents (Stevenson, Chen, & Lee, 1993; Stevenson & Lee, 1990; Yan
& Lin, 2005). One explanation for this is that American parents emphasize the role of
innate ability over effort in school performance (Yan & Lin, 2005).
Parenting in China
Unlike American parents, who value individualism and aim to teach their children
to become autonomous, Chinese parents value collectivism and are influenced by
Confucianism (Lai et al., 2000; Pang & Richey, 2007). Confucianism is a widespread
philosophy that influenced the history of Chinese civilization and is still influencing
27
Asian society. Confucianism is a complex philosophical system with emphasis on
humanity and social relationships. Therefore, Chinese parents’ childrearing goals mainly
aim to teach children interdependence and the benefit of caring for the larger group
(Lahman & Park, 2004). To achieve such goals, childrearing practices of Chinese parents
are significantly different than their US counterparts in terms of parenting practice (Chen
et al., 1998; Lin & Fu, 1990; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008).
The Confucian idea emphasizes a connection to family and an orientation to the
larger group. Additionally, to achieve harmony of family and the larger group, children
are taught to be respectful of others and obedient to authorities. Chinese parents
therefore teach children to respect the elders, and children are supposed to listen and
follow the decisions made by authorities such as parents and teachers (Lai et al., 2000;
Peng & Wright, 1994; Tamis-LeMonda, 2008).
Researchers have categorized Chinese parenting styles as typically authoritarian,
which means Chinese parents are more punishment oriented and more controlling (Chen
et al., 2002; Chiu, 1987; Rao et al., 2003). Chinese parents discipline and control their
children because they believe that such practices help children to learn to respect and
listen to authorities (Lai et al., 2000). Parental control is also called “guan” in Chinese
(Wu & Yi, 2008). In general, Chinese parents “guan” their children in many different
ways in order to gain educational success. Although the term “guan” has two
dimensions, behavioral control and psychological control, it also takes a different
dimension under the culture of Chinese to mean beliefs and values that Chinese parents
expect their children to practice or have (Shek, 2006). Therefore, Chinese parents “guan”
28
their children so that children can do well in school, have the ability to work hard, and be
self-disciplined (Chao, 1994; Chao, 2001).
In fact, compared to American parents, Chinese parents are less likely to
encourage independence (Lai et al., 2000). They are more protective and watchful over
their children (Chen et al., 1998). For instance, Chinese mothers maintain close
supervision over their children, including selecting their children’s playmates, and they
do not let babies cry for prolonged periods when it is sleep time (Chiu, 1987; Greenfield
et al., 2008). Although Chinese parents protect and are concerned about their children,
they demonstrate less loving gestures and less sensitivity, compared to American parents
(Hsueh & Barton, 2005; Lieber et al., 2006). In addition, children are taught to control
their emotions at early ages (Chen et al., 2002). This goal of controlling emotions in
order to promote harmony derives from Confucianism, also (Rao et al., 2003).
Under the influence of Confucianism, Chinese parents also value children’s
academic achievement because they believe that education can help to increase social
status and to bring merit to the family (Rao et al., 2003). When trying to find an
explanation for the high academic achievement of Asian American students, especially
Chinese students, researchers found that Chinese parents have very high academic
expectations for their children compared to other ethnic groups, such as African
Americans, European Americans, and Hispanic Americans (Mau, 1997; Peng & Wright,
1994; Phelps, 2005; Yan & Lin, 2005). To encourage children to achieve academically,
Chinese parents usually spend more time on academic work and less time on play (Chen
et al., 1998; Lieber et al., 2006). According to Crystal et al. (1994), Chinese parents
29
indicated more parental dissatisfaction with their children’s academic achievement; Chiu
(1987) also found that Chinese parents are more rejecting and less accepting towards
children’s achievement. Therefore, in order to assist children to achieve, Chinese parents
believe in effort and training (Lin & Fu, 1990). They believe that the more time children
spend on training, the better they will do better in school. Furthermore, training is
believed to assist children to learn responsibly, which leads to socially and morally
responsible adults (Phelps, 2005; Rao et al., 2003).
Confucianism has a significant impact on Chinese parenting attitudes and
practices, and such attitudes affect how Chinese preschools operate. The handbook will
address childrearing beliefs and practices in China. Because different childrearing beliefs
may lead to different practices, childrearing practices that are commonly accepted in one
culture may not necessary value in another culture and therefore conflicts might arise.
For that reason, it is essential for American preschool teachers to compare and understand
childrearing beliefs and practices of the US and China. The following section will
discuss how Confucianism affects Chinese preschools.
Preschool Education in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Young children’s attendance at preschool helps to promote their cognitive
development; it also effectively narrows the achievement gap between children from lowand high- income families (Wong, Rao, & Rao, 2004). Additionally, Sylva et al. (2004)
argued that children who have attended preschool have a more well-rounded-
30
development compared to children who have no preschool experience. This difference is
due, in part, to a preschool education enabling children to learn to interact with others
beyond their parents and other family members. Preschool education also exposes
children to new subjects, which helps them in understanding the topics taught in the
compulsory education.
The previous section addressed cultural variation in parents’ childrearing beliefs
and practices, which can potentially lead to conflicts or misunderstandings between
preschool teachers and parents. It is also important to address how immigrant parents’
experiences with preschool in other countries may influence their views and expectations
about preschool, which may also lead to conflicts or misunderstanding between American
preschool teachers and immigrant parents. Therefore, preschool education in different
cultures will be examined in this section, with special focus on preschool in China and in
the US. Also, Chinese parents’ academic expectations for their children in relation to
those of American parents will be discussed.
Preschools Across Cultures
Depending on local custom, children attend preschool anytime between two and
five years of age. Educators from different cultures have unique ways of operating
preschools and have different educational expectations for children. For instance, in
Greece, nipiagogeion (preschools) operate under the Ministry of Education typically for
three and a half hours a day. Nipiagogeion are for children of four years old up to
compulsory school age, and they are considered the first level in Greece’s education
31
system. Additionally, nipiagogeion provide education based on national curriculum
(Petrogiannis, 2006). Nipiagogeion follow the same schedule as primary school and are
typically three and a half hours a day. Preschools in Greece aim to prepare children for
primary school by teaching academic subjects. Therefore, they do not provide childcare
such as nap time and snack service, and parents are expected to prepare snacks for their
children.
In Sweden, preschools operate under the Ministry of Education for four and five
year-olds, who are entitled to 525 free hours of education (Hwang, 2006). In contrast to
Greek preschools, Swedish preschools aim to limit school-like activity. According to the
European Commission, preschools should provide children opportunities to develop
themselves so that they are able to form their own opinions, to seek knowledge, and to
become considerate individuals (1996).
In Japan, yochien (kindergarten or preschool) is not part of the official education
system, but operates under the Ministry of Education to educate three- to six- year-olds.
The teacher-child ratio in each classroom is around 1 to 30, and classroom activities aim
to provide a transition for young children from home to formal school (Japan, 1994).
Yochien, like preschool in Sweden, place less emphasis on academic subject and focus
more on music and social development in their curriculum. For instance, from
observation by Tobin et al. (1989), almost all preschool teachers can play the piano, and
the piano is used frequently throughout the day. Other than that, Japanese preschool
teachers encourage social development by letting young children interact and deal with
conflict without much adult intervention (Tobin et al., 1989).
32
In some cultures preschools emphasize the acquisition of national culture. For
example, preschools in Israel operate under the Ministry of Education for three- to sixyear-olds. They are typically half-day programs. Each classroom contains about 30 to 35
children, and classroom activities usually focus on the child as a group member rather
than individual. Unlike preschools in the above countries, the major goal of preschools in
Israel is to promote acquisition and enrichment of Hebrew language and cultural content
rather than just developing children’s individual skills. Another goal of preschools in
Israel is to assist young children to develop skills necessary for educational success. The
Ministry of Education published guidelines for preschools to focus on areas related to
children’s optimal growth and school readiness (Furman, 1994; Rosenthal, 2006).
The above examples show that preschool education varies considerably across
different nations. In particular, they vary with regard to their emphasis on academic work
versus other kinds of competencies. Therefore, preschools in the United States and China
may have different operation styles and expectations for young children. The following
subsections will compare preschool education in the United States and China.
Preschools in the United States
There are two dominant types of childcare in the US – home-based care and
center-based care. While both types offer childcare for young children, only center care
provides preschool education to young children, which means they have structured
curriculum and are regulated by the federal government (Allhusen, Clarke-Stewart, &
Miner, 2006).
33
The compulsory school system in the US starts from kindergarten at about five
years of age; therefore, preschools mainly serve children from age three to age five.
Although all states regulate preschools, there is not one licensing standard for preschools
in the US. Therefore, different states develop their own standards, and there is variability
across states. For instance, adult-child ratio for toddlers ranges from 1:3 to 1:9, and care
providers’ qualification ranges from specific educational training needed to no
requirements at all (Allhusen et al., 2006).
Because preschools are not part of the compulsory school system, there is no
standard curriculum; therefore, daily activities vary amongst preschools. Private
preschools usually develop their own set of curricula (Allhusen et al., 2006). In general,
however, the aims of preschools in the US are to develop children’s creativity,
independence, and self-expression (Pang and Richey, 2007; Phelps, 2005). These aims
suggest that US preschools are highly influenced by the ideology of individualism, which
is in contrast to the collectivist aims of the Israeli and Japanese preschools mentioned
above.
In examining the operations and practices of US preschools, researchers have
noted the valuing of individualistic ideas such as individual choices, and the emphasis on
verbal skills and self-expression. Also, free play time is regularly incorporated in
preschools’ daily activities, in contrast to what occurs in Chinese preschools (Pang &
Richey, 2007; Phelps, 2005; Tobin et al., 1989). According to Tobin, Wu, and
Davidson’s observation (1989), American preschool teachers provide a variety of
activities for young children to choose from, and children are free to explore those
34
activities and develop their own way to play with toys. Pang and Richey (2007) also
found that American preschool teachers offer opportunities for children to make simple
choices, which they believe will help children to become responsible and confident.
Furthermore, parents and teachers in the US have a more equal status. They exchange
ideas related to children’s development, and American teachers are open to hearing
parents’ concerns (Huntsinger & Jose, 2009).
When compared to their counterparts in China, US children have more free play
time to explore and to choose activities and play materials. For instance, children in
many US preschools play outside at least three times a day whereas Chinese preschoolers
spend time on learning academic subjects and instructed activities rather than free play
(Tobin et al., 1989). Another way to encourage independence is to emphasize selfexpression by using words. Children are encouraged to use words to express feelings and
ideas at preschool, and American educators believe that such practice helps children to
develop verbal skills and confidence (Hsueh & Barton, 2005; Phelps, 2005). For
instance, from observation by Tobin et al. (1989), American preschool teachers
consistently asked children to use their words to express feelings, to name objects, and to
describe incidents. When a child finished a puzzle, the teacher encouraged the child to
tell what she did rather than ask the child to show her the puzzle.
In general, American parents are more concern about preschool children’s social
development rather than academic achievement (Pang & Richey, 2007; Tobin et al.,
1989; Yan & Lin, 2005). As mentioned in the childrearing in the US section, one reason
is that American parents emphasize the role of innate ability over effort in school
35
performance. Additionally, American parents, in general, might think that individual
characteristics such as good verbal skills, self-awareness, and intrinsic motivation
towards exploring and learning are the foundation for later academic achievement.
In summary, Americans value individualism, they aim to help children to become
independent. Such ideas translate into preschool classrooms that are child-centered in
which children get to make free choices. Preschool children also have more free play
time so that they have more time to explore independently. The following subsection on
Chinese preschools will describe preschools with a different set of beliefs and practices
than what is typically found in US preschools.
Preschools in China
China provides free and compulsory education to children from age six to fifteen.
Although preschool education is not part of the compulsory school system in China, early
childhood programs, also known as kindergarten, serve children from three to seven
years-old. In China, there is guaranteed entry into a program, which is regulated or
licensed by the Kindergarten Work Regulation (Li, 2006; Ministry of Education, 1995).
Based on children’s age, the Kindergarten Work Regulation has guidelines on group size
and staff-child ratios. For children aged three to four, each group contains no more than
25 children; for children aged four and up, each group contains no more than 30 children.
Similar to the United States, local education departments in China may stretch the
regulations to allow five extra children per group. Each class is expected to be staffed by
two teachers and one helper. According to Kindergarten Management Regulations
36
established in 1996, all preschool teachers must be graduated from early childhood
institutions or equivalent (Li, 2006).
The Kindergarten Work Regulation emphasizes the importance of preschool
education; similar to preschool education in Israel, Chinese preschools overtly emphasize
national enculturation. Chinese preschools aim to promote children’s cognitive and
language development, to encourage love for children’s motherland, and to realize the
importance of being a collective labor in the society. These aims might vary to some
extent in different provinces in China, but preschool is generally a place for young
children to develop skills to interact positively with others in society.
In reviewing operations and expectations for children of preschools in China, it is
obvious that Confucian ideas, such as the need to respect elders and superiors and the
need of knowledge, are incorporated into preschools’ daily activities (Li, 2006; Pang &
Richey, 2007). Therefore, in preschools, children are taught to respect their teachers, and
classrooms are mainly teacher-centered. This was confirmed by Tobin et al. in their
observations of a Chinese preschool, Dong-feng (1989). For instance, Tobin et al.
observed that the children needed to follow teachers’ directions, and during building time
children had to build with wooden blocks in a specific manner instead of freely exploring
different methods. Children could not pursue other activities unless they had their
teachers’ permission (1989). Children in Chinese preschools are expected to do the same
