MILITARY SEXUAL TRAUMA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Social Work
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
by
Kellie Anne Curnutt
SPRING
2014
MILITARY SEXUAL TRAUMA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
A Project
by
Kellie Anne Curnutt
Approved by:
________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Serge Lee
______________________________
Date
ii
Student: Kellie Anne Curnutt
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Dale Russell, Ed.D., LCSW
Division of Social Work
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract of
of
MILITARY SEXUAL TRAUMA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
by
Kellie Anne Curnutt
Military Sexual Trauma (MST) is a term used by the Department of Defense to describe
sexual assault and harassment.
MST has negative consequences that include the
degradation of morale, health, and family. MST has been present during all wars and
conflicts throughout the history of warfare. In addition, history shows that women have
participated in warfare and combat all over the world. Using peer reviewed journals and
articles, as well as books that detail the history of women’s roles in warfare, this
researcher has illustrated the contributions of women to war, as well as a content analysis
on the prevalence and effects that MST has on women. In conclusion, this content
analysis has shown that additional research must be done to determine the effectiveness
of programs currently in place to decrease MST.
_________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Serge Lee
_________________________
Date
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………...viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………...……………………………………………………….1
Background of the Problem.....................................................................................1
Statement of the Research Problem……………………………………………….5
Study Purpose……………………………………………………………………..6
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………7
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..8
Assumptions……………………………………………………………………….8
Social work research justification……………………………………………...….8
Study limitations…………………………………………………………………..9
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE………………………………………………….10
A Brief History of Women in Warfare…………………………………………..10
Amazons of Black Sparta……………………………..........................................11
Women in Early Imperial China………………………………………………....13
Women of the Long March………………………………………………………14
Women of Chongqing’s Resistance in World War II……………………………16
Russia’s Women Soldiers of World War I………………………………………19
Women Soldiers of the American Civil War…………………………………….24
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History of Aggression within the Military Culture……………………………...29
Women in Modern Warfare……………………………………………..............30
Sexual Harassment, Assault, Trauma, and its Effects on Women………………31
Lack of Reporting of Military Sexual Trauma…………………………………..33
Female Veterans not Seeking Services…………………………………………..35
What is Being Done?.............................................................................................36
Summary…………………………………………………………………………36
3. METHODS…………………………………………………………………………..38
Study Objectives…………………………………………………………………38
Study Design……………………………………………………………………..38
Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………………39
Instruments……………………………………………………………………….40
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….40
Protection of Human Subjects…………………………………………...............40
4. STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS………………………………………...42
Overall Findings…………………………………………………………………42
Specific Findings………………………………………………………………...43
Interpretations of the Findings…………………………………………...............48
5. CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………49
Summary of Study……………………………………………………………….49
Implications for Social Work…………………………………………………….51
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Recommendations………………………………………………………………..52
Limitations……………………………………………………………………….53
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….53
Appendix A. Human Subjects Approval Letter…………………………………54
References……………………………………………………………………….56
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
1. Number of times key terms mentioned in 2009 article..…………………………43
2. Number of times key terms used in 2011(a) article……………………………...44
3. Number of times key terms used in 2011(b) article……………………………...45
4. Number of times key terms used in 2013 article…………………………….......46
5. Overall number of times key terms used…………………………………….......47
viii
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Military Sexual Trauma (MST) is a term used to describe sexual assault or
repeated sexual harassment. It occurs across all branches of the military, and the victims
can be officer or enlisted, woman or man. Not only does MST degrade morale and
mission effectiveness, it also comprises the individual’s health and his or her family’s
well-being (Snyder, Fisher, Scherer, & Daigle, 2012). Although there seems to be an
increase in the reporting of MST, the consequences of reporting MST still outweighs the
benefit to a majority of the victims. Often, it is the victim of MST who suffers more than
the perpetrator when the abuse comes to light. This is due to the victim being unable to
transfer workstations without permission, the perpetrator may be a coworker, supervisor,
or someone of higher rank, and the victim may have repeated contact with the perpetrator
(Suris & Lind, 2008).
Background of the Problem
Women have taken on many roles in early American society. One of the
important roles women took on was that of a wife and mother. Many women found that
once they were married, their role of having and caring for children, taking care of the
sick, and running the household was now legitimized, whereas these domestic duties
were something they did before marriage, but without any authority or responsibility of
being head of the household. According to Hurtado (2001) the amount of time women
spent in the home managing domestic duties, enabled men to work on the homestead,
2
goldmines, or timber, and this contributed to economic growth in the West. Many
women also found themselves learning their new husband’s business and even running it
while he was away (Smith, 2010). In Gold Rush California, both women and men found
themselves working alongside each other, running businesses such as bars, restaurants,
and boarding houses (Hurtado).
According to Woloch (1994), the legal policies in early American history were
similar to one another, but there were no policies that were exactly the same. The early
legal system benefited women by ensuring that she could support herself if impoverished,
but the laws did not facilitate independence, and still needed approval of men to exercise
any legal standing. Smith (2010) goes on to mention the role women did participate in
the early legal system. While women were not able to practice law, be judges, serve on
juries, or write legislation, they were often called to court to testify and settle disputes
about property and guardianships. Women who were midwives were called on to provide
expertise on cases of infanticide and rape as well. These women would often examine
the bodies and provide testimony. Women found themselves in occupational roles as
well. These roles included retail, property management, teachers, bakers, brew masters,
and saddlers. If a woman was married to a craftsman, she would find herself working in
the shop, and if her husband was a farmer, she may have found herself working in the
field (Woloch). Occasionally, women found themselves running their homes as
unlicensed inns and taverns depending on the proximity of their house to ferries, markets,
3
and other places of trade. Many women found this to be a viable option for making extra
income for her family (Smith).
Smith adds that in the eighteenth century women played an essential role in
establishing new congregations and churches for their communities as well. When a
settlement was initially established, the town meeting hall and church was generally put
in the center. As the town grew, people built their houses farther and farther away from
the center or established new towns. In these cases women were often behind the push to
establish new congregations. This was due to women who were pregnant, nursing
children, or taking care of toddlers finding it difficult to walk several miles to church.
Women also viewed church memberships and the weekly meetings that went along with
them, as a relief from the patriarchal family (Woloch).
According to Long (1975), during the mid-1600’s the home was where education
initially took place, before being farmed out to grammar schools that were modeled after
English grammar schools. Smith states further that during the eighteenth century, women
found more opportunities for education. Towns began hiring female school teachers,
which in turn led to a greater number of women receiving an education. In addition, an
increase of reading material, the creation of new schools, and the belief that both boys
and girls should be educated led a higher rate of literacy. Even with the belief that girls
as well as boys should be educated, boys received a more comprehensive education.
While girls learned practical skills such as reading and spelling, boys learned these skills
as well as additional skills such as Greek and Latin. Girls also learned what was then
4
considered gender specific skills such as needlework, churning butter, and cutting fabric.
If the girls came from wealthy families, their education included dancing and music
lessons in addition to domestic skills (Smith).
Beyond these domestic roles and responsibilities, women also played a role in war
and politics during the eighteenth century, as war was not an uncommon occurrence.
Women would find themselves caught up in small skirmishes on the frontier to war on a
larger scale. Women were sometimes the victim of rape or taken captive, and women
participated in boycotts and political events. According to Kerber (1986), mistreatment
and the threat of rape was a constant threat whenever armies were present. During the
eighteenth century women and their families would sometimes find themselves under
threat of attack from indigenous native peoples and other Europeans (Smith). Women
also found ways to participate in politics during the 18th century. In some cases, women
would choose a spouse based on his political beliefs (Zagarri, 2007). During the War of
1812, Republican leaders understood the importance of women’s convictions. According
to Zagarri (2007) a woman’s opposition to the war could deter her husband or sons from
enlisting, or if she supported the efforts, she may convince him to join.