thing at the same time, and teachers are expected to teach children the “correct” way to
solve problems (Li, 2006; Pang & Richey, 2007; Tobin et al., 1989). This teaching
practice in China contrasts with the US preschool, which puts emphasis on children
37
having choices in the activities they do. Because one should respect elders and their
superiors, according to Confucianism, Chinese parents also respect teachers’ opinions,
and they seldom express their feelings toward teachers’ teaching (Pang & Richey, 2007).
In addition to Confucian ideas explaining why preschool classrooms are teachercentered and why children and parents do not question preschool teachers, Confucianism
influences Chinese preschool teachers’ and parents’ academic expectation for children
(Li, 2006). According to Confucianism, education is needed to increase social status and
can lead to good fortune (Pang & Richey, 2007). Since the school system in China is
very competitive and students need to excel in many entrance examinations in order to
enroll in prestigious schools, Chinese parents usually expect their children to learn at an
early age and have higher expectations for young children’s academic achievement, when
compared to their US counterparts. For instance, Chinese children are expected to learn
advanced academic subjects so that they are well prepared for kindergarten program (Li,
2006; Pang & Richey, 2007).
Because of high parental expectation for children’s academic success and the high
value of education in China, preschool teachers in China are expected to train children by
planning activities that teach children academic subjects. Additionally, compared to their
counterparts in the United States, Chinese preschool teachers and parents encourage
children to achieve academically through limiting play time and training (Hsueh &
Barton, 2005; Li, 2006; Phelps, 2005). In the usual schedule of a full-day preschool
program in China, Li (2006) found that teachers plan many large-group activities with
emphasis on literacy, mathematics, and science, while there was only a half-hour of
38
outside free play time each day for children to choose their activities. Pang and Richey
(2007) also noted that preschool children do not have much free play time partly because
of the high teacher-child ratio and of the belief that more time should be allocated to
learning academic subjects (2007). Both parents and teachers believe that time should be
delegated to training in academic subjects. Training, in many Chinese’s view, means
practicing specific tasks until one’s skills are fully developed. For instance, if Chinese
teachers want to increase children’s math skills, they give children a large amount of
math homework to do. Through solving a large amount of math problems (training),
children learn several skills to solve different kinds of math problems. Additionally,
Chinese parents and teachers believe that training encourages children to learn
responsibly, which leads to socially and morally responsible adults (Lieber, Fung, &
Leung, 2006). In addition to training, children’s effort can help to increase the effect of
training and that will bring success in school (Mau, 1997; Phelps, 2005).
The Chinese government values education, and that is why there is guaranteed
entry into a kindergarten program. The Confucian ideas explain why preschool
classrooms in China are teacher-centered and why teachers have authority over children
and parents. Because of the value placed on formal education, teachers and parents have
high expectation for children’s academic achievement, which leads preschool teachers to
spend more time on activities that train children academically instead of allowing more
time for free play.
39
Preschool Diversity Issues
Educational research often focuses on diversity issues in American elementary
schools and high schools. However, diversity issues also exist in preschool when
teachers and parents of different cultures hold different beliefs towards childrearing and
learning (Hsueh & Barton, 2005; Pang & Richey, 2007). Therefore, in this subsection,
diversity issues related to education, social, and communication will be discussed.
People of different cultures have different views toward education. For instance,
Chinese parents strongly value academic achievements and thus expect much from their
children at an early age. In general, Chinese parents emphasize educational achievement
because they believe that education is the best path to personal, social, and economic
improvement. Also, Chinese preschools are academically-oriented, and children are
under greater academic pressure than American children are. To encourage children to
achieve academically, Chinese parents focused more on helping children to learn at home
(Huntsinger & Jose, 2009). Moreover, Chinese parents believe that more time should be
spent on learning rather than free play, and play time is viewed as a short break but not
time to explore and develop creativity (Hsueh & Barton, 2005; Phelps, 2005). In
contrast, American preschool teachers value the role of play. They believe that young
children can use free play time to explore and learn by themselves, and thus, enhance
learning and foster children’s creativity (Pang & Richey, 2007). Therefore, educational
issues, such as different views toward how much academic pressure preschoolers should
have and the role of play time in children’s development, arise between the two cultures.
40
When parents and teachers are from different cultures, they also may have
different beliefs and practices related to children’s social development. Chinese parents,
in general, feel the need to control children’s emotions and behaviors in order to promote
a calm demeanor and group harmony; moreover, Chinese parents believe that being shy
is another way to control emotions. They have more positive attitudes about shyness
because children are controlling emotional extremes (Chiu, 1987; Rao et al., 2003).
Therefore, they might expect American preschool teachers to help promote good
behavior and teach children to control emotion in school. Since American preschool
teachers encourage children to use their words to express their feelings, this contrasts
with Chinese parents’ views toward how children socialize (Phelps, 2005). In addition,
Chinese parents and American preschool teachers may have different childrearing
practices related to social interaction during meal time and nap time. For instance, as
observed by Tobin et al. (1989), Chinese preschool teachers expect preschoolers to finish
all the food on the plate quietly while American preschool teachers let children to talk
during meal time and children do not need to finish all the food on the plate. During nap
time, Chinese preschool teachers will help children to take a nap by patting or holding
them while American preschool teachers encourage children to nap all by themselves.
Because of these different beliefs, Chinese parents and American preschool teachers may
experience some conflicts or misunderstandings about young children’s social
development and social interaction.
Other than issues related to education and social interaction practices,
miscommunication between Chinese parents and American preschool teachers can be an
41
issue in preschool. Miscommunication, due to cultural diversity between immigrant
parents and American teachers, has resulted in failures of minority children in many
American schools. There are three factors lead to hindered communication:
socioeconomic status, language differences, and communication style. The
socioeconomic disadvantages associated with the status of immigrants in America have
also contributed to the communication challenges in many school settings.
Miscommunication can also arise from language differences. With a case study, Lahman
and Park (2004) explored how Chinese and Korean immigrant families negotiated their
expectations for preschool with the US preschool teachers. The study showed that these
immigrant parents were conflicted about wanting their children to learn English because
of their fear of their children acculturating once they learned English. In contrast, the US
preschool teachers found it difficult to communicate with parents and did not know how
to meet the parents’ needs because of lack of communication (Lahman & Park, 2004).
Additionally, the language barrier affected parent-teacher communication between the
new Chinese immigrant parents and the teachers and the involvement of parents in school
activities (McCaleb, 1997).
Different styles of communication can make parent-teacher communication more
challenging. For example, Chinese immigrants typically value succinctness in
communication whereas Americans, in general, value eloquence of speech (McCaleb,
1997). According to Gao (1998), speaking practices such as han xu (implicit
communication), ke qi (politeness) and mian zi (face) are commonly practiced in Chinese
culture. Han xu means that one does not overtly tell everything to listeners. Instead,
42
some topics and issues may be communicated indirectly. Ke qi is essential in any types
of interpersonal communication and is a basic principle in Chinese everyday speaking
practice. Chinese people communicate in a ke qi manner, which means they deliver their
messages in a polite and socially appropriate fashion. Mian zi concerns dealing with
public image, or face. When Chinese people communicate, they save others’ faces by not
directly telling the truth if it will hurt or embarrass the other person. Sometimes an
intermediate, like a third person, is used to deliver messages in order to save face of both
parties. In Chinese people’s view, they want to be han xu, ke qi, save mian zi when
communicate with others. They do not want to express their ideas overtly and too
directly because they do not want their relationship to become unmanageable and
therefore affect the existing relationship. In contrast, Americans tend to communicate in
a more direct way. Therefore, sometimes miscommunication arises when Chinese
parents communicate to American preschool teachers in a more indirect way than what is
typical in the US. Because of their indirectness, American preschool teachers might not
know exactly what Chinese parents expect from the preschool. Therefore,
miscommunication can arise from different assumptions about children’s development
and different languages people used, it can also arise from different communication
styles.
When home and school are from different cultures, issues such as different views
teachers and parents hold toward education, different attitudes towards childrearing
practices on social issues, and parent-teacher miscommunication due to language barriers
and different communication styles might affect young children’s learning in preschool.
43
Therefore, when immigrant parents and American teachers overcome preschool diversity
issues, learn from each other, and work together towards the same goal, children can be
nurtured, and healthy development is promoted.
When comparing and contrasting preschool education across cultures with a focus
on the US and Chinese cultures, it is obvious different cultures have their unique
educational aims and practices. Therefore, the handbook has a section on Chinese
preschool education so that American preschool teachers have an idea on how Chinese
preschools operate and what Chinese immigrant parents expect from American
preschools.
44
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
According to the US Department of Commerce (2009), there is an increase in the
number of recent Chinese immigrants living in the United States, and a considerable
number of them are children. Moreover, within all the states, there were more than
15,000 new Chinese immigrants from mainland China who chose California as their first
stop, which brings more and more immigrant Chinese children to classrooms in
California. Although the California Department of Education requires American teachers
to take classes that help to increase their sensitivity of cultural diversity before they start
to teach, many American teachers are still facing lots of challenges when working in
culturally diverse classrooms (Suleiman, 1996). Additionally, it is even more challenging
for American preschool teachers who work in private childcare centers because they may
not have adequate training on working in a culturally diverse environment, needing only
12 postsecondary units in early childhood education in order to work in a daycare in
California (Castello & Castello, 2010). Because American preschool teachers may not be
adequately prepared to work with culturally diverse families, especially Chinese
immigrant families, an information handbook describing Chinese cultures and childrearing belief would help them to become more cultural sensitive and more effective in
working with Chinese immigrant families. Hence, this information handbook, How You
Can Help Chinese Students by Working Effectively with Their Families, was developed to
help American preschool teachers to: (a) understand more about Chinese culture and
45
child-rearing beliefs, (b) be prepared to work with Chinese immigrant students and
parents, and (c) increase their cultural sensitivity.
Targeted Audience
An information handbook, How You Can Help Chinese Students by Working
Effectively with Their Families, was developed for American preschool teachers who
work with Chinese immigrant/Chinese American children and their families, especially
those who work for a private childcare center in California with relatively little
knowledge of Chinese culture. Many Chinese immigrants have chosen California as their
first stop in the United States (Corey, 2007), and American preschool teachers who work
in private childcare centers are more likely to have children of Chinese-origin in their
classrooms. Therefore, American preschool teachers with inadequate knowledge of
Chinese culture are more likely to face challenges working with Chinese families, when
compared to other teachers who received more training in working in culturally diverse
classrooms, such as public school teachers.
Procedure for Developing the Handbook
First Phase
In the first phase of this project, the author worked closely with her sponsor, Dr.
Christi Cervantes, to develop a table of contents of the handbook. The author first
46
reviewed the book “Bridging Cultures between Home and School” by Trumbull et al.
(2001) in order to get some ideas on how to develop an information guide for teachers
that addresses cultural variation and cultural conflicts. Second, the author did a
preliminary review of the literature on demographics of Chinese immigrants in
California, the need for disseminating culture information to educators, diversity issues in
American preschools, and Chinese views on children’s socialization and childrearing
goals. This preliminary literature review helped the author figure out the content areas of
the handbook, which were represented in the table of contents.
Third, the author informally talked with her former co-workers and American
preschool teachers working for a local preschool program. The for-profit preschool
program has more than 50 branches in the United States with more than 15 located in
California. The discussion topics concerned the views of preschool teachers when they
work with Chinese families and what difficulties they realize when solving problems with
Chinese families. Such information inspired the author to include “Tips for Working
with Chinese Families” in the handbook. The author then developed a preliminary table
of contents for the handbook that included the following main topics: (a) working with
cultural diversity and “bridging cultures”, (b) Chinese cultural background, (c) Chinese
families in preschools in the United States, and (d) tips for working with Chinese
families.
47
Second Phase
During the second phase of the project, the author gathered cultural information
for the handbook. First, the author gathered empirical and theoretical literature through
library online databases of Sacramento State University, such as ERIC, PsyInfo, and
InfoTrac. She mainly focused on areas that emphasized differences between Chinese and
American child-rearing practices, cultural background, and expectations for children and
schools. She also reviewed literature on general cultural principles such as individualism
and collectivism and on cultural diversity in schools.
Second, the author searched and reviewed different websites through Yahoo and
Google to obtain ideas of how to develop a handbook. The author searched online
handbooks and browsed through the websites. She browsed handbooks of insurance
companies, the US Department of Education, and Child Action web sites. The author did
not find handbooks that addressed cultural diversity in classroom, but she did find some
handbooks addressing cultural diversity in companies, which helped her in developing
her own handbook for American preschool teachers.
Third, to make the handbook easier for American preschool teachers to read, the
author informally talked to her former co-workers to understand their concerns when
working with Chinese immigrant families and expectations for the handbooks. To further
understand Chinese immigrant parents’ expectations for preschool teachers, the author
also informally talked to her friends, who are Chinese immigrant parents, for more
information and opinions.
48
Third Phase
During the third phrase, the author wrote the handbook using the information
gathered in phase two. In addition, to using the “Bridging Cultures between Home and
School” book as a guide when writing the handbook, the author also obtained some