While women served many roles in early American history that helped shaped the
future of the United States, they also served in the military. Unfortunately, while serving
in the United States military, women sometimes have become victims of Military Sexual
Trauma. While both men and women fall victim to incidents of Military Sexual Trauma
(MST), it is more likely to happen to women than men (Street, Stafford, Mahan, &
5
Hendricks, 2008). As reported by Bastian, Lancaster, and Reyest (1996) in a large scale
survey, 78% of women and 38% of men have reported at least one instance of unwanted
sexual behavior, more commonly referred to as “sexual harassment” and 6% of women
and 1% of men have reported sexual assault in the past year. These authors added that
many cases go unreported as well. This is due to not wanting anyone to know, feeling
uncomfortable making a report, and believing that the report would not be kept
confidential (Department of Defense, 2012).
Women have played an important role in combat and warfare throughout history,
not only during the inception of the United States, but also throughout the history of the
world. There are examples of women bearing on the front lines, such as the Dahomey
women of the Amazons and the 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death, to behind the
scenes roles such as the European camp women.
Statement of the Research Problem
Women are put at an elevated risk as their roles in the military continue to expand
(Kelly et al., 2008).Throughout the history of the United States military, women have
played a vital and changing role. For example, during World War II approximately
350,000 women served in the United States Armed Forces. One of the biggest problems
felt by the women stationed overseas was pressure they felt put onto them by men. The
women were outnumbered 10 to 1 (Campbell, 1990). During this time women were
excluded from combat positions, and were often put in positions such as nursing,
secretaries, and pilots. Although women were technically not assigned combat positions,
6
they still found themselves in combat zones alongside their male counterparts (Gold, et
al., 2007). According to Feczer and Bjorklund (2009), trauma and sexual stress is
common in female veterans. They referenced a study done in 1998 which indicates that
93% of veteran women had been exposed to sexual stress, 63% had been sexually
harassed, and 43.1% had been sexually assaulted (Fontana & Rosenheck, 1998).
Most importantly, women veterans have a lower likelihood of reporting when
they have been sexually harassed or assaulted. For example, Valente and Wight (2007)
state that three quarters of women who served in Operation Desert Storm, the Iraqi War,
who reported being raped did not report the incident. They rationalized that this was due
to not knowing how to report the incident, or having the belief that rape was sometimes
to be expected while serving in the military.
Study Purpose
The purpose of this study was to conduct a content analysis. The qualitative
portion looked at the history and culture of women in the United States Armed Forces, as
well as the history of women participating in warfare in other countries and cultures.
Additionally, this study looked at the effects of MST on female veterans, the lack of
reporting of MST by female veterans, and what is being done to combat the rise of MST.
The content analysis portion of this study also examined the increase of key terms used in
scholarly articles. By the end of the research project, the researcher expects to identify/or
find the following outcomes:
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(1.) Able to identify the rates of sexual assaults against women in the military
during the past five years
(2.) Able to identify the most common reason for lack of reporting of military
sexual assaults against women
(3.) Able to identify common physical and mental problems associated with
military sexual trauma
Theoretical Framework. The theoretical frameworks that this Master’s Project
utilized was the Ecological Systems and Family Systems (as cited by Hutchinson, 2013).
According to Hutchinson, the focus of Ecological Systems theory centers on how persons
interact with their environment. The major concepts of this theory is that persons are in
continual transaction with their environment, systems are interrelated parts or subsystems
constituting an ordered whole, all subsystems impact all or other parts of the whole
system, and systems can have closed or opened boundaries. The Family Systems Theory
focuses on how the family system affects the individual and family functioning. The
main concepts are that boundaries, roles, structure and communication influence family
functioning (Hutchinson). These system theories are particularly relevant to military
culture and functioning due to the system (also called family) structure of the military, as
well as persons continually impacting and being impacted by his or her environment.
Often, individuals diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are
likely to have problems with substance abuse and are at increased risk for suicide. This is
associated with relationship difficulties, as well as difficulties with parenting (Tanielian
8
et al., 2008). In some cases, PTSD can be attributed to MST which directly affects the
individual and that individual’s family functioning. Deployment is another issue that
affects the family system. In today’s military, deployment length and frequency can last
as long as 15 months. In addition to the burdens of deployment, the family must also
endure frequent geographic relocation which occurs every two to three years. Because of
this, children and their families experience changes in school, friends, and separation
from their extended families (Johnson & Rhodes, 2010; Herzog, 2008).
Definition of terms.
MST – Military Sexua Trauma
PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
TBI – Traumatic Brain Injury
Assumptions. The assumption of this research is that MST is a problem that has
always existed, yet it is not getting a higher profile due to a lack of attention in social
media and a greater access to online, published resources, and governmental reports.
Social work research justification. This research will benefit the social work
profession by increasing awareness of the problems and their presentations faced by
women veterans who have experienced MST. With multiple overseas operations winding
down and coming to a close, there will be an increase of women veterans that will need
professional services due to MST. Social workers will need to be aware of the
difficulties that these women face mentally, socially, and physically, as well as an
understanding about how it affects themselves and their families.
9
Study limitations. This study aims to inform the reader about the prevalence,
causes, and effects of MST both physically and mentally. It will also touch on the history
and role of women serving in the United States Military, as well as the history of
women’s roles in other countries and their militaries. This study is not about the most
effective ways of treating victims or perpetrators of MST, or about men’s experiences
with MST, or about identifying resources within the community.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review included a brief history of women from around the globe
who have actively contributed or participated in warfare. The purpose of this is to give a
historical overview of women and their contributions to combat and warfare, as well as
illustrate that women had always participated in combat and warfare. The literature will
then discuss the history of aggression within the military culture, women in modern
warfare, sexual harassment, assault, trauma and the effects on women, lack of reporting
of Military Sexual Trauma (MST), female veterans not seeking services, and what is
being done to address the issue and consequences of MST.
A Brief History of Women in Warfare
According to Herrmann and Palmieri (2010), because women are more peaceable
and givers of life, they are usually perceived as involuntary victims in war. In early
modern Europe, women also played a role as camp women. These women endured the
severities of marching, injuries, and illness, and were responsible for agricultural work,
going to the market, washing and preparing clothes, and tending to the sick. History also
shows that women have played a role in warfare, whether it is through armed hostilities,
the main protagonists, or symbolically (Herrmann & Palmieri, 2010; Lynn, 2008). Some
of the historical events on women who have served in the military are highlighted below.
11
Amazons of Black Sparta
Greek stories about the amazons of Asia Minor vary, but there are similarities that
also emerge. Alpern (1998) talked about the stories of a fierce women army. Some of
these stories discussed in Greek literature about two princes that were expelled from their
homelands, and migrated to the Caucasus region. In this region, they tried to oppress the
local people, but the local people drew up arms and slayed every man. What was most
amazing about these local people that drew up arms, were that they were women.
Because of this incidence, women of that era became known as “Amazons” which means
“without a breast” (Alpern, 1998). According to Greek mythology, the Amazon women
warriors would cut off their right breast to better shoot a bow and arrow (Alpern).
Alpern explains that along with the removal of the right breast, the Amazon
women denounced marriage as servitude, took two months off out of the year to
procreate with men of neighboring tribes, at random and in the dark. The Amazon
women could only give up her virginity if she had killed a man in battle. If the women
ended up having male children, they were either crippled at birth, kept as slaves, or
sacrificed to the gods of war. According to Greek legend, these Amazon women
conquered many great people, but met their demise with the Greek heroes Bellerophon,
Hercules, Theseus, and Achilles (Alpern).
This legend served as a cautionary tale to the Greek society about what would
happen if the gender roles became reversed. This legend was to show that the Greek
patriarchal life was normal, orderly, and civilized. If women were to lose their servitude,
12
modesty, and tameness, then society was to be doomed; society would become
uncivilized, barbaric, and unnatural (Alpern).
Alpern discussed further that documentation of an actual women army does exist.
These women were of the Dahomey, an eighteenth and nineteenth century West African
kingdom. This kingdom was referred to as a “small black Sparta” due to its dedication to
warfare and slave-raiding. It was European visitors of the kingdom that referred to the
women soldiers of Dahomey as amazons in the 1840’s.
The women of the Dahomey army can be traced back to the early 18th century as
elephant hunters. The women would hunt elephants for their meat and ivory for their
King’s royal feast. These women were later appointed to guard the King’s palace. The
only men allowed in the king’s palace besides the king were Eunuchs, who shared guard
duty with the women. These women of the Dahomey army were taught to fight from an
early age, handle weapons, and withstand suffering. The women’s main weapons were
muskets, clubs, and machetes, and unlike Greek legend, they kept their breasts intact.
The Dahomey women warriors fought in an army, but the majority of the army was male
and the women were led by male officers.
The Dahomey kingdom waged war annually. These wars included raiding
isolated, near defenseless villages, as well as powerful neighbors for slave raids and to
avenge insults (Alpern). The women warriors of the Dahomey were noted by European
visitors to consistently show outstanding performance in battle; the women of Dahomey
were noted to be excellent shooters, fearless, indomitable, and relentless. Around the
13
year 1850, the Dahomey king raised the women warriors to an equal status of their male
counterparts (Newark, 1989). The demise of the Dahomey kingdom and its women army
can be traced to the year 1889, the Dahomey army raided a village that the French used as
an outpost. This caused tension between the French and the Dahomey, and by 1892 the
French had conquered the Dahomey kingdom (Alpern).
Women in Early Imperial China
The roles of women in China date back thousands of years. Contemporary
theatrical plays, movies, and documentary drama illustrated the important roles of
Chinese women in war. According to Hinsch (2010), in ancient China, a woman’s role in
warfare was logistically supported. She was depicted not only as carrying provisions and
building shelters, but being side-by-side with men in combat zones. Chinese women’s
roles in warfare were modified during the Han Dynasty. This was due to the fact that
during the Han dynasty strategies of warfare changed; mainly because wars generally
were not fought with rival states, but they were being fought on distant frontiers. Women
also became more civilized. Because of civilization some women could no longer be
depended on for logistical support, but instead more Chinese women became fighters
(Hinsch, 2010).
According to Hinsch (2010) under these new circumstances and regional tensions,
rebellions took place frequently that gave women a chance to participate in warfare. One
notable rebellion was the Red Eyebrow rebellion. This rebellion was named due to the
red war paint that the rebels painted on their foreheads. This rebellion was led by a
14
woman named Mother Lu, who started the rebellion due to a vendetta she had against an
official. The official was responsible for the execution of her son, and with several
thousand supporters she was able to storm the capital and behead the administrator.
Mother Lu died soon afterward, but her uprising continued to gain momentum and
merged with other local rebellions. These uprisings directly contributed to the restoration
of the Han imperial house (Hinsch, 2010).
Women of the Long March
In the mid 1930’s, the Chinese Red Army was forced to leave their Base Areas in
Central and Eastern China by the Nationalist troops (Young, 2001). Young states that the
Chinese Red Army attempted to join their comrades in the North, but was stopped from
doing so by their enemy. The Chinese Red Army trekked to the Southwestern border of
China, and eventually made it through to the northern Shaanxi Province and met with
other Red Army soldiers. Based upon the courage, endurance, and perseverance of the
Red Army, the Long March became a tool to amass support for the Chinese Communist
Party and the army itself (Young).
Young explains further that among the 100,000 people that participated in the
Long March, 2,000 (2%) of them were women. These women held various titles while
participating in the March that ranged from decoding telegrams, doing propaganda work
in the villages, as well as having medical duties such as caring for wounded soldiers,
carrying stretchers, and preparing medicines, as well as security and leading women’s
working groups and working security positions. Many of the women who participated in
15
the Long March did so because it meant freedom from exploitation, as well as escaping
from poverty and avoiding arranged marriages. To many women it also meant the
opportunity to work towards social justice and receive an education. Women would get
the opportunity to learn about the revolution from Communist underground workers and
listening to the men who were already participating in the revolution, as well as
progressive teachers (Young).
During this era, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organized schools and
literacy classes for women and peasants, as well as advocated for the end of child
marriages. The effects of this promised equality and the idea that there were alternatives
to being a wife was also a factor in in why women joined the Red Army. As part of the
Communist Revolution, women were able to show their independence by cutting off their
hair and leaving their families that they had been sold into. The army paid off the
families that the women ran from in order to join, and gave women jobs as well as taught
them to read and write. The revolution was able to help women escape from physical
abuse, marriage, hunger, and provide them with a sense of purpose and patriotism
(Young).
The jobs women fulfilled on the Long March were different from person to
person. Women who were used to working in the fields carried boxes of medicine and
replenished supplies. Women who had an education worked on changing the attitudes of
peasants towards communists, soldiers, and the national government. Educated women
also created propaganda in the form of posters, street drama, created slogans, and made
16
speeches in the towns and villages that they were traveling through. The educated
women also went into the homes of the peasant women to convince them to let their
husbands and sons join the revolution (Young).
Women also cared for the sick and wounded soldiers. Not only did the women
find people to help carry the soldiers, but helped carry the stretchers when they could not
elicit help. Women were also responsible for finding village families that would take in
the wounded soldiers that were too sick to carry along. Another aspect of medical care
that women provided was gender specific, such as delivering babies. This was due to
men not assisting with childbirth. The work of the women of the Red Army included
sewing clothing, procuring food, delivering babies, and medical work. It also included
the same work that men of the Red Army did such as transport work, carrying stretchers
and guns, and decoding telegrams, as well as propaganda work and soldier recruitment.
These women soldiers were also able to move beyond the traditional view of being
thought of as fragile, shy, and modest and proved themselves to be soldiers (Young).
Women of Chongqing’s Resistance in World War II
According to Li (2010), women were essential during World War II (WWII), and
without their contributions, China would not have been able to sustain itself. Li states
that the elite women of China were not affected by the war the same way the working
class women were. The war for the elite women usually meant that their college life was
interrupted. The working class women faced many more hardships which included
bombardment by the Japanese, as well as food and medical shortages. Sometimes
17
survival for a woman and her family, especially refugee women, meant that she had to
trade sex for protection of her and her family. Survival strategies also included going to
garbage dumps and fields, salvaging for food (Li).
Li further states that during WWII, tens of thousands of people fled the Japanese
captured northern and central China to Chongqing. With the fragmenting of many
women and their families, the meaning of motherhood began to change. One woman in
particular tells the story of having to watch as her child dies in her arms in the midst of a
Japanese bombing. This was due to the shortage of adequate food and water, and not
being able to nurse her infant child. Although the war tore families apart, it also fostered
political action on the part of women (Li).
According to Li (2010), the Zhongguo zhanshi ertong baoyuhui (China Child
Welfare Protection Association), ZZEB, functioned as families to over 30,000 homeless
refugee children, and had thousands of teachers and staff members from all over the
country. The ZZEB was established in March of 1938 by women activists and held the
support of many women, as well as men from all political camps, and was based in
Chongqing. The women teachers and staff members were addressed as “mothers” by the
refugee children. The ZZEB was recognized as the most accomplished war effort by
women because it not only housed homeless refugee children, but it also instilled in them
a sense of nationalism.
Li further explains that for women in the Chongqing region, it was their socially
assigned responsibility to feed and care for their families. These women cultivated crops
18
in their front or backyards, or salvaged food from fields and garbage dumps. Women
also participated in informal economies such as preparing handmade goods, and buying
and selling cooked food in order to turn a small profit. Without the women driven
informal economy, China’s wartime economy would have greatly suffered (Li).