handbooks from Child Action, Inc. and Capitol Regional Resource Center to learn more
about how to format the handbook. These handbooks aim to provide information for
families related to choosing quality childcare and after-school enrichment programs in
Sacramento County.
Fourth Phase
In the last phase of the project the author provided a draft of the handbook to her
former co-workers and her sponsor to preview and make necessary corrections.
Ultimately, the author will distribute the handbooks to teachers of her former workplace,
as well as other large preschools in the Sacramento Area.
Organization of the Handbook
Based on the review of literature, review of web sites, personal experiences, and
discussions with Chinese immigrant parents and American teachers, the author included
information on Chinese culture, traditions, and beliefs related to child rearing and
parental expectations in the handbook. Additionally, some scenarios related to the
differences in child-rearing belief that Chinese parents and American teachers hold are
49
included in the handbook. To assist American teachers and directors to become
culturally sensitive when dealing with problems mentioned in the scenarios, some
strategies on how to communicate and work with Chinese parents are included. The
contents of the handbook includes chapters that describe why it is difficult for American
preschool teachers to work with recent Chinese immigrant families, Chinese cultural
backgrounds, Chinese immigrant parents’ expectations for children in preschool, and
some tips for American teachers and directors working with Chinese immigrant families.
The handbook is written based on the individualism and collectivism framework. The
main sections of the handbook include (1) Working with Cultural Diversity and
“Bridging Cultures”, (2) Chinese Cultural Background, (3) Chinese Families in
Preschools in the United States, and (4) Tips for Working with Chinese Families.
Role of the Researcher
The author has served in two different roles during the completion of the project.
One of them is as an American preschool teacher. She started her study in child
development ten years ago at Sacramento State University. She also worked as a
preschool teacher at Discovery Learning Center and the Phoenix Schools for more than
five years. The author learned about many theories of child development and American
child-rearing practices from her child development study and her preschool work;
therefore, she embraces American’s teaching styles in certain ways and understands the
difficulties preschool teachers face when working with culturally diverse families. In her
50
role as a preschool teacher, she encountered issues involving Chinese children or parents,
such as different opinions towards children’s learning style and teachers’ teaching styles.
However, the researcher did not pay attention to such issues until she became a parent, a
Chinese immigrant parent.
Another role of the researcher is as a Chinese immigrant parent. She moved from
Hong Kong, China, to the United States to study ten years ago and currently has a young
child who is going to an American preschool. As a Chinese immigrant parent, the
researcher has certain expectations for American preschool teachers. She also talked to
her friends, who are Chinese immigrant parents, regularly, who had similar issues
regarding the different beliefs and expectations for children between Chinese immigrant
parents and American teachers. For instance, Chinese immigrant parents might expect
more concrete math lessons for their preschooler, while American preschool teachers
might use discovery learning as their teaching method. Also, Chinese immigrant parents
might expect American preschool teachers to feed their children when eating something
messy like yogurt, American preschool teachers might think preschoolers will learn to eat
by themselves by making a mess. The researcher simply realized there are many
potential misunderstandings between teachers and parents between these two cultures.
For those reasons, the researcher found the need to bridge the two cultures and developed
this project for American preschool teachers to deal with challenges when working with
Chinese immigrant families.
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Chapter 4
DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS
Discussion
Although preschool is not part of the compulsory education system in the United
States, for various reasons, more and more children are attending preschool. Since
children spend more time with teachers in preschools, the qualifications of preschool
teachers have become essential when evaluating the quality of a preschool. Preschool
teachers’ qualifications range from specific education training needed to no requirements
at all. Even in California, preschool teachers are only required to have 12 postsecondary
units in early childhood education containing only one cultural class. Given the
increasing number of immigrants in the US, preschool teachers may not have adequate
training to work with culturally diverse children and families. The author believes that
improvement takes time and the first step in helping preschool teachers is to inform them
about different cultures, in this case, the Chinese culture.
Based on a review of the literature related to the different child-rearing values and
practices in China and the US, informal discussions with American preschool teachers
and Chinese immigrant parents about conflicts and misunderstandings between Chinese
parents and American preschool teachers, and the author’s own experience as a preschool
teacher and an immigrant parent, an informational handbook was created for preschool
teachers who work with Chinese immigrant children and their families. Sections of the
52
handbook include (a) Working with cultural diverse families and “Bridging cultures”, (b)
Chinese cultural background, (c) Chinese families in preschools in the United States, and
(d) Tips for working with Chinese families.
Development of the Handbook
The development of the handbook mainly included gathering information and
arranging them into orders that make sense to American preschool teachers. The author
worked closely with her sponsor and reviewed books, workshops, and literature related to
bridging cultures and different childrearing beliefs in America and China. Moreover, she
informally talked to her American preschool teacher friends and Chinese immigrant
friends in order to get information on what American preschool teachers want to know
about Chinese culture, what conflicts and misunderstandings they have with Chinese
immigrant families, what Chinese immigrant parents’ expectations are for American
preschool teachers, and what experiences American preschool teachers and Chinese
immigrant parents had in the past.
After gathering information for developing the handbook, the author needed to
arrange it so that it makes sense to American preschool teachers. There are five sections
in the handbook and the order is similar to that in the literature review section. First, the
author explained what culture is and why it is important to bridge cultures in the
preschool classrooms. Second, the author emphasized the cultural diversity in American
preschools, with focus on Chinese immigrant children and their families. With the
statistics that shows preschool classrooms are having more Chinese immigrant children, it
53
shows the importance of creating the handbook for American preschool teachers. Third,
the conceptual frameworks, the development niche, individualism and collectivism, and
“bridging cultures,” are explained. Such frameworks reflect different childrearing beliefs
American and Chinese might hold, and the different views toward childrearing affect
preschool teachers’ practices at school. Therefore, explaining those frameworks help
preschool teachers to understand why there are differences and why we need to “bridge
cultures.” Fourth, parents’ childrearing goals in cross-cultural perspective are included.
Additionally, American parents’ and Chinese parents’ childrearing goals are explained in
details and compared. American preschool teachers would then know more about the
actual differences between the two cultures and why Chinese immigrant parents might act
and differently and have different expectations. Fifth, preschool education in America
and China are explained and compared. Other than traditions, parents’ experiences with
preschool in other countries might affect their expectations and views about preschool.
For that reason, introducing the different preschool education to American preschool
teachers helps them to understand what immigrant parents want and expect for preschool.
When creating the handbook, the author found it challenging to arrange the
materials in a way that American preschool teachers could understand easily. China has
a long history, and many factors, such as Chinese traditions, environments, customs, and
norms that are passed by generations, affect the way Chinese immigrants view American
preschool and preschool teachers’ teaching methods. Chinese culture is very different
from American culture; therefore, it is impossible for American audiences to fully
understand all the concepts and beliefs Chinese hold and difficult for the author to
54
describe for US audiences. Additionally, when translating theory such as Confucianism,
the author found it challenging to pick out certain points that related to childrearing
beliefs since it is a broad ethical and philosophical system influencing Chinese people’s
moral belief, social belief, political belief, religious belief, and much more. It was also
challenging for the author to put this information in a comprehensible and meaningful
manner for American preschool teachers.
Distribution of the Handbook
The author wanted to find out the effectiveness of the handbook and future
directions for revising or expanding the handbook; therefore, the author purposely
distributed the handbooks to her friends who are American preschool teachers to get this
feedback. Six American preschool teachers were invited to review the informational
handbook and got an electronic copy through emails. The author requested the American
preschool teachers provide feedbacks and comments through emails and/or phone calls
individually. The handbook users responded that the handbook was easy to read except
that they needed more explanations on some specific terms such as “guan” and
“training”. They were also surprised to know certain child-rearing practices that are
common in China. Moreover, they expressed shock to know the academic pressure
children face in China. Although it is too soon to conclude that the handbook actually
helps American preschool teachers resolve conflicts when working with Chinese
immigrant families, the users’ knowledge about Chinese traditional childrearing culture
55
has increased. Moreover, the users responded that the scenarios and the tips provided in
the handbook are helpful.
One of the future directions of this project is to distribute the handbooks to
preschool teachers in Sacramento, and ultimately more widely to teachers in California
and in the US. Since the US is made up of people of different cultures and this handbook
focuses on the Chinese culture, a future direction of the project is to include creating
handbooks featuring different cultures, such as Indian culture, Korean culture,
Vietnamese culture, and the Philippine culture.
Limitations of the Project
The author believes that this project has many strengths, including enhancing
American preschool teachers’ knowledge about Chinese culture and increasing their
sensitivity toward cultural diversity in preschool classrooms. However, several
limitations of the project should be mentioned here.
First, the handbook focused on Chinese immigrant families in California, and it
may not be applicable to other Asian families, such as Korean, Japanese, and Philippines.
Although Chinese immigrants represent the largest Asian immigrant group in California,
other Asian groups such as families from the Philippines and Vietnam are growing
number. This is important to mention because preschool education varies across different
Asian countries. For instance, preschools in Japan emphasize the importance of children
learning to solve peer conflicts themselves so that children develop self-control and learn
56
to socialize with others; in contrast, preschools in China are teacher-oriented and teachers
teach children to behave. Additionally, Chinese preschools focus more on academics
when compared to Japanese preschools (Tobin et al., 1989). Given that immigrant
parents’ experiences with preschool in other cultures might affect their view towards
America preschools, it is essential to be inclusive and develop handbooks for other Asian
cultures.
Second, immigrant Chinese families were described in a homogeneous way in the
handbook. In fact, there is within cultural variation and individual differences in
parenting within this culture. Childrearing beliefs and practices might vary, depending
on whether parents originate from rural or urban areas of mainland China. For instance,
Hong Kong was a colony of the British Empire until the British resumed control in 1997.
The education system in Hong Kong was the same as the British education system;
therefore, Hong Kong parents’ views toward childrearing and development might be
different than those of other Chinese parents. Moreover, immigrants acculturate to the
US culture at different rates, and some Chinese parents may emphasize collectivist
beliefs and values more than other parents do. It is simply beyond the scope of the
present handbook to consider this variability, but it would be important to address these
in future teacher materials.
Third, just like Chinese parents are not all alike, American preschool teachers can
vary in their exposure to cultural diversity. However, American preschool teachers were
also written about as if they were a homogeneous group in this handbook. In fact,
preschool teachers are a culturally diverse group themselves. For instance, from the
57
literature section, it is shown that California is made up of a large number of people from
different cultures. Therefore, American preschool teachers may embrace different
childrearing beliefs of different cultures. Although American preschool teachers were
written about as if they were a homogeneous group, for the sake of simplicity, it is
important to acknowledge the cultural diversity in this group and take it into
consideration when designing future curriculum and resources.
Fourth, this handbook is just one supplement for American preschool teachers’
developing understanding of cultural diversity in preschool. American preschool
teachers might benefit from additional cross-cultural coursework or workshops
presenting strategies for working with families of different cultures. Furthermore,
preschool teachers can watch video with scenarios, such as The Preschool in Three
Cultures DVD. Through watching real scenarios, American preschool teachers can gain
knowledge of different childrearing practices of varies cultures.
Recommendations
The author hopes that this project can help American preschool teachers to know
and understand more about the Chinese culture and Chinese parents’ concerns related to
their children’s growth during preschool. Ultimately, American preschool teachers can
gain techniques working with families of different cultures, not just Chinese immigrant
families. Since there are limitations of this handbook, after reading the handbook,
preschool teachers may still not fully understand what Chinese immigrant parents want
58
and expect. However, this handbook should help preschool teachers to become more
culturally sensitive. The author hopes that when American preschool teachers start to
question Chinese immigrant parents’ dialog, they can remember reading this handbook
and realize that different childrearing practices are associated with different cultures.
For American preschool teachers to become more aware of cultural differences
and more culturally sensitive, the author has the following recommendations. First, read
through the handbook and give special attention to the scenarios and tips in the fifth
section. The scenarios are written based on American preschool teachers’ real
experiences with Chinese immigrant families. American preschool teachers can practice
using the tips with a Chinese friend, a Chinese co-worker, or someone from a different
culture so that they are familiar with the techniques and can apply them to Chinese
parents. Second, review classroom activities and curriculum and include more Chinese
music, stories, and crafts in daily activities. Chinese parents would feel more welcomed
if they knew their children’s preschool teachers were willing to know more about the
Chinese culture. Third, if preschool teachers become frustrated by situations not
addressed in the handbook, they should discuss the situation with their directors and have
open communication with parents to develop a solution. Fourth, preschool teachers
should try to expand their knowledge of working in multicultural classrooms by taking
cultural classes, attending seminars, and reading books related to this area.
59
Conclusion
During the development of this handbook, the author spoke with many American
preschool teachers and Chinese immigrant parents. Their experiences working with each
other, and the author’s own experience as a preschool teacher and Chinese immigrant
parent further confirmed the need for this handbook. The cooperation of preschool