Chongqing also became the wartime capital, with many major industries
relocating to the area (Li). In Songji, which is in the Yongchuan county of Chongqing,
the Women’s Directive Committee of the New Life Movement established an
experimental zone. This mobilized women to take part in wartime production, and
included a textile factory that hired eight hundred workers, mostly women, as well as a
farm, medical clinic, library, a consumer’s cooperative, and a school for refugee children,
a school for female factory workers, and an elementary and middle school for the
community. The case of Songji demonstrates that women in the Chongqing region
participated and contributed to China’s wartime economic transformation, as well as
improved public education, healthcare, cultural life, women’s economic lives, as well as
the conditions of the town (Li).
According to Li (2010), women of the Chongqing region also participated in
China’s wartime politics and worked at the grassroots level of the war mobilization.
Wartime political activism and mobilization was carried out by women, and included
students and women’s organizations that were able to reach millions of people in the
surrounding rural areas in the Chongqing region. Their wartime mobilization activities
inspired patriotism and stressed the importance of political participation. Women’s
19
participation in grassroots political activism also took the form of street drama, songs,
and wall bulletins (Li).
The street drama, songs, and wall bulletins were considered an aspect of pop
culture and served as an important role in war mobilization, as well as empowerment for
the women of the Chongqing region (Li). Women contributed to the making and
disseminating of wartime popular political culture; the women who participated were
very proud of their involvement in wartime propaganda and participated in singing,
theatrical groups, and public speech teams. Women also participated in fundraising
activities for refugee relief projects. This total war mobilization for women provided
opportunities for them to play an active and public role in national politics, as well as
provide opportunities for a traditionally marginalized group such as women, and allowed
them to have a voice in China’s wartime politics (Li).
Russia’s Women Soldiers of World War I
According to Stoff (2006), World War I (WWI) called for the mobilization of
millions of civilians as well as combatants. Due to the enormity of the war, women
become involved in levels never before encountered, and Russian women participated in
the war effort on a large scale. These women participated by entering a male dominated
workforce such as fields, agricultural work, and the urban workforce such as messengers,
mechanics, police, janitors, mail carriers, and streetcar conductors.
Stoff further explains that women in Russia also worked to support the war effort.
These women engaged in a variety of organizations that varied from supply to caring for
20
refugees and victims of war. Women volunteered to sew uniforms, cut bandages, make
care packages, and work in soup kitchens. One of the most popular forms of service
during WWI was nursing. This area of female participation was strongly supported due to
its consistency with idea of feminine nature. Nurses worked in mobile field hospitals,
regimental aid stations, and on battlefields. Women also worked as stretcher carriers and
would retrieve wounded soldiers from the battlefield (Stoff).
Peasant women were also recruited to dig trenches for the troops, as well as
perform duties behind the lines and advanced positions such as cooks, supply clerks,
drivers, and scouts (Stoff). Women requesting to enlist in active duty were assigned
auxiliary duties rather than combat duties. This was due to these positions being
considered less hazardous and more suited for women than combat. Women were not
attached to the army, but worked through civilian-governmental organizations such as the
Union of Zemstvos, that recruited women for war work (Stoff).
In the spring of 1917, the creation of all-female military formations began to take
shape (Stoff). This was largely due to the efforts of grassroots women’s groups, and the
approval of the Russian military administration. The political and social conditions that
made the creation of all-female military units had to do with the fall of the imperial
government, the increasing instability of the army, and the introduction of new political
and social freedoms. War-weariness and declining morale among the majority of the
Russian army also played a part. The peasant soldiers, as well as the elite’s enthusiasm
for the war had begun to dissipate by the end of 1915, and the defeats endured by the
21
army were demoralizing once it became clear that the war was not to be short and
triumphant. The soldiers were less willing to go on the offensive, and with no sign of
peace from the new government, the situation on the front began to deteriorate (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), the idea of using women in the front gained acceptance
from significant members of the Russian society. The idea then began to circulate in the
women’s and military organization which began to consider it a possibility. Additionally,
the idea gained movement due to a larger effort to utilize all available resources for the
war, including those previously considered unacceptable. The creation of units of
disabled veterans was particularly significant to understanding why a majority of
Russians found it acceptable to utilize women in this capacity. The purposes of these
types of units were to provide examples of courage, as well as to shame soldiers into
returning to their combat duties (Stoff).
Women were also becoming unhappy with the mishandling of the war by men.
They felt that the army needed a morale boost to recover (Stoff). The women were
concerned with the perceptions of cowardice of the male soldiers who refused to fight.
Active involvement of women in combat was thought necessary in order to stop the
demoralization and renew the fighting spirit of the army, and the presence to women in
combat would serve to motivate the troops. The Committee for the Organization of
Women’s Military Detachments requested the Ministry of War to assign them
experienced command personnel in order to create special detachments of women. In
22
May of 1917, the Ministry of War gave its permission for the creation of the first
women’s military formation called the 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), the organization of the 1st Russian Women’s Battalion
of Death was assisted by the Petrograd Women’s Military Organization. This
organization launched a public campaign that attracted women volunteers by posters
declaring that it was a woman’s duty to join the effort, as well as publish announcements
in the periodical press with the time and place of recruitment and informational meetings.
This campaign resulted in thousands of women attended these meetings, both in public
and private quarters. The 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death was open to women
who were 18 and older, and those under 21 required permission from her parents. All
recruits were given a physical examination, and the majority of them were Russian, but a
small percentage were Polish, Estonian, Latvian, or Jewish. While the women’s units
were supposed to show that the men’s refusal to fight made it essential for the women to
come to the defense of their country, many women joined for other reasons such as
patriotism, the desire to aid the motherland, and the desire to avenge their loved ones
(Stoff).
The 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death was commanded by a woman by the
name of Maria Bochkareva who had served for two years during World War I as part of a
male combat unit (Stoff). The women were trained daily by Bochkareva and this
consisted of physical exercises, marching drills, hand to hand combat, and rifle training.
The women were also given crew cuts and their personal hygiene items, such as
23
toothbrushes were taken away. Bochkareva felt that all aspects of femininity were to be
removed from the battlefield. After training for a month, the women’s unit received
notification from the Ministry of War that it would be dispatched to the front towards the
end of June (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), on June 21st, 1917, the Russian Women’s Battalion of
Death, which consisted of 300 female volunteers, marched through Petrograd fully
outfitted in gear. The women’s battalion was assigned to the Tenth Army, I Siberian
Army Corps, 132nd Infantry Division, and their destination was Molodechno. The men
were anxious to see the women and acted bewildered and amused by their presence. The
men shouted insults and curses, but Bochkareva returned their insults and forced the men
to clear a path for the women. The first night was hostile for the women. A group of
male soldiers pounded on the walls of the women’s barracks, shouted insults, shattered
the glass of the windows, and grabbed at the women. This was one of many numerous
hostilities suffered by the women while stationed with men at the front (Stoff).
The 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death’s offensive was launched on July 9th
, 1917 (Stoff). With women crouched in trenches that were almost a mile long, and the
enemy 800 feet away, the order was given to attack, yet no one moved. The officers
pleaded with the hesitant soldiers to act, but instead, the troops of the 1st, 62nd, and 63rd
Siberian Regiments met with their soldiers’ committee and debated the necessity of the
dangerous maneuver. The women soldiers who were anxious to prove themselves in
battle, decided to advance with or without the support of the males. They hoped the male
24
soldiers would be inspired by their actions and follow them into battle. With the small
force of women, as well as officers and some male soldiers rushing into enemy fire, they
managed to advance the battlefield with only a handful of casualties. Their success
inspired more than half of the reluctant soldiers to join them, and the Russian troops were
able to take the first and second lines of German trenches (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), this victory was short lived due to the Germans
regrouping and launching a series of counterattacks. With each attack, greater numbers
of male soldiers deserted, and eventually the women ran out of cartridges and were
forced to retreat under enemy fire. The actions of the women soldiers of the 1st Russian
Women’s Battalion of Death proved that women were capable of combat duties.