teachers and parents can help immigrant children adjust to new environments and learn
with more confidence. Although the roles of preschool teachers and parents are equally
important in helping children grow, preschool teachers are responsible for preparing
themselves to address challenges in their multi-cultural classrooms. Chinese immigrant
families are facing challenges adjusting to new environment already, and it is especially
challenging for Chinese immigrant children to learn in new classrooms with language
differences. Therefore, strong parent-teacher relationships can foster children’s learning
and development. Getting to know more about Chinese culture can help American
preschool teachers to be more culturally sensitive and develop a strong communication
with Chinese immigrant families.
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APPENDIX
A Handbook for American Preschool Teachers who work with
Chinese Immigrant Children and Families
61
How You Can Help
Chinese Students
by Working Effectively With Their Parents
An Information Handbook for Preschool Teachers in the United States
By PuiChing Lam
62
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
Why this Handbook was Developed ..................................................................................64
About this Handbook .........................................................................................................65
Organization of the Handbook ...........................................................................................66
I. WORKING WITH CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND “BRIDGING
CULTURES” ....................................................................................................................67
Defining Culture ................................................................................................................68
“Bridging Cultures” ...........................................................................................................69
Working with Culturally Diverse Families ........................................................................70
Working with Chinese Families.........................................................................................71
Typical Issues Regarding Preschool Education When Working with Chinese Immigrant
Families ..............................................................................................................................72
II. CHINESE CULTURAL BACKGROUND ...............................................................73
Definitions of Individualism and Collectivism ..................................................................74
Individualistic Culture – The United States .......................................................................74
Collectivistic Culture – China............................................................................................76
Child Rearing Goals and Practices Influenced by Confucianism ......................................77
Other Common Child Rearing Practices in China .............................................................78
Education in China .............................................................................................................80
Preschool in China .............................................................................................................81
III. CHINESE FAMILIES IN PRESCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES ............83
Chinese Parents’ Views of Children’s Creativity in Preschool .........................................84
Chinese Parental Understanding of Play............................................................................85
Chinese Parental Feelings about the Need to Control the Child’s Behavior .....................85
Chinese Parents’ Views On Social Interaction Practices in Preschool ..............................86
Meal Time Practices ..........................................................................................................87
Nap Time ...........................................................................................................................87
Shyness in Preschool..........................................................................................................87
63
IV. TIPS FOR WORKING WITH CHINESE FAMILIES .........................................89
Education Issues.................................................................................................................90
Scenario #1.........................................................................................................................90
Tips for Scenario #1 ...........................................................................................................90
Scenario #2.........................................................................................................................91
Tips for Scenario #2 ...........................................................................................................91
Social Interaction Issues ....................................................................................................92
Scenario #1.........................................................................................................................92
Tips for Scenario #1 ...........................................................................................................92
Scenario #2.........................................................................................................................93
Tips for Scenario #2 ...........................................................................................................93
Communication Issues .......................................................................................................94
Scenario #1.........................................................................................................................94
Tips for Scenario #1 ...........................................................................................................94
Scenario #2.........................................................................................................................95
Tips for Scenario #2 ...........................................................................................................95
General Suggestions...........................................................................................................96
64
PREFACE
Why This Handbook Was Developed
In the United States, I have two different roles. The first role is American
preschool teacher, and the second role is Chinese immigrant parent. As an American
preschool teacher, I learned to apply child development theories to my teaching and to
understand the difficulties preschool teachers face when working with culturally diverse
families. I encountered issues involving Chinese children and parents, such as different
opinions towards children’s learning style and teachers’ teaching styles. For instance,
some Chinese parents expected my fellow teachers and me to teach children certain skills
by giving them instructions and homework, whereas I found that American teachers
expected children to learn such skills by exploring during play time and through fun
activities. In addition, many Chinese parents had problems with meal time practice in
preschool. They expected preschool teachers to “make” their children to finish the whole
plate, while American preschool teachers thought that children know if they are full or
not and others should not force children to eat. I did not pay attention to such issues until
I became a parent, a Chinese immigrant parent.
When I became a Chinese immigrant parent, I realize that I still embraced some
Chinese traditional beliefs and that I have certain expectations for my son’s preschool
teachers. For instance, I expected preschool teachers to incorporate more activities
related to counting and knowing the alphabets when my son moved to the two year-old
classroom; however, teachers responded that academic-related activities are introduced
during circle time, and children spend the rest of the day playing with different things
such as blocks and puzzles, which can also foster learning. Moreover, they emphasized
introducing too much academic work at this age might increase stress in my son. As a
scholar and a former preschool teacher, I totally understand the importance of play and
the daily schedule of a typical US preschool. On the other hand, as a Chinese immigrant
mother, I sincerely hope that preschool teachers can “teach” my son by “instructing” him
65
how to count and to know his alphabet letters. I become stressed myself when I help my
son learn because many children of my Chinese friends and relatives acquire many
academic skills at an early age. Although I understand American preschool teachers’
beliefs regarding education, I feel the need and pressure from my family to urge my son
to learn different things at an early age. Finally, because my son’s teachers did not make
any changes to activities in the classroom, and I have spent extra time at home with my
son, teaching him how to count and assisting him to learn his alphabet letters.
My experience is just one of many common scenes in preschool that are related to
cultural differences in expectations about young children’s development. In my
experience, many conflicts can arise between American teachers and Chinese parents
because of cultural differences in beliefs about children’s early development, particularly
in relate to educational practices and social interaction practices. Additionally, the
indirect communication styles Chinese immigrant parents practice might make it
challenging for American preschool teachers to fully understand what Chinese immigrant
parents expect from preschool. For that reason, I found the need to bridge the two
cultures, and I developed this handbook for American preschool teachers to work
successfully with Chinese immigrant families.
About This Handbook
Why does this Handbook focus on working with Chinese immigrant families?
California has the second largest population of Asian Americans in the United States, and
Chinese families represent a large portion of that population. Therefore, typical issues
regarding preschool education between Chinese immigrant parents and American
preschool teachers will be discussed in this handbook.
This Handbook is ideal for preschool teachers (both new and old) who want a
quick and simple way to know more about Chinese families, as well as Chinese parents’
beliefs and expectations for preschools. From information on Chinese childrearing
66
practices to the expectations Chinese parents hold for preschools, this Handbook will be a
valuable resource for working with culturally diverse families, especially Chinese
families. Once you have finished this Handbook, you will be more prepared to work with
Chinese parents in order to ease misunderstanding and to enhance children’s learning.
Organization of the Handbook
There are four main sections in this Handbook. The first section is Working with
Cultural Diversity and “Bridging Cultures”, which includes a definition of culture and
explains how “bridging cultures” can help to reduce conflicts between teachers and
parents of different cultures. This section also focuses on typical issues regarding
working with culturally diverse families, especially Chinese immigrant families, in
preschool settings. The second section focuses on Chinese Cultural Background,
which includes information on Chinese culture, traditions, education, beliefs and
practices related to childrearing. The third section is Chinese Families in US
Preschools, which focuses on Chinese parents’ expectations and views on education and
social interaction in preschool. The fourth section is Tips for Working with Chinese
Families, which includes scenarios related to education issues, social interaction issues,
and communication issues between Chinese parents and American teachers and strategies
on how to communicate and work with Chinese parents.
67
I.
WORKING WITH CULTURAL DIVRSITY AND
“BRIDGING CULTURES”
This section will introduce you to the content of this Handbook and how it can help you
work effectively with Chinese students and their families. Additionally, since conflicts
and misunderstandings sometimes occur between Chinese parents and American
preschool teachers that are related to cultural differences in beliefs about children’s
development, this section will also define culture and “bridging cultures”. Therefore, you
will get some ideas about why people think differently and why there is a need to bridge
cultures.
68
Defining Culture
Before we talk about Chinese culture, it is important to start with a definition of
culture. Culture is defined as a set of shared norms, beliefs, values, and practices held by
the members of a group, organization, or nation (Storey, 2006). In fact, children’s
development is influenced by culture. Some researchers refer to the developmental
context of children’s development as the “developmental niche” (Super & Harkness,
2002). Parents’ beliefs about children and their socialization goals are part of children’s
“developmental niche”. Moreover, cultural values and beliefs may be reflected in
parents’ childrearing practices (Super & Harkness, 2002). The developmental niche
contains three interacting components (a) physical and social settings, (b) childrearing
customs, which includes caregivers’ practices for educating and protecting children, and
(c) caregivers’ psychology, which includes their parenting beliefs, goals, and values.
Research suggests that the developmental niche of young Chinese children is
different from that of many American children. For example, many Chinese parents
value Confucianism, which emphasizes the importance of education in children’s
developmental and well-being (caregivers’ psychology); therefore, education in China
mainly focuses on helping students to achieve academically, and there are many
playgroup centers for young children to learn academic skills such as math skill and
phonics (social settings). Moreover, Chinese parents tend to help with their children’s
homework rather than involve in school activities because they believe that such practice
can help children to achieve at school (childrearing customs). This example shows how
the external factors (Chinese parents’ beliefs regarding education, education in China,
and Chinese parents’ childrearing practices) influence Chinese children’s learning and
development.
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“Bridging Cultures”
Trumbull et al. (2001), the authors of Bridging Cultures between Home and
School, propose that understanding of cultural differences is the key factor related to
effective communication between parents and teachers. Therefore, this Handbook uses
their Bridging Cultures approach as a framework for thinking about cultural differences,
and specifically includes pertinent information on Chinese culture. The authors
recognize that both cultures (i.e., the cultures of home and culture of school) are equally
important; and to “bridge” cultures means that teachers assume the role of a “crosscultural traveler” who may go both side of the “bridge” easily and may be able to
communicate and serve people of these different cultures. Like the work of Trumbull et
al., this Handbook helps American preschool teachers to “bridge cultures,” and to
appreciate and understand the unique norms of each country’s culture. When teachers
know something about parents’ cultures, especially childrearing beliefs and practices,
they can use that information to bridge families’ cultures with the American preschool
culture.
Through bridging cultures, preschool teachers can dramatically reduce
misunderstandings and stress, which may develop from differences in language and
communication practices, parenting practices, and educational expectations. For
instance, instead of dismissing Chinese parents about not understanding the importance
of play time and about requesting to add more learning time in preschool, you can try to
work with parents on this issue. You can explain how play time facilitates learning and
helps develop children’s creativity. You can also share your experiences with the
learning issue. By communicating your knowledge about the importance of play time,
your view toward education, and your understanding of parents’ desire for children to
learn academic subjects at an early age, you can decrease the chance of Chinese parents
feeling left out of the decision-making and being misunderstood. Therefore,
understanding and communication is important to helping bridge cultures.
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Working with Culturally Diverse Families
Now we know what culture is and why it is important to bridge cultures. Parentteacher communication is important to bridging cultures. The challenges and benefits of
cross-cultural parent-teacher communication will be discussed.
Given that good parent-teacher communication can help children learn and grow
in preschool, cross-cultural communication between immigrant parents and American
preschool teachers is equally important. Immigrant families, especially immigrant
children, need to adjust to many changes, such as environment and language differences;
therefore, it is meaningful to develop good cross-cultural communication with these
families so that children can enjoy their learning in the US. Here are several benefits of
constructive cross-cultural communication between parents and teachers.