However, men’s hostility and aggression towards women increased and led military
authorities responsible for the women’s units to reassess their usefulness. Eventually it
was decided that the use of women soldiers failed to provide adequate motivation to men
(Stoff).
Women Soldiers of the American Civil War
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), common knowledge of the part women
played during the American Civil War was that of women maintaining the home while
the men were away, fighting in the war. History shows that this is not the whole picture.
Women fought and bore arms, lived in camps, and died for their country the same as their
male counterparts. These women usually came from working to lower class families that
had fewer options outside of marriage. If a woman was from upper class origins, she
25
may find fulfillment through teaching, writing, or being a governess. The employment
prospects for the lower class women were more along the lines of sewing, domestic
servitude, and prostitution (Blanton & Cook).
Blanton and Cook explain that because there was no recruitment of women during
the Civil War, as well as women being prohibited from joining, women had to assume a
male identity to become soldiers. During this time period, women would cut their hair,
wear male clothing, and find the closest recruiter or regiment. It was not a difficult task
for women to join a regiment. This was due to recruiters merely looking for an
acceptable height, a trigger finger, and a partial set of teeth. Women also found a way of
avoiding the requirements by joining a regiment while it was campaigning. The reasons
for women joining the Civil War military ranged from getting away from their home
lives, joining their husbands, brothers and fathers, patriotism, and the pay. Farm women
and working class women enjoyed the pay, which paid more than what their usual
domestic work, such as being a chambermaid and laundressing (Blanton & Cook).
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), a minority of women were already living
as men before the war started, so they felt the pressure of joining the war just like their
male peers. Women living as men before the war were also seeking economic
opportunities that were unobtainable as women. Women who assumed male identities to
join the war began to realize that they could do numerous things as men that they could
not do as women, such as voting. Patriotism played a part, especially for the southern
women because it meant protecting their homes from invading northern armies. Women
26
also joined to be with their husbands, brothers, and fathers. Women had a desire for
vengeance and revenge as well. Often, a woman would stay with the regiment even if her
husband or brother was killed. This commitment to serve honorably until the end of
enlistment was as strong in women as it was in their male counterparts (Blanton & Cook).
In order to successfully join the ranks, women had to adopt a masculine
personality, learn the job, and complete days filled with drills, and arms practice (Blanton
& Cook). Women also had to adopt the behaviors of the men around them in order to
hide the fact that they were women. This was not a difficult task due to the majority of
Civil War armies living in tent cities. In tent cities, latrines were long, open trenches that
were so filthy that even the men avoided them. When a woman had to use the bathroom,
it did not seem unusual for her to head to the woods or another private place, because so
many other soldiers did this too. For dealing with menstruation, women presumably used
cotton rags to protect their clothing. It is also possible that women were under such
physical and mental distress that they suffered from Amenorrhea, which is the lack of a
menstrual period. However, not much is known about this because women in the 19th
century did not write about this subject (Blanton & Cook).
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), bathing and changing clothes was not
much of an issue either. This was because Civil War soldiers on the march went for
months without changing their clothes or bathing. Since women soldiers sought privacy
to use the toilet, they did not arouse suspicion when seeking privacy to bathe or change
and their fellow soldiers assumed they were modest men. The challenge of looking like
27
men proved tougher. Women had to cut their hair and hide their feminine figures. A
woman’s high pitched voice and lack of facial hair could pose a problem, but it was not
entirely unusual due to the presence of adolescent boys filling the ranks as well (Blanton
& Cook).
Blanton and Cook further explain that women also engaged in activities such as
smoking, drinking, and gambling to fit in with other soldiers. Women who were
previously farmers and frontier workers were already accustomed to hard work, using
firearms, and working with horses. For these women poor living conditions were not a
stretch. The duties of the woman soldier included everything a male soldier did such as
infantry, guard duty, scouting, artillery, as well as medical duty. Women also served as
drummers in infantry regiments. Women soldiers capably participated in every aspect of
the regiment and fulfilled every role that a male soldier did (Blanton & Cook).
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), women soldiers becoming casualties of
war was not uncommon. Disease, death, and dismemberment were common fate during
the Civil war. More than 600,000 deaths were recorded during the four year war. For
women, wounds and disease often proved fatal due to not wanting to be discovered and
end their military service. If a woman was shot in the chest, shoulder, groin, or thigh, she
was usually discovered due to the surgeon having to disrobe her to gain access to the
injury. Women also succumbed to diseases such as smallpox, measles, and typhoid. This
was due to many women coming from farms and lacking immunity from not having had
previous exposure (Blanton & Cook).
28
The discovery of a woman in the ranks would lead to immediate dismissal from
service (Blanton & Cook). If a woman was not discovered due to injuries, she could be
revealed through pregnancy or stereotypical woman behavior of the time. This could
include the way she wrung dish cloths, the ability to sew, or having distinctly feminine
features. Wearing male clothes could end a woman’s time in service as well. If a woman
struggled with how to wear men’s clothes due to having worn Victorian dresses her
whole life she could be exposed. Some women were even discovered by men
recognizing them from town (Blanton & Cook).
For women who were exposed and ejected from their military service, it was not
difficult for them to rejoin (Blanton & Cook). They would simply move on to the next
regiment and join. If they could not be soldiers, women would ask to stay on as
laundresses or nurses. Sometimes a woman would be labeled as a prostitute once
discovered. By doing this, the commanding officer would not be disciplined for allowing
a woman to serve. Women soldiers who were fighting in the Union army were more
likely to be discharged than Confederate women. This was due to the Confederacy being
more desperate for soldiers (Blanton & Cook).
Women serving in the Civil War assumed the same responsibility, dangers, and
consequences of men. In order to join the war, women had to assume a new identity and
mannerisms. Women were also under no obligations, either culturally or from a social
standpoint, to defend their country, yet they did so bravely and sought no special
29
treatment. This shows a considerable amount of valor and unconventional thinking on
the part of the women of that time (Blanton & Cook).
History of Aggression within the Military Culture
According to Scurfield and Platoni (2010), “The military is a hierarchal and
authoritarian system and military culture places a premium on strength, self-sufficiency,
and loyalty” (p. 176). The culture of the U.S. Military teaches that physical aggression
and violence is the solution for the problems the soldier will face on the battlefield
(Ackerman, 1998). This begins at enlistment, where individuals are taught that it is not
appropriate to show weakness (Lavrov & Nethery, 2010). Societies that have a higher
incidence of rape tend to tolerate masculine violence. These societies view physical force
a natural extension of masculinity and encourage competitiveness (Sanday, 1981).
Confusion may also arise from the belief that women and warrior are mutually exclusive
(Archer, 2012). According to Paludi, and Denmark (2010), “Men typically hold formal
power in organizations, including positions higher in the organization hierarchy as well
as positions with greater relevance to the central mission of the organization” (p. 273).
Additionally, women who join a military group are joining a group with decades
or even hundreds of years of history with values of masculinity. The women must hide
their femininity by dressing like men and meeting the standards of masculinity, as well as
deal with double standards and stereotypical understandings of women and their
capacities (Sjoberg, 2010). Additionally, regardless of their levels of performance, men
associate masculinity with being an effective military leader (Archer).
30
During the Vietnam War, combat was limited to a one year tour for each soldier,
and the military training received by Vietnam Veterans demanded that men constantly
proved their adequacy, but also prohibited intimacy (Eisenhart, 1977). This resulted in
“Short Timer’s Syndrome” (Mee). The soldier would begin counting down the time he
had left in Vietnam; he would experience anxiety, preoccupation with death, and became
unconcerned with current responsibilities. The focus of the soldier was on returning
home, regardless of the outcome of the war (Mee). Men were not the only people to be
suffering from these feelings. In 1988 (Norman, 1988), a survey was done that found that
seventy five percent of Vietnam era nurses had developed Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
in connection to their military service. The majority of the women did not have previous
military experience and were unprepared for war. They were exposed to the same
dangers as the men in combat, but not equipped with the appropriate combat gear (Feczer
& Bjorklund, 2009).
Women in Modern Warfare
Modern combat training has changed the culture of the U.S. Military by
incorporating programs that come as close to real combat as possible (Ackerman, 1998).
In World War II, soldiers were taught to fire at a bulls-eye target; in modern times,
soldiers are taught to fire at man shaped silhouettes (Ackerman). While combat
restrictions for women were put in place, women have always served in combat in some
form, and combat exposure among military personnel is changing as women assume a
greater role in a variety of combat positions (Murdoch et al., 2006; Street, Vogt, & Dutra,
31
2009). These positions included driving trucks, flying planes, directing artillery,
disposing of explosive ordinances, street patrol, and running Prisoner of War facilities, all
of which take place in combat zones (Murdoch et al; Archer, 2012).
Women have also served as “engagement teams” with Marine infantry patrols in
Afghanistan to gain the trust of the Afghan women, as well as conduct house raids,
personnel searches and checkpoint operations, all of which put women in direct contact
with enemy forces (Archer; Scurfield & Platoni). Male Marines who witness the allfemale engagement teams reported being unsure of the women’s purpose and resentful of
the attention the women receive from commanders and the media (Archer). With an
increase of women serving in the United States Military, there is an increasing risk for
women to become victims of Military Sexual Trauma (Kelly et al., 2008). While female
veterans report less exposure to combat, they report an increased exposure to sexual
harassment, sexual assault, and interpersonal stressors such as a lack of peer support
(Tsai, Rosencheck, Decker, Desai, & Rotem, 2012). The prevailing attitude in the
military is to regard women who report sexual assault as a traitor, slut, or liar (Benedict,
2009). If service members are stationed at a small camp, where there is not much support
except their own chain of command, they may be hesitant to come forward as well
(Scurfield & Platoni).
Sexual Harassment, Assault, Trauma and its Effects on Women
Workplaces that are generally tolerant of sexual harassment are traditionally male
dominated and have workgroups that are comprised primarily of men (Bryant-Davis &
32
Thema, 2011). Exposure to sexual assault in the military poses a greater risk for negative
mental health outcomes and sexual harassment can also lead to symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (Landes, Garovoy, and Burkman, 2013; Bryant-Davis &
Thelma). In a study done in 2009 by Feczer and Bjourklund, it was found that of 327
women receiving treatment at a Veteran’s Affairs clinic, 93% had been exposed to some
kind of sexual stress during their military service, 63% had been sexually harassed, and
43.1% had been sexually assaulted. While only 11.9% of the female veterans had combat
exposure, 58.4% met criteria of post-traumatic stress disorder. (Feczer & Bjorklund,
2009).
Female veterans that have been exposed to sexual trauma and harassment may
also experience an overall negative affect on health and well-being (Donohoe, 2005).
These negative effects may present as anxiety, depression, and poor health habits
(Lutwak & Dill). For example, Keskinoglu and colleagues (2007) state that sexual
harassment has been linked to heartburn, diarrhea, stomach pains as well as headaches,
joint pain, hypertension, and chronic conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular
diseases. In addition, female veterans have specific needs in relation to their treatment
they receive at the VA. This includes gender appropriate care from providers who are
competent and understand women’s anatomy, diseases, and female veterans’ special
needs (Washington, Yano, & Horner, 2006). Among female veterans utilizing VA
services with a history of sexual assault in the military, reported that the sexual trauma
has caused adjustment problems upon discharge from service. These difficulties are
33
found in the form of finding work, substance abuse, and poor psychological and physical
health, and homelessness (Skinner et al., 2000; Gamache, Rosenheck, & Tessler, 2003).
According to Snyder, Fisher, Scherer and Daigle (2012), exposure to sexual
assault negatively affects victims’ perception of leadership of at all levels of command as
well. A study done in 2005 from three U.S. Military Academies was used to examine the
extent of unwanted sexual attention. This included sexual harassment, unwanted sexual
contact, coercion, and rape within the last academic year, and the effect it had on cadets’
and midshipmen’s perception of leadership. This study found that roughly 60% of cadets
and midshipmen experienced at least one type of sexual victimization, and 25% reported
multiple types of sexual victimizations, and 86% of the victims were female (Snyder et
al., 2012).
Snyder et al. (2012) argue that negative perceptions of leadership could be
damaging throughout the military due to a core value is respecting and following the
chain of command. If sexual victimization changes perceptions of leadership, long-term
effects may undermine military success due to the military academies being training
grounds for future leaders. Sexual victimization not only affects the victim’s perception
of leadership closest to her, but also affects the perception of leadership in the higher
levels of the chain of command.
Lack of Reporting of Military Sexual Trauma
Women who have been victims of military sexual trauma may not report that they
have been assaulted. A survey conducted in 2012 by the Department of Defense found
34
that there were 3,373 reports of sexual assault involving service members; however,
DOD estimates that over the past 6 years, fewer than 15% of military members who
experience sexual assault report it to military authorities (Department of Defense, 2012).
The survey revealed the following reasons why the assaults were unreported: 70% did
not want anyone to know, 66% felt uncomfortable making a report, and 51% did not
think the report would be kept confidential (Department of Defense, 2012). Militaristic
culture may also normalize sexual victimization as a part of military life, and that
perception of acceptance may influence the victim’s confidence in reporting the
victimization (Snyder et al., 2012).
Victims of sexual assault may also be subjected to repeated and unavoidable
contact with the perpetrator due to living and working in a closed environment. If the
perpetrator is a superior, he or she can drastically influence the victim’s military career
progression. Victims may not report sexual assault by a superior for fear of not being
promoted, not being selected for schools and training opportunities, as well as being
denied preferred duty assignments (Suris, Link-Malcolm, Chard, Ahn, and North, 2013;
Scurfield & Platoni, 2010). Victims of military sexual assault also express concerns
about having to face the military legal system and the fear of social ostracism (Turchik &
Wilson, 2010). If a conviction is not obtained, the victim feels as though he or she was
not heard, not taken seriously, or made out to be lying (Rodman, 2013). Attorneys who
have experience in both military and civilian trial work acknowledge that the military
trial offers the accused the better advantage (Moyer, 1972).
35
Three quarters of women who had served in Operation Desert Shield/Desert
Storm, who reported being raped, did not report the incident to a ranking officer. There
were two reasons given for this: not knowing how to report the incident, or believing that
rape was sometimes to be expected in the military (Valente & Wight, 2007). Sexual
Assault survivors can also be reluctant to discuss their experiences due to the pain that
remerges, as well as the worry that they will be blamed or accused and become victims
again (Lutwak & Dill, 2013).
Female Veterans not Seeking Services
Female veterans diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder are often treated in
a male dominated environment at Veterans Affairs (VA), because of this women can be
reluctant to pursue services (Lavrov & Nethery, 2010). Women veterans who have
experienced military sexual trauma may be unwilling to utilize VA services due to the
fear of encountering the same types of individuals who may have perpetrated the assault
(Mattocks, Haskell, Krebs, Justice, Yano, & Brandt, 2012). Women may also feel unsafe
in a male therapy groups or with male doctors and counselors (Benedict, 2009). Soldiers
are expected to deal with any physical or emotional injuries which are not related to
combat on their own. As a result, female soldiers are unlikely to seek treatment for noncombat injuries, as well as mental health concerns (Lavrov & Nethery).