Research indicates that children in schools where there is good parent-teacher
communication do well in their education and in their future life (Corner & Haynes,
1991). In other words, good parent-teacher communication helps children to excel in
many ways in their academics.

In general, cross-cultural communication is beneficial to the relationship between
parents and teachers (Corner & Haynes, 1991). When good relationships are
developed, it is easier for both parents and teachers to have open communication,
allowing both parties to share their concerns and ideas.

More specific to the topic of this handbook, cross-cultural communication in the
American school setting helps to reduce miscommunication and stereotypes between
Chinese immigrant parents and American teachers. When teachers and parents talk
as partners and have equal status, children observe and learn that no culture is more
superior or inferior (Corner, & Haynes, 1991).
Since it is beneficial to develop cross-cultural parent-teacher communication, it is
71
essential for American preschool teachers to learn about different communication styles
of different cultures, and particularly Chinese communication here. Chinese people tend
to communicate in an indirect way, which means they may not directly tell American
preschool teachers what they expect and what they think (Gao, 1998). The above bullets
suggest that open and equal communication between Chinese parents and American
preschool teachers is essential, while communication and speaking styles different
cultures have are different and matter too.
Working with Chinese Families
Now we know that cross-cultural parent-teacher communication is essential and
important, but why would we want to focus on Chinese families? It is because there are
substantially large numbers of Chinese families in the US and particularly in California.
Plus, Chinese families have a totally different culture and childrearing beliefs compared
to the US. The following bullet points will show you the statistics of Chinese immigrants
in California.

Of 210,626 immigrant children in the US, 14,389 of them are of Chinese origin (U.S.
Department of Homeland Security, 2007).

3.8 million people, that is, approximately 12% of the people living in California are
of Asian origin, with 76,655 from China.

According to the data from Title III funding for newcomer immigrant students in
California 2002-2003 collected by the California Department of Education, there
were 175,090 immigrant students enrolled in California’s public or private schools,
and 9,561 of them were from China (2009).
72
Typical Issues Regarding Preschool Education When Working with Chinese
Immigrant Families
From the above section we know that a large number of Chinese immigrant
families settled in California, and many Chinese children are enrolled in preschools.
Many American preschool teachers will need to face and solve a variety of cross-cultural
issues that occur in classrooms. Here are some typical issues regarding preschool
education when American preschool teachers are working with Chinese immigrant
families.

Chinese parents and American preschool teachers can differ in their expectations
about many things, for instance, the amount of academic work preschool-age children
should be completing.

Chinese parents and American preschool teachers can also differ in the view of
parental involvement. Research has showed Chinese parents like to become involved
by helping their children learn at home while American parents tend to show
involvement by volunteering at their child’s school (Pang & Richey, 2007).

Language barriers and lack of resources may be other reasons for less participation of
Chinese parents in the classroom. If there are no resources to help Chinese parents to
overcome the language barrier issue, it is difficult for Chinese parents to participate in
activities.

Chinese parents and American preschool teachers may have different speaking
practices. Chinese people tend to communicate with others in a more indirect way.
Common practices such as han xu (implicit communication), ke qi (politeness) and
mian zi (face) are valued in Chinese culture. Therefore, American preschool teachers
may not fully understand what Chinese immigrant parents expect from them because
they are used to American parents being more direct about their requests and
expectations. For that reason, miscommunication can arise from different
communication styles (Gao, 1998).
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II.
CHINESE CULTURAL BACKGROUND
Now we understand that California has increasing numbers of Chinese immigrants, which
means that American preschools are having an increasing number of Chinese immigrant
children. American preschool teachers are facing more difficulties when working in a
culturally diverse classroom, and they simply need some tools to assist them working
with families of different cultures.
In this section, preschool teachers will find information related to the Chinese cultural
background and the differences between Chinese and American cultures. The definitions
of individualism (The U.S.) and collectivism (China) will be explained. Child rearing
practices and education system will also be discussed. After reading this section,
preschool teachers will have a better understanding of why Chinese parents stress
academic achievement, even in preschool, and de-emphasize other areas of development,
such as creativity.
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Definitions of Individualism and Collectivism
Before we start to explore more information about the Chinese cultural
background, it is important to define the general cultural terms, individualism and
collectivism. Some cultural researchers categorize parental beliefs and socialization goals
into either of these orientations.
Individualism is a cultural orientation that stresses “the moral worth of the
individual” and individuals’ autonomy and separateness from the group (Triandis, 2002).
In contrast, collectivism is a cultural orientation that emphasizes individuals’ strong
cohesive ties to a group and interdependence with members of the group. People who
value this orientation focus more on group goals over individual goals.
The following subsections will explore features of an individualistic culture, as
demonstrated in the United States, and a collectivistic culture, as demonstrated in China.
The different values that the two cultures hold also result in different childrearing
practices, which will be discussed later.
Individualistic Culture – The United States
Individualism, which is widely practiced in the United States, is a cultural
orientation that emphasizes individuals’ autonomy and separateness from the group
(Triandis, 2002). Parents in individualistic cultures encourage their children to become
independent and autonomous, and therefore learning to govern and direct themselves.
For instance, an American mother might encourage her children to use their own words
to express ideas in preschool in order to develop the ability of self-expression, which is a
characteristic of individualism. This is not to say that every American is individualistic.
In fact, there are many variations of parenting in the US, with some parents appearing
more collectivistic than individualistic. However, many Americans, especially middleclass Caucasians, place more emphasis on individual outcomes compared to
relationships. There are four key values associated with socialization of children in
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individualistic culture: personal choice, intrinsic forms of motivation, self-esteem, and
self-maximization (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). These are described in the following
bullet points.

The act of making a personal choice demonstrates personal preferences. For instance,
American preschool teachers let children explore what to make with wooden blocks
whereas Chinese preschool teachers tend to give instructions for children to build
with wooden blocks.

Intrinsic forms of motivation refer to being internally driven to achieve one’s goals.
It is related to personal choice since personal choice facilitates motivation. For
example, children will choose to read books during free play time if they are
internally interested in reading, without any external force or reward. In Chinese
preschools, teachers plan activities for children to do rather than provide lots of free
play time for children to choose what they want to do.

Individualism places emphasis on self-esteem, or feeling good about oneself. For
instance, American preschool teachers’ use of praise can help to enhance children’s
self-esteem, which can help children to accept and love who they are and what they
can do. In contrast, Chinese parents show more dissatisfaction with academic
achievement, and they are more rejecting and less accepting of children’s
achievement (Chiu, 1987; Crystal et al., 1994).

Self-maximization refers to achieving one’s full potential as an individual. It also
refers to developing one’s unique talents. For instance, American preschool teachers
encourage children to achieve by regularly telling them that they can accomplish the
tasks. Children will then believe that they can do it if they try their best. In addition,
American preschool teachers value play time and exploration of activities because it
is thought to help children realize their unique talents. In contrast, Chinese preschool
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teachers value “instructing” rather than have children “exploring”. Therefore,
children may not have chances to realize their talents and explore other ways to solve
problems.
Collectivistic Culture – China
Collectivism, which is typically practiced by Chinese families, is a cultural
orientation that emphasizes individuals’ strong cohesive ties to a group and
interdependence with members of the group. For instance, Chinese, in general,
emphasize social relationships, and their personal desires and task accomplishments are
normally superseded by group harmony. Therefore, in China it is not polite to disagree
with someone’s opinion in public. People will disagree in a private atmosphere in order
to save others’ “faces” and promote harmony. Disagreeing is not as important as
providing group harmony.
Similar to what we mentioned about individualism in America, not all Chinese are
collectivists. Most parents value individualism and collectivism to some degree, but the
patterns of co-existence of these two orientations vary across cultures. We are saying the
Chinese, in general, give more emphasis to social relationships, and they value group
goals more than personal desires. There are three developmental goals of collectivist
parents: (a) children’s connection to the family and other close relationships, (b) their
orientation to the larger group, and (c) children’s respect and obedience with elders
(Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2007). These are described in the following bullet points.

Children’s connection to the family and other close relationships is important in
collectivistic cultures. In China this idea is influenced by religion and Confucian
philosophy. To collectivists, a strong tie to family is essential because it is important
to develop relationships with others.

Children’s orientation to the larger group is a basic goal in the collectivistic culture.
Since collectivists value group goals and harmony, children are expected to view
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themselves as members of society rather than individuals. For instance, Chinese
mothers are more likely to ask children to share toys rather than take turns playing
with the toys. The aim is to have children to learn group value.