Another
common reason for female veterans not utilizing the VA is the lack of knowledge in
regards to their eligibility, and inaccurate information from VA employees (Washington
et al., 2006; Washington, Kleimann, Michelini, Kleimann, & Canning, 2007).
36
What is being done?
The VA has focused its efforts on identifying veterans who are victims of MST.
In 1995 in order to aid veterans who may have experienced military sexual assault,
Veterans Affairs made all MST related care free of charge. In the year 2000, the VA
mandated that all veterans who receive VA services get screened for military sexual
trauma (Lavrov & Nethery, 2010; Turchik, Pavao, Hyun, Mark, & Kimmerling, 2012).
While this is a mandatory screening, non-compliance has been an issue. Reasons for
noncompliance have been clinicians reporting being pressured for time, as well as there
being no direct incentives associated with the screening because it is not an official
performance measure (Murdoch, Polusny, Hodges, & O’Brien, 2004; Hyun, Kimerling,
Cronkite, McCutcheon, & Fraye 2012). With the VA’s universal screening, as well as
free MST related services, victims of MST have been able to access care that they might
otherwise not have been able, due to lack of insurance and the unavailability of
experienced mental health services (Turchik et al.). The Department of Defense has also
implemented a policy called Sexual Assault Prevention and Response. This policy was
implemented to eliminate sexual assault within the military by changing the culture from
within (Department of Defense, 2008).
Summary
Women have maintained a constant presence in the United States Armed Forces
from the earliest wars to modern times. Throughout these wars women have played a
vital role. They have filled such roles as nursing, mechanics, cooks, pilots, and security
37
just to name a few. Unfortunately, some of these women have suffered atrocities at the
hands of their fellow soldiers in the form of sexual violence. Research has been done to
discover why this is happening and what can be done to stop the sexual violence,
unfortunately sexual assault is on the rise. While there are some programs currently in
place, their effectiveness is still being determined.
38
Chapter 3
METHODS
Study Objectives
To reiterate, this researcher conducted a content analysis regarding military
sexual trauma encountered by female soldiers in past years. The research study
aggregated findings from archival data on the following variables: Sexual harassment
encountered by female soldiers as reported in four selected published journal articles, the
rate of Military Sexual Trauma (MST) reported by female soldiers as reported in the
published journal articles, the degree of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) exposure
by female soldiers because of either sexual harassment or sexual trauma as indicated by
the authors of the aforementioned articles, and the degree of depression encountered by
female soldiers as reported in the articles.
Study Design
The research study utilized the exploratory-quantitative and qualitative methods.
Due to the research purposes, it is more appropriate to combine quantitative findings
from published journal articles with the researcher’s qualitative narrative from those
sources. Essentially, this research project utilized the mixed methods. According to
Royse (2011), exploratory research is often used when there is a scarce amount of
information available. Due to the small sample size of exploratory research, the finding
are not conclusive, and is best for providing insights into unanswered questions for future
study (Royse, 2011).
39
Data Collection Procedures
The procedures used to collect data for this research study include:
(1) Conduct library search using EBSCO
(2) Using the EBSCO search function, this researcher searched for the following key
terms: PTSD, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Sexual Harassment, MST, Military
Sexual Trauma, and Depression.
(3) Using the EBSCO search function, this researcher searched for the following key
phrases: Women’s history in the military, women in early American history,
women’s history, history of women combat, history of women in warfare.
(4) Articles were chosen for the content analysis portion of the study based on the
following criteria: articles that were no older than 5 years and articles that
included at least 3 of the 4 key terms.
(5) Once articles were chosen for content analysis, this researcher chose four different
color highlighters to single out the previously identified key terms. Pink was used
for “MST/Military Sexual Trauma, yellow was used for “PTSD/Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder,” orange was used for “Depression,” and blue was used for
“Sexual Harassment.”
(6) This researcher than counted each time the terms were present in each of the four
articles chosen, by their identified colors.
(7) Once terms were counted, this researcher used the “CTRL F” function to utilize
the computer’s search function and verify the number of times each term
40
presented in each article.
(8) After the key terms were highlighted and counted, this research put them into an
excel spreadsheet to analyze data and generate graphs.
Instruments
This researcher determined or identified variables from the published journal
articles that best fit with these four research criteria: Rates and proportion of Military
Sexual Trauma (MST), degrees of Post -Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) experienced
by victims of sexual trauma, type and symptoms of depression observed by the
researchers, existence of sexual harassment as reported by the research of those published
journal articles. The search method included key word searches using the CSUS library
and Google Scholar. This researcher then downloaded and converted to PDF the most
relevant articles, use the “control F” function to search for the previously identified key
variables, and cross reference with other articles.
Data Analysis
The plan for data analysis included organizing findings from the published
articles into tables and charts using Excel.
Protection of Human Subjects
The Protection of Human Subjects application was prepared by this researcher by
downloading the application, and researching the questions that the application contained.
This researcher then determined which 4 articles were to be utilized for the content
analysis portion of the research project. Once the 4 articles were determined, this
41
researcher verified what status the project would be considered based on the information
contained on the IRB website. This researcher completed the remaining questions, and
submitted to Social Work Thesis Advisor, Dr. Lee for consideration.
A Request for Review by the Sacramento State Committee for the Protection of
Human Subjects was then submitted to the Division of Social Work Committee for the
Protection of Human Subjects. After review, the committee approved the study. No
data was collected prior to the approval received. Additionally, this research project is
considered exempt. Evidence was based on publicly available data; therefore, there was
no sensitive data or personally identifiable information present in any of the articles that
would identify any of the previous participants. The IRB reviewed and approved this
application as exempt, with approval #13-14-012 and an expiration date of 10-17-2014.
42
Chapter 4
STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Women have played many vital roles throughout the history of the United States
Military, as well as various other countries. From frontier skirmishes to full blown
combat in foreign nations, women have served in roles that range from nursing, cooking,
and supply to combat, policing, and piloting. Women have also been subjected to sexual
harassments, assaults, and trauma. Unfortunately, there has been a low level of women
reporting the traumas they have suffered due to a myriad of reasons. These reasons
typically entail a fear of retribution, not being taken seriously, and women feeling as
though the assaults, trauma, and harassments were to be expected.
Overall Findings
This study found that the key term “Sexual Harassment” experienced a steady
decline in usage from 2009 to 2013. The key term “MST/Military Sexual Trauma”
experienced a spike in usage in 2011, but declined in 2013. The key term “PTSD/Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder” declined in use in 2011, but gained some popularity in 2013.
The key term “Depression” was used in 2011, but experienced a decline in usage in 2009
and 2013 (see Figure 1).
43
Specific Findings
Figure 1
Number of times key terms mentioned in 2009 article
In 2009, the term “Sexual Harassment” was mentioned 12 times (20%) throughout the
articles reviewed for the research study. The term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma”
was not (0%) mentioned at all. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 47
times (78.3%), and “Depression” was used 1 time (1.7%).
44
Figure 2
Number of times key terms used in 2011(a) article
Hyun, 2011
Sexual Harrassment
MST/Military Sexual Trauma
PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Depression
147
15
1
1
1
In Hyun’s article from 2011, the key term “Sexual Harassment” was used 1 time (.60%).
The term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” was used 147 times (89.63%). PostTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 15 times (9.14%). The key term
“Depression” was used 1 time (.60%).
45
Figure 3
Number of times key terms used in 2011(b) article
Mattocks, 2011
Sexual Harrassment
MST/Military Sexual Trauma
PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Depression
10
9
9
8
1
In Mattock’s article from 2011, the key term “Sexual Harassment” was used 9 times
(25%). The key term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” was used 8 times (22.22%).
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 10 times (27.77%), and the term
“Depression” was used 9 times (25%).