In China, the idea of children’s respect and obedience to elders is influenced mainly
by Confucianism. This idea aims to promote group harmony. When children respect
and obey their authorities, group harmony is promoted. For instance, when children
do not question or challenge elders, many arguments can be avoided, and harmony in
the family can be promoted.
Child Rearing Goals and Practices Influenced by Confucianism
Chinese parents value collectivism and are influenced by Confucianism.
Confucianism was developed by the Chinese philosopher Confucius, and he started
teaching back in 528 BC. Confucianism is a widespread philosophy that influenced the
history of Chinese civilization and still impacts many Asian cultures today.
Confucianism is a complex system with emphasis on humanity and social
relationships. Therefore, Chinese parents’ childrearing goals mainly aim to teach
children to get along with others and the benefit of caring for the larger group (Lahman &
Park, 2004).
Confucianism is a philosophy on the culture of life that provides strict standards
on discipline, educational beliefs, family loyalty, education, respect for elders, and
tradition (Lu, & Yu, 2000). Childrearing in China is based on four Confucian principles:
education, social relationship, family system, and benevolence (Bockover, 2003).
Education is aimed at providing children with the ideal personality. Without
education, there would be no knowledge, which is an important element in Confucian
thought, used to examine oneself and the world. Moreover, education is viewed as the
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best path to personal, social, and economic uplifting. Chinese people believe that with
knowledge, one can get a good job, and therefore increase social status in the society and
improve. This has an influence on many Chinese in view of the fact that they get
motivated to acquire a good education as early as they enter preschool.
Social relationships are central to Confucianism. Children need to know their
relationships with different people. For instance, a son is in relation to his parents and
grandparents, and a student is in relation to the teachers and principle. Moreover,
children need to show deference to those that they are in relation to, especially those who
have higher social hierarchy. Knowing and recognizing the importance of social
relationships helps to promote group harmony – an important goal in Confucianism.
The family system is part of relationships. The system has been considered under
the Confucian teaching as the ideal organization in society. Through this system children
should respect and obey their parents, elders, and authorities; on the other hand, the older
generations in the family are expected to take control of the young ones.
Benevolence also means kindness and generosity. It is needed to become a
virtuous person. Rearing children under the principle of benevolence involves socializing
children’s self discipline and self-restraint, loyalty, good interpersonal behavior to the
other people, personal duty, filial faithfulness to parents, and love to the elders.
Other Common Child Rearing Practices in China
Other than the four basic Confucian principles that affect childrearing practices in
China, concepts such as loyalty, filial piety, and obedience are valued and practiced by
Chinese families and are passed on to social organizations. Filial piety is what children
should show to their parents. For instance, children should listen to their father; younger
children should listen to their elder siblings; and people should listen to their ruler.
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In order to help children achieve at schools (education), learn to be a good
member in society (social relationships), learn to recognize their responsibilities and
duties at home (family system), and learn to be kind to others (benevolence), Chinese
parents believe that “training” and “guan” are needed in the learning process.
Training is a big part in Confucianism, and it means children follow instruction
and keep practicing the techniques. Chinese parents believe that more effort can help to
bring better results. Therefore, in order to assist children to achieve, especially
academically, they believe that children should spend more time on training, which
means more effort. Training is also believed to assist children to learn responsibly, which
leads to socially and morally responsible adults. Through training, children’s good
behaviors become a habit, which helps them to become ladies and gentlemen.
“Guan” means control and provides direction. There are many ways to “guan”
and “guan” can be used by other people. For instance, Chinese parents “guan” their
children by making them practice doing math questions (training), and Chinese teachers
can “guan” students’ behavior by giving punishments. “Guan” here can also mean
parental control. First dimension of “guan” is behavioral control where parents are
supposed to be aware of their children’s regulations, rules and day to day activities, and
the limits which they should set for their children. Second dimension of “guan” is
psychological control where parents are supposed to set limitations for children through
guilt induction, intrusiveness of parents, or love withdrawal (Shek, 2008).
Chinese parents control their children in many different ways but focus the most
on educational success. For instance, Chinese mothers maintain close supervision over
their children, including selecting their children’s playmates. Moreover, Chinese parents
teach their children to control their emotions at early ages; therefore, they also show less
loving gestures and less sensitivity when compared to American parents (Hsueh &
Barton, 2005). The term “guan” takes a different dimension under the culture of Chinese
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to mean beliefs and values that Chinese parents expect their children to practice or have.
In general, Chinese parents expect their children to achieve academically. Therefore,
parents “guan” children so that they can do well in school, have the ability to work hard,
and be self-disciplined. For the success of the children in school and life in general,
Chinese parents view “guan” as an essential element.
As described above, both “training” and “guan” could be considered
characteristics of authoritarian parenting style. Researchers have categorized Chinese
parenting styles as typically authoritarian, which means Chinese parents are more
punishment oriented and more controlling. They demand their children to meet certain
expectations and expect children to obey to the highest level (Ballantine, 2001). In
European American families, authoritarian parenting style is usually associated with
negative outcomes in children. However, since Chinese parents’ controlling and training
actions usually take place in a family context that is supportive and loving, this
authoritarian parenting style has been associated with positive outcomes in Chinese
children’s achievement (Rao et al., 2003). Although Chinese parents are showed less
loving gestures and less accepting to children’s achievements, they are more protective of
and concerned about their children, when compared to parents from Western cultures
(Lai et al., 2000; Lieber et al., 2006). One reason for Chinese parents to apply the
authoritarian parenting style is to ensure that children are observant to society norms and
values. However, this parenting style may lead affect children to be socially inept, shy,
and ineffectual due to the kind of enforcement that they are subjected to.
Education in China
Schools in China are regulated by the Ministry of Education. The Chinese
education philosophy aims to promote children’s cognitive and language development, to
encourage love for children’s motherland, and to realize the importance of being a
collective labor in the society. On July, 1986, the Nine-Year Compulsory Education law
was established, and the law established guidelines and requirements in order to
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guarantee school-age children to receive at least nine years of tuition-free education.
Although it is not part of the compulsory school system in China, preschool in China also
shares the same aim as primary schools, secondary schools, and other higher education.
Primary school has a structured curriculum, which is academic in orientation with
strong subject boundaries and with great emphasis on examination performance and
homework. Students are expected to learn at least seven academic subjects, including
Chinese, English, mathematics, physical education, music, art, general studies, and moral
education. Furthermore, many assessment tests are conducted in Primary 3 and 6, which
determine children’s placement in secondary schools. Since the results of the assessment
tests affect children’s placement in secondary schools and the primary schools’
popularity, both parents and teachers exert massive pressure on children to do well in
school.
Entrance requirement in secondary school depends on students’ assessment test
results in primary school, primary school examinations results, and the Secondary School
Places Allocation scheme. Other than Chinese, English, and mathematics, students also
need to learn geography, Chinese history, western history, Science, art, physical
education, music, computer, and moral education. Many students learn different
languages outside of school, such as French and German, in order to increase their
probability to get in a good department in a famous University. At the end of senior year,
students will need to take a public examination to determine their entrance to higher
education. It is mostly likely one examination determines students’ future in higher
education; however, only about 50 to 60 percent of students attain the requirements.
Preschool in China
Preschool in China is also known as kindergarten, which serves children from
ages three to six. Although preschool is not part of the compulsory school system, there
is guaranteed entry into a program, and it is regulated by the Kindergarten Work
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Regulation (Li, 2006; Ministry of Education, 1995). Other than the philosophy issued by
the Chinese government, preschool education mainly prepares children for primary
education. For instance, in order to prepare children to get used to the academic- and
teacher- oriented classroom in primary school, many preschool teachers use both Chinese
and English in the classroom. Moreover, the settings of some preschool classrooms are
similar to that of primary schools. For instance, since education in China is teacheroriented, students’ desks are usually all faced to the chalkboard, where teachers instruct
and show students the techniques. Some preschools in China also have the similar
settings because they aim to prepare children to get used to the environment and learning
pattern in primary schools.
Another function of preschool education in China is to promote children’s
cognitive and language development, to encourage love for children’s motherland, and to
realize the importance of being a collective labor in the society. These aims might vary
to some extent in different provinces in China, but preschool is generally a place for
young children to develop skills to face and to interact positively with others in the
society. These missions clearly demonstrate traditional Confucian philosophy (Li, 2006;
Pang & Richey, 2007).
To achieve the above missions, Confucian ideas, such as the need to respect one’s
superiors, the importance of training, and the need of knowledge, are incorporated into
daily activities. For instance, children in preschool classrooms are expected to listen to
their teachers and follow instructions. Teachers plan many large-group activities with
emphasis on literacy, mathematics, and science, while there is only a half-hour of outside
free play time each day for children to choose their activities.
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III. CHINESE FAMILIES IN PRESCHOOLS
IN THE UNITED STATES
Given that Chinese parents and American preschool teachers hold different beliefs
towards childrearing practices and expectations, this section focuses on Chinese families
in preschools in the United States. What are Chinese parents’ educational expectations
for preschool? What are Chinese parents’ feelings toward preschool’s activities and
schedules? How are Chinese parents involved in school? All of these common questions
and concerns, which are often asked by American preschool teachers, will be addressed
here.
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Chinese Parents’ Views of Children’s Creativity in Preschool
Americans value self-expression and individual thinking, and those are essential
elements in being creative. Because Chinese preschool education gives more emphasis to
academic development than American preschools do, preschool classrooms are mainly
teacher-oriented, and the teaching method mainly involves giving instructions. Many
American preschool teachers would find these Chinese preschool practices as detrimental
to young children’s development of creativity because children have less chance to
explore by themselves. Here we are going to explore more on how Chinese parents view
children’s creativity in preschool.

Chinese parents expect high academic performance from their children as early as
preschool. The parents believe that preschool should give a child a good start for
excelling in academics. Therefore, they expect preschools to provide more academic
training and to put less focus on creativity (Lieber et al., 2006; Peng & Wright, 1994).

In research comparing the teaching style of teachers in China and the United States,
Chinese teachers tended to instruct their students to solve math problems while
American teachers tended to encourage their students to find ways to solve problems.
The Chinese teaching method discourages children to think or create new methods
when solving math problems; however, children get training in math problem-solving
skills which enable them to solve math problems fast. On the other hand, the
American teaching method provides opportunities for children to think and develop
their own ideas, which encourages creativity.

Chinese parents tend to instruct their children to solve many problems at home.
Similar to the Chinese teaching method at school, the act of instruction tends to
discourage children from thinking further and creating new ideas, but one benefit is
that children acquire the most efficient skills known to solve problems. Therefore, in
general, Chinese parents value academic achievement more than children’s creativity.
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
Creativity is an individualistic goal. Therefore, American preschools have more free
play time and teachers encourage children to make choices. It is because American
believes that the role of play and make choices foster children’s creativity.
Chinese Parental Understanding of Play
Some Chinese parents view play as a waste of time and activity that is not
enhancing children’s academic development (Pang & Richey, 2007). Chinese parents
think that instead of spending time on playing, children should spend time on studying.
Therefore, here are some expectations of Chinese parents about the role of play in
preschool. Chinese parents value an education system that has short break intervals for
play time with more time devoted to academic work. Chinese parents value short breaks
because they think that children concentrate more on academic work after they have had
recess. A short break is usually no longer than fifteen minutes. Therefore, if American
preschools provide playtime for children, which includes exploration and learning by
themselves, Chinese parents might consider this a waste of learning time. For that
reason, American preschool teachers should explain to Chinese parents about how play
potentially incorporate academic skills.
Chinese Parental Feelings about the Need to Control the Child’s Behavior
One of the Confucian ideas is to control or get children to be under control (i.e.,
guan). Chinese parents feel the need to control children’s emotions and behaviors in
order to promote group harmony. Parents feel the need to control because they want their
children to become good members in society, which is essential in Confucian ideas.
From that we can see how Confucianism influences parents’ expectations about
preschool teachers.

For the above reason, Chinese parents might expect preschool teachers to control
children’s behaviors and emotions. Behaviors and emotions such as being polite to
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others and not to show anger to others are valued in Chinese culture. For instance,
Chinese parents might want preschool teachers to use certain types of punishment,
such as taking children’s playtime away and having them stand outside the classroom,
if it helps children to learn good behavior or not to misbehave again.

In addition, Chinese parents might expect preschool teachers to develop curriculum
related to good behavior. For instance, American preschool teachers are expected to
read more books and do more activities related to good manners during meal time.
However, Chinese parents might not approve preschool curriculum that teaches
children to talk about their feelings because young Chinese children are taught to
conceal their emotions at home.
Chinese Parents’ Views On Social Interaction Practices in Preschool
Chinese parents believe that good social skills can lead to good performance in
their children’s academics (Cheng, 2000). Therefore, they tend to guide children’s social
behavior by instructing them on what are “right” and “appropriate” social behaviors and
directing them to engage in certain behaviors and activities.
On the other hand, American parents give their children freedom to choose what
they want to do at home. In Chinese parents’ view, this act has lowered the social
competency of the children as they have the right to do what they want. Having the fact
that teachers in the American preschool do not tend to give directions and instruction on
what children should do, this lowers the chance for socializing the child towards the
societal norms and values (Ladd, 1999). In fact, American preschool teachers guide
children’s social behavior by asking a series of questions to help them to think about the
situation. US preschool teachers may think that children will naturally come to the right
decision after such discussions rather than being forced to do something. Since
children’s “misbehavior” is not immediately corrected using this question-based guidance
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method, Chinese parents may not satisfied with how American preschool teachers guide
their children.
Since Chinese and American hold different beliefs toward how to develop
children’s social skills, there may be some conflicts and/or misunderstandings between
Chinese parents and US preschool teachers that are related to different beliefs and
practices about social interaction skills in everyday life. Here are some examples and
views of Chinese parents on social interaction practices in preschools.
Meal Time Practices
In Chinese preschools, children are asked to finish all of the food on the plate
quietly without talking to other children, whereas children in American preschools can
talk quietly during meal time and they do not need to finish the food on the plate.
Nap Time
Chinese people maintain close supervision of children; they usually do not let
children cry for a long time in an effort to get them to sleep. If necessary, Chinese
preschool teachers will hold or pat children to help them to take a nap. On the other
hand, American preschool teachers encourage children to nap all by themselves. If
necessary, preschool teachers will let children cry until they go to sleep. Some preschool
teachers also let children do other things as long as they are not disturbing those who are
sleeping.
Shyness in Preschool
Chinese parents believe that being shy is another way to control emotions and
promote group harmony. In other words, Chinese parents do not think that being shy is a
problem if it helps to promote group harmony (Rao et al., 2003). Chinese parents may
have conflicting ideas of wanting their children to learn social skills by interacting more
with others and also wanting their children to be shy and control their emotions in order
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to promote group harmony. In contrast, American preschool teachers encourage children
to speak up and express their ideas. They believe that children talking about feelings
helps children to regulate their feelings (Phelps, 2005; Tobin et al., 1989).
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IV. TIPS FOR WORKING WITH CHINESE FAMILIES
The above sections described the differences in childrearing practices and beliefs
between China and the U.S. The following section contains some scenarios experienced
by American preschool teachers, who were coworkers of the author. The following
examples show that conflicts and misunderstanding occurs often when preschool teachers
and parents are from different cultures. Even though they have the same goal of helping
children learn and enhancing development, they might disagree about the childrearing
practices needed to realize these goals. Following the scenarios you will get some tips
for working with Chinese immigrant families when there are education issues, social
interaction issues, and communication issues.
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Education Issues
Scenario #1:
A preschool developed a program to prepare children for kindergarten. Children
received a homework packet each Friday and were supposed to complete and return it on
Monday. Each packet included worksheets focused on phonics, math problems, and
hand-writing techniques. A few weeks later, a Chinese parent talked to the preschool
teacher requesting more homework for her child. In addition, she asked the teacher to
increase the difficulty of the homework. The preschool teacher thought that the parent
was overworking and stressing the child whereas the parent thought that the teacher could
help her child to learn faster by just giving more homework.
Tips for Scenario #1:

Knowing that Chinese parents value education and academic achievement, you can
first listen and recognize their concerns.

Clearly explain to parents about their children’s ability to learn different skills.

In this scenario, the parent is requesting more homework at a more advanced level. If
the child is doing an excellent job with his homework already, you can encourage
parents to work with you as a team, and parents can show the work they did with the
child at home. For example, you can ask what parents did with the child at home and
show you the work. If the child is capable to learn more advanced subjects, you can
go ahead and give the child more homework.

Chinese parents like to be informed about their children’s learning pace. You can
write them a note stating what the school is teaching, what their children learned, and
what parents can do at home to enhance children’s learning.
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Scenario #2:
A preschool has a policy to send parents developmental records, a form of
assessment, every six months. Different domains of development are rated with the
options of “developing”, “developed”, or “well developed”. A Chinese parent was very
worried after she found that her daughter’s skill on simple addition was assessed as
“developing”. Although the teacher explained to the parent that more addition concepts
and skills will be addressed in the pre-K program, the parent was still very anxious about
her daughter’s learning and continued to ask teachers to help. The teacher then thought
that the parent was worrying too much.
Tips for Scenario #2

Knowing that Chinese parents value education and academic achievement, you can
first listen and recognize their concerns.

Clearly explain to parents about their children’s ability to learn different skills. Also
explain to parents about doing age-appropriate activities can help children learn
effectively.

In this scenario, the child is not ready for more advanced-level work since her skills
on addition are still developing. Therefore, the teacher can show concern about
parent’s feelings toward her daughter’s learning. Next, the teacher can help by giving
the parent some suggestions on what she can do at home to help her daughter learn.

For example, you can suggest parents to do some at-home math activities with the
child; in addition, you can tell parents that you are incorporating some math activities
in daily activities. That way both you and parents are working together toward one
aim – helping the child learn.
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
Lastly, always follow up. You can write parents a note stating what the school is
teaching, what their children learned, and what parents can do at home to enhance
children’s learning.
Social Interaction Issue
Scenario #1:
Johnny was a four-year-old Chinese boy on his first day of school. Both of his
parents arrived with him. His parents walked into the classroom and greeted Johnny’s
teacher, Ms. Angie. Ms. Angie said “Good Morning” to Johnny, but he stepped back and
hid behind his parents. Johnny’s parents encouraged Johnny to greet Ms. Angie, but
Johnny continued to hide. Ms. Angie assured the parents it was all right. She thought
that Johnny was new to the school and needed time to adjust to the teacher and the
environment. However, Johnny’s parents disagreed and believed Johnny needed to greet
the teacher. Later, Johnny’s father became very angry at his son’s “misbehavior,” and he
brought Johnny back to his car. After a while the parents returned with Johnny, who was
in tears, and Johnny said “Good Morning” to Ms. Angie. Johnny’s parents believed it
was necessary for Johnny to develop a “good habit” of showing respect and politeness to
teachers at an early age, while Ms. Angie thought it may simply take time for Johnny to
become used to the new environment.
Tips for Scenario #1:

Under the influence of Confucianism, Chinese parents might expect their children to
show respect to their teachers and be polite to others.

Teachers can welcome the new Chinese students by introducing new classmates.
This helps to draw the new students’ attention and helps them blend in the new
environment.

Talk to the parents when they enroll their children. Inform them that children might
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take a couple of days to get used to the new environment, and teachers will emphasize
politeness during circle time. With this information, parents may not be surprised
when their children are not being polite as usual.
Scenario #2:
Ann’s mother usually picks her up from school after work, but one day she
needed to pick Ann up during lunch time. She was shocked when she found that Ann
was throwing her food away while there were still some bread and fruit on her plate.
Ann’s mother then talked to the teacher about meal time practice. She expected Ann to
finish her plate or if not, she would like to pack the leftovers so that there is no waste.
The teacher said that she could not force anyone to eat if they thought that they had
enough. Plus, it was not clean to save the leftover because children had touched the food
already. Ann’s mother was not happy with the situation because she thought the teacher
was teaching Ann to waste food and that is why Ann did not “eat well” at home. Ann’s
teacher also did not understand why Ann’s mother wanted to force Ann to finish the
whole plate when Ann said she was full.
Tips for Scenario #2:

Preschool teachers should know that Chinese preschool teachers always expect
students to finish the whole plate quietly; therefore, it is not uncommon for Chinese
parents to want their children to develop such habits.

Show your concern about meal time practice and give some potential solutions that
focus on parents’ concerns and teach other students not to waste food. For instance,
teachers can explain to the parents that it is not safe to pack the leftover food, but they
can limit the amount of food children are placing on their plates.

Family style dining can be introduced. Students can share from a big plate and learn
how to take only the amount of food they can finish.
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Communication Issues
Scenario #1:
While a Chinese mother came to pick up her son, Peter, she asked the teacher how
Peter was doing at school. The teacher said Peter was very talkative and liked to share
ideas with his friends. Peter’s mother then asked the teacher if she thought Peter talked
too much during learning time or not. At the same time, she turned to Peter and told him
to not to disturb others when it is learning time and not to talk when the teacher is
teaching. Peter’s teacher then explained that it is all right for Peter to share ideas with
others when it is learning time; however, the mother continued to tell the teacher that she
expected Peter to remain quiet while the teacher was talking.
Tips for Scenario #1:

Be careful of the words you are using with Chinese parents. How you interpret
certain words might not be how Chinese parents interpret them. For instance, the
word “talkative” may mean to teachers that children are expressing themselves while
exchanging ideas. However, to Chinese parents “talkative” may mean disturbing
others.

Describe to the parents the whole scene so that parents know if their children are
misbehaving or not.

For instance, in this scenario, the teacher can emphasize that it was a time for children
to exchange ideas and children were supposed to talk. With this information, parents
may be prevented from concluding that their child is breaking the harmony of the
group (disturbing others’ learning time) and not respecting the teacher (talking when
teacher was teaching).
95
Scenario #2:
One day a parent told the teacher that Emily’s mother, a Chinese parent, hoped
that the teacher can put Emily to nap by holding and patting her. Since the teacher
remembered that Emily’s mother did not have any comments toward preschool’s nap
time practice when they had parent-teacher conference not long ago, she was surprised
that Emily’s mother had such concern right now. In addition, the teacher did not
understand why Emily’s mother did not express her expectations and ideas personally.
The teacher then asked Emily’s mother about what she wanted during nap time, but
Emily’s mother still did not tell the teacher exactly what she wanted the teacher to do.
The teacher was very confused and did not know what to do regarding this parent’s
concern.
Tips for Scenario #2:

Remember that Chinese parents’ communication style can be different than
Americans’ communication style sometimes. Chinese parents may not want to
communicate with others in a more indirect way. In order to avoid embarrassments
and to save face, sometimes they need a third person to deliver messages.

In order to develop effective communication with Chinese parents, you can try to use
other indirect methods to let Chinese parents express their concerns and ideas. For
example, you can make a message box for parents to drop notes and messages for
you. Therefore, you can know what parents think, and Chinese parents do not need to
worry about embarrassments when talking to the teacher face-to-face.

In this scenario, not only the teacher needs to solve the communication problem, she
needs to explain to the parents about preschool’s nap time practices and limitations on
what teachers can do during nap time. To eliminate Chinese parents’ anxiety when
having face-to-face communication, you can also drop parents some notes explaining
your ideas and preschool’s policy toward nap time.
96
General Suggestions

You should provide open, honest discussions when needed, and you might want to
know common communication style Chinese practice. Sometimes Chinese parents
do not like to talk face to face because they like to save “face.” You can try dropping
notes for them instead of asking them to have a conference.

Proofread the note or notice that you send home. Pay attention to the words you used.
Some words can be interpreted differently. Therefore, be concise and clear, and
avoid using fancy terms.

Remember that most parents have the same goal as you, which is helping their
children to grow and learn. Therefore, do not judge their practices and beliefs;
instead, show your concern and tell them what you think. Both you and parents can
learn new strategies and techniques through exchanging ideas.
97
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