46
Figure 4
Number of times key terms used in 2013 article
Suris, 2013
Sexual Harrassment
MST/Military Sexual Trauma
PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Depression
49
38
4
2
1
In the article from 2013, the key term “Sexual Harassment” was used 2 times (2.15%).
The term “Military Sexual Trauma” or “MST” was used 38 times (40.86%). The term
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 49 times (52.68%). The term
“Depression” was used 4 times (4.30%).
47
Figure 5
Overall number of times key terms used
Number of Times Key Words
Used
2009
2011
2013
155
12 10
38
2
Sexual
Harassment
0
MST/Military
Sexual Trauma
47
25
49
PTSD/Post
Traumatic Stress
Disorder
1
10
4
Depression
Overall the key term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” had the most popular usage in
the 2011 articles with a total of 155 times (80.13%). In 2009, the term “MST” or
“Military Sexual Trauma” was not used at all (0%). The term “Sexual Harassment” was
most popularly used in in 2009 (50%). The term Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
decreased in popularity in the two articles from 2011, and was most popular in 2013
(40.49%). The term “Depression” was more popular in the two articles from 2011
(60.66%).
48
Interpretations to the Findings
The specific findings show that the terms in the articles chosen for this study
gained popularity in some years, and decreased in others. The term that had the most
dramatic increase and decline in usage was “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma.” This
may be due to the articles that were chosen, or the popularity of the term may be
decreasing. Additional research would be necessary to determine the cause.
49
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Study
Major findings that this researcher found relevant to this study are that women
have always played an important, but often overlooked role in military history and
warfare throughout the world. Research has shown that women have participated in early
American history of the Civil War, Russia, China, and the Amazons. Women have
participated directly in armed hostilities alongside men, as well as participated by
fulfilling the role of camp women. These duties often included sustaining the mission by
means of agriculture, going to the market, washing clothes and uniforms, and tending to
the sick and wounded. In addition, women have faced unique challenges that men have
not had to face such as dressing and acting like men in order to enlist, and taking care of
families while serving. Women have also had to move past their perceived gender roles,
such as modest and fragile, to fulfill their desire of patriotism. Women who are joining
their countries armed forces must endure and try to breakdown stereotypes about their
gender that have been in place for many years.
Women also experience negative consequences of war that manifest as physical
ailments such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, joint pain, headaches, diarrhea, and
hypertension. These diseases have been linked to sexual harassment and assault that
many women have endured during the course of their enlistment. In addition, women
veterans experience problems associated with sexual assault and harassment after their
50
service ends as well. This includes psychological problems, problems adjusting to home
life, finding employment, and homelessness.
In addition, women who are victims of sexual harassment and trauma often will
not report that they have been harassed or assaulted. Reasons for this include a fear of
retribution, the fear of not being believed, feeling as though what they report will not be
kept confidential and feeling uncomfortable making a report. Some women feel as
though sexual harassment is something that is to be expected in the military and are often
subject to repeated contact with the perpetrator. If the perpetrator is a superior, the victim
may fear that her career progression will be negatively influenced if she reports
harassment or assault. This can include being passed over for promotion, not being
selected for schools or training, as well as being denied preferential duty assignments.
Women veterans who have been victimized while serving their country also have
a higher likelihood of not seeking services to help them overcome the consequences.
Reasons for this include not wanting to be treated in a male dominated environment,
afraid of encountering the same type of individuals who committed the assault, and
feeling unsafe with male doctors and counselors. In addition, women veterans have
reported not feeling as though their ailments were worthy of seeking care. Women
veterans sometimes feel as though they are taking time from other veterans who may
need the service more than them. Another common reason for female veterans not
seeking services is a lack for knowledge about how to pursue services and
misinformation about eligibility from Veterans Affairs employees.
51
The VA has implemented policies and procedures to try and eliminate the
confusion, as well as adequately treat women veterans. Some of these services include
all veterans getting screened for Military Sexual Trauma, as well as free services to
veterans who report being victims of sexual assault. In addition, the Department of
Defense has implemented a program called Sexual Assault Prevention and Response.
This program provides training every year for military members, and is intended to
change the military culture of sexual assault and harassment from within.
This research project also looked at certain key terms, and the frequency of usage
in articles over a short period of time. What the research indicates is that the term
“Military Sexual Trauma” and “MST” had an increase in usage in 2011, and then seemed
to decline. This may indicated that certain terms are more popular than others, especially
if they are newly coined, but eventually get replaced. A more comprehensive study
would need to be done to verify this.
Implications for Social Work
There are many implications for social work, both micro and macro. The micro
implications for social work involve an increased need for social workers that are familiar
with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), sexual assault, and the effects it has on
women veterans. This will become especially urgent with the winding down of
Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. With more soldiers coming
back home from war, there will need to be an increased number of social workers that are
familiar with the unique challenges that returning veterans will face. These social
52
workers will need to be familiar with not only the different psychological problems
women veterans face such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, but also medical problems
as well.
Macro implications for social work involve agencies, as well as the VA, involve
hiring and employing a greater number of social workers. The need for a greater amount
of social workers may cause these agencies to have re-evaluate their budgets and current
staffing. In addition, the education requirements necessary for social workers to be able
to assist veterans at the VA and hospitals in general is a MSW or LCSW. More than
likely, this will cause an increase in students pursuing an MSW. Universities will have to
find a way to accommodate an increase in demand for this type of degree. This may
involve the inclusion of online courses or the hiring of more full time and part time
professors, as well as evaluate the types of courses offered. With an increase of students
wanting to pursue an MSW, universities may need to cultivate additional relationships in
the community that are willing to take interns and support internships. The quality of
these internships will directly affect the quality of social workers the school produces.
Recommendations
Recommendations for future study involve program evaluation, such as studying
whether programs funded by the Veterans Affairs department are successfully addressing
and reducing the amount of sexual assaults and harassment. Future studies should also be
done on what services women veterans would like to see more of to help them deal with
the physical and psychological problems they encounter.
53
Limitations
Limitations that pertain to this research study are the relatively small sample size
of articles selected for this study. In addition, this researcher analyzed the following
words: MST/Military Sexual Trauma, Sexual Harassment, PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder, and Depression. Limitations to choosing only 4 terms is that it does not
represent the magnitude of consequences that women veterans suffer from such as
anxiety, eating disorders, and physical ailments. In addition, popularity of the terms may
fluctuate, and may have an effect on the outcome
Conclusion
In conclusion, this research study has found that throughout the history of war, women
have played a vital part. They have also suffered negative outcomes and consequences from
participating in combat and war that include not only illness and injuries, but sexual assaults and
harassment as well. In addition, women have not had adequate services to address the issues.
This has directly impacted women veterans and thier physical and psychological health, as well
as contributed to issues such as problems with interpersonal relationships, homelessness, and
health problems. The Department of Defense has implemented programs to help manage and
reduce the number of assaults and harassments, as well as the problems associated with them, but
the overall ongoing effectiveness remains to be seen.
54
Appendix A
Human Subjects Approval Letter
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
DIVISION OF SOCIAL WORK
To:
Kellie Curnutt
Date: October 17, 2013
From: Research Review Committee
RE: HUMAN SUBJECTS APPLICATION
Your Human Subjects application for your proposed study, “Military Sexual Trauma: A
content Analysis”, is Approved as Exempt. Discuss your next steps with your
thesis/project Advisor.
Your human subjects Protocol # is: 13-14-012. Please use this number in all official
correspondence and written materials relative to your study. Your approval expires one
year from this date. Approval carries with it that you will inform the Committee
promptly should an adverse reaction occur, and that you will make no modification in
the protocol without prior approval of the Committee.
The committee wishes you the best in your research.
55
Research Review Committee members Professors Maria Dinis, Jude Antonyappan, Serge Lee, Francis Yuen, Kisun Nam, Dale Russell,
Cc: Lee
56
